ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924089529352 MODEEN HUSBANDEY; A PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC TEEATISE ON AGRICULTURE, ILLUSTRATING THE MOST APPROVED PRACTICES IN DRAINING, CULTIVATING, AND MANURING THE LAND ; BREEDING, REARING, AND FATTENING STOCK; AND THE GENEEAL MANAGEMENT AND ECONOMT OF THE FARM. By G. H. ANDEEWS, ESQ. C.E. Late of Fleet and Brook Farma ; Autbor of " A Treatise oa Agricultural EDgineeriiig," &c. &e. ■WITH ILLUSTEATIONS DRAWN BY E. DUNCAN AND H. WEIR ; ENGRAVED BY LINTON, SMYTH, AND SLADER. LONDON : NATHANIEL COOKE, MILFORD HOUSE, STEAND. 1853. PREFACE, My object in producing this volume has heen to provide for the use of the professional and amateur farmer, in fact, for all who are interested in agriculture and agricultural operations, a Manual of Husbandry that should embody the greatest possible amount of information in a succinct and portable form. Many of the larger works lately published on this subject, though exceedingly valuable and complete, appear to me, alike from their price and their voluminous character, unsuited to the wants of the ordinary class of tenant farmers, and to the refuirements of those who only follow agriculture as a supplementary pursuit for the profitable occupation of leisure hours. The information contained in the works to which I allude, spread as it is over a large space, is necessarily in some instances burdened with an amount of elaboration which, while it elucidates the subject to the scientific man, would render it obscure to the farmer whose opportunities for reading are usually limited. It is not my intention to depreciate these valuable works. They are exceedingly necessary, and supply a great want ; but, while they adorn the library of the wealthy man of science, they fail to provide for a large and important class of agriculturists. I iv PREFACE. Por this class I have mainly written ; and have striven throughout my volume rather to collect facts than to discuss theories — to present my readers with the practices of the most successful agricul- turists of the day, and to record the most recent improvements in every department of agricultural science, leaving each one to form his own judgment as to the course of proceeding to be adopted. I have deemed it unnecessary to enlarge upon points which are ordinarily understood, but have, in preference, devoted a greater portion of my space to chronicling such information as the farmer would be least likely to possess, and least able to obtain. This especially applies to the engineering and mechanical division of the subject, a branch wherein agriculturists are most likely to require efficient help in the prosecution of their operations. The introduction of the steam-engine and other machinery to the farmer for the purpose of applying manure to the land in a highly diluted state, and the appropriation of the sewerage of towns to agricultural purposes, are among the most important and interesting questions of the day, both in an agricultural and sanitary sense. The farmer is enabled to cultivate his land much more economically, and consequently more profitably, while the health of the inhabitants of towns is necessarily benefited by the removal of the very matter on the possession and proper .application of which the success of the agriculturist mainly depends. Elms Cottaoi!, Brentford, Middlesex, Jaymwrj, 185i. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. On soUs and subsoils — Alluvial soils — Bogs, peats, and mosses — ^The London clay — Chalk formation — Green-sand formation — Ganlts — ^Wealden — Hastings' beds— Calcareous grit— Oxford clay— Oolite— Lias— New red sandstone— Magne- sian limestone — Coal measures— Mountain limestone— Old red sandstone— Clay slate — Granite — ^Basalt ....... CHAPTER II. On the pui-ohase and transfer of landed property and the various tenures by ■which landed property is held — The fee simple — Copyhold — Leaseholds — Leases —For terms — Yearly tenancies — Tithes — Taxes — County -rates — Poor-rates — Church-rates — Sewer-rates, &c. 22 CHAPTER III. . Draining, history of — Plug draining— Practice of draining — Haarlem Mere drainage — Lincolnshire drainage — ^Deanstonising — ^Elkington's system — Laying out drains — Draining with tUes, stones, &c., &c 43 CHAPTER IV. Choice of a situation for the Farm building — Form of plan of a large homestead — Design for a, farmery — ^Mr. Littledale's farm — Mr. Ewart's farm — Accommo- dation for stock — Stables — ^Boxes and stalls — Loose boxes — Caif-pens — Cattle- courts — Piggeries — Sheep-sheds — Hammels — Implement-house — Chaff-house — ■ Lambing-hou^g — ^Dung-pits — ^Mauure-tanks — Engine-house — Wool-room stores — Cattle infirmary — ^Dairy — Poultry-house — Farmer's residence — Cottages — Building materials — Machinery of the homestead — Water-wheels — Steam-engines — Port- able engines"- Windmills — Horse-gear — Thrashing-machines — Cleaning-machines Ti CONTENTS. — Mills— Machines for the preparation of food for stock — Chaff-engines — Turnip- cutters — Steaming apparatus — Saw bench, &c., &o. . . . • • ■ 60 CHAPTER V. On the breeding, rearing, and fattening of stock — The Horse — The Ox-^heep -Pigs — Domestic Fowls — Kabbits. l^*) CHAPTEK VI. On Majiures and their application — Farm-yard muck — Excrements of neat cattle — Excrements of the horse — Excrements of the pig — Excrements of sheep — ■ Excrements of poultry — Guano — ^Night-soil — liquid manure — Mr. Huxtable's plan of manuring — ^Mr. Mechi's manure irrigation — Bones — Superphosphate of lime — 'Woollen rags— Fish — Coprolites — Burnt clay — Gypsum — Lime — Sea-weed — Miscellaneous manures — Fallowing — Irrigation. 202 CHAPTER VII. Of the various crops— Whealn-Rye— Barley— The oat— Indian corn— The bean — The pea — ^Buckwheat — Turnips — KoU-rabi— Rape— Mangold wurzel— The carrot — The parsnip — The potato — Lucerne— Sainfoin — Rye grass — Italian rye grass — Tares and vetches-^Herbaceous plaints and grasses — White mustard — Wild succory — Gorse — Fla,x — Hemp — The hop — Teazles — Rotation of Crops . 244 CHAPTER VIII. On the cuItiTation of the land — History of the plough — The operation of ploughing — The parts of the plough — Subsoil ploughing — Read's subsoil plough — The Kentish tumwrest-^Howard's ploughs — Lowcock and darks' ploughs — Harrowing — Rolling — Crosskill's roller — Sowing — Drilling — General-purpose driUs — Ridge drills — Drop drills, &c. — Horse-hoeing 308 CHAPTER IX. Gi'ass lands, and their management — Machine for top dressing — Meadows — Haymaking — Haymatiug machine — ^Middlesex practice of haymaking . .354 CHAPTER X. Hai-vesting com- — Reaping machines : Plunkett's, Gladstone's, Smith's of Deanston, and Bell's — M'Cormack's specifications and details, Hussey's — Trials of reaping machines ; Garrett's, Hussey's, Crosskill's, Bell's, Atkinson's, &o."&c. — The sickle — The scythe — The Hainault scythe— Com ricks — Com staddles — Prepara- tion of the com for market-^Thrashing by horse and steam power — Mr. Mofit's America>n tlu-ashing machine — Carts and waggons — One-horse eaaijs — Harness — CONTESTS. vii Faim railways — The dairy and its produce — Butter making — ^Manufacture of CheeMre cheese 352 CHAPTER XI. Orchards — Woodlands — Coppices — Mixdd woods — Forests — Ti-eatment of Wood- lands — Season for cutting, &c. — Fences — Diseases of cattle — Weights and measure- ments of stocks — -Tables, weights and measures, &c. 391 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. , Page Illustrations drawn by E, Duucan, Engrayed by Linton, Subject. Page lEWES FAIR 363 AOKIOULinKAl IMPEOVEMEiraa 47 HIGHLAND STOCK 141 SHEEP WASHINS 187 FAKNHAM HOP-GABDEIT 299 THE LAST LOAD 245 SHEEP IN ■ffiKTER Frontispiece. Vignettes drawn by Duncan, Engraved by Slader, ROMNET MARSH 1 IHB HIGHLANDS 21 YEARLY TENANCY 22 THE LONG LEASE 42 TAKING THE LEVELS 43 SCOOP-WHEEL IN THE MARSHES 59 CUTTING REEDS 139 THE VALLEY PASTURE 140 THE SOUTH DOWNS 174 SOWING BROADCAST 244 HARROWING 307 DINNER TIME 308 SUMMER TIME S62 FELLING TIMBER 391 LIST OF ILLTJSTEATIONS. IX lUustrations of Stock drawn by Habrison Weir, Engraved by Smyth. Subject. Page THE HTJHTER ... 143 THE CART HOUSE " 14:4 SKELETON OP THE HOUSE 148 SHORT-HOKNED HEIFEK 149 EIQHLANS OX 151 BEYON COW 154 SHOKT-HORNED HLOFOESTER 155 HEREFORD COW . . . . . ' . . . . . . . 156 AIDERNET COW _ 158 SOOTH-DOWN SHEEP 177 E0MNET-MAB3H SHEEP _ 178 LINCOLN SHEEP 179 LEICESTER SHEEP 180 CHEVIOT SHEEP 181 OOTSWOLD SHEEP 181 DORSET RAM 187 HAMPSHIRE EOO 187 CHINESE PIG 192 ESSEX pia ' 193 IMPROTED SUFFOLK HOd 194 ILLUSTRATIONS OF AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS, ETC. OBOLOBIOAL SECTION ,D0. DO. DIAGRAM OP DRAINING . SECTION OP DRAIN TILES . SECTION OP DRAINING . ISOMETRICAL TIEW OP A LARGE STEADING .... PLAN OP HOMESTEAD . SECTIONS OF DO. ELEVATION OF DO. MR. littledale's farmery PLAN OP HOMESTEAD . ELEVATIONS OF FARM HOUSE , Page 7 7 54 57 58 64 66 68 69 70 71 90 PLANS OP FARM HOUSE 92 GROUND-PLAN OP DO. . . . 93 PLAN AND ELEVATION OP COTTAGE 94 OVERSHOT WATER-WHEEL . 101 UNDERSHOT WATER-WHEEL . 101 cbosseill's steam-engine 103 HORIZONTAL STEAM-ENGINE . 105 hornsby's engine . 107 STEAM BOILER . Ill SECTION OP DO. . . . 111 DIAGRAM OP GOVERNOR . 113 WATER-GAUGE . 114 SAFETY VALVE . 115 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. OTEK-HEAD HORSE BEAU OKOtrSD HORSE GEAR . Barrett's horse sear portable thrashing-machine section of do. WINKOWING-MACHINE . ohaff-ekgine, oorne's . Richmond's ohapf-engine . ttirnip-ctjtier elevation section of do. . steaming apparatds saw bench weighing machine sheep cage cihoular pig-trough diagram of ridge culture diagram of furrow slice DO. BO. subsoil plough read's subsoil pulveriser kentish tuen-wrest plough Howard's plough busby's plough diagonal harrows seed harrows LORD DUCIe's drag bentall's broadshare . oolman's drag . piniatson's harrow JOHNSON'S SKIM OULTIYATOR Pago . . 117 NORWEGIAN HARROW . iir orosskill's roller . . 118 details of do. B . 120 Cambridge's roller . . . 124 general-purpose drill . . 125 DETAIL OF COULTER . . 133 DRILL .... . 134 TWO-ROW RIDGE DRILL . . . 135 SINGLE-ROW DO. . 135 horksby's drop-drill . . . 137 LIQUID MANURE DRILL . 139 , busby's' horse-hoe . . 173 Garrett's horse-hoe . 185 do. do. . . 199 details of do. . . 266 smith's horse-hoe . . 318 details of do. . 318 HOE PLOUGH . . 320 MANURE DISTRIBUTOR . 323 LIIJUID MANURE DISTRIBUTOR . . 325 IMPROVED SCYTHE . . 327 HORSE RAKE . . 328 m'oormiok's reaper . 330 DO. ' DO. . . 331 DETAILS OF DO. . . 332 hussey's reaper . . 332 IRON STADDLK . 333 ONE-HORSE CART . . . 333 BARREL CHURN . 335 drainers' TOOLS . Page . 337 . . 337 . 339 . . 342 . 343 . . 344 . 345 . . 345 . 346 . . 347 . 348 . . 349 . 350 . . 352 . 352 . . 352 . 353 . . 355 I . 35g . . 367 . 359 . . 364 . 365 . . 365 . 367 . . 375 . 382. . . 384 . 400 .y^-": -. EOMNET MARSH, SUSSEX. MODERN HUSBANDRY. CHAPTER I. ON SOILS AND SUBSOILS. I PEESXIMB that no educated agriculturist, however much he may rejoice in deserving the appellation of a thoroughly practical man, will be found, who would for a moment doubt the necessity of aU persons who have embarked their interests in the cultivation of the land, endeavouring to acquire greater knowledge than they at present possess of the nature of the various soils and subsoils of the land upon which they raise their crops, and breed and fatten their stock. I shall therefore not think any apology necessary for introducing into a book intended for the perusal of practical men, a short chapter on the Geological formation of the Earth, or rather that portion of it which more immediately concerns those, whose operations are confined to its surface. That farmers should have some better notion of the actual structure of the earth than they at present possess, is proved by the Umited meaning of the few technical terms applied by them to the different classes of soUa they are in the habit of meeting with. Stiff clay or loamy soil, sandy or gravelly soil, rocky and peaty soils, are nearly all the terms they have to describe the great variety of soUs that exist in the British Isles. a MODERN HUSBANDUY. Sometimes a clay soil is spoken of as a rank clay, a sandy soil as a Hungry soil, or a blowing sand, and a stroDg loam as good holding ground. Having got ttus far their knowledge ends ; clays are clays, aU rocks are rocks, all sands are sands, calcareous or silicious, or whether they have any of the remarkable and various peculiarities, which render apparently' the same material in one part of the county a waste, and in another a beautiful garden. In illustration of the effect the geological distribution of the masses that form the earth's crust ha,ve upon the appearance of its surface, I wiU suppose the spectator to take his position upon that remarkable eminence immediately above the town of Farnham, in Surrey, called the " Beacon Hill." He will find that he is standing upon a barren waste, the soil of which is composed of sand and large flints, growing nothing but some stunted heath. Looking in a northerly direction, over a large vaDey, and com- manding an extensive tract of country, he will see the same features continue ; the horizon will be bounded in that direction, with hiUs of the same brown and barren character as that upon which he stands, and it does not end there, but extends beyond, for many miles, to where he will, at this time (June, 1853), find blades of steel more numerous than blades of grass — ^^Chobham hills. Turning his back to this picturesque but inhospitable looking country of sand and fiint, and looking southward, he finds a picture of an entirely different character ; the busy town of Parnham is at his feet, a noble' castle, a bishop's palace, and well wooded park are near him in front, the most luxuriant vegetation seems to cover the valley, the sloping sides of the hills are aU magnificent hop-gardens, and are fuU of life and bustle, for we will suppose it to be the hop season ; well built, red brick houses, fine trees, and beautiful pleasure grounds, fiU up the picture, and he will say he has never beheld a more delightful place. Looking towards the east, he will see hiUs, or rather one large, long hill, exhibiting all the characteristics of good land, plenty of bright yellow corn-fields, and if the spectator be a practical farmer, his eye will detect many large patches of cool green which he knows are swedes ; and brighter and greener patches, which he knows also to be white turnips — and it is so farther on than he can see, to the valley of the Wey at G-uildford, Ijooking now in a westerly direction, he will see the same charac- teristics of a rich farming country, hUl and dale covered with elms and oaks, beautiful valleys of dark green, which he will suspect, and correctly, to be water meadows. ON SOILS AND SUBSOILS. 3 This healthy looking district makes a sharp edge upon the barren sandy heaths, indenting its boundaries with many beautiful contrasts of hills and valleys of rich foliage, against moors and commons. The hills bounding the western horizon, though as bold as those in the north, and like them without trees are, nevertheless, covered with sweet herbage, and pastured with innumerable flocks of sheep. Agaiu turning to the south, and looking over Pamham, he wiU discover that it is but an oasis in a desert, for on more minute inspection he will perceive, beyond it a country again sterile, and gradually getting poorer and poorer as it recedes from its favoured neighbour ; and in the extreme distance he will discern the summit of a lofty hill with a clump of stunted Scotch firs upon it, indicating a country no less sterile and unpromising than that behind Mm. Hpw very different will be the feelings of two persons looking upon this remarkable panorama. Both will observe the change of feature ; but while one merely sees that it is so, and looks on in amazement, the other, whose studies have been less superficial, not only sees that it is so, but knows the cause, and would wonder, only if the effects were different to what they are. To the one aU seems the result of the merest chance — to the other it is but another example of that great, regular, and elaborate system, which he knows to exist every- where. He sees that the dreary tract of waste is the silicious sand of the Bagshot district, that its dark green fringe marks the out- crop of the London clay ; he knows the long hill to the eastward, with well-defined crops, to be the face of a great chalk ridge, and perceives the features of the green-sand formation extending to the horizon beyond. Tracing these peculiarities to Famham, he sees at once the cause of its fertility ; the clay lying upon the porous rock becomes a dry deep loam into which the hop-plants can send down their roots. He can trace at this spot the union of many separate strata", none of which maybe excellent alone,but which in combination, as they are here, produce the richest soil and the iinest hop-growing district in England. To know these things must surely be a portion of the business of the agriculturist ; for if not, when he examines a farm he has a mind to take, how should he know its characteristics ; for instance, if it requires lime, where to seek it ; if admixture with other soUs, whether they are in the neighbourhood, or if he may, by excavating, get them from below : if he should drain deeper ; and whether the water of the springs that injures the land come from the north, the south, the east, or the west. A practical knowledge of geology would enable him to decide upon aU these points immediately, and with certainty. B 2 4 MODERN HUSBANDEY. SucH knowledge therefore I think could be not less useful to him, or more difficult to acquire than it is to the miner and the quarryman, and those who execute engineering works. I presume, therefore, that I shall not be expecting too much when I hope that aU those who get their living by performing operations upon the land will take some pains to learn something about the earth. To attempt to give more than the merest outline of the geological formation of the earth, in the limited space allotted to the subject in this book, would be impossible ; I must therefore at once, in a single chapter, endeavour to make the subject intelligible to those to whom this book is addressed. The cultivated part of the earth's surface is called the soil, and that immediately below the subsoil. The soil is composed of a variety of combinations of the three primitive earths united with organic matter in a state of decay. The three principal earths are Silex, Alumina, and Lime. Silea; is generally an ingredient of the soil in the form of fine sand, an impalpable powder, coarse sand, sharp and gritty gravel, or nodular masses of flint. Alumina is the pure earth, or characteristic matter of clay, and was called alumina because it was obtained from alum in its greatest purity, by the abstraction of the potash and sulphuric acid, which were then in combination with it. ' Lime is the protoxide of calcium ; it is powerfully caustic, and has properties intermediate between those of an earth and those of a pure alkali; it is therefore called an aikaline earth. In combination with other elements of matter, it is a large and important constituent of the aggregate rocks of the earth's crust. The various proportions in which these elements are them- selves mixed and combined with other matters constitute the great variety of soils m"et with ; and it is only- when the three are blended together in such proportions that none shall be in excess, that soils of first-rate character are formed ; for the result of such com- bination produces that soil whicb is caUed loam, and which is the best for aU. the purposes of agriculture. When silex forms the principal ingredient in a soil unmixed with clay or lime, it is a barren waste, such as the sandy heaths of which we have just been speaking as forming the district called the Bagshot sand formation. Such a soil is porous, friable, and incapable of retaining sufficient moistiu-e to nourish the plants, either allowing it to run through it too rapidly, or too readily giving it up to the atmosphere by the process of evaporation. The poorest soils iu England are the purely silicious sands. An ON SOILS AND SUBSOILS. 5 excess of alumina or clay also produces an unfruitful soil, it being a tenacious adhesive substance, retaining water, which combines chemically with it to a considerable extent ; it is clammy and unctuous in the winter, and hard as a well-burht brick in the summer ; con- sequently as unfit as the pure sand to produce luxuriant vegetation yet from directly opposite causes. "When lime forms the principal ingredient in a soil, it is usually a carbonate of lime, as chalk and the limestone mountains. It too is ba.rren if purely limestone ; yet as it absorbs moisture, and some portions decompose rapidly, the valleys are generally made fruitful from the debris of the hiUs. These pripiitive earths, combined in an immense variety of propor- tions with acids, alkaline salts, metals and water, produce those great features of the earth which constitute the mountains, valleys, and plains which form its ever-varying surface. As more or less of each material preponderates in these masses, does it become a mighty mountain, that bore its present form and features when the world was made, or a sandy tract, the surface of which is altered by every gust of wind. Geologists have given to each of these divisions a special name, and by their investigations and reasoning they have discerned the order in which they were originally placed, or have since become deposited by the great convulsions that must have taken place during the early history of the earth. The positions in which these masses lie and are exposed on the surface constitute the great changes and the v.iriety of different soils to which I have before aUuded. In plate 1 wiU be seen the order in whicl) all the great divisions are placed, without any attempt being made to illustrate the changes that have taken place by the causes before alluded to, and as such a section cannot represent the features of any particular division of the earth, it is better for our purpose to refer to fig. 2, plate 1, which represents the actual section of the country between Hampstead Heath on the north side of the valley of the Thames, and the sea at Brighton. It will be seen on reference to this section that the river Thames in passing by London runs through a bed of clay, which rising on either bank, forms the hills on the south of London and at New Cross, Nunhead, and Forest-hill, and being clay, is covered with grass and timber trees. On the north side of the Thames is another hiU at Hampstead ; but this is a heath, and the reason of it will be apparent when it is observed that the hill of clay is capped with a portion of silicious sand and gravel, precisely the same material as b MOBERN HrSBANDRY. that to which we have before alluded as constituting the' waste lands of Surrey and North Hants. Below this bed of clay is the thick chalk torraation, and although at London it is 300 feet below the surface of the ground, and cbuld' not aifect the soil there, yet the angle at which it lies speedily brings it to the surface ; and immediately south of Croydon, only ten miles from London, the clay of the upper soil becomes much mixed with the chalk subsoil, and is considerably improved in consequence. The chalk being 700 feet thick under London, and the whole mass being gradually forced up by those strata which lie below it, must of necessity cause an immense hill or ridge, and this elevation consti- tutes the high ground and down land at Merstham and Eeigate. As the -admixture of chalk with the London clay created an im- provement in the soil of both at that spot, so as the county becomes all chalk without clay, does it become poorer, endiug in downs which can only afford a bite for sheep. On the south side of the ridge thus formed is a precipitous face, the rocky nature of the soil material allowing of its standing in cliffs, which in many places having been denuded of the surface mould, exposes the white chalk to view. Below the chalk under London is a thin band called fire-stone by the geologists, and this is the hearth-stone of commerce. This is too thin to make any or much alteration in the appearance of the country at the surface where it comes to the day, at the foot of the chalk hUls in the village of Merstham. But the next bed, which is clay again, and called Gault, causes a very remarkable change ; as on its surface the rich foliage of timber trees again appears, contrasting strongly with the bareness of the hiUs of chalk. This clay is exceedingly strong ; so much so, that when unmixed , with sand, gravel, or much vegetable matter, it runs into the poorest description of land, extremely difficult to work ; but when a crop of wheat is obtained, it will often be unusually large. When this soU is mixed with chalk, or other materials which render it friable and dry, it becomes a rich loam, and a fine hop soil. deferring agaia to the strata under London, and at a greater depth, there is another thick bed, or a series of beds, called the green-sand formation. Tracing this to the surface, we find its appearance indi- cates its characteristics. The rich foliage disappears, and we have sandy hills, and large commons, and wastes ; this is the material forming Eed-hill, Leith-hiU, and the commons in that neighbourhood; the soil is sand of various colours, much of it bright yellow and red. Below this we have the Wealden and forest strata, a large formation S MODERN HUSBANDUY. of great beds of clay and stones of immense variety, and forming the country between Crawley and Coldstaple, some of which is of excel- lent quality, but a large portion covered with larch plantations ; these occupy what was formerly the site of great forests, the timber ot which was used for smelting iron, in the extensive works which once existed over the whole district. I think now that any person of ordinary intelligence will discover, without difiSculty, from the section and the short description I have given, the reason of the various changes in the physical features and peculiarities of the boU in the country, between London and •Coldstaple, in Sussex. On referring again to the section it vrill be perceived that from this point to Brighton, precisely the same order of soils occurs, but reversed, that which was before the most northerly, being now most southerly; and that ihe London clay has nearly disappeared from above the chalk, only a small spot of it existing at Brighton, and the cap, as at Hampstead Heath, of course, cannot be found at all. The cause of this alteration is in consequence of the great saddle formed by the upheaving of the lower beds, as the forest strata, forming what is called an anteclinal axis. Peculiarities of this kind, and many others, occur continually over all the face of the earth, and give to it that beautiful and useful variety which renders it capable of supplying our innumerable wants, and being the fit habitation of man ; for it wUl be observed that did not this great disruption take place, the country from London to Brighton would have been all clay, or probably all chalk, and would then have resembled Salisbury Plain, instead of being as it is, so varied in picturesque beauties, and would have produced" in perfection only one or two particular crops, if any existed, of the variety now found upon it, and which the numerous wants of those who live on it require. This section extends in depth only to the forest strata ; but it will be seen, on reference to plate 2, that beneath that in their geological qrder, are a great variety Of strata, each of which, when forming a portion of surface of the earth, exhibits its own peculiar characteristics and distinctive agricultural features. , All these separate strata are sometimes found within a short distance of each other, only so much of one, perhaps, as to render its identification certain, while in another locality that particular strata may constitute a large feature of a continent or a whole island. Some of these strata are full of cracks and fissures, and water falling upon the surface of them, rapidly passes through, as in the chalk for- mation ; while others are impermeable, neither allowing the water, which ON SOILS AND SUBSOILS. 9 may bfe below them to rise to tlie surface, or tlie water which, falls on them to filtrate through, to those below. It is this difference of character that causes springs, and by which artesian wells are formed, for it will be observed in the section, that the chalk ridge at Merstham is 300 ft. above the level of the river Thames at London, consequently the water contained in the innume- rable fissures of the chalk, will be under London, pressed upwards with a force equal to that height. The London clay being impermeable effectually resists this upward pressure, consequently the water is kept down, but when the boring rod has penetrated through it, to the chalk below, an immense rush of water upward takes place, and an unlimited supply is obtained. This plan has been adopted by the great brewers and others in London, who require a large supply of good water, and as the same circum- stances occur on a small scale on many farms, boring has been adopted as a means of draining, the pressure of the water upwards which caused springs, swamps and bogs, being removed by it. On the surface of these strata, distinctive features will also be observed traceable to the same peculiarities. On the impermeable clays every valley of whatever size will have in the bottom of it a water- course cut deep in the clay by floods> In the summer the lesser ones will often be found quite dry, but a heavy rain changes them into torrents ; this is caused by the water falling upon the land, unable to find a passage through, being obliged to make its way to the outlet by the channels it -has made in the lowest places. On those strata which are full of cracks and fissures, as the chalk, the upper valleys are without water-courses of any kind ; all the rain that falls upon the surface, running through to the subsoil, and finding its way out at the point, when the pressure of the head becomes greater than the friction that resists its passage through it. The rivers of such a district are regular streams of clear water, scarcely ever known to fail, and are inhabited by trout, while those of the clayey districts are either dry or muddy with the washings of the lands whose surfaces they drain. Besides those regular strata which form the regular geological series as shown in plate 1, there are other descriptions of soil, that occasionally form large tracts of country, and which are composed of the debris of others. These are called Diluvial and Alluvial soils. G-eologists have given the name of diluvium to accumulations of sand, gravel, and other materials, which are occasionally found covering in masses some of the older formations. 10 MODERN HTJSBANDUY. The tracts of diluviuln are not always composed of those nlaterials which lie under them, or in their ficinity, as boulders and fragments of primitive roeks belonging to strata fat distant are often found imbedded in them ; hence they are called earths of transporta;tion. These accumulati&ns are often of immense extent and thickness; between Nottingham and Mansfield is an accumulation of this kind above a hundred feet thick, and one portion of diluvium will be found running across the country from Lincolnshire and Northamptonshire into Grloucestershire aad "WUts. These deposits rarely take the form of hUls, but fill up hollows in the surface, or exist in large masses at the mouths of great valleys. The nature of the soil on them Varies according to the nature of the materials of which they are composed. Sometimes they are silicious, at others calcareous, as the formations from which they came might have happened to be, and as the mixture of soils in them happens to tend more or less to dry, loamy soil, so are they valued and employed. "When diluvium is purely silicious sknd it exists as a waste, when mixed with clay and chalk it constitutes those soils called maris, some of which are so rich as to form excellent manure for other lands. ALLUVIAL SOILS. AUuvium is the material which is washed by the floods of rivers from the surface of the surrounding hills and lands, when their motion is rapid, and consists of minute particles of their soil and vegetable matter, which are deposited on the level ground, over which they flow when their motion becomes sluggish. E.ich alluvial soils wiU consequently be found in the estuaries oi large rivers, or in the valleys where "two or more rivers join. These soils usually consist of numberless thin layers of mud, deposited one upon another by floods, or the action of the tide. As the falling waters lose their velocity, so the materials which they have torn from the surrounding country are deposited in the order of their gtavifcy. Thus, upon the sides of hills are deposited stones and beds of gravel ; lower down, coarse sand ; and on the level surface where the force of the waters subsides, are deposited those particles which it previously held in suspension : the accumulated deposits of these constitute the deep rich loams of those marsh and pasture lands to be found near the mouths of many of the rivers of England, and it is considered by the best judges, that more stock are fatted and more grain raised per acre on this description of soil than that of any other geological formation ia England.- BOGSj PEATS AND MOSSES. 11 BOGS, PEATS, AND MOSSES. Peat is tlie soil or substance of bog-land. It exists in a variety of forms, and bas various names applied to its different varieties ; all soils that have a superabundance of half-decayed vegetable matter ia them are called peaty soils. The most extensive tracts of this class are what are called flow, or fibrous bogs. Such are the great mosses of Lancashire and Dumfriesshire, and the great bogs of Ireland, of which the celebrated Bog of AUen is an example. The material of which they are composed consists of numerous decaying moss plants ; they are deep, wet, and spongy, remarkably antiseptic, and quite or nearly free from earthy ingredients. Another class of it is called Lacustrine bog; this is generally formed on the sides of lakes, or land that has been subjected to constant and prolonged flooding of tranquil water. It consists chiefly of the decayed roots and stenis of aquatic plants, and a considerable portion of earthy matter, and grows coarse aquatic plants upon its surface. Another variety is called mountain- bog ; this consists of the decayed roots and stems of coarse grasses, Contains some earthy matter, and produces coarse grass and heath ; it varies ia depth from a few inches to as many feet. The most extensive tracts of peat soils in England, are in the counties of Lincolnshire, Huntingdonshire, and Cambridgeshire, and are loca]J.y called the Eens. Eeturning again to the series of the geological forma- tion shown in plate 1, I will endeavour to describe their leading features in the most concise manner, as it is impossible in a book of this limited size, to enter into any details concemiog the varieties and peculiarities that occur in the same division. Commencing then at the uppermost portion of the earth's crust as shown in this section, we find the clay upon which the city of London is built, and hence called geologically — THE LONDON CLAY. This it will be observed is divided into two beds, the upper one called the London clay proper, and the lower, the plastic clay : it is a tough compact and unctuous material, and contains several regular beds of different substances ; a bed of shells, and layers of stone called sceptaria, from which roman cement is made. It appears on the surface a gently undulating country, giving sufficient slope for drainage, but no bolder features than those of Eichmond and Shooters' HUls. It is so close and compact in its texture that no springs of "consequence exist in it. It is difficult to work in wet 12 ' MODEEN HrSBANDET. weather from its wetness, and is so also in dry weather from its hardness, often dsfying and breaking to pieces the strongest ploughs. Summer fallows are considered nec6ssary for its culture. A large portion near London being well dressed with dung, is converted into excellent meadows, and is celebrated for the good hay it produces. The Plastic CIoaj lies between the London clay and the chalk ; its characteristics are similar to the London clay, but it has in it ma.ny beds of sand of various thicknesses ; it forms the outliae of the London clay. Immense beds of gravel occur in this formation, and become reservoirs for water, consequently springs are frequent. This clay, when mixed with sand or gravel, produces excellent crops of all kinds, though draining ought always to be executed as a primary operation. "Where beds of gravel occur near the surface, subsoil ploughing should be adopted to break up the stratum immediately below the working soil, and mixing it with the gravel a most perfect drainage is eifected. THE CHALK FORMATION. This, like the clay above, is divided into two great divisions, the upper and lower chalk, or chalk with and without flints, and both divisions are again divided into numerous beds of various thicknesses. Chalk is a carbonate of lime, of various degrees of purity ; it is white and earthy, its constituent "parts beiag lime and carbonic acid combined in various proportions with alumina, silica, sulphur, and iron. The chalk formation is split vertically into innumerable cracks or divisions, which give it an exceedingly porous and pervious character. The chalk districts in England are of great extent and of considerable interest to agriculturists, as the remarkably fine breed of sheep called Down sheep are bred upon them. The chalk formation appears on the surface oi the country as consisting of large rounded hiUs of great elevation, and very steep on the sides, as at the Devil's Dyke, near Brighton, but still always of a smooth and rounded character. Great faces of the bare chalk are found on the sea coast, as at the North and South Poreland.s, and Shakspeare's Cliff at Dover. The South Downs, the Marlborough Downs, Salisbury Plain, and the ChUtern Hills, are all portions of this formation. The valleys between the chalk hills are generally good land, exceedingly dry, from the porous nature of the soil ; yet this porosity causes springs of excellent water to gush out ia some of the valleys, THE GATJLT. 13 and when these springs have accumulated, and form a river, a district of beautiful water-meadows is generally found,-as in the valley below "Winchester. One side of a range of chalk hills will generally be much more abrupt than the other, the steep side being the escarpment face of the stratum: (See plate 1.) Where the chalk is much mixed with the clay, beautiful loams are the result. The lower chalk produces the material called greystone, which is burnt into lime for building, while the poorer and whiter chalk of the upper beds is considered as better adapted for Ume for agricultural purposes. The soils known as chalk-marls and marme are the best, and produce the finest crops of beans, wheat, clover, turnips, and barley. THE GEEEN-SAND FORMATIOlSr. This series of strata follows the line of the chalk, though in some places it is exceedingly narrow, or is covered by the loams of the lower chalk beds. It generally consists of hiUs and plains. Every variety of soil may be found upon it; in some places where calcareous matter is mixed with it, and good loams are produced, the finest crops of wheat, barley, turnips, and potatoes are grown. At Sandy, in Bedfordshire, immense quantities of onions are grown for the London market upon this soil, but the high state of cultivation to which the land is brought is the cause of the excellence of the crops, not the soil, as precisely a similar description may be found in other localities not afibrding a bite for sheep. In some places this formation appears as a purely white, and in others a black sand ; when this is the case, it forms extensive tracts of heaths : a large portion of the country between Guildford in Surrey, and the South Downs, is of this character. The soils of the green-sand formation are much improved by the application to them of chalk and clay, and as both these substances lie on the borders of it, and often are much mixed up with it, it is the farmer's, own fault if he does not improve his land by an admixture with these other soils, which not only increase its fertility, but prevent its suffering from droughts, to which all sandy lands are subject. Belonging to this formation is THE GAULT. This strong clay appears on the surface, of various colours, grey, yellow, brown, and a dull blue, the latter being most frequent. It is a remarkably compact and tenacious clay, exhibiting but little appearance of lamination, and is impervious. It contains but little calcareous matter. It forms low undulating hiUs and broad vaUeys, 14 MODERN HUSBANDRY. as the Vale of White Horse, and portions of the counties of Cambridge and Huntingdonshire. It sometimes carries the finest crops and pastures, as in the Vale of "White Horse, and is occasionally land of the poorest quality, and most difficult and costly to cultivate, as some portions of it in Cambridgeshire. In some cases in this country, and in Huntingdon and LiQcolnshire^ beds of peat, of considerable thick- ness occur on the top of this and other clays, and when this is the case, a practice called gaulting is adopted. A deep trench is cut through the peat down to the clay, a quantity of which is excavated and spread on the surface, the trench being filled up again. The result of this is an immense improvement in the fen land, as it wiU afterwards carry the most luxuriant crops and herbage. When the gault clay is broken and mixed with the chalk, the finest soU is found, as in the hop soils at Farnham. ^ Tha best methods of improving the soils of this clay therefore suggest themselves, but an efficient drainage must in aU cases be fijst effected. THE WEALDEW. The extensive districts of clay, &c., which occur in the counties of Sussex, Surrey, and Kent, are called the Wealds. This formation consists of beds of clay, sand, and stone, in great variety. The clays are of a laminated texture, and contain particles of sand in close mechanical contact ; yet they are quite impervious and but few springs are found in them. Some of the clays of this formation, as the oak-tree clay, turned up to the furrow, slice like a piece of soap. It would be impossible to give any general notion of the various changes in the features of this series, of beds, which are very numerous. Much of the Weald is in woods, in consequence of the diffi- culty and expense of cultivating it ; other portions are inferior pasture. . Deep drainage and ploughing, with admixture of calcareous soils, improve the character of the land, which is not generally of that kind considered by farmers the best for agricultural purposes. THE HASTINGS' BEDS. These receive their name from the fact of their composing the lofty hills near Hastiugs and the cliffs on the sea-shore at that place ; they extend many miles inland, and are varied in their external features. -r CALCAEEOUS GEIT OH COUAL EAG. 15 The beds of sand whicb occur in ttia series are exceedingly porous, and the rain speedily finds a way through, until it meets with a bed of clay, when it is thrown out to the surface ; consequently springs are numerous : the beds of stone are of various kinds and thicknesses, sometimes very thick, soft, and porous, and at others thin and very hard. Beds of clay of various textures and thickness also separate the layers of stone. Some of these clays are, when exposed to the atmosphere, good working loams ; others are exceedingly stiff and difficult to work ; the latter are generally woods and plantations, while on the former may be found excellent hop plantations. All drainage on this soil should be executed with great care, as the injury caused by water is much more attributable to springs than to other causes. Any number of tiles may be buried in some localities without getting the land dry, while a single drain properly laid out with a view to intercept the draft of the subterranean water may effectually cure it. I know an instance of this where a field is full of tile-drains which run no water, while in the very midst of them is a powerful spring running a considerable stream, and consequently injuring a large quantity of land. Lime is much needed in all the cultivated soils of this formation, and bone manure wiU be found to give the largest results for fallow crops. A bed of ironstone averaging about a foot thick, occurs in these strata, and is the ore which I have before alluded to as having been much worked in Sussex. CALCAEEOUS GRIT OR CORAL-RAG. The coral-rag formation is composed of a great variety of beds, possessing very different characteristics, but all calcareous, and having silicious matter in combination with them. It generally forms a low range of hUls fronting the escarpment face of the chalk. ' Sometimes the beds of stone in this formation are of great thick- ness and first-rate building stone, but it more frequently occurs as a broken rubbly limestone in laminated beds, varying in thickness from half an inch to five or six inches. A range of hills of this description occurs between the Vale of "White Horse and Cherill Downs, and the tract of the Oxford clay forming the Vale of Malford in "Wiltshire. , Some excellent land may, be met with upon this soU, but it is not 16 MODERN HUSBAHDET. • generally very Highly cultivated, ihe farmers generally possessing portions of valley land as pastures, to whicli they devote their atten- tion in preference, as in the Vale of MaUbrd, (which lies at the foot of these hnis,) which is a portion of— THE OXFORD CLAY. This is a series of clay beds of various colours, and separated in some places by shales of a bituminous character. In the locality I have aUuded to are some of the richest pastures in England by the banks of the river Avon, by Malmsbury, Chippenham and Melksham. Yet this excellence does not. always exist, as some of the very worst clay soils in England are upon this same formation, as in Northamptonshire. Beds of this clay also occur in LincoLa- shire, underlying beds of black peaty earth ; this is brought up to the surface in the same manner as described of the gault, and, pro- duces the same excellent result. Deep draining and deep ploughing will best improve all descriptions of this soil. THE OOLITE. This is a very extensive formation, and composed of a great variety of beds of stone and clay of various kinds and thicknesses. The great oolite is that kind known as Bath-stone, and forms the remarkable hills of the district, as Lansdown, Earleydown, Combe and Box hills. This rock is composed of an oviform substance resembling the roe of a fish, being a carbonate of lime. The general appearance of the oolitic district is that of large table-topped hiUs with abrupt basset edges ; they are generally bare downs of poor pastures. The rock, being full of clefts and cracks, allows the water to run rapidly through, consequently no springs occur till a bed of calcareous clay stops the descent of the water and drives it to the surface. Besides the division called the great oolite are other beds variously called, the shelly-oolite, the corn-brash, and the weather-stone ; these are separated by beds of clay, and in such situations the soil is of good quality, the more so as the clay is mixed with the broken frag- ments of the subsoil. In some cases a red sandy-looking soil is the upper surface. This is of a deceptive character, as during rain the top of it gets puddled and stops the descent of the water ; such land is exceedingly difficult to cultivate, and worth very little. THE MAGNESIAN LIMESTONE. 17 THE LIAS FORMATION. This consists of an immense bed of clay, having laminations of stone running through it of various thickness, from an inch to a foot ; this stone is called the blue-lias limestone, and is much esteemed by engineers and architects for building purposes. The clay is generally strong and calcareous. The lias formation extends from Lyme Eegis, on the shore of the British channel, to Whitby, on the German ocean. The great dairy districts and fine pastures of Gloucester, Warwick, Leicestershire, and portions of Somersetshire are on this formation. Such portions as are under the plough, and the land kept dry, produce excellent crops of beans, wheat, oats and clover. This land is generally ploughed into high ridges, that the water may get off the surface as soon as it-falls. In the furrows, the through drains are usually laid to receive the water as it sinks through the soil, which is kept porous to facilitate its passage. THE NEW BED SANDSTONE. This is one of the most extensive formations in Great Britain, as it extends from Torbay in Devonshire to Darlington in the county of Durham, and from the centre of England to the foot of the Welsh moun- tains, being about 300 miles in length by 80 in the greatest breadth. An immense tract like this is sure to possess a great variety of soils. The general character of the new red sandstone is that of a dry loamy and sandy soil, though springs are frequent upon it, and several rivers rise in it. The richest soils in the kingdom may be found on this formation, as are -the west banks of the Severn and many portions of Somerset- shire. Apple and other fruit trees flourish on it. Although it is good land for wheat and beans, yet capital turnip crops are obtaiaed. In other places may be found open tracts of heath and gorse, as Sherwood forest ; this occurs when the soil runs into fine dry yellow sand ; there is, however, not much of it in that state. The agricul- tural character of the formation is generally a deep rich red friable clay, or loams inclined to be sandy. Lime effects vronders upon some soils of this formation. It should always be kept dry, which may be easily effected. THE MAGNESIAN LIMESTONE. This formation is composed chiefly of calcareous and siliceous matter, with magnesia, and also contains portions of clay and iron. 18 MODERN HUSBANDRY. Excellent building stones are exi^acted from it. The best is called Bolsover stone, and at Bolsover Castle so "well has it withstood the weather, that although so many years have elapsed since the stone was upon the mason's bankers, yet the marks of his chisel are now as apparent as ever. The agricultural soil of the formation is generally good ; but some districts are so poor as to have given a character of poverty to the whole. In the valley of the Tees, between Eaby Castle and Darlington, in Durham, are some of the richest pasture and arable lands in the north of England. It is excellent barley and turnip land,' and good crops of turnips and wheat are met with upon it. The pastures generally are not of first-rate character, being thin and dry, A fair amount of dressing will generally produce good crops on most descriptions of this soil, COAL MEASURES. These comprehend a series of beds of sandstone, micaceous sand, with shales and clays, and the miU-stone grit. As these various strata are brought to the surface by the force of the basins in which they are deposited, a number . of different soils will be met vrith within a short distance. As all these different beds, when exposed to the action of the atmosphere, decompose rapidly, the soil will be a mixture of such as happen to be in the vicinity, and are generally converted into clayey loams. The coal measures, from the peculiarity of the manner in which the numberless beds lie and are twisted and dislocated, abound in springs ; consequently many of the clayey soils are exceedingly wet. Where much siliceous sand exists, the soils are very poor, and the same is the case with the tracts of clay with which a considerable portion of the coal fields are covered. The decomposed shales, with the clay and fragments of the rock below, make a good soil when limed and placed under proper culture. < The Millstone Grit lies under the beds of coal, being the lowest member of the formation. It is called by miners " farewell stone," because when they arrive at it, they know they shall find no more coal. The millstone grit is a hard and durable building stone, lying in beds of different depths, from a few inches to several feet, and . separated from one another by bands of slate. On the surface it presents bold and abrupt features, rocky headlands, and a moun- tainous country, with deep valleys sawn out by torrents, for it abounds in springs. The general agricultural character of the whole is that of extreme THE OLD EED SANDSTONE. 19 poverty, muck of it being now dreary wastes, heaths, bogs, and mosses ; the crops are poor and late, as the climate from its great elevation is bleak and unfavourable to the progress of vegetation. THE MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE, is so called because it is the material of which some of the largest features of English hill-countries are composed, as the Peak of Derbyshire, the Mendip hiUs ia Somersetshire, Stainmoor, and the hiUs of Yorkshire. It is the country of the grand and picturesque ; for while its rugged mountains, gorges, and ravines realise everything of a grand and terrible character, it contains the most beautiful valleys, fuU of rocks, waterfalls, and woods, the very essence of the picturesque ;" such as Matlock and Dovedale. And not only are its external features so fuU of iaterest, but these masses of stone contain within them caverns of immense size, through which torrents have cut their way. Some contain lakes of considerable size, entirely shut out from the light of day ; and others are covered with beau- tiful stalactites of every shape, reflecting every hue, astounding the ignorant, and delighting those who are better informed ; numerous petrified remains are extracted from these places and the waters of their locality. The mountain limestone district abounds in beautiful trout streams, which water vaUeys of rich pastures ; but the soil is generally thin and of a dark and peaty character ; local beds of marls often exist, and would-much benefit the land by being spread over it. Some portions of the hills are covered with a short sweet grass, although the soil is very thin, while others present nothing but the bare naked rock, without vegetation of any kind-. The best soils are in pastures ; but good crops of oats are obtained over a considerable portion of it. The elevation of this district being so great, makes the harvest very backward. THE OLD RED SANDSTONE. This formation lies beneath the mountain limestone, and imme.. diately above the sUurian. It consists of beds of sandstone (some of which are good building stones) ; beds of clay occur fre- quently, and other thin strata of various kinds. When the surface is of a loose, sandy, loamy nature, the finest crops are obtained. It resembles the most fruitful portions of the new red sandstone, as it is covered with orchards, hop plantations, valleys of beautiful pas- tures, and hiUs of excellent grain crops, as in the counties of Hereford and Worcestershire, causing thisportiOiU pf ,t|be coynt^lTJ^jto -be! jus^Jy called the &arden of England, c 2 20 MODEEN HUSBANDRY. The porous and open character of the soil causes it to be par- ticularly adapted to the growth of fruit trees ; eonsequeutly apple and pear trees are cultirated in great numbers, and those counties have become celebrated for cyder and perry. No less celebrated are the excellent breed of oxen called Herefords, which are produced and fattened to a great extent on this soil. Lime greatly adds to the fertility of all soils of this formation; deep ploughing, which causes the depth of soil to increase, and afford fresh nourishment to the plants, also improves the land to a great extent. Portions of this formation are rocky and barren, miich resembling the millstone grit, and for which it may be mistaken. GKEYWACKE AND CLAY SLATE. These two formations I have included under one head, because they are similar in their several characteristics, and not of equal im- portance to the agriculturist with the more recent .and cultivable portions of the series. These formations chiefly consist of rocks and moimtains of great length and extent, having in the bottoms of the valleys extensive lakes. It is this formation that consti- tutes the pikes and feUs of milch of the English Lake district, and between the masses of it are the remarkably picturesque valleys of Patterdale, Borrowdale, and numerous others. The Ehine passes through a great district of this formation, and much of its pic- turesque scenery is of this material. The character of the rock,- as its name implies, is slaty, but it is oiily in particular districts that it is found of a quality sufficiently good to make slates for roofing houses. It may easily be concluded that a formation of such a character will give but few opportunities for the practice of arable culture, conse- quently nearly aU the available soil is pastured. Crops of oats are raised in some parts of it by good management ; but it is only in isolated spots that sufficient soil has accumulated to carry grain- crops. The most extensive tract of this formation in Grreat Britain forms a large portion of the Principality of Wales. Portions of it also exist in Devonshire and Cornwall. GRANITE, is considered to be the primary formation in the great mass that forms the bulk and solidity of the earth. As it is the lowest of the series, it is rarely met with, except as forming the highest points of great mountains, as in the Alps, the Pyrenees, and most other of the great mountain chains of Europe. In England it occurs in BASALT. 2L Cumberland, 'Weatinoreland, and Cornwall. In Scotland it forms the highest peaks of many mountains. The granite generally represents a barren and rocky district of moor and mountain ; but in Cornwall and Devonshire, as it lies at a much lower elevation, soils are formed of the deconfposed rock. The felspar, ia consequence of containing so much potash, is decomposed by the atmosphere acting upon it, and the product is a whitish clay. This, when mixed with the quartz of the granite, forms a good soil, and being manured with sea-sand (broken shells), or lime, produces good crops of wheat, beans, and barley. Dartmoor is a tract of peaty soil resting on granite gravel and clay, and is a soil of the poorest description. Planting is the only means by which such tracts can be rendered of any value. BASALT. The materials of which the Basaltic rocks are formed are the elements of quartz — hornblende, felspar, and mica. They are of igneous origin, and have been forced from below; they are unstratified, but composed of closely-jointed pieces, the joints irregular, and having' no connection with each other ; the rock is, therefore, a compact and solid mass. As most varieties of basalt contain iron and potash, it easily decomposes, and a soil of middling quality is produced. In some parts of Scotland, Lothian and iFifeshire, where the land is well drained and manured, as fine crops are produced upon the soil as that of any other description whatever. Only small portions of this formation are under cultivation in England, and these in the state of hill-pastures. THE HIGHLANDS. YE A ELY TENANCY, CHAPTER II. ON THE PTJECHASE AND TBANSPEU 01' LANDED PEOPEUTY AND THE VAKIOTIS TENURES BY 'WHICH LANDED PKOPERTY IS HELD THE PEE SIMPLE, COPYHOLD, LEASEHOLDS, LEASES POR TERMS, YEARLY TENANCIES, TITHES, TAXES, COUNTY - RATES, POOR- RATES, CHURCH-RATES, SEWER-RATES, ETC. It is to be regretted that, in a popular handbook like the present, ■we are unable to make a more detailed statement of the origin and progress of law as it affects landed interests ; but the endeavour to do this would of itself occupy a book far greater than the limits of this treatise will justify. "We shall simply, therefore, premise this chapter by the following brief details. The public wealth, in the early ages of Europe, was principally of a visible nature — viz., land, and the bouses and buildings erected upon it, the cattle ia the fields and the goods in the houses ; we shall not enter into the vexata quwstio of feuds, the origiaation of thenj, or acquisition of land by the Normans, the lajids PURCHASE OH TRANSFER OF LAND. 23 granted on performance "of military duties, or the precise origin of tenures, or whether such duties were annexed to the land or the tenure; for such have long since passed away, viz., in the reign of Charles II., who, by a statute passed in the 12th year of his reign, finally purged England from a system which had long ceased to be reciprocal to the lord and the vassal. In the early times, before referred to, " towns and cities not being of v^ry great or general importance, agriculture was, though still much neglected, of far greater importance than commerce, and from its necessities arose many old rules of law." The most ancient specimens of leases extant tend to show that the word^/w-OT applies to anything let on lease, or let to farm or manage, as to farm a house and the lands adjoining. We find there were farmers of taxes and toUs as well as farmers engaged in agrictiltural pursuits. The agricultural farmer was then regarded more in the nature of a bailiff, or servant accountable for the profits of the land at an annual sum, than as having any interest of his own. If the farmer was ejected from his land, his remedy then was only by action for damages against his landlord, who warranted to him quiet possession. Thus we see that the owner of a leasehold estate for a term of years possesses only what is technically called a chattel interest, i.e., his interest does not partake of a character denominated by lawyers " real estate," but is " personal property," whatever may be the value of the property or period of duration of the term. A few explanations of the common terms tjomprised in legal docu- ments may facilitate their being more satisfactorily understood. The term "tenements" is frequently used in legal documents and parlance to signify a house, an^ is frequently used synonymously with messuage, as "all that messuage or tenement," being the common form of delineating parcels in a lease ; but it yet has a wider signifi. cation, being sometimes used to delineate " things held," i.e., with reference to the property of the nature of "real estate," which signi- fication is still attached to it in legal interpretation when the sense requires it. Messuage — house — ^this term is not regarded as more compre- hensive than house ; both messuage and house wiU comprise adjoining outbuildings, the orchard, curtilage, and garden. The word " land," in a grant, comprises in law any ground, soil or earth, but its primary sense is arable land ; the meaniug of this word has been explained in various acts of Parliament in the interpretation clause; it will, however, include all houses, mines, and buildings, 24 MODERN HUSBANDRY. also minerals, unless the words of the context clearly show that it is spoken of in contradistinction to the above extensive reading. The word '■' premises," in law, is rarely used in the vague sense usually applied to it ; it generally has relation back to that which has been previously mentioned, and thus the true meaning and derivation of the word is adhered to ; if, however, the property granted or leased has, in the former part of the Deed, been accurately delineated, it is occasionally used to avoid repetition, as " all the before-mentioned premises," but this only where the meaning cannot be mistaken. FEE SIMPLE OR FREEHOLD. Littleton writes, in his Treatise on Tenures, " A tenant in fee simple is one who hath lands or tenements to hold to him and his heirs for ever. And it is called in Latin /eo(?«M» simplex, ioT: feodum ■ is the same that inheritance is, and simplex is as much as to say lawful or pure. And so feodum simplex signifies a lawful or pure inheritance. Por if a man purchase lands or tenements in fee simple, it is necessary for him to have these words in his purchase Deeds : — 'To have and to hold to him and to his heirs,' for these words (his heirs) make the estate of inheritance. Por if a man purchase lands by these words, ' To have and to hold to him for ever ; ' or by these words, ' To have and to hold to him and to his assigns for ever ; ' in these two cases he hath but an estate for term of life ; because there are not these words (his heirs), which words only make an estate of inheritance in all feoffments and grants." It will have to be remembered that there is no such thing as appointing an heir, as the law decides the heirship ; and if a man grant an estate by will or otherwise, the grantee or devisee is not his heir but his assignee. The right of disposing of an estate in fee simple by deed or will is now, after years of gradual progress, the undisputed privilege of every freeholder : there ar6 necessarily exceptions to this rule, the exceptions being aliens, lunatics, infants, (in the latter case the alienation is voidable), that of married women and persons attainted of treason or felony ; there are also certain purposes for which alienation cannot be made by deed, as for charit- able purposes, unless certain formalities are complied with. No devise of estates, for charitable purposes, can be made by will ; conveyances are now made of land by a simple deed, the features of which are the commencement of the deed detailing the names of the buyer and seller of the land, generally a few recitals of the seller's title, the contract for the purchase, the witnessing part detailing the JPEE SIMPLE OR FREEHOLD. 25 consideration to be paid for the sale, the acknowledgment of the receipt of the money in exchange for the land, and then the convey- ance of the property with such limitations as may form the subject of the contract, with covenants entered into by the seller, that he has a right to sell and convey the land, that it is not encumbered, and that the purchaser shaU have quiet enjoyment of the land purchased, and that finally the seller will more effectually vest the land in the buyer if necessary, and do other acts for that purpose. Estates are liable, in the hands of the heir, for debts contracted in the life of the freeholder. Judgments and debts due to the Crown, registered and inserted in an index against owners of estates, are charges on the land which must be disposed of. Bankruptcy, or insolvency, is a species of involuntary alienation ; the lands vest in the assignees of the bankrupt, or insolvent, for the general benefit of the creditors. In the event of no devise by will, land will descend to the heir of a freeholder. There is not such a thing as an heir to a living man, there can only be the heir apparent, or the heir presumptive. The rules for descent of property are now so thoroughly understood, that difficulty can but rarely occiu", and the chief difficulty is not the law, but the proof of the facts to establish the title of the heir. Descents of property are regulated by act of parliament, and the numerous decided cases render the ascertaining of an heir subject to the proof of facts exceedingly simple. The tenure called " Gavelkind " exists especially in the county of Kent, where all estates of inheritance are presumed to be of this tenure, unless eontrarily expressed ; the descent of estates under this tenure in case of death without having devised the estates is to all the sons equally : some other technical peculiarities are also incident to this tenure not necessary here to specify. The tenure of " Borough English " prevails in but few ancient cities and boroughs — ^the estate descends to the youngest son in preference to any other children. The tenure of " Ancient Demesne " is now practically of but little importance, and Blackstone considers it a copyhold tenure, but the real property commissioners consider otherwise, and that the tenure is freehold. The last freehold tenure we shall notice is that of " Prankalmoign " (i.e., lands given free from any kind of earthly or temporal service ;) of this tenure much of the Church-land is held. An estate tail is an estate of freehold, and is one given to A. B., and the heirof his body, which vnll descend on the decease of A. B., to 26 MODERN HUSBANDRY. his issue ; it may be general or special, male or female, in whicli cases it will descend either to his issue generally ; or, it may be limited to his issue by a particular wife (named) ; it may be limited to descend to males only, or to females only. No lands can be tied up beyond the duration of living parties, and twenty-one years after ; a tenant in tail, on attaining twenty-one, may bar the entail with the consent of the tenant for life (who is usually his father) in settled estates, and resettle the estates, this mode is usually adopted ; and the resettled estates are tied up until the future tenant in tail arrives at the age of twenty-one, when the same course of procedure is usually adopted, and- thus the estate is continued in entail. A tenant in- tail may cut down timber, and commit what waste he pleases ; his estate is liable for the payment of any debt, where a judgment has been registered against him, as also against the estate of any person whom he might cut off or debar from possession. An estate tail may be disposed of on bankruptcy of a trader for the benefit of creditors. An estate for life is the smallest estate which the law recognises as a freehold, and here we have to look back many centuries to see the gradual origin and progress made as to this estate ; we find that a grant to A, B. simply confers a life estate, and though the holder may part with it, it wiE. terminate at his death, whoever then may be the holder of the estate ; immediately A. B. sells his interest, the purchaser has the estate of A. B., and his estate is called an estate " pur autre vie," i.e., he holds the lands during the life of A.B. Blackstone remarks, " a life estate is such an estate as is worthy of a free man, a less estate was not." A tenant for life has a right to cut fuel to burn iri his house, for making agricultural implements, and for repairing his house and fences. He cannot generally cut timber, and must not allow buildings to go to ruin ; he may not generally dig for gravel, brick, earth, or stone, unless these things were being done when his tenancy commenced ; if he does any of these things he is liable to an action of damages, or to be restrained by an injunction obtained by a claim in equity. lie necessarily cannot dispose of his lands. If a tenant for life has planted crops and dies, his executors or administrators will have a right to the crops. The expenses of all improvements in the land made by the tenant for life will have to be borne by him, except draining, which is especially provided for by act of parliament. If the tenant for life dies having a tenant for years at rack rent occupying his estate, instead of claims to emblemienta or crops, such FEE SIMPLE OR EEEEHOLD. 27 tenant shall continue to hold such farm or lands until the expiration of the then current year of his tenancy, and shall then quit on the terms of his lease or holding as if it had expired by effluxion of time, and the successor of the tenant for life shall be in the same position with the tenant of the lands as if the lease had expired at the expiration of the year in the lifetime of his predecessor. No notice to quit shall be necessary or required to determine any such holding or occupation. The last clause is provided by a recent act of parliament. Formerly, if a husband survived his wife, and if issue was born to them alive who might inherit the estate as her heir, he became entitled to an estate for' his life in such lands of his wife as she was Solely seised of in fee simple or fee tail in possession. The husband while enjoying this estate was called " tenant by courtesy." To enable him to enjoy this privilege the wife must have had a separate or several estate, or else have held it under a tenancy in com- mon ; it must not have been one held jointly with any other person. In " Q-avel-kind " land the husband has a right to this tenancy whether issue bom or not ; but this " right of courtesy " extends only under this tenure to a moiety of his wife's lands, and is at an end, if the husband marries again ; but it is now doubtful whether such a tenancy can exist at all. Estates usually being settled, such a thing as " teiiant by the courtesy " can rarely exist. An interest attached to lands also of the husband; in case his wife survived him, called " dower," by which the wife was entitled to one- third of such lands (without their being subject to a husband's debts) of which her husband died possessed, during the remainder of her life, provided the husband was seized of an estate of inheritance held in severalty, or in common, but not jointly with any other person. The dower in " G-avel-kind " tenure consists of a moiety only (in a similar manner to courtesy of the husband) and only while the wife re- mains unmarried and chaste. Many methods have been adopted by lawyers to "bar dower " as it was termed, but since 1834 this procedure has been rendered unnecessary ; for the act declares no woman shall be entitled to dower out of lands absolutely disposed of by her husband in his lifetime or by his will — and all debts are now effectual against dower, and a simple declaration in a purchase deed of property purchased by the husband, that his wife shall not be entitled to dower, or a declaration in his will to the like eifect, will effectually bar the wife's right to dower. The right, therefore, it will be seen, still exists in cases where the husband dies intestate, and has not in the convey- 28 MODERN HUSBANDliY, ance of any property purchased by him or by his will declared that she shall not be entitled to dower. Copyhold estates are peculiarly connected with the olden times, at which we have regretted the limits of our work will not permit us even cursorily to glance ; copyholders are those who hold their lands at the will of the lord of the manor according to the custom of the manor to which they belong. The copyholder has no title deeds ; but his title depends on entries in the court books, i.e., of the pro- ceedings taken at the courts of the manor, which are called copies of court rolls. The lord of the manor is seized iu fee of all lands held by copyhold tenants as such, being legal holder of an estate in fee simple ; has right to all rdinerals, and miues, under, and to all timber growing on, the lands, subject to the custom of the manor, which prevents the lord trespassing on tenants' land to open mines ;' or cut timber. A copy- holder is unable to lease his lands beyond a year without permission from the lord, unless the custom specially authorises this ; if he exceeds his rights, a cause of forfeiture to the lord is the consequence. A tenure of ancient demesne exists still in England, which varies from copyliold tenure but in name, the freehold still being in the lord, but the tenure is not expressed to be at the will of the lord. These estates of copyholds then vary but little, as wiU be seen, from freeholds. On death or alienation by the copyholder fines in most manors are usually payable; either the sum is fixed, called fine certain, or arbitrary, which are limited to two years' improved rent of the lord deducting quit rents. In copyhold tenures there are estates for lives, the lives being renewed as they drop, estates piir autre vie, estates tail or limited as to the mode of descent, which depends on the custom of the manor in which such estates may be situated ; liberty of alienation by surrender, inter vivos, as well as by vrill, is allowed ; and estates of copyhold are liable for debts contracted by the tenants, and estates of copyholders are liable for all judgments entered up against their owners. The descent of an estate of copyhold tenure is subject to the custom of descent peculiar to the manor, but in other respects is similar to the descent of a fee simple. The lands of a copyholder dying intestate at once descend on his heir, but the heir has to be admitted previously to his tenancy being completed as between himself and the owner of the freehold, or lord. The tenure of an estate of copyhold demands an oath of fealty, the liability of the land to escheat or revert to the lord on failure of heirs, or without having TEE SIMPLE OR FEEEHOLD. 29 alienated his land in his lifetime, or by will, or on attainder of the tenant by reason of treason. Occasionally a payment of a small rent is demanded, reliefs are but rarely payable by the heir in any manor, but, if so, usually con- verted into one year's rent. For other peculiarities we must refer to the several customs of each particular manor ; in some manors a right is reserved to the lord, on the death of the tenant, to seize the tenant's best head of cattle under the name of a heriot ; this is now confined to a particular, chattel or article in most manors where such a right exists, and in many of them to a smaU pecuniary payment. Estates may be held in joint tenancy, or as tenants in common, as in the case of freeholds. Although the aliepation of copyhold lands can scarcely form a part of a popular essay like the present, it may be as well to state that the necessary form consists of a surrender by the tenant A. B. into the hands of the lord to the use of C. D. the purchaser and his heirs, or for any other estate C. D. may desire ; it may be made either in or out of court ; if in court, the steward enters so much of the surrender as shall show the nature of the proceedings in the court rolls ; when the surrender has thus been made, 0. D. has a right to be (technically called) admitted as " tenant " to the lord of the manor, to the lands so surrendered, on payment of the fines, fees, &c. which is usually done at once, but may be done at any time after. A devise of copyhold estates by wiU, executed in due form of law, entitles the Devisee, immediately on payment of fines and fees, to be admitted tenant to the lord, and a copy of the will delivered to the lord authorises the entry on the rolls, and the lord at once will admit the devisee as his tenant. A special custom entitled wife's freebench sometimes attaches to lands of which the husband was solely seised at the time of his decease, similar in nature to the wife's right to dower in freehold, except as to the time of the right attaching : a special custom of the manor is also necessary to entitle the husband to be tenant by courtesy to his wife's estate. Any lord or tenant may, after the next admittance to any land which shall take place on and after the 1st July, 1853, compel the other of them, the lord the tenant, or the tenant the lord, to enfranchise such copyhold land. The mode prescribed for the determining the consideration to be paid to the lord for such enfranchisement shall, unless the parties agree about the same, be ascertained under the direction of the copyhold commissioners, upon 30 MODERN HUSBANDUY. application to them in writing in manner following : — A valuer is to be appointed by each party, and such two valuers, 1)efore they proceed, shall appoint an umph'e with final reference to the copyhold com- mission, as to points, of difference or neglect of either party, &c. If the request to enfranchise has been made by the tenant the gross sum of money, with the steward's compensation, ascertained by the valuers, will have to be paid by the tenant. If the compenssition is more than twenty pounds, and if the com- missioners, and all persons who have any charge or incumbrance affecting the land enfranchised, consent, and which charges existed on the 30th June, 1852, such gross sum may be made a first charge on the land, redeemable by a rent charge issuing out of the land in a period not exceeding ten years, with interest at 4 per cent, on the amount remaining unpaid ; the parties, however, with the consent of the conveyancers, may agree to pay and receive the compensation in other ways. TENANTS FROM YEAR TO YEAR. This tenancy exists when a man lets lands or premises to another,, without limiting any particular duration of time, especially if an annual rent is reserved. A verbal demise at an annual rent, whei'e the farm is enclosed and the understanding is mutual, creates a tenancy from year to year. This tenancy requires the occupier to give six months' notice of hia intention to quit, expiring^ on the half-yearly day from which the tenancy commenced. The same remark applies with regard to notice to quit given by the landlord. This tenancy is determinable at the end of the first, or any subsequent year, unless the lessor or occupier, in creating the term, show they intend a tenancy for two years certain to exist. CORN RENTS. The theory of these rents is undoubtedly the most equitable that it is possible to imagine. The origin of them, according to Black- stone, arose with Lord Burleigh and Sir Thomas Smith, then Secretary of State, who thereby greatly increased thB revenues of the colleges ; but equitable as they are, it is somewhat surprising they are so little adopted by private individuals ; but we are inclined to think the cause of their non-adoption rests entirely with the tenant ; they are generally considered to be a species of speculative rent, but this is clearly an error ; for the very essence of a rent is its certainty, and where a thing is certain speculation is out of the LESSEE S COVENANTS. 31 question. The mode adopted in the framing of covenants, for payment of rent in corn, is entered into by the lessee thus : Por the payment of a fixed number of bushels of com each quarter, provided wheat be a certain price ; should it decrease in price, a certain diminished number of bushels only to be paid as an equivalent for the land, and so on in a graduated scale from the highest to the lowest known price of wheat. We ourselves doubt whether a " corn rent," reserved for the payment of a certain number of bushels of wheat every quarter of a year, would be good ; for it is not certain, and there could not be a certainty of distress ; for it may be assumed that, if there were not a sufficient number of bushels of corn on the premises to satisfy a distress, then there could not be a certain calcu- lation, i.e., a calculation never to vary" as to the value of the specific number of bushels of corn to be sold to raise 4;he amount of the levy ; but a scale could easily be formed and affixed to the lease by way of schedule, so as to determine the number of bushels to be paid each quarter, in the event of wheat being so much a quarter, so that by reference to the schedule and the current price of wheat the actual rent payable on each quarter day could at once be determined. COVENANTS IN LEASES. Perhaps one of the most troublesome parts of agricultural law is the system of framing agreements for leases (frequently done by non-professional men to save expense); the provisions are then perhaps copied from an old agreement, the lessee's covenants are perhaps referred to in concise terras ; thus " The said A. B. covenants to pay rent and taxes, and to repair and insure, and all usual covenants are to be inserted." This plan of proceeding we have found almost invariably leads to dispute, which, if nothing worse occurs, and the dispute even is thus amicably arranged, puts the litigants to the expense of an arbitrament. In an agreement for a lease, to save future trouble and' expense, all the covenants and stipulations should at once be set forth. All common and usual covenants. Lord Thurlow considers, must mean covenants. incidental to the lease. It would suffice to fill a volume to enumerate the cases and arguments alone on the question as to what are usual covenants : we, therefore, must state generally, that the opinion of the courts is not expressed in any decided manner as to what are " usual covenants ; " but the contract of the parties is looked into, the general usage of the county and place, and aU incidental circumstances taken into consideration. It has been laid dowTi as a 32 MODERN HUSBAHDRY. general principle that where a person makes a grant of anything, he impliedly grants that also which is necessary for the enjoyment of the grant ; hut, as may he supposed, the hreadth of the principle gives rise to douhts which often tend to protracted litigation. The first covenant, then, entered into hy a lessee with his lessor is that for the ' payment of rent. This is usually an express covenant, but there is an implied covenant precedent to this, expressed in the words " yielding and paying;" the express covenant has advantages to the lessor over the implied one ; for, in the event of assignment by the lessee under the express covenant, the lessor has the benefit of the liability of -the lessee during the entire period of the tenancy. The lessee also usually covenants for himself, his heirs, executors, and administrators. The lessor has thus the additional security of the real estate in the hands of the lessee's heir. The second covenant entered into by the lessee is, that he will " well and truly pay and discharge the land tax, sewers-rate, and all other taxes, rates, assessments, and impositions whatever, whether parlia- mentary, parochial, or otherwise." It is now settled that the word " taxes " in a covenant to pay all taxes, or to pay rent without deduction for any taxes, wiU include the land tax, and all future taxes of a similar nature to those already imposed, but not taxes not in existence at the time of the demise. It has been further held that, in the case of a grant of a fee farm, rent, " without any deduction, defal- cation, or abatement for or in any respect whatever," the rent was payable without any deduction for the land tax. By the 160th sedt. of the Land Tax Act it is declared that, in the event of any difference arising between landlord and tenant as to the sum to be deducted, the commissioners for general purposes are empowered to settle the proportions of such payments and deductions, and ia default of pay- ment to levy the same. It will be necessary to bear in mind that the failure by the lessee to deduct the land tax paid by him from the cur- rent rent deprives him of the power to deduct it afterwards, both at law and in equity ; likewise a tenant may deduct from his landlord property tax, but if he pays his rent without deducting property tax, he loses his lien on the current rent, and cannot after recover payments which were voluntarily made, at law, neither will equity relieve him. In every lease the lessee covenants to repair the demised premises ; a tenant from year to year must keep the premises wind and water tight, and make fair and tenantable repairs ; but he is not compelled to put on a new roof, or make similar substantial and lasting repairs, or what are called general repairs. A covenant to repair binds an assignee of the demised premises, for it afiects the reversion in the LESSEE S COVENANTS. 33 bands of the, owner for the time being. A general covenant to repair binds the tenant, whatever may be the cause of dilapidation, whether the damage proceed from storm, flood. Queen's enemiea, accidental fire, lightning, or other causes. Where woods or trees are demised to a lessee, with a covenant by the Lessee to leave them in as good plight as he found them, he will be excused from the performance of this covenant if they be uprooted by tempest, this beiag the act of God, and not a breach of his covenant. Again, if A. B. covenants to deliver up premises in good repair, and in a reported case the further covenant by the lessee was added, " and all the trees which are now standing in the orchard of the said premises whole and undefaced, reasonable use and wear only ex- cepted," it was decided that cutting down old trees decayed and past bearing fruit in several parts of the orchard, was not a breach of the covenant, for the removal of such as were past bearing was a reasonable use of the orchard. The tenant's liability to rebuild in case of fire under a covenant to repair, sometimes causes the lessee to introduce into the covenant an exception against accidents by fire ; but the exception protects the lessee, but does not bind the lessor to do the repairs. If a tenant incur an expense in repairing which he is not bound to make, he is unable to deduct the amount from his rent. A covenant by a lessee to keep the premises in substantial repair must be looked at with regard to the state of the premises at the time of the demise, and whether the house was new or old, which evidence may be gone into by the lessee generally ; the landlord must not have a new house instead of an old one ; and therefore if a kitchen floor become rotten from being placed on the earth instead of on joists, the lessee is not bound to pay for a floor being laid on joists to render it more lasting. Although we do not think that in the construction of an agreement whereby the lessee agrees to enter into "the usual covenants," insurance against fire would be held to be included ; still, a covenant being usually inserted in leases for the insurance of the premises either by the landlords or their tenants, it must be considered usual ; and regarding the covenant as entered into by the lessee, there is not any covenant which it is so necessary stringently to observe, as the covenant to insure : against the breach of tbis covenant, there is no relief in equity or at law ; and although the lessee has performed every covenant contained in his lease with the utmost exactitude, and although no fire has taken place, or damage occurred by the non-insurance, stiU leaving the premises 34) MODERN HUSBANBRY. uninsured for a single day -will cause tie lessee to lose the most beneficial lease without any possibility of redress from his landlord ; and for however short a period the premises may be uninsured, the landlord may avail himself of the breach and eject his tenant. A more strict compliance with thi§ covenant is necessary than with any other ; for in the case of the other covenants it is in the power of the lessor to see they are duly performed ; but Ln this case he is at the mercy of the lessee upon whose covenant he relies. A tenant from year to year of farming premises is bound only to fair and tenantable repairs, so as to prevent decay of the premises, and not to substantial or lasting repairs. An agreement by a tenant to leave a farm as he found it, has been held to be an agreement to leave it in tenantable repair if he found it in such repair at the period of entering into possession. There are several other covenants which may be cursorily glanced over, as covenants to restrain trading, against carrying on noisome or offensive trades. The next covenant we should have to look at is the restraining assignment by the lessee, without license of the lessor. This question, after many years' litigation, and several decisions pro et con as to whether the covenant in restraint of the lessees assign- ing or underletting without license from the lessor is a usual covenant, has been finally determined by the authority of Lord Eldon, who decided (overruling two cases) that a covenant in restraint of the lessees assigning or underletting is not a usual covenant, and cannot be insisted on without a special provision for that purpose, CULTIVATrON. Of course the fact of a tenant holding possession of lands from his landlord implies an obligation to cultivate the land in a husbandhke manner, according to the custom of the country where situated, and thus an implied promise arises, upon breach of which an action may be brought by the landlord. The custom of a coimtry means the general usage and treatment of farms of a similar description prevalent in that country. The obligation to manage a farm in a husbandKke manner is broken when evidence is given of dung having been removed from the farm without an agreement to that effect having been entered into. In aU cases we recomniend special covenants as to cultivation, mode of tillage, manure, &c., to be inserted in farming leases, and not to rely on the vague and uncertain covenant to cultivate accord- ing to the custom of the country, or according to good husbandry, lessok's cotdnants. 35 the mterpretation of which covenant, like the insertion of " all usual covenants," may give rise to much litigation, to say nothing of the absurd practices in Arming which the words " according to the custom of the country " cause to be continued from year to year, even in the best farming districts. AGRICULTURAL FIXTURES. The privilege accorded to tenants in trade does not extend to agricultural tenants, so as to enable them to removte things which they have erected for purposes of husbandry, if they are of a strictly agricultural character; yet if they have relation to trade of any description, the tenant may do so. It may be stated that all these laws may be varied by the contract of the parties, provided no general inconvenience arise from their so doing. If any part of the growing crop of the tenant shall be seized by the sheriff under an execution, such crops, so long as they remain on the lands or farm, shall in default of sufficient distress of the goods and chattels of the tenant, be liable to the rent which may accrue and become due to the landlord after any such seizure or sale, and to the remedies by distress for the recovery of such rent, and that notwith- standing any bargain and sale, or assignment, which may have been made or executed of such growing crops by any such sheriff or other officer. If the tenant of any farm erect with the consent of the landlord, for the time being, at his own cost and expense, any farm building, either detached or otherwise, or put up any other building, engine, or machinery, either for agricultural purposes or for the purpose of trade or agriculture (which he has not been compelled to erect by contract with his landlord), then all such buildings, engine, and machinery shall be the property of the tenant, and shaU be removable by him, so that he does not injure the lands and buildings belonging to the landlord, or otherwise he must put the same in the plight and condition as the same were in before the erection of anything so removed ; but the tenant, previously to doing this, must give to his landlord one month's notice in writing of his intention to do so, and the landlord or his agent may then elect to purchase the matters and things so proposed to be removed, and the right to remove these shall then cease, and shall then belong to the landlord, and the value thereof shall be determined by two referees, one to be chosen by each party, or by an umpire to be appointed by such referees, and such amount shall be paid or allowed in account by the landlord. D 2 36 MODERN HUSBAJS'DEY. LESSOR'S COVENANTS. The Only covenant invariably inserted on behalf of the lessor is for the lessee's quiet enjoyment of the premises comprised in the lease ; the eifect of which covenant is to afford the lessee an assurance against the consequences of a defective title. The law holds that the quiet enjoyment contemplated by the covenant concerns the estate or title, and not the person of the Special covenants are of course frequently added, where the nature of the contract may require it, as for further assurance, &c. The next covenant, to which we shall merely refer, is what is technically called the " proviso for re-entry on nonpayment of rent, or nonperformance of the covenants." This proviso is generally to be taken advantage of in the event of nonpayment of rent, but some- times it extends to causes of forfeiture not contained in covenants, as to the lessee's becoming bankrupt, taking the benefit of the insolvent acts, or other things which it is unnecessary to mention, as they are from the stipulation in a lease involved in more legal technicalities than this one. The right is usually reserved to the lessor, his heirs or assigns, where he is seised in fee ; to the lessor, his executors, administrators or assigns, where possessed for term of years. TAXES. Of taxes generally we may state they are either ordinary or extra- ordinary ; the former relate to the poor-rates and church-rates, and the latter to taxes imposed by act of parliament, as the land tax. The covenant to pay taxes usually follows immediately after the covenant to pay rent. In general the tenant, in cases where a lease is granted, engages to pay all taxes except the land tax, that being a charge even- tually on the landlord, although many forms and stipulations, in the shape of covenants, occasionally provide that the landlord shall pay all rates, taxes, impositions, and assessments whatsoever. The land-tax acts provide against the alteration of any covenant existing as to the payment of this tax ; moreover, it may be stated generally, that the occupier of premises is primarily liable to bear all taxes and rates, whether parliamentary or parochial ; the land tax is not the landlord's tax as regards the community generally, though, as between landlord and tenant, it is so ; and in this respect it differs from, the poors' rate, for the land tax is eventually paid by the land- lord ; and the land tax acts empower the tenant to pay the land tax in POOE-KATES. 37 the first instance, and to deduct out of the rent so much of the rate as, in respect of the said rents of any such houses, lands, tenements, and hereditaments, the land should and ought to pay and bear ; and the landlord is hereby required to allow such deductions upon having payment made to him of the residue of the rent. The remedies for the recovering of the land tax being only against the occupier clearly demonstrate that it is a tenant's tax ; but we have said sufficient of this tax in this place. POOR-RATES. Of these it is scarcely necessary to' speak ; all know the origin of them, and the abuses to which the system of levying poor rates gave rise ; but at last, by wise legislation, many of the abuses have been swept away, and the system has undergone a total change ; but the principle, in itself sound and healthy, still remains for us to consider. Money being required by the churchwarden and overseer of the parish for the maintenance of the poor in their parish, they make a rate generally of about two-thirds or three-fourths of the average rent. The calculations having then been made to provide for the poor, it is necessary the rate should be allowed by two justices of the peace out of session. The rate having been made and allowed by the churchwardens, overseers, and justices, the churchwardens are to affix notices on or near the doors of all churches and chapels within the parish ; and no rate is valid unless the notice has been affixed as required by statute. Any party aggrieved by the rate may appeal to the quarter sessions on notice given to two overseers, and others concerned in the result of the appeal ; the grounds of the appeal shoidd be stated. Thus, having shortly premised our remarks by a slight outline of the process of rate making, it only remains to add a few remarks as to the persons liable to the rate ; and although there are some intricate questions involved in this inquiry, we shall be compelled to pass over these and confine ourselves simply to the affirmation, and state who are liable. AU persons are rateable to the poor in respecjb of the yearly value of the premises they occupy, be they poor or rich ; there are neces- sarily numerous exceptions, as Hospitals (in some cases). Places of Public Worship, Scientific Societies excepted by Special Act, &c. Poor-rates are personal charges with respect to the land, but not actual taxes on the land ; the occupier is liable to this tax, for the rate is chargeable on the occupier in respect of possession, and not in respect of rent paid to the landlord ; it has been decided, that the mere 38 MODEUN HUSBANDEY. fact of payment of poor-rate is not of itself evidence of occupation of premises. Partners residing in one parish and having premises in another parish on which their servant resides, are not residents under the statute, and accordingly are not rateable. The owner of a house, if he occupy part of it, is liable to be rated for the whole, if there is not a distinct occupation of the residue by some other person. If a landlord has let a house to various tenants at rates not exceeding 201. or less than 61. for a shorter term than one year, or at a rental payable weekly or monthly, the inhabitants of a parish assembled in Vestry may direct that the landlord be rated instead of the occupier, to prevent the evasion of the payment of the rent, on account of the houses being let as lodgings or for short periods. The goods of the occupiers may be distrained for the rates due to the exact amount. A covenant by a lessor to pay all taxes on the land demised will not include Poor and Church Eates, for these are charges on the person or occupier, and not on the land. CHURCH-RATES. It would be of little avail, in a practical treatise like the present, to enter into any discussion as to their origin or history. The practice, as to the mode of levying them, has long existed. The churchwardens of the parish summon meetings to levy these rates ; if the parishioners do not meet, the churchwardens constitute the meeting, and may alone impose the rate ; but the parishioners at the meeting impose the rate, or negative it. There is not any mode of compelling parishioners to provide church rates. By act of parliament, where the amount to be recovered from the rate payer is under 101., and there is no question as to the propriety of the rate, or the liability of the party rated, a justice of the peace may, on the application of the churchwardens, inquire into the merits of the case, and ordef payment. There is an appeal from his decision to the quarter sessions. The method of enforcing payment of church rates is by distress of the goods of the person who refuses to pay his rates. These rates are not charges upon the landlord, but upon the occupier. CHOPS ON TBE LAND. 39 SEWERS-EATE. The lessor generally requires a covenant by a lessee to pay this rate ; and, unless a special covenant is entered into by the lessee to pay this rate, or it is specifically named in the covenant to pay taies^ the lessor must pay it, for a parliamentary tax being one imposed by act of parliament directly, it has been decided this rate is not comprised in a covenant by a tenant to pay aU taxes, parochial or parliamentary, in confirmation of which doctriae, on the paper left by the collector of this rate, is a note, that this rate is to be paid by the tenant, and allowed by the landlord out of the rent, except when agreed to be defrayed by the tenants. TITHES. The rent charge payable in lieu of tithes, under the titho'commu- tation act, is liable to the same rates that the tithes commuted were subject to. The recovery of tithes may be enforced by the owner of the tithe by distress, after having given ten days' notice in writing to the tenant in possession, provided the arrears do not exceed two years. If any occupying tenant of land shall quit, leaving unpaid any tithe rent charge for,, or charged upon such land, which he was bound to pay by the terms of his tenancy, legally or equitably, and the owner of such tithe shaU give, or have given notice of proceeding, by distress, upon the land for the recovery thereof, it shall be lawful for the landlord, or the succeeding tenant or occupier, to pay such tithe rent charge, and any expenses incident thereto, and to recover the amount or sum of money which he may so pay over against such first-named tenant or occupier, or his legal representatives, as if the same were a simple contract debt due from the first-named tenant or occupier to the landlord or tenant making such payment. EMBLEMENTS. THE PROFITS AKISINQ FBOM SEEDS SOWN OR ROOTS PLANTED, Whoever has a right to emblements has a right to cut and carry them away after the determination of the prior estate. A tenant for a term of years is not entitled to emblements when the duration of the tenancy is certain ; thus, if a tenant for fourteen years in the fourteenth year sow wheat, and his tenancy commenced in September, and in the following September he quits before the corn is ripe, the landlord has the crop, because the tenancy was certain and the tenant sowed where he knew there was a chance he 40 MODERN HTJSBANDEY. could not reap ; but if the term of the tenancy depend on an uncer- tainty, such as the termination of life of the lessor, &c. Sec, the tenant shaU have the emblements. Tenants from year to year are entitled to emblements when their tenancy is terminated by an event uncertain ; but it is not so if they put a termination to the tenancy themselves. Tenants at will are also entitled to emblements under the like circumstances ; for they know not when their tenancy may terminate by notice from their landlord ; but if the tenant himself determines the tenancy, he wUl not be entitled to the profits of the crop. CROPS our THE LAND. The right of an outgoing tenant to the crops of the last year of his tenancy not ripe at its determination, is either regulated by contract or by the custom of the country ; if by the latter, a common usage of the neighbouring farmers is of itself sufficient without the necessity of proving immemorial usage : the courts of law are in favour of uphold- ing a custom. If the lease or agreement contains nothing to the contrary, and the custom warrant it, the outgoing tenant is of course entitled to the crop. This custom holds good both as regards yearly tenants, as also to tenants holding under leases. The custom of the country likewise, (in the absence of agreement,) regulates the removal of dung, hay, and straw, on the determination of the tenancy. In general, the outgoing tenant is not entitled to remuneration for manure left on the premises, for the removal of it would be unhusband-like, but contracts are frequently entered into between the landlord and tenant, whereby the tenant is authorised on quitting the farm to dispose of manure to an incoming tenant, also that the tenant may remove straw, he returning manure equal in weight to such straw removed. PAYMENT FOR TILLAGE. The right of an outgoing tenant to be paid for the expense c tillage, not exhausted at the time the farm is given up, depends like- wise on the custom of the country or on contract. A usage for the landlord to pay a sum of money in compensation to the oif-going tenant for labour and expense bestowed by him in tilling, fallowing, and manuring arable and meadow-land, according to the course of good husbandry, (the advantage of which labour and expense the tenant could not otherwise reap,) is a reasonable usage. Such practice being a mere usage of the neighbourhood is not a custom EPITOME. 41 strictly speaking, and need not be immemorial. The payment or remuneration is usually ascertained by valuation ; the length of time that has elapsed, and the number of crops since the last fallow, together with the dressings, manure, seed, and labour, being taken into consideration. Manure in the yard, ploughing, if alone, draining and fixtures are also subject to valuation in a like manner. A SHORT EPITOME OP COVENANTS ENTERED INTO BY THE PARTIES TO A FARMING LEASE. DATE — PARTIES — DESCEIPTION OW THE PREMISES — LIBERTY EOR THE LANDLORD TO VIEW THE REPAIRS — RESERVATION OP SAME AND SPORTING TO LANDLORD, TERM OP TEARS — PAYMENT OP RENT — ADDITIONAL RENT FOR BREAKING W LAND — ADDITIONAL RENT IP IMPROPER CULTIVATION. The tenants covenant to pay rent. „ „ to pay taxes. „ „ to repair. Landlord to find all rough timber. Covenant that tenant will leave premises in repair. „ by tenant to insure. Not to assign without permission of landlord. Covenant to give notice of underletting to landlord. „ to paint house. Tenant to provide straw for thatching. Covenant by tenant not to permit persons to shoot game and to give notice to trespassers. Covenant that landlord may bring actions in tenant's name. „ by tenant he will follow course of husbandry. „ to cultivate in husbaudlike manner. „ to cut drains and ditches. „ to cultivate according to custom of the country. „ to allow landlord to enter to view state of cultivation. „ as to crops and fallows, meadow lands. „ to repair hedges, ditches. " „ not to out trees, lop pollards, &c. &c. „ by tenant not to permit waste, cut trees, &c. „ that tenant shall manure, &c. &c. „ keep a stock of sheep. „ as to hay, straw, chaff, dung, and on determination of tenancy, „ that landlord may enter on lands during last year of tenancy to sow wheat, turnips, &c. &c,, and plough. „ as to how lands shall be left by the tenant to fallows, &c., and as to crops of clover leys, potatoes. „ as to crops left and their valuations. „ by landlord to keep buildings in repair. „ to allow rough wood for repairs of buildings damaged by storms. lie MODEEN HUSBANDHr. Covenant that landlord shall re-enter if rent not paid after demand. „ that landlord shall re-enter on non-performance of covenants or on tenants becoming bankrupt, quitting possession of premises or assigning lease. „ that landlord shall pay for improvements, repairs, re-entry by valuation. ,, by landlord that on payment of rent the tenant shall have quiet enjoyment of the premises leased. *»* For this chapter I am Indebted to the kindness of my friend, Mr. F. E. Mawe. THE LONG LEASE. r^^rg^^?™ TAKING THE I^EVEI^. CHAPTER III. BEAINING. BEroEE he makes any attempt at tillage, mamiring, or sowing, the agriculturist must devote his whole skill and energy to thoroughly free the land of water, for if he does not get his land into a dry and healthy state he will not have half the benefit he is entitled to from those expensive operations. The art and practice of draining lands has been sadly neglected and is only now beginning to be looked npon in the right way, as an operation as positively necessary as tilling and sowing; of course I allude to the practice of thorough draining lands, in contradistinction to the drainage of districts which has been practised in HoUand and parts of England on a moat extensive scale for centuries past. Mr. IVench Buike remarks " that of all those improvements which the increase of health and population has occasioned to the agriculture of the country, none was until within these few years in so b"(ckward a state as that of drainage ;" and that this should be the case IS the more remarkable as the knowledge of the art has been in England for more than two centuries, and in practice with great success in some parts for at least half that time. Before proceeding to describe the most approved methods now practised for procuring an effectual drainage, it may be worth while to sketch the progress of the art in this country. The first mention of a eyatem of drainage, is made by Captain "Walter Bligh, in a book entitled the " English Improver Improved ; 44 MODEItN HUSBANDRY. or, the Surrey of Husbandry Surveyed :" and dedicated to the Eight Honourable the Lord General Cromwell. In this book the author is particular and impressive in pointing out the importance of getting rid of the bottom water, as we now do by deep draining, for he says, " Only make thy drayning trenches deep enough, and not too far off thy floating course, and I'll warrant it they drayin away that under moisture, fylth, and venom, as aforesaid, that maintains them (the rush, flagg and mareblab), and then, believe me, or deny Scripture which I hope thou darest not, as Bildad said unto Job, ' Can the rush grow without mire, or the flagg without water.' — Job, viii. 12. That interrogation plainly shows that the rush cannot grow, the water being taken from the root ; for it is not the moystnesse upon the surface of the land, for then every shower should increase the rush, hut it is that which lyeth at the root, wMch drayned away at the hottom, leaves it a nahed and barren relief." How correct is the latter remark containing the whole truth of the necessity of draining. Again in his remark on forming the flooding and draining trenches of water- meadows — he says of the latter, " And for thy drayning-trench it must be so deep that it goe to the bottom of the cold spewing moyst water, that feeds the flagg and the rush ; for the widenesse of it, use thine own liberty, but be sure to make it so wide as thou mayest go the bottom of it, which must be so low as any moisture lyeth, which moysture usually lyeth under the over and second swarth of the earth, in some gravel and sand, or else, where some greater stones are mixed with clay, under which thou may'st goe half a spade's grass deep at least. Tea, suppose this corruption that feeds and nourishes the rush or flagg should lie a yard or four foote deepe, to the bottom of it thou must goe, if ever thou wilt drain it to purpose or make the utmost advantage of either floating or drayning, without which thy water cannot have its kindly operation ; for though the water fatten naturally, yet still this coldeness and moysture lies grow- ing within, and not being taken clean away, it eats out what the water fattens ; and so the greennesse of the water is, as it were, riddled, screened, and strained out into the land, leaving the richnesse and the leannesse sliding away from it." On the fllling-in of the drains, he speaks of using " good green faggots, willow, alder, elm, or thorne," or pebbles or flint-stones, and file these into about fifteen inches \Ag\i,"and take thy tti/rf and plant it aforesaid, the green soa/rd downwards, heing cut very fit for the trench, so as it mayjoyne close as it is layd down, and then having covered it all over with earth, and made it even as the other grov/nd, waite and expect a wonderful efpsct through the blessing of Ood." Most clearly is the plan of thorough draining described by Bligh, DfiAINING. 45 who, I think, must be considered as its original inventor ; his work is altogether most excellent, and his opinions on the various plans that should be carried out (for what he describes as making two blades of grass grow where only one grew before) are all much in advance of his time, more especially his notion of purchasing up the mills on streams with little fall, so enabling the farmers to get better falls to their drains. It does not appear that Bligh's plans were immediately adopted, nor that any attempts at thorough draining were made until a much later period ; the earliest of which I have seen any account will be found described in the Journal of the Eoyal Agricultural Society, (Yol. IV., Part I., page 32,) by Samuel Jonas, Esq., who, in a letter to Mr. Pusey, says that thorough draining has been practised by his family for a hundred years ; he also describes the manner in which his father had drained his land for half a century ; he says he draws his ditches within two yards of each other, digs the ditch out two spit, or eighteen to twenty inches deep with the wide spade, and ten inches with the narrow spit, making the total depth of ditch twenty-eight to thirty inches. The soil is a close tenacious clay ; he 'has bridges with joints, which are pieces of wood made the size of the lower drain viz., about eight inches deep, three inches and a half wide at top, tapering to about two inches at bottom ; these are drawn along in the ditch by a lever, and the boU taken out with the narrow spade is then laid on the bridges, and rammed down tight and close over the bridge, which is then drawn forward and more soil rammed, leaving a hollow space with a tough compact arch of clay. A practice similar to this seems to have been very common in Essex ; and a variety of interesting details are given, in the journal alluded to, of various instances of thorough draining having been practised there since 1743 ; but I believe the practice was peculiar to that county, as I am not aware of its being in use elsewhere for any- thing like so long a period. Plug draining was not the only system pursued, as stones and underwood were often laid and made efficient work. "With the exceptional cases in Essex, to which we have alluded, scarcely any attempts were made by agriculturists to get rid of the excess of water from which the land received so much injury ; for the general practice of thorough drainage dates from the commencement of the labours of Mr. Smith of Deanston, who certainly was the introducer of the system, if not the inventor. His rule was, that we are not merely to find out hidden springs, and to cut them through by a single drain, but, as the whole surface of retentive soils is rendered wet, not by accidental springs, but by the rain, the whole 46 MODERN HUSBANDRY. surface of the field must be made thoroughly dry by under drains running throughout at equal distances ; any field, he said, however wet, might be so dried, provided those under drains were cut suffi- ciently near to each other. From this time great advM:ces have been made in the art of draining ; and the plan of cutting much deeper drains, and using burnt- clay pipes of small diameter, introduced by Josiah Parkes, Esq.,0.E.,ha8 brought a large quantity of barren land into a high state of cultivation. Deep drains and small pipes is now the most approved practice ; but it is no more a modern invention than the plan of Deanstonising ; for I have, within the last few years, employed a drainer named G-eorge Bushel, of North Elvetham, Hants, who assures me that, thirty years ago, he was employed in laying deep tile drains under a drainer named James Murrel, and that he executed a large amount of work for him in various parts of North Hants. I have had opportunities of examining some portion of the works executed by Murrel so long back ; they appear to me to have been very carefully done. At Hartford Bridge, Hants, the old road to Southampton is crossed by a smaU brook, which drains the country towards Farnborough, and also from the district supplying Fleet Pond and the mill-stream there ; this brook runs through a considerable quantity of very excel- lent meadow land, and the whole of it was, I believe, drained deep with tiles, by Murrel, some thirty years since, and to his labours it owes its present good character, it having been previously a swamp overgrown with rushes, and unfit for the pasturing of stock. THE PRACTICE OP DBAIN-ING Land is ingeniously effected by water in several difierent ways, and different methods and machinery are used to get rid of it under different circumstances. 1st. In the case where land is situated so low as to be perma- nently or occasionally flooded by freshes from rivers running through it, high tides, or other such circumstances. 2ndly. From water rising upwards through the soil, as springs, caused by the pressure or height of the column of water in some other place. 3rdly. From the nature of subsoil being so impermeable as not to allow the water that has fallen from the clouds to descend through it, consequently the land, or cultivated soil, remains for a long time in a saturated and overcharged state, utterly unfit for growing plants. P: }'m 1 J 5Si •r .. DEAINING. 47 4thly. Where the upper surfafie of the soil is beaten, by the action of the rain, into a puddled covering in which aU the interstices are stopped up, and consequently no air can get down to the plants. We wiU now proceed to describe, in as detailed a manner as the limited size of this work will allow, the various modes in which the land has been treated by the most eminent authorities to correct the evils we have enumerated. When land is so situated that the overflowing of estuaries, lakes, or rivers, shall retard, or entirely prevent the husbandman carrying on his operations, the works will generally be of such an extensive character (if they are to effect a permanent good) that their execution should only be undertaken by an engineer of experience. And, in fact, it is only on a very small scale indeed that the practical agricul- turist should attempt any engineering, as the dealing with large bodies of water is a very serious undertaking, and can only be properly carried out by those who have devoted their time and attention to the prosecution of such works. To the skiU and enterprise of the drainage engineer the agricul- turist owes much. Nearly the whole country of Holland has been by them earned from the sea, and is kept as dry and fruitful land by works erected for the purpose. In Lincolnshire, and other counties in England, works of similar character have been constructed, and some of the now most highly cultivated districts were, but a few years since, dreary wastes. I may mention a remarkable instance of this near Dunstan : on what was formerly a dreary waste there stands a solitary tower, upwards of seventy feet in height ; on the top of this, not further back than half a century, was every night placed a light to guide travellers across Lincoln heath ; the tower still remains, but the whole district is now cultivated like a garden, in fact the whole county of Lincolnshire is so ; and that it can be so is owing entirely to the magnificent system of drainage that has been constantly progressing for two centuries past. These works consist of immense canals, called levels (as the Bedford level) where outfalls are cut into the sea, or in great estuaries ; the channels of these canals are considerably above the surrounding country, consequently all the water upon it has to be pumped up into them. The districts in Holland contaiaed between certain of these canals are called the polders, and each polder has a certain amount of machinery employed to drain it, and is governed and taxed in a systematical manner for the benefit of those whose lands are contained within its boundaries. 48 MODERN HUSBANDRY. The machinery employed in Holland for lifting the water into the canals consists generally of a windmiU and scoop-wheel. The Dutch have becotae very celebrated for the construction of these tvorks, and certainly some of the first-class miUs are very fine machines. The scoop-wheel which lifts the water is made similar to a water-wheel, but the floats or buckets are placed to act at a peculiar angle. This wheel is fitted into a chase of masonry, which it does accurately, without touching anywhere. Motion is communicated to it by the windmill, but the reverse way to that of a water- wheel; consequently the wheel in turning carries the water from the lower to the higher level with it, the angle at which the floats are placed allowing of its leaving the wheel the moment it has passed the upper sUl. AH over Holland may be seen these mills busily engaged in un- watering the land; and in Lincolnshire much of the country is - drained in a similar manner. As the power of the wind is exceedingly uncertain, and steam power is rendered so cheap by ingeniously arranged engines and machinery, the vrindmiUs have been in a great measure superseded by steam-engines, many large ones having been erected in diiferent portions of the fen counties. The first was put up by the late Mr. Eennie, for draining Bottisham fen, near Ely. Since then, an immense number of engines have been erected, many of them of great power, and driving scoop-wheels similarly large. The great lake of Haarlem, in HoUand, is drained by steam power, but differently applied, Messrs. Gibbs and Deane, the English engineers employed, after mature deliberation and experiment, having arrived at the conclusion that scoop-wheels were not so well adapted for lifting this immense body of water as properly designed pumps. They therefore constructed their engines in a different manner, causing them to work eleven pumps of 63 inches diameter, each capable of delivering at each stroke 6'02 tons of water, or 68'22 tons for the eleven pumps. An enormous tract of land of the richest possible description has thus been laid dry, and will weU repay the great outlay spent in bringing it into that desirable state. The cost of the first engine erected was 21,000/., and the necessary buildings and contingencies 15,000Z. ,• three engines of similar character were employed to drain the lake, and it is now quite dry. Since these engines were erected a variety of pumps of different kinds have been brought forward to supersede the scoop-wheel ; amongst these the class called centrifugal pumps have excited the most attention, more particularly the one known as Appold's pump. DRAINING. 49 Should it happen, however, that the farmer required a water-lifting machine on a small scale, to unwater a piece of land, or to procure the use of the water at particular times, I think the scoop-wheel is the best. I have seen this constructed in a complete manner to be worked with one horse, and a great saving of property has resulted from their occasional use in situations where little fall could be obtained, or where they were used to discharge water on to grass land. Such machines, of course, would be very small, and may be portable ; if large ones are required, then the civil engineer must be called in, and have his own way entirely. On many farms in low-lying countries, where the brooks which constitute the principal drains of the district are sluggish from having so little fall, a great difficulty wiU often be experienced in getting a fall for the main drains of the thorough-drained land. In all such cases it is of great importance to ascertain exactly what outfall you are entitled to — that is, at what fixed point you can keep the water at the point at which it leaves your property, and from which the datum line of levels for your drains must be taken. It will often be found that a proprietor below you has, for his own con- venience, or through his neglect, allowed a bar to accumulate in the brook, which bays the water back upon your land, or keeps it too high in the water courses. Tou should insist upon all such obstruc- tions being removed, and a clear way maintained for the passage of the water oflF your land. A case of this sort occurred to myself. An obstinate old gentleman, whose property adjoined the estate which I was draining, had, for the convenience of making a drinking pond for his stock, placed a row of hatches across the river, and raised the water by them to a considerably higher level in our ditches ; the consequence was that the lands lying very flat, no faU could be obtained for the- tile- drains, or even any outfall for those that were laid in the fields. After some time I got the hatches removed ; but the sill was still a great obstruction, and had not the old gentleman's estate also come into my hands, which enabled me to clear away aU impediments, no efficient drainage could have been made on the first-mentioned lands without lifting the water by artificial means. I think, therefore, that in all such cases the question should be settled by placing a wooden siU across the water-course at the outfaU, level with the bottom, so that if the water is bayed back from any cause whatever it may instantly be observed. AU the levels for the drainage of the estate should date from this point, and the bed of all drains gradually ascend at a gradient determined on. 50 MODERN HUSBANDRY. A Tery small fall, if made the most of by carefully laying out tte draias, may be sufficient to drain a large farm, while the same fell will be used up aiid lost, if allowed to be regulated by the eye of the workman, before he has got across the first field. Accurate levelling is the soul of good draining, and yet it is a point almost entirely neglected. Water-mills are a great curse to many districts, from their baying back the water and destroying the drainage above. I have seen many extensive districts of fine land rendered rushy, swampy, poor and insalubrious, merely to supply water to some trumpery little corn-mill, and the natural drainage of the country entirely destroyed. The niiUers often make matters worse by placing across the siUs of their weirs an extra piece of timber to raise the head of water above its proper level ; so that in times when they are short of water, this extra head may accumulate when any little rain occurs, or in the night, and then they will work it down in the day. This plan may be very good for the miller, but it is very bad for his neighbours the farmers up stream, because he pens the water up their ditches, and consequently there not being sufficient fall, the subsidiary drainage is sluggish, and favours the deposit of all matters the water contains in them ; weeds are thus encouraged, the drains and ditches choked, and the farmer put to great inconvenience and expense to benefit the miller, whom I consider, in an agricultural point of view, to be a nuisance, by making dams across rivers that should run from their source to the sea without interruption. Immense benefit would be derived by the farmers if the mill weirs were destroyed, as they would be able to convey the water over their land, and irrigate to a great extent, which they cannot do now, having no fell to get a drainage ; for it is no use irrigating unless you keep a good drain open to carry the water off after it has done its work. If the beds of the rivers were low, a water power would often be obtained on the farm by collecting the drainage water to turn a wheel. This can rarely be done now, the outfall being at too high a level. The second way in which the land may be seriously injured so as to be utterly unable to carry crops, -although not actually under water, is when water rises to the surface from the subsoil by the pressure upon it, caused by its source being at a higher level in a distant place. Springs are thus produced where the water finds an outlet, and if it be confined to one small opining, and a considerable supply is maintained, a simple and harmless rill of water is produced, which, should. the water be of good quality, instead of doing harm, may be turned to good account ; but if, on the contrary,, the upper DRAINING. 51 soil is of an absorbent cbaracfcer, the water rises upwards through a large space, and boggy springy ground is produced, upon which none but the coarsest aquatic grasses and other plants flourish, utterly unfit for the food of stock, and the ground is rendered incapable of nourishing and supporting the growth of such plants as would be proper to be cultivated. A large quantity of land is thus circumstanced in many parts of England, more particularly in the neighbourhood of districts of sand or gravel; there the water from the clouds falling upon porous materials quickly finds its way to a depth where it is stopped by some stratum of clay or impermeable material; it then passes to the surface of the nearest land, forced there by a pressure equal to the height of the column through which it had previously descended. About the year 1764, attention was called to a plan of draining discovered by a farmer in "Warwickshire, named Joseph Elkington. This gentleman accidentally discovered the system of strata draining which bears his name, and which led to much useful and practical reform in the draining practices of the day. He was plagued with water to such a degree, that his sheep suffered severely from it, and while digging an unusually deep trench in hope of carrying some pf the water off, he happened to force a crow-bar four feet through the bottom of the trench, with a view of ascertaining the nature of the subsoil, and on puUiag it out was surprised to find the water gush up from below, and continue to flow in a copious stream. His observa- tions upon this led him to arrive at the conclusion, that the draining of subsoils or substrata may be readily and thoroughly effected by tapping with an auger or boring rod. His doctrine was worked into a regiilar system, and having been put to the test of experience was received as a great boon to agri- culture, and 1000?. was awarded to Mr. Elkington by Parliament as a reward for the service which his discovery conferred upon the kingdom ; but it was speedUy found to be altogether inapplicable to land which consists to a great depth of absorbent earths. The most simple form of it was merely tapping the water bearing stratum below, and allowing the water to ascend through the hole thus made, flow away by the ordinary drains by such arrangements and extensions as were made to render it applicable to drainage on a large scale, with extensive ramifications of main drafins, branch drains, and subordinate branch drains, which have been likened in parts and connexions to the figure of a fruit tree trained on a wall. Of course very much of the practice of Elkiugton has been super- seded by the later methods of deep draining ; there are, nevertheless, £ 2 52 MODERN HUSBANDRY, certain situations where boring is the most economical and effectual plan that can be adopted for providing an escape for the water from the substrata that contain it. "When tracts of land are affected by the rise of water from below, and travelling on in the direction of its fall, as many lands that have come under my notice are, it is best to lay down a series of inter- cepting drains, one below the other, not forming part of the thorough drainage (unless they be used as mains), but put on specially to bring out the subterranean water. The deeper these drains are laid or cut, the farther apart they may be placed, but as many sandy soilsi surcharged with water will not allow of pipes being put into them, or, of the slopes of open drains standing, it is necessary to place them at shallower depths ; but the rule must be to go as deep as the material they are laid in and the outfall will allow, always remembering that they should be cut across the line of draught, bending them into contour lines, if the nature of the ground is such as to require it ; they must be at right angles to the direction in which the water flows, and at such a distance apart that the bottom of one drain shall be level, or a little lower than the surface of the ground at the next, whether shallow and numerous, or deep and far between. ' "Where the soil is rocky, or may be composed of a variety of beds, the spring may be extracted by cutting a deep drain right up into it, and undermining it at its source, bringing it out to the surface in a smart rill of water, converting it to some useful purpose, perhaps, instead of its making a swamp over half a dozen acres. The third case in which I have mentioned land as suffering from the effect of too much wetness, is, that where the subsoil is of such an impervious character that the rain which has fallen from the clouds cannot find a passage through it, consequently the plant is unhealthy or dies from being surrounded with an element in which it is not its nature to grow. This is the ordinary situation in which growing crops are" placed, and to remove it is the object of that system called thorough drainage, and which is the department of the science of draining that more particularly concerns the practical farmer, as he generally executes it himself, and should always have a good knowledge of the best methods of performing it ; also of the number of drains necessary for a given piece of land, the best materials with which to make them, and the depths at which it is most advisable to lay the tiles or other materials that form the drain. "We wUl proceed then to describe these several divisions of the subject, in as detailed a manner as the limits of the book will allow. Laying out the courses of the drains is the first thing to be con- DKAINING. 53 sidered, and, we presume, of course, that the necessary outfall has been obtained, and the branch water-courses have been sunk to the proper depth as previously described. Considerable difference of opinion exists as to whether the drains should be laid out in the direction of the greatest fall, or transversely to the fall. The advocates of the former plan, and they are by far the most numerous, support their principle on the ground that the best way is that which will carry the water off quickest, and that the soil naturally percolates quickest in that direction, and, that a drain cut wp the piece alters the direction of the greatest fall, according to the steepness of the land. "W. Smith, of Deanston, a high authority upon the subject, says, that drains drawn across a steep, cut the strata or layers of sub- soil transversely, and as the stratification generally lies in sheets at an angle to the surface, the water passing in or between the strata, immediately below the bottom of one drain, nearly comes to the surface before reaching the next lower drain, but as water seeks the lowest level in all directions, if the strata be cut longitudinally by a drain directed down the steeps, the bottom of which cuts each stratum to the same distance from the surface, the water will flow into the drain at the intersecting point of each sheet or layer, on a level with the bottom of the drain, leaving one uniform depth of dry soil. An equally eminent authority, Mr. Gr. Stevens, a man of great learning and practical experience in every thing connected with drain- ing and irrigating, at page 103 of his work on those subjects, says, " a drain made across the slope or declivity of a field or any piece of land, will undoubtedly intercept more water than when it is carried straight up the bank or rising ground ; this principle holds good in every case, whether the drain be made to receive surface or subter- raneous water. Drains winding across the slope or declivity of a field, whatever their number or depth may be, their effect upon tenacious or impervious soils, substrata will be much greater than if they were made straight up and down the slope ; and when the soil is mixed with thin strata of fine sand, which is the case nine times out of ten, the effect vrill be increased in proportion, and accordingly a much less number will answer the purpose." Thus we have two equally eminent authorities stating opinions diametrically opposed to each other. Now, from my ovra practice and experiments that I have made, I am of opinion that, as a general rule, the drains should be laid across the line of draught, that is, diagonally across the field in the same manner as water furrows are cut but I admit that there must occasionally be situations where they 54 MODERN HUSBANDEY. are better laid rigW; up and down the slope, as in the case described by Mr. Smith, and in. the example quoted by Mr. Stevens, in "The Book of the Farm." I am quite certaiu that there are some situa- tions where one draiu laid diagonally across a slope wiU drain out twice as much water as one up and down of the same length, and certainly the quantity of water you get out is the true measure of efficiency, but I think the question can only be decided when the peculiar circumstances of the field to be drained are ascertained. A much more inportant point than the coiurse the drain is laid, whether up and down, or across the field, is the depth drains shall be cut, which wiU, in many cases, regulate the distance they should be apart. About shallow and deep draining there has been much discus- sion, and equally eminent authorities enforcing their particular theories with equally plausible reasons, but the balance of opinion is decidedly in favour of draining deep. Much of the land that was first drained requires re-doing, in consequence of the tiles lying so near the surface ; in fact, I have seen in many places the ordinary plough lay the tiles bare, and frequently, when I have suggested the use of the subsoil plough, I have been told, it could not be used in consequence of the drain-tiles being so near the surface. Three feet I consider to be the minimum depth at which the tiles should be laid, and the width between them will vary according to the nature of the soil, from 60 to 15 ft. apart. Before deciding upon the depth at which drains shall be made, it is necessary to dig holes pretty close together at right angles to an open cut, which is to contain the main drain, then ascertain at what height the water stands in each hole. A section will thus be obtained as shown in Pig. 3, which will exhibit what is called the drawing power of the drain, but which really shows the amount of resistance the soil opposes to the descent of the water. A and B are the two drains, C is the centre hole mid-way between these cuts, and the line D E shows the draught of the drains B B ; if it is decided that the water should stand at 30 in. in the centre hole then it is evident that the drains A and B must be deepened to the dotted line F, or else the drains must be cut at the same depth and DRAINING. 00 closer together, as sbown at C C. This principle must guide the judg- ment entirely in laying drains as to depth or nearness, for the sectional lines E T> and F T will always be obtainable in whatcTer description of soil is being drained, on however large a scale it is applied, and I may mention ia proof of this, that in the last year I have had occasion to make a very extensive series of levels of all the great chalk valleys, and by measuring the water-line in the weUs from the bottom to the top of the vaUeys a regular water-line is produced, showing a fall of 20 ft. per mUe, which gives the resistance this peculiar stratum offers to the drawing-power of its outlets in the deep valleys with which it abounds, precisely as the drain and test-holes do on a small scale. The great advocate for deep drainage is Mr, Josiah Parks, the consulting engineer to the Eoyal Agricultural Society of England, and being a gentleman of great practical experience, everything he says upon the matter is entitled to the greatest consideration. In an article on draining in the Eoyal Agricultural Society's Journal, written by him, are the following remarks. " The earnestness with which I appeal to the landed proprietary of Britain, to drain more deeply and abandon the oft times abortive, and at all times incomplete, system of shallow drains, is derived from the indications of experience ; and to those well informed of the superior economy and efficiency of the deeper system it is painful to behold the sums of money daily buried in the sou with such good intentions, but with comparatively so little useful effect. " In respect, however, of the depth at which drains may vrith a certainty of action be placed in a soil, I pretend to assign no rule; for there cannot, in my opinion, be a more crude and mistaken idea than that one rule of depth is applicable with equal efficiency to soils of all kinds : the same remark applies in regard to assigning any common rule of distance between drains, which may be greater or less, according to the depth of the drains, and the texture of the particular soil. It must be self-evident that water will flow through a gravel, or sand, or a loam, with less obstruction to its passage than through a clay, and easier through one clay than through another containing different proportions of silica and alumina, There are also many other properties of soil to which the drainer has to pay attention in deter, miniag the depth and distance, such as tightness or compactness, uniformity or intermixture of soils of a different texture in the Une of his drains in the same field," &c. &c. All these circumstances vriU affect both his practice and the cost of the work : it consists with my own practice at the present time, that 66 MODEHN HTJSBAKDEY. drains Are being exectited at depths of from four to six feet deep, according to soil and outfall, and at distances varying from twenty to sixty-six feet; complete efficiency being the end studied, and the proof of such efficiency being that, after a due period given for bringing about drainage action in soils unused to it, the water should not stand higher, or much higher, in a hole dug in the middle between a pair of drains than the level of those drains. Of the formation offAeDwofe-'-Having decided on the direction of the courses of the drains, their distance apart, and the depth at which they shall be laid or formed, the next point will be the manner in which the duct shall be constructed ; we will, therefore, now pro- ceed to describe the several ordinary ways of making them. The most simple form of thorough drains is that called plug, or sough draining ; the former is done only on peculiar clay soils thus : on grass land you first mark out, with the spade, where the drains are to be ; then take off six inches deep, and place that on one side ; then take a spit out a foot deep, with a hollow spade or tool, and place that on the other, taking care to keep it wedge-shaped, or narrower at bottom than the top ; then take out another graft a foot deeper with the second tool, taking care to have the bottom of the drain to fit the blocks tolerably close. In the bottom of the wedge-shaped gripe-scut is then placed a row of blocks, shaped the same form as the bottom of the drain, and secured to each other by a chain and shackle ; on the top of these blocks is placed the piece of wedge- shaped clay, that had previously been cut out ; this is then rammed down on the top of' the blocks, which, having been previously well wetted, may, by means of a lever, be drawn forward, thus leaving a small tunnel in the clay; the last block is always left in the piece of work last done, so as to form a good junction. The whole of the opening made is then filled with the earth that had been pre- viously dug out. Saugh draining is when a piece of turf, or similar material, is rammed so as to form the top of the drain instead of clay. I should only recommend draining of land in this manner where tiles or stones were exceedingly difficult to procure, as it cannot be so good as either of the other plans ; although it is but fair to state that a large quantity of si^ch work has been executed in some districts, and that it answei-s much better than any one would ever imagine. Draining with Stones, or, as it is often called, Deanstonising. In this case a gripe is cut of the desired depth, and of a wedged shape, as in Pig. 5, which is afterwards partly filled with stones ; on the top DEAININ6. 57 of these is placed a sod to prevent any loose earth from getting down amongst them, and so choking up the drain. Various kinds of stone are used for draining-^large pebbles, flints collected off the land, broken boulders, or quarried stone. In the use of this material, for forming the ducts for draining, it is of importance to get all the stones, or pieces of stone, of one uniform size ; if collected off the land, about the size of a goose's egg is the best ; if the stone be quarried, then it must be broken into pieces not smaller than about two, or larger than four inches. A screen or harp should be used for separating them into their respective divisions ; and, to pre- vent any departure from this rule, it is best to have the stones all broken and screened before they are brought into the field ; for, as draining is generally done by piece-work, proper care in breaking and sorting is not likely to take place when it is done beside the drain and no one may be overlooking. When stone can be got cheaply of a laminated character, open ducts are sometimes formed, as shown in Pig. 6 ; and, in some eases, both large and small stone has been used, the large pieces placed on edge at bottom, and the broken pieces on top ; this is quite imneces- sary, as there are materials then buried that make twice the length of drain if more judiciously disposed of, Draming with Tiles. — The use of tiles for forming the ducts for thorough draining land is now becoming general, in fact it is super- seding all other plans, except where stones of suitable character may be got upon, or close to the land. The tiles are made of a variety of shapes and sizes, and different persons prefer tiles of peculiar shapes ; but the round-pipe tile is gradually taking precedence of all others. The annexed cuts show the sectional forms of those most commonly used. Fia. 4. ooQDAOQnn The first tiles used for draining land were of the shape shewn in No. 8, Kg. 4, and, as no machinery was then in use, it would have been difficult to have made them of any other; a flat piece of clay was bent over a saddle-shaped piece of wood, and the horse-shoe shaped tile formed ; a separate flat piece, similar to an ordinary plain tile, was first laid, and upon these the horse-shoe tile was placed, forming the drain complete, as shown in No. 4. 58 MODEEN HaSBANDEY. Machines for manufacturing tiles having been introduced, this form of tUe was generally manufactured complete, the sole forming part of it, as in No. 4. As the horse-shoe tile was often laid without soles, and was apt to crack and break at the lower edges, the additions shown in Nos. 9 and 5 have been given to it, which considerably strengthen and improve it ; and, as many prefer still to lay the tiles with separate soles, they are also made by machinery, two soles being made in one, and broken apart afterwards. FlQ. 5. Nos. 3, 6, 7, are various forms of tiles, each having its advo- cates, but the simple circular pipe-tile. No. 1, is considered far preferable to any of them, as being much cheaper to make and to lay, less liable to get broken, and the less likely to foul and stop. "When laid. No. 3 is, perhaps, the best form of tile, where a broader base is required than is obtained with the circular one. No. 2 shows a flat base, formed with circalar duct. This is doubtless an exceUent form of tUe. Mr. Stevens considers the best duct that can possibly be made is to use both stones and tiles, as in Kg. 8 ; width of sole, 7 inches ; width of top, 12 inches ; depth, 2^ feet ; composed of 18 inches earth, and 12 inches to top of stones. He considers a drain thus formed to be the ne plus ultra of the art of draining, and a perfect piece of work, " inasmuch as the duct formed of the tile and sole presents the smoothest passage imaginable for carrying off the water, and it is proof against the efforts of vermin ; whilst the stones not only secure the duct in its place, but impart durability to the whole structure, which, at the same time, presents an extensive area to the subsoil : what other property that a good drain should have does not this one possess ? " Since these remarks were written in the " Book of the 'Faxm " Mr. Stevens has published a separate treatise on draining, and in it DRAINING. 59 he adrocates the use of the pipe-tile in preference to any other form, and for the following excellent reasons : first, that they can be made cheaper than any others ; secondly, that the water finds its way into them quite as easily ; and thirdly, that, having once got in, it also finds its way out by the right road with equal facility that it could through any other form of duct. SCOOP "WHEEL IN THE NORFOLK MABSHES. CHAPTER IV. AQEICULTUEAL BUILDINGS. TsB offices and premises that form the steadings of most English farms (conducted upon the old style of agricultural practice) are generally of the most unsatisfactory character ; small, inconvenient, and unwholesome for the stock. This arises chiefly from the fact of their having been built at different periods, according to the whim of the tenant for the time being, and never having been constructed upon any fixed form of ground plan ; but generally a large barn has been first erected, and round this a few buildings are huddled together, without any reference to facility of carrying on the business of the steading. In Scotland an entirely different system has been adopted, and a set of premises is erected upon every farm, so arranged and fitted up that labour, food, and manure shall be economised, and the stock preserved in the most perfect health. As a motive power, a steam- engine is generally erected, and all the labour of thrashing the com, cutting the chaff, kibbling the beans, pumping water, and many other operations requiring power, are performed by it, the yards, courts, and byres are drained and' ventUated, the liquid manure all carried to a proper receptacle, and the whole place is preserved as orderly, and managed with as much exactness and regularity as a manufactory. This system is now making way in England, and new farmeries or steadings are rising up in every direction, planned, it is true, in every variety of form and dimensions, but generally the proprietor has but one object iu view, and that is to construct the most perfect farm that he can, and as each has his particular notion as to what he thinks best, variety is the principal result that is obtained ; and, although so many new farmeries are erected and called model farms, but very few can be considered as proper examples to be copied by others. AGEICTJLTUEAL BUILDINGS. 61 The design and construction of a steading is a very important matter, as it costs, under any circumstances, a large sum of money ; and as much of the business of the farm is carried on in it, its fitness for the objects for which it is erected is of great consequence ; for if it should be hx any part inconyenient, a loss of time, which is a loss of money, will for ever after be constantly occurring, and if it be made costly without enabling the tenant to carry on a proportionate business, too large a charge will be thrown upon him (for interest of money) upon such business as he may do. The greatest possible consideration should therefore be given to the preparation of the general plan and detail of the work before commencing ; we will now proceed to the description of the different buildings, their situation, form and construction, arranged under the different heads in the order in which they occur. CHOICE OF SITUATION UPON" WHICH TO ERECT THE STEADING, The first point to be considered is the best position for placing the steading. Now, theory would at once point out the centre of the farm ; but a variety of local circumstances may cause a departure from such a rule ; in fact, it will be i^early always determined by locality, and the only thing we can do is to lay down some few prin- ciples that may assist in determining it when any particular locality is given. The plot of ground upon which a steading is proposed to be erected should be thoroughly dry, naturally or artificially made so ; gravel and sand is best as subsoil on which it should stand, and it should be nearly level, or sloping gently towards the south. Ponds, swamps, or a sluggish river, should be avoided, while the means must exist for procuring a plentiful supply of good water, and obtaining an effectual drainage of all the premises and land abutting. If a railway station or canal wharf be in the vicinity, a ready access should be had to it, if not, a perfect communication should be had with the nearest turnpike-road. Should a fall of water exist upon the farm, of course advantage would be taken of it as a motive power, and the site of steading consequently would depend much upon it ; but even then an inconvenient spot in other respects should not be chosen, as the water may be conducted to the farmery, if not judicious to take it to the water. A plan has been lately introduced of carrying the liquid manure from the farm to the lands, by means of pipes laid underground, and having stand-cocks placed at convenient situations in and near the fields. If the steading can be so placed that the liquid manure will 62 MODERN HUSBANDEY. descend tkrougli these pipes by its own gravity, it would be a matter of considerable importance, as otherwise it would have to be forced through by a pump, as is now usually done. A system of farm railways has been of late much advocated, and many persons are adopting rails to facilitate the transfer of the dung and crops from the homestead to the land. In choosing the site upon which to place the steading, aU these points should be kept in view. An immense variety of forms of ground plans have been put forth, and by persons all equally well qualified to decide as to the convenience and judicious arrangement of the parts of the steading, yet all the plans differing much in their general arrangement. As it would be impossible, consistently with the dimensions of this book, to discuss the various forms that have been advocated, we must content ourselves with a few of those which seem to have found most favour, and to be the most generally applicable, for it must be borne in mind that no fixed form of ground plan wiU. do equally well for every description of farm, nor for every particular locality ; but as there are some general principles that apply equally to all, we will endeavour to place them before the reader so that they may be applied to the formation of a plan in the best manner, when the locality and the particular description of farm are given. The buildings and of&ces required on a large farm conducted on the mixed husbandry principle will consist of the following : — Eick-yord. Straw-yard. Thrasliing-bam. Granary. Stables. Fatteuing-sheds. Cow-byres. Sheep-sheds. Cattle-courts. Calf-pens. Piggery. Chaff-house. Boot-stores. Turnip-house. Washing-house. Boiling-house BoUer-house. Fuel-house. Engine-house. Implement-house Cart-lodge. Dung-house. Manure-house. Manure-tanks. Wool-room. Shepherd's-room. Poultry-house and yard Infirmary. Eammels. BuU's-hamniel. Dairy. CheeBe-room. Tool-house. Parmer's residence. Carpenter's shop. Smithy. To arrange these various offices in the best manner requires the most attentive consideration to be given to the manner in which the business carried on in them will be conducted in reference to each other, so that when the plan is completed, all those apartments having anything in common with each other, shall lie together, the rOEM OF PLAN. 63 parties employed in them not haying to waste their time in passing to and from diiferent offices distantly situated, nor heavy weights haying to be carried an inch further than there is a positive necessity for. As a railway is now added to most new farmeries, to facilitate the operations carried on in them, it becomes a matter of some importance to consider how that auxiliary may be made the most of, by having its whole length so contrived that aU the heavy work may be made light by its use, and to do this, it will be necessary to connect it together as much as possible, and with the smallest number of angles which would require turn-tables. In the example plan, page 65, this point has been especially attended to, and I think that in designing a ground plan of a steading, however small, a railway should always be laid out so that every head of stock may be reached by it, aud that the truck that runs on it may be able to receive its load at once from the depot, so that there be no changing or shifting of its contents. In arranging the site of the different buildings it wiU be necessary to keep this point constantly in view. The leading principle to be carried out is to make the passage of the straw (which is the bulky article) progressive from its arrival at the barn until it reaches the manure depot, never returning, or being unnecessarily carried about, which is too often the case. The straw bam, therefore, should be placed close to the rick-yard, so that after it has been thrashed, it may proceed to a receptacle from which it may be conveniently supplied to all the different courts, sheds, and hammels, that contain the stock, and the manure depots must be placed so that they may- receive it when it is removed from those offices as easily as it was previously supplied to them. The thrashing-barn should be placed between the rick-yard or corn-barn, and the apartment for the imthrashed straw, into which the thrashing machine should deliver it at once from the shakers. The granary should be so situated that the corn may be removed from the thrashing-bam with despatch and ease, and without sub- jecting the grain to the pUferiag of dishonest workpeople, or to any injury from inclement weather. The buildings that contain the stock must be so arranged that the food and litter may be conveyed to them without unnecessary carriage. They must not be crowded, or of too small dimensions, but must be thoroughly ventilated, while they are warm and sheltered, and with every convenience for maintaioing cleanliness and comfort to the stock. The yards and stock courts must be roomy and enclosed, well sheltered from the north and east, and be perfectly free from 64 MODEEN HUSBANDRY, draughts. The other offices should be placed each as near as possible to that department with which it is more particularly connected, while the whole should form large simple masses, enclosing areas of rectangular shapes. As few breaks, angles, and projections as possible should exist, as they increase the cost of construction, and waste the space which the steading should occupy. In the plans of the example steadings at pages 65, 66, all these objects have been carried out as far as possible, and while adopting only the leading features of them, a variety of steadings suitable to peculiar localities might be designed. The large Plate represents an isometrical view of a steading of the largest class, where all the operations are supposed to be carried on in the most systematic manner, and is arranged as nearly as it is possible to agree with the principles I have laid down as necessary to guide any party erecting a homestead of this class. The thrashing and straw bams are conveniently situated to the rick-yard, and receive the straw by means of a railway communication with it. The straw, barn, chaff-house, root-stores, meal-stores, and cooking- house, are centrically placed, so that the greatest facility is given for conveying the litter, fodder, and food, whether cooked or not, to every head of stock in the steading. Equal facilities also exist for removing the manure from the stable, bullock-sheds, and cattle-boxes. An open gangway passes by every head of stock, so that each one may be inspected at any moment of the day or night. Every description of animal has its particular lodging and yard fitted for the particularities required by its kind. The different classes of animals, as horses and fatting-stock, are separated, and have themselves no communication with each other, nor do they require those persons in attendance on each to leave the premises where their duties require them to be. Grossiping, meddling, and idling time is thus prevented, as well as many greater evils known to those who have had experience in the management of stock. Such facility of communication is given, that the principal, or his foreman, may inspect every animal and every apartment in the steading in a few minutes, by which all irregularities, neglect, robbery, and waste, may be prevented or diminished to a minimum. AU the machinery for thrashing, cleaning, grinding, bruising, breaking, &c. &c., is placed together, that it may be driven by the motive power, looked after with less difficulty, and be out of ISOMETRICAL VIEW OF A URGE CLASS FARM STEADING, Designed by G. Or. H. Ahdeews, C. E. 1. Apartment for stall-feeding sheep. 2. Stalls for oxen. 4. Accommodation for young stock. 6. Yards. 6. Loose boxes for oxen. 13. Boot stores. 14. Bottom floor of thraslung-miU. 15. Steam-engine. 16. Cooking-house. 22. Piggeries and calf-pens. , , . j 2V A passage on which a railway is laid ■ Sown that communicates with every part of the building. J. Bbooks, Jun. Deli. « For the description and reference to the ' remainder of the -figures, see p. 65. FOUM OF PLAN- 65 the reach of those who have no business with it in that part of the premises. The granary is over the thrashing and winnowing machine, so that the corn may be removed to it immediately it is separated from the straw and chaff. All the yards, cattle-boxes, and stalls, are drained into a liquid manure tank outside the premises. The dung-pit adjoins this, so that liquid manure may be pumped in if necessary. An infirmary for sick stock is placed outside the premises inacces- sible to the other animals. The plan is laid out for all buildings to have right angles, to avoid breaks and waste of space as much as possible ; to avoid all unnecessary walling, and to keep the external wall as much unbroken as possible, that the whole premises may be shut up, and intrusion of whatever kind prevented. REFERENCE TO FIGURES ON THE PLAN. 1 and 2. A double row of bullock fattening sheds with a passage and railway between for supplying the food, &c. 3. Yard, with dung-pit for receiving the manure from the bullock sheds and yards opposite. 4 4 4 Hammela and yards for young stock. 5. Yard and dung-pit the same as 3. 6. A row of boxes for fattening the largest kind of beasts, with railway and pasat^e at their heads. 7. Sheep-fattening sheds. 8. Meal-stores. 9. Oilcake-store, 10. Chaff-rooin. Above 7, S, 9, 10, is a straw bam which receives the straw direct from the thrashing- machine, and affords the greatest facility for supplying it afterwards to all the offices. 11 and 12. Loose boxes for horses. 13. Boot-stores. 14. The lowest floor of the thrashing bam. 15. The engiue-honse. 16. The cooking-house. 17. The boiler-house. 18 and 19. Store for roots. 20, 20, 21, 22, 23. Lodgings and yards for store and fattening hogs. 24. Yard. 25. Cart and wagon lodge. 26. Yard. ^ ^ - 27. A passage and railway extending from the stores and cooking-houae to every head ot stock on the steading. 28. Stables for working horses. 29. 30 and 31. Yards. 32. Manure pit over liquid manure tank. 33. Yard. 34. Infirmary for sick cattle. 35. Workshops. 36. Implement-house. 37. Nag stables. 38. Entrance from rick-yard. 39. Position of manure "^nk. 40. Entrance. Plate 6 represents the ground-plan of a steading of lesser size, 66 HODEEN HUSBANBEY. oooo oooo OiJOOOO oHoooo OEOnND PLAN OF A SIEADISQ. FOKM OF PLAN. 67 to accommodate the stock and produce of about 500 acres of land farmed high on the mixed husbandry plan. In this the buildings are arranged on three sides ot a large quadrangle. The thrashing-barn is in the centre of the north range, and con- tains all the thrashing, cleansing, and grinding machinery ; the granary is over head, and is similarly constructed, in every respect, to the former plan. An enlarged view of this is shown in Pig. 8. On the east side of the thrashing-mill is the barn for unthraahed straw, and on the west side is the barn for the reception of the straw after it has passed through the machine ; through these two bams is an open passage, with high doors on each side, to allow of the ' wagons laden with the unthrashed straw delivering their load at the feeding end of the machine, and, passing into the straw-yard, they turn round and arrive at the other end of it to receive a load of thrashed straw, which is then carried back to the rick-yard and re- stacked. As it is presumed, in this plan, that large covered depots of straw are not necessary, the two barns, a and b, are only con- structed large enough to contain one day's work of the machine ; one of these being filled when the weather is fine may be thrashed out when it is wet, or whenever straw is required for the purposes of the steading. Opposite the south side of the quadrangle, but at such a distance from it that the sun's rays are not excluded, is placed the farmer's residence, with all the necessary offices required in connection with it, placed round a small quadrangular yard, which has a covered passage running round it on every side ; great privacy and security are obtained by this plan. EEFEKENOB TO FIGURES. 1. An open yard. 2. Entrance. 3. i, 5 and 6. Boot-stores. 7. Yard and fuel-house. 8. Steam boiler, and root-washing and cooking-house. 9. Chaff-house. 10, 10. A shed for fattening oxen. 11, 11. liodgings and yards for hogs. 12, 13. A passage and railway for con- veying the food from the stores, &c. to the cooking-house and back to the stock. 14. Bam for unthraahed straw. 15. Thrashing bam, and thrashing- machine. 16. Engine-house. 17. Bam for thrashed straw. 18, 18, 18, 18. Cattle courts or straw-yards. 19. Covered sheds for stock. 20. Drinking-troughB. 21, 22. Liquid manure cesspool. 23. Carters' room. 24. 25. Working-horses' stable, 26a. Loose box. 26, 27. Wool-room. 28. Nag stable. 29. Gig-house. 30. Cart-lodge. 31. An infirmary for sick stock. 32. Store. 33. Smith's shop. 34. 35. Carpenter's shop. 36. A sheep shed or lambing-house. 37, 38. Wood-yard and saw-pit. 39. Yard. 40. Cart-lodge. 41. Midden. 42. Liquid manure tank. 43. Eoad. 44 to 54, Dwelling-house and offices. Eoad from rick-yard. BUILDINGS AND OEFICES 07 THE STEADING. 69 Kg.- 9, represents tbe elevation . of the thraaHng and store barns and ends of the cattle-sheds, being the external front of the north side of the steading. Kg. 7, represents the ground-plan of these buildings, sho\^ing the position of the thrashing machines, steam- engine, miUs, &c. rig. 9. NORTH ELEVATION. EEFBRENCE TO MGURES. 1. Shed. 2. Tumip-slicer. 3. Chaff-engine. 4. Chaff'-room. 5. Straw-yard. 6 and 7. Bams. 8. Engine-house. 9 and IQ. Mills. 11. Dressing-machine. 12. Smut-machine. 13. Thrashing floor, sack-traps, thra5h- ing-machiue, (fee. 14. Barley-hummeler. 15. Straw-barn. 16. Entrance. Pig. 8, i^epresents a section of the liae A b, showing the position of the vrinnowing and thrashing machines, with the granary above ; also the entrance and exit doors for the thrashed and unthrashed straw. A most excellent and complete steading was erected a few years since by Harold Littledale, Esq., from the designs of Mr! Torr, of Eiby, Lincolnshire. It has been much visited by noblemen and gentlemen, who all agree that it is the most perfect that they have hitherto seen. Pig. 10, represents the ground-plan of this steading, which is situated in Liscard, on the road from Liscard to Poulton-cum-Sea- combe. It contains extensive ranges of cattle feeding-sheds, stables, and piggeries, with thrashing barn, and all other necessary conveniences and appurtenances, as will be seen on reference to the figures. EEFEEBNCB TO FIGURES. 1. Compost-house. 19. Loose boxes. 2. Bull-house. 20, Grains. 3. Shippon for 16 cows. 21. Straw-house. 4. Ditto for 28 ditto. 22. Bam. 6. Ditto fur 32 ditto. 23, Engine-house. 24. Bo3er-house. 6. Manure tanks. 7. Gear-house. 8. Milk-horse stable. 26. Stable for 10 horses. 9. Pigs" food. 27. Cut chaff. 10. Piggeries. 28. Steaming-house for roots 11. Ducks. 29. Well. 12. Turkeys, geese, ttc. 30. Smithy. 18. Shed for pigs. 31. Carpenter's shop. 14. Shed'for poultry. 32. Chum-house. 16. Poultry-yard. 33. Cart-shed. 16- Potato-stores. 34. Drill-house. 17. Implement and root-shed. 35. Slaughter-house, 18. Calf-house. 86. Stack-yard. Tio. 10. MB. LITTLEDALS'S FARM STEADING. L^^ « « ■ - jTT-rn rri ^^ \ 1— T^"^^^^- BUILDINGS AND OFFICES OF THE STEADING. 71 Reference A. 1. Parlour. 2. Stores. 3. Office. 4. Living-room. 5. Scullery. 6. Dairy. 7. Curin|;-liouse. 8. Smokmg-house. 9. Privies. '10. Ashes. 11. Tubs, &c. 12. Oven and Boiler, Eefeeence B. 1. Living-room. 2. Pantry and stairs. 3. Kitchen. 4. Ashes. 5. Coals. Eefebence C. 1. Kitchen. 2. Parlour. 3. Sculleiy. 4. Coals. 5. Ashes. Upper Floor of Barn D. 1. Thrashing-machine. 2. Separator. 3. Hay-cutters. 4. Linseed-crusher, 5. Drying-kiln. 6. Granary. 7. Tank. Fig. 11 represents a steading designed by J. Ewart, Esq., and submitted' to the Eoyal Agricultural Society, in competition for a prize offered by them for the best Essay on Earm Steadings. It is of an entirely different form and plan to those I have hitherto described, and is considered by many to be a most judicious arrange- ment of the buildings. Plans, elevations, and details, will be found with it in the Society's journal, in connection with an immense Fig. 11. E 8 1 1 llllilll .7.6, B ff ■ 1 y 2 rTj A 1 1* 1 1 13 B - 11 - 10 o^lol 10 . 1 \A BEFERENCB TO FIGURES. 1. Bam of two stories. 2. Straw-barn or fodder-house with a granary above it on a second story. 3. Engine-room. 4. Shed for engine-boiler. 5. Stabling for 8 horses. 6. Two loose boxes for stallions, brood mares, or sick horses. 7. Receptacle for stable dung. 8. Shed for implements. 9. Turnip-house fitted with steam appa- ratus. The dotted lines show the manner in which the premises may be enlarged without altering the general arrangement. 10. Cattle lairs in a double range for fattening 12 beasts. 11. Cow-house for 8 cows. 12. A single range of cattle lairs for 13 13. Ditto for 8 beasts. 14. Calf-house. 15. Liquid manure tank. 16. Open yard, 30 feet wide. a. Watering trougb. 7% MODERN HUSBANDET. amount of information of the best kind, relative to tlie construction of farm buildings, by Sir J. Tancred, and several otter gentlemen. We vrill now proceed to a separate description of the different buildings and oifices in detail. JSarns. — These are the largest and most important buildings of the steading, although not constructed now nearly so large as formerly, when it was the custom to house the whole year's produce of the farm in them. The introduction of thrashing-machines has rendered these great barns unnecessary, as the corn may be stacked in the rick- yard and brought to them when wanted; and the machines thrash with such rapidity that the operation is performed before the corn can receive any injury from exposure, while, with the old plan of thrashing with the flail, months were required to do that which is now done in a single day. Some of the ancient barns were very fine buildings, and stood for many years, being built of such exdeUent materials, and in such a superior manner, and so large were they, that the rest of the buildings were generally mere lean-tos against them. As the thrashing and winnowing machines are placed in the thrashing barn, and as very considerable power is required to drive the former, it is necessary to construct the building that contains them of a sub- stantial character ; now, as this renders this building more expensive than is required for mere housing and fattening stock, I think it advisable to always construct it in an entirely different manner from the rest of the farmery, in fact, to build it in a similar manner to a corn-mill, and large enough to contain all the machinery that may be required in the steading, and also the granary in which the corn is to be stowed, and aU valuable commodities placed. If this building be constructed thoroughly well, all the other offices may be made as lightly and as cheaply as ingenuity can make them ; and, in the end, I think much money will be saved by the adoption of such a course ; and it should be always borne in mind in erecting machinery (and very much is now used in farmeries), that it is impossible to get the full advantage from it unless it works perfectly true and steady ; and it is impossible to make it work true for any length of time unless all the framing and carriages of it are properly secured and fixed to proper framing and founda- tions, and this can never be done in slightly-constructed buildings. I lay it down, therefore, as a rule, that one good and substantial building should be erected, and as much as possible of the machinery of the homestead be got into it, and that every attempt should then be made to cheapen the cost of the others. BUILDINGS AND OFFICES OF THE STEADING. 75 T"ig. 8 represents a section througli a thrashing barn constructed in the manner I propose. It is divided into tkree floors, the lower one on or below the ground level, the middle one supported on a stage, and -the upper one is formed in the roof. . The floor level of the stage floor b should be the same as the bottom of a vragon on the outside; so that the corn may be easily removed from whatever vehicle it is brought from the rick-yard in to the thrashing-machine, which is placed here. Against the wall of this division of the building may be placed a series of machines for crushing beans and oats, bruising oil-cake, &c., also a pair of mill- stones and a dressing-machine. A smutt-cleaner and barley-aveler should also be placed in convenient situations. Beneath this floor is placed the machinery for winnowing and cleaning corn, and the bins into which the materials fall that have passed through the machines bqfore alluded to. In the roof is placed the granary, the necessary headway being obtained by constructing the trusses that support the roof without tie-beams, and placing strong collars instead. The floor-line being three feet below_the wall-plate, and the underside of the collars three feet above it, this gives an uninterrupted space, with six feet head- way, and a commodious granary is obtained. Through the floors to the ground should be a sack passage, with proper hoist or tackle ; so that as soon as the corn leaves the winnowing machine, it may be sacked off and sent above, out of the reach of vermin or thieves. In the granary over the different machines may be placed hoppers, in which the material to be supplied to the machines below can be kept. Having myself constructed some very extensive and complete farm- buildings exactly upon this plan, and having had considerable experience in the use of them afterwards, I can testify to their answering in every respect the purpose intended. A section through these premises will be found at page 88 of my work on Agricultural Engineering, published by Mr. Weale of Holbom. The motive power, whether water or steam, should be placed con- veniently adjoining this building, and the shafting so conveyed that all the machines may work from it without much intermediate gear. In the front of the granary, next the rick-yard, must be a large door for receiving in the unthrashed straw, and opposite to it, at the other side of the building, another similar one, to allow for the pas- sage of the thrashed straw from the machine into the straw-barn. 74 MODERN HUSBANDEY. An aperture must also be made to allow of the air entering the lower apartment for winnowing. The Straw-ham is the receptacle for the straw after it has been thrashed, and it should be a roomy apartment, sufficient to hold a good supply for all the stock for some time. It should be placed so as to receire the straw direct from the machine, and also be so situated that the straw may be removed from it into the sheds, hammels, and yards without any unnecessary labour. This is an important point to be kept in view in arranging the situations of the different buildings. Straw-barns may be constructed of brick for about six feet of their height, and above that of lattice, or open sparred work. The Chaff-house should, if possible, be placed close to the thrashing and straw barns, so that the straw may be easily obtained, and that the machine for cutting the chaff may receive its motion from the motive power without the aid of long lay shafts. The wall of this apartment should be plastered, and a large window provided to allow of the exit of the dust that is apt to arise in cutting inferior hay, &c. ACCOMMODATIOSr FOR STOCK. On no portion of the business of the farmer should greater care and attention be bestowed than on everything relating to the breed- ing, rearing, and fattening of the stock, nor is anything more indi- cative of good farming than the quality, condition, cleanliness, and comfort of the animals on the farm. No good farmers like badly-bred animals ; and when they are well- bred it would be folly to keep them badly housed or fed, as they would soon lose from such treatment all the advantages their high- breeding gave them. AU buildings intended for the occupation of cattle should be thoroughly water-tight, and have no opening in them that will admit draughts ; nevertheless, they may be made for a considerable portion of open frame-work, should that plan be preferred : the objection is only to draughts, and not to a large quantity of air. The floor should be made of hard materials, that wUl absorb urine as little as possible, and the most perfect arrangements must exist for draining the premises. Should the buildings be close boarded, and intended to contain many animals, some efficient means must be provided for thoroughly ventilating the whole. The buildings required for the accommodation of the animals on a mixed husbandry farm, will consist of the stables for working horses and nags ; fattening sheds for bullocks, byres for BUILDINGS ANT) OFFICES OP THE STEADING. 75' cdwa ; sheds and peiia for calves ; piggeries, sheep sheds, and ham- mels for young stock and bulls ; also an infirmary for sick cattle ; yards for folding stock at night and in inclement weather ; and some small buildings for poultry, &c. The size and relative proportions of these buildings will of course depend upon the description of steading, whether for dairy, stock, or sheep farm. The Stables. — The way in which aU the business in a farm is carried on may be ascertained by a peep into the work-horse stable when the horses have returned from their work. If they are not good animals, in good condition, comfortably lodged and well tended, then depend upon it the land will be found foul and poor, and a low style of husbandry is the practice pursued ; for there is no good and well-managed farm that has not a well-ordered stable ; and I am sorry to say that they are seldom met with nevertheless, for the accommodation for these important animals is in all the old-fashioned steadings of the most wretched description : dark, dirty, and close, undrained, and without ventilation. Mr. Stevens says that it is distressing to inhale the air in most farm stables. " It is not only warm from confinement, moist from the evaporation of perspiration, and stifling from sudorific odours, but cutting to the breath, and pungent to the eyes, from the decomposition of the dung and urine by the heat." A good stable must be insisted on, either by altering the old one or building another ; for as the operations of the farm are so dependent upon the efficiency of the teams, it is impossible to farm well unless they are maintained in health and comfort. Stables should not be of less height than twelve feet, nor of less width than sixteen feet. This sixteen feet should be appropriated in the following manner : — ■ two feet for the manger, seven feet for length of stall, one foot for a drain at the horses' heels, four feet for a clear gangway for removing the manure, &o., and two feet for the projection of the tacks on which the harness is hung. A separate stall must be provided for " each horse by placing a travis between ; swinging bars never should be used as substitutes. The travis' should be seven feet at the tail- post and five feet at the head. The ramp-rail sill and posts should be of oak, the stall-boarding may be of deal. The manger should be of oak, but it is occasionally made of stone or cast-iron. Hacks are best of iron, but if the horses are fed entirely on chaff, as is now the general plan, no racks will be required ; small bars should be placed across the manger to prevent the horse routing the chaff and corn over the edge, which he wiU do if not prevented. The floor should be paved with some hard material, as little absorbent as possible,' 76 MODEEN HUSBANDKT. and slope from the horse's head towards the drain, about one inch in four feet ; if the fall be greater than that it is apt to cause an unneces- sary strain on the tendons of the hind legs, and a horse always prefers to stand on a level piece of ground when left to himself to choose. Behind each horse should be a small cesspool with an iron grating over it, and from these a pipe to convey the liquid manure to the tank. Ventilation of a stable is a most important point, and the only way to do it well is to construct hoppers in the roof with the bottoms covered vsdth perforated zinc ; by means of a flap placed on a hinge in the hopper, the amount of ventilation may be regulated. The fresh air must be admitted through air-bricks placed all round the stable above the horses' heads. These in winter will be suffi- cient, and in summer louver boards, in lieu of glass, in alternate divisions of the windows may be' opened, the point to be kept in view, being to allow of the entrance and exit of a large quantity of air, without causing a draught. Two air-bricks should be placed over each stall, and one hopper large enough to contain about 36 cubic feet of air for every eight horses. The stable door should be constructed in two halves, and be fitted with good latch, and lock and key ; adjoining the stable should be a small apartment for mixing the chaff and bruised corn, instead of keeping the corn in a chest. BOXES AND STALLS. Bullocks are fatted either in sheds divided into stalls or in loose boxes, each animal having one to itself. The practice of stall-feeding or soiling, as it is often called, is fast gaining ground in England; on the Continent, both in Switzerland and Manders, it has long been the common practice ; and there can be no doubt that the system is far superior to the old one of allowing the stock to remain exposed in a wet, uncomfortable straw-yard. All stock intended for the butcher are fatted with the greatest rapidity and with the largest profit when kept entirely in warm comfortable buildings. It is questionable even if sheep may not be more profitably fatted in such a manner, and the turnips brought to them, instead of folding them on the crops. In constructing buUock-sheds it is necessary to pay great attention to the following points : — 1st. That the lodging of the animals be dry, warm, and well ventilated (warmth is specially conducive of fat), and it is therefore necessary to preserve, as nearly as possible, equal temperature. BUILDINGS AND OFFICES OF THE STEADING. 77 2nd. That the arrangements for supplying food and litter to the animals, and also for removing the dung, be so contrived that the cattle-man have as little labour as possible, and consequently he will have more time to attend to grooming the animals. 3rd. That such arrangements be made for carrying off and preserv- ing the liquid manure, that not a drop will be wasted. 4th. It is by no means least important, that all this be done at the smallest possible cost, for such unnecessary sums have been spent in constructing model bullock-sheds, that no reasonable chance is left of getting a profit, if interest on their outlay is to be paid. In Kg. 8, is a transverse section of a shed, showing the accom- modation for one animal ; it can, of course be extended to any length, and the longer the sheds are made the better. Each bullock should have 5 feet of width to itself, and be secured to a stall-post by a chain at one end of which is a ring which slides up and down the post, and the other end secured to a strap fastened round the animal's throat. A space is raUed off between the wall of the shed and the animal's head ; along this, space a railway is laid, and upon this a truck runs in which the food of the animal is brought from the cooking-house, or other place. One man will properly attend to three times as many head of stock, when so housed, as he could if the animals inhabited small separate buildings. At the back of the animal is a drain running the length of the building, formed of brick, with an open top ; from side to side of this are placed small pieces of oak bored full of holes. The ground upon which the animal stands must be paved with a hard material — rammed chalk, clay, and smith's ashes, and pitched flints, all make good flooring for stalls. A sufficient faU must be provided to carry the liquid manure to the drain. Ventilation is provided for by having flaps to open in the sides of the shed close under the wall-plate, and above the animal's head through which the air may enter, and hoppers are placed on the roof (similar to those described for stables) for its exit. These buildings are often constructed of brick, about four feet from the ground, and above that close boarding. This plan is good if bricks are dear, and stone not got in the neighbourhood; but if such materials are to be had cheap, a building of masonry is preferable. Water should be laid on to a drinking-trough at the head of each animal. Having myself constructed bullock-sheds upon this plan, and having had also considerable experience iu using them, I can state of 78 MODERN HUSBANDRY. my own knowledge that they answer admirably the purpose for which they are required. Loose Boxes. — Many persons prefer boxes to stalls, but I know of no advantages that compensate for the increased outlay. Mr. Ewart, writing on box-feeding in the B. A. 8. Journal, says that he suggests that system as the best he ever witnessed or heard of, while Mr. Caird says that stall-feeding is superior to any other that ever came under his notice. Loose boxes are usually made about nine feet square, with the floor sunk about eighteen inches below the sill of the door, to allow for the accumulation of manure ; for animals fattening upon this plan have the litter- renefwed to them upoii the old, none being removed until the animal leave its dwelling to exchange it for the slaughter-house. The manure thus made, from being so compressed, is subject to little loss, and is in excellent condition when taken out. Those who have - not seen oxen fatted in this manner, may be apt to 'imagine that the box is a wet strong-smelling place, but this is not the case, the moisture being entirely taken up by the litter, and the continual treading and pressing prevents the opportunity for the evaporation of the volatile salts. Gow-hyres may be constructed in every way similar to bullock- sheds. The stall should be eight feet square for two cows. A travis is generally placed between each pair of animals, and in countries where stone or slate abounds a slab is made to answer the purpose, but I should decidedly recommend wood in preference to stone in all cases. The manger should be not lower than twenty inches from the floor of the stall ; it is very common to find a trough placed on the ground for a manger, but this is objectionable on account of the animal's head being required to be so much depressed when biting the turnips, &c. ; this causes an undue weight on the forelegs, and an injurious strain on the muscles of the lower jaw. The feeding arrangements had better be the same as described for buUocks, as the ordinary plans are not less expensive, and have disadvantages. Sheds for cows are often made so that two cows stand with their heads toward each other, and a pathway between them. This plan is objectionable, on account of the animals breathing upon each other, nor do they lie so quiet. If double rows are required, it is better to enclose the passage between by boarding above the mangers to above the height of the animal when standing up, and have openings covered with movable flaps, through which the food can be supplied. BUILDINGS AND OFFICES OF THE STEADING. 79 Cows may be secured in the same way as bullocks, with, chain or strap, or the bakie may be substituted. This is composed of a piece of hard wood, with two pieces of cord fastened at the top and lower end, the lower one by an eye spliced so that it freely slides up and down the post ; at the upper part there is a cord with an eye and knot, and is thus secured rouud the neck of the animal. It is not so good a plan as having a chain, which allows of the animal's turning its head to lick its body. Oalf-pens. — A portion of the cow-byre is generally fenced off for calves, or they are arranged at the back of the cows, and turned loose to suck at fit "intervals. Objections are sometimes urged against placing the calves in the same apartment as their mothers on account (it is said) of the cows being disturbed by the bleating of their young, but this is in practice really not the case. If calves are brought up by hand, a separate apartment must be provided, and each calf placed in a small crib, which should be not less than four feet square, and the fence about three feet six inches high, with small spars of wood. As a most offensive odour always exists in the apartment in which calves are kept, it is of great importance to have it thoroughly well ventilated, and the flooring of a non-absorbent material, as asphalte. The sparred-floored calf-pens of Gloucestershire are, perhaps, the best ever contrived ; they are thus described by Marshall, in his survey of the county : — " Young calves, fkttening calves more particularly, require to be kept narrowly confined ; quietness is in a degree essential to their thriving. A loose pen, or a long halter, gives freedom to their natural fears, and a loose to their playfulness. Cleanliness and a due degree of warmth are likewise requisite in the right management of calves. A pen which holds seven, or occasionally eight calves, is of the following description : The house or roomstead in which it is placed, measures twelve feet by eight ; four feet of its width are occupied by the stage, and one foot by a trough placed on its front, leaving three feet as a gangway, into the middle of which the door opens. The floor of the stage is formed with laths about two inches square, lying the long way of the stage, and one inch asunder. The front fence is of staves an inch and a half in diameter, nine inches from middle to middle, and three feet high, entered at the bottom into the front bearer of the floor, (from which cross joists pass into the back wall,) and steadied at the top by a rail, which, as well as the bottom piece, is entered at each end into the end walls. The holes in the upper rails are wide enough to permit the staves to be hfted up, and 80 MODERN HTJSBANDET. taken out to give admission to the calves., one of wliicli is fastened to every second stave by means of two rings of iron joiiied by a swivel, one ring playing upon the stave, the other receiving a broad leathern collar, budded round the neck of the calf. The trough is for barley- meal, chalk, &c., and to rest the pails on. Two calves drink out of one pail, putting their heads through between the staves. " The height of the floor of the stage from the floor of the room is about one foot ; it is thought to be wrong to hang it higher, lest by the wind drawing under it, the calves should be too cold in severe weather ; this, however, might be easily prevented by litter or long strawey dung thrust beneath it. It is observable that these stages are fit only for calves that are fed with the pail, not for calves which suck the cow." Cattle-courts, or, as they are generally called, straw-yards, are simply the enclosures into which stock are turned in the winter, when nothing is to be got from the land. The straw-yard is usually the area enclosed by the buildings of the steadiag, and a fence ; and nearly always, is as wet and un- comfortable a place as can be imagined, when it ought to be warm, well sheltered, and dry, as it is for the sake of warmth and shelter that the animals are placed in it. It is in this place, too, that the great bulk of the manure is made ; and one would think that ordinary pains would be used to preserve the quality and quantity of that upon which the success of the agricul- tural operations is mainly to depend ; but this is not the case, for these straw-yards will seldom be found paved or drained, and no provision made either to carry the water, which falls upon the buildings clear of the yard, or carry the liquid manure, which drains from the dung, into some place where it may be found when required. But ^ instead, the rain-water is allowed to saturate the dung and wash out all its virtue, and then a drain is made at the lowest place, through which this valuable fertilising material finds its way to an adjoining brook, though most likely in its course it has first made filthy the drinking pond for the cattle. The old-fashioned straw-yard, such as I have described, is not now used ; but instead, small enclosures adapted to the different sorts of stock. These yards should be all pro- perly paved, and slope towards the centre, where there should be an iron gratiag, and beneath it a small cesspool, and from this a pipe to conduct the liquid manure to the general tank. If the straw-yards are bounded by the stables, byres, &c., a raised foot-path should run round, and be protected from the muck by a curb. BUILDINGS. 81 This footpath should always be kept clean, that facility be given for inspecting every part of the premises, and carrying on the business of the steading without being up to one's middle in the muck. Pold-yards should, if possible, be enclosed on the north-east and west sides. If they are large, a building should be erected in the centre, in which the animals may take shelter when they please. In most Scotch steadings the cattle are lodged in hammels, which are small buildings having little yards attached; the animals then occupying the yard or building as they please. THE PIGGERY. Pigs, like all other stock, will well repay extra care and atten- tion, and proper lodgings and yards are as necessary for their weU-being as to any other animals ; but because they may be some-,, times found in a state of extreme filth and wretchednebs, it is pre^i. sumed that the hog is naturally a dirty animal, and that he may be- lodged anyhow. This is a mistake, for I have had considerable experience with this class of stock, and believe, from what I have observed, that the pig is an extremely clean animal, and, moreover, that he will fat a great deal faster,and be better meat,if maintained in cleanliness and comfort, than when allowed to grow in the filthy state in which he is so often found. Hog-sties should not be too large, and should be open to the south ; they should always consist of two parts, the lodging and the yard. The lodging should be a well-enclosed and warm apartment, with the floor slightly raised above the level of the yard. If the lodging be occasionally cleaned out, and fresh straw liberally supplied, th^ pig win never dirty it, which proves his inclination to cleanliness. The yards should be placed so that the manure may be easily removed to the mixens, and they should be securely paved, or the animals vnll rout up, and destroy the premises ; the fence should be stout, and wrought flush, or be a brick wall. In Kg. 6 the piggery is constructed in a much more roomy manner than is usual for such buildings, it being of the same width as the buUock fatting sheds, and with transverse divisions, so that each compartment should contain about twelve hogs ; along the back of the lodgings of the animals exi?t the same arrangements for feeding as to the bullock shed, viz., a truck and railway. Por supplying food, the apparatus known as Terr's pig-trough is placed in the fence ; but I copied the contrivance from the model farmery in Bagshot park, which was erected by his royal highness the late Duke of Gloucester many years since. It consists of 82 MODEHN HUSBANDRY. a circular trough, having a moveable flap suspended over its centre. "When the food is being placed in the trough, the flap is pushed to the side next the hogs; and when full it is -withdrawn to- wards the gangway, and then forms a back to the trough, which prevents any waste of food. These troughs are now manufactured by Mr. CrosskUl, and are most extensively used. Feeding animals in their lodging will no doubt be objected to by many ; I can only say that I have tried it for a considerable period, and find no inconvenience whatever from it ; nor do I believe that any will occur, provided that a liberal supply of dry fresh litter is supplied, and that cleanliness and regularity are maintaiued in all the arrangements connected with this stock. SHEEP SHEDS. Sir Eichard Simeon, Bart., at his farm in the Isle of Wight, has endeavoured to carry out the same system in feeding sheep that has been practised with oxen, that is, feeding them in stalls, considering that the comforts the animal obtains from that system might be as beneficial to the one animal as the other ; and it is quite certain that warmth and dry lodging are as conducive to the quick fattening of a sheep as of an ox. Buildings were therefore erected and divided into a number of small stalls, each animal chained up separately, like bullocks ; the fioor constructed of hard materials, and the manure raked away periodically, so as to keep the animals quite clean. Mr. Mechi and Mr. Huxtable both feed sheep in covered buildings, but adopt the sparred-floor plan ; others have had small buildings made with the floors below the level of the ground, similar to loose boxes for oxen, the dung remaining there until the sheep left the place ; the advantage said to be gained by this latter plan is that the sheep have full room to move about. This latter plan I like less than the otliers, and something partaking of all three seems to me to be better than any ; that is, to have a large, roomy, well-paved, drained and ventilated shed,in which the sheep lie down whenever they like, and receive their food in troughs and cages as if they were in a field. I have tried this plan, and can speak from experience as to sheep fattening much more rapidly than when exposed to all sorts of weather in a field. When sheep are confined in sheds (of whatever description) the dung is of greatly increased value, and is drilled on under the seed. On wet farms I should recommend a sparred-floored shed in prefer^ ence to any other, into which the sheep should be driven at night. This gives the feet of the animals a better opportunity of getting thoroughly dry than could be had by any other means. BUILDINGS. 83 A Tjambing-'house should exist on every farm ; it may be merely an ordinary shed, or a similar one to such as we have described for sheep. Hammels are small open-fronted buildings, with little yards attached, in which one or more animals are confined. In the Scotch steadings most of the animals are thus lodged, but the plan is very expensive, and should only be used for particular classes of stock, and be much larger than they are usually made. Bulls' Sammels. — These are constructed in a similar manner to the others, and must of course exist in every steading where bulls are kept. The Chqff'-house must be a good roomy apartment, with plastered walls and a large window, to allow of the escape of the dust that arises when inferior materials are being cut. If it be placed above stables, or any other cattle lodgings, the floor should be ploughed •and tongued, to prevent any dust getting through. The position of the apartment must be such that it receive the motion from the motive power for the chaff engine, without unne- cessary length of shafting, that the material to be cut can be con- veyed to it with facility, and that the cut chaff can be supplied to all the animals in the steading that require it, without its having to be carried any necessary distance. Implement-house. — So few implements were formerly used on the farm that no buUding or apartment specially appropriated for con- taining them was necessary j they were of little value, and so allowed to lie about in the corners of the fields where last used. The machinery and implements now used by the farmer approach more nearly to those used by the regular manufacturer. They are con- structed of the best materials, and many of them have iutricate and complicated parts ; these, if treated in the manner we have described, would in a very short time be utterly useless for the purpose for which they were constructed, and all of them would, if neglected, subject their owner to an annual heavy charge for repairs. An implement-house, therefore, must be considered as necessary as a stable. It should be large enough to contain all the implements of the farm, and be thoroughly wind and water tight. A hard paved floor is the. best, and the walls and ceiling should be plastered, and whitewashed once in every year. ^ A closet, with window, should be partitioned off in one comer, and in this the foreman should keep all extra parts of the implements, as tines, ducks'-feet, ploughshares, chaff-knives, ropes, tackle, paint, tar, Ac. o 2 84 MODEEN HTJSBANDEY. Shelves stould be placed on the waUs of the implement-house, on which should he arranged the moveable parts of the machines. In a loft over this apartment may be put all the ladders, poles, sheep-troughs, cages, &c. The Cart-house may be formed as a lean-to against some other building. It should be enclosed on three sides, and quite water- tight. The Bung-house. — In many modern steadings a receptacle for dung has been constructed, roofed over. I do not think there is any necessity for roofing a dung-pit ; but that a proper place should be constructed, into which the dung may be put, cannot be for a moment doubted. The old plan of allowing the dung to remain lying in the yards for a long time in a thin layer is most absurd, as the ammonia, which is its most valuable element, and which passes off at a very low temperature, must be in a great measure lost. Every effort, therefore, should be made for economising and pre- serving manure. It has not been done hitherto, chiefly because farmers were not aware of the loss they were sustaining, being ignorant of the chemical constituents of tlie manure ; but as this is no longer the case, I presume no farmer wiU object to constructing a proper receptacle for dung. A sunk pit I conceive to be the best, and so arranged that the carts may draw up an inclined plane at the ends. If made four feet in the deepest place, and the dung hea,ped up four feet above the level of the ground, a solid heap of eight feet thickness will be formed, and the manure so disposed will not be subject to any appreciable loss, if it be always kept even and in an orderly manner. Liquid Manure Tanks. — If it is possible to find any persons who object to the dung-house, there can surely be none who would not provide a liquid manure tank in every new steading. The reckless waste that has taken place hitherto, and still takes place in the article of liquid manure, is most astonishing. Many tons of the most valuable fertilising material are annually allowed to run to waste, and perhaps on the very farm where this takes place a large amount of manure fetched from the other side of the world is consumed, and a very high price paid for it, while by the farmer's own door there is a little stream running into the adjoining brook, carrying off the farm exactly the same material he is at so much cost and trouble in bringing on to it. In no shape can manure be so judiciously applied as in the liquid state ; for it must be remembered always that plants can only receive their nourishment in a liquid state, and every substance that is BUILDINGS. 85 mixed with the soil as manure must be dissolved, and form a chemical combination with water before the organs of the roots can receive it. Liquid manure tanks may be constructed of any shape. A circular well of brick, laid in cement and lined with cement, is a^ good as any. If it is constructed in a stiff clay soil, a strong puddle round it will prevent soakage. The top of the tank should be covered with planking, of oak or elm slabs, or if large it is better to dome it over, and have a stone with a ring to put in the aperture left in the top. A liquid manure pump should be placed at the side of the tank for filling the carts. As every new homestead will be provided with some fixed motive power, it would be wise to make this power pump the liquid manure to a sufficient height to fiU the carts at least, and if possible to carry it to the land. Mr. Huxtable and others have adopted the plan of forcing the liquid manure by means of force-pumps to the fields, and it is there laid on as it is required by means of hose and branches, or spreaders. The results of the working of this plan are extremely satisfactory, and the cost is not such as to deter others from imitating their example. I have no doubt but that the plan will become general, as the power to force the liquid to the lands by the steam-engine is quite trifling when compared with carrying it in carts. The great outlay is in the mains for carrying it from the homestead to the land ; but doubtless some cheap description of pipe will soon be manufac- tured, and then no farm suitable but will be supplied with the neces- sary arrangements, and not only wiU the liquid manure made in the steading be used, but other manures purchased and mixed with water wiU be forced through the pipes, their economical distribution being ensured by such means in a much greater degree than by any other method of applying them to the land. Coohing-Twuse, Sfc. — The cooking-house, or, as it is generally called^ the boiler-house, should be a substantial building, containing aU the apparatus for cooking the food of the stock. It should have a paved floor, plastered walls, a good window, and a hopper, or ventilator above for letting out the steam. It should be so placed that the cooked food may be conveyed to the stock with facility. If a railway is made to convey the food to the animals, certainly it should be made to come up to the cooking-house, so that the food may be at once supplied to the trucks. An oven is often constructed in this building for cooking potatos, and great advantages are said to be derived from feeding hogs with potatos baked instead of boiled ; and I have no 86 MODEKN HUSBANDRY. doubt but that it Is so, as baking is tbe only true way to cook potatos, there being an acrid juice in the skins, and slightly in the potato itself, that cannot be got rid of in any other way. Adjoining the' boiling-house should be an apartment where the roots are placed when they are brought from the root stores, and in this should be an unlimited supply of water, and the necessary apparatus for washing the roots. It should have a hard paved floor, and a drain and sink. It is a very common thing to see the turnips and other roots that the stock have ia their feeding-troughs covered with dirt, and also to see the potatos boiling for the hogs in an equally filthy state. Now nothing that I know of wiU more certainly indicate slovenly manage- ment on the entire farm than such practices. All food should be given to the stock quite clean and in a sound state. The Ihiel-house should be adjoining the cooking-house, and be so placed that the boiler for generating steam to supply the ejigine may be supplied with fuel from the same source. Root Stores are important because a large amount of food must be preserved for the stock during winter, and upon the keeping this ia a proper state will depend much the successful fattening operations of the season ; for if the roots, &c., be not properly preserved, a large amount of valuable food will be wasted, and the stock will not be so much benefited by the consumption of it as they ought to be. The buildings for storing roots must be perfectly dry, and well protected from frost, yet not be made close and without ventilation, as the roots win soon take to growing and also rot quickly. If the soil be gravelly and sandy, the floors may be sunk three feet below the level of the ground. They should be placed in situations where they may be easily conveyed to the washing-house coppers, &c. The turnip cutting machine may be placed in the root washing house, or in a small building adjoining ; it consumes but little power to cut turnips, so that it is not necessary to work it from the motive power. The Manure Souse. — As such a large quantity of artificial manure is now used on some farms, and as this is very valuable, it is necessary to have some proper receptacle for it, where it may be kept securely, and weighed, measured, and mixed, as occasion may require; it shoidd have a paved floor, and be provided with scales, &c. The Ungi/ne House should be a small apartment specially appro- priated to the steam-engine ; it shoidd be well built, and paved and plastered inside. The foreman should keep the key when the engine is not in use, and no labourers or other persons be sufiered to enter. BUILDINGS. 87 •who have no business there. This is a very necessary precaution, aa I know from personal experience. The Boiler House, in which is placed the boiler for generating steam for the engine, may be placed in any convenient situation, as it is not necessary to have the engine and boiler together ; for if the steam pipe be properly packed, no loss of heat will take place. It might be arranged on large steadings to employ the boiler for sup, plying steam to cook the roots, chaff, &c. Smith's and Gm-penter's Shops are found necessary on some large steadings, and on a very moderate sized one it is worth while to have a workshop that can be applied to any purpose, and in which a drill or other implement may receive attention without being sent perhaps a dozen miles to receive some trifling repair. A small portable forge should also be kept on the premises for shoeing horses, and a stock of shoes kept made to pattern exactly to fit the horse's foot ; and if a smith be not constantly employed, the man who shoes the horses can as well come to the farm to do the work as have the horses put to the unnecessary loss of time in going to him, if they go in the work hours, and the equally unneces- sary labour if they go when they ought to be said to have done work. The Wool Boom. — This is the place for packing and weighing the fleeces and storing the wool ; it requires to have the floor planed smooth and the walls to be plastered with hair plaster. Three strong beams are usually placed across the wool room, one of them for hanging the beam of the scales on, and the other for supporting the two ends of the line when packing the wool into the canvass bags, or packs as they are called. The door should be large to allow for the exit of the packs, about six feet in length and four feet six inches in width. The window must be provided with a shutter to exclude the light when necessary. The Shepherd's Store is a place where the shepherd keeps any little matters he requires in connection with his department ; and the tar, ruddle, &c., also his medicines. Cattle Infirma/ry. — In constructing any new farmery, where much stock is to be kept, it certainly is necessary to arrange some part of it as an infirmary for sick animals. Most severe losses have fallen on farmers of late years from the death of their stock from a variety of diseases, but more especially pleuronomia. I have myself suffered much from this cause, and have seen the stock die off day after day without any known means, when applied, being able to save them. As some of these diseases are certainly infectious, it is of the first importance that immediately the oo MODERN HUSBANDRY. animal is observed to be attacked, it be removed to some place quite separate from tbe rest of the stock. A couple of loose boxes, with, small yards attached, a sty for hogs, and a small pen with shed, for sheep, are sufficient for the purpose, and these should be placed in such a position that the manure that is removed from them goes at once to the mixen, and is not trodden upon by the other stock ; in fact no other animal ought to touch a sick one nor anything it may have touched. The sheds should be lined with flush boards, and the ceiling plastered, the floor paved with some non-absorbent material, and the whole place be kept constantly lime-whited ; and this should be done afresh every time stock are removed fro^a it. Some means should also, if possible, be taken to get a little extra warmth if necessary. A supply of water should also be laid on that there be no need of stint in that respect when it is required, and also to insure the greatest possible cleanliness by continual washing of the floors and everything the animals touch. Of course the most perfect ventilation must exist in premises intended for this purpose ; all mangers, troughs, &c., should be of iron. The Dairy is, on farms where many cows are kept, a most important part of the establishment, as the converting the milk into butter and cheese is a very nice operation, requiring great care and attention ; for the quality of the dairy produce depends almost as much upon those who superintend its manufacture as it does on the quality of the milk ; and the dairy itself should be a place thoroughly well adapted to its purpose, for if it is not, no matter what the quality of the milk or the skUl of the dairy-maid, neither good butter nor cheese can be produced. Milk is exceedingly liable to be affected by a variety of causes, more especially from the smell arising from any decomposing matter ; consequently the most fastidious cleanliness must be observed. The maintaining an even temperature is a point of great importance, the intense cold of winter being equally injurious with the excessive heat of summer. On small farms the dairy is only an apartment in or attached to the house ; but where a large quantity of butter or cheese is manu- factured, a separate building is constructed, and thus arranged : — On the ground floor is placed an apartment in which the milk is kept, and adjoining it a room for scouring and cleansing all the dairy utensils, and another where the cheese presses are placed, or the churns worked. Above are arranged the cheese rooms fitted with racks and shelves : on these the cheeses are stowed in such a manner as to be easily turned, such practice being necessary to their well-being. In some large Flemish dairies a cooperage is attached to the dairy BUILDINGS. touse, and the ctum is worked by a horse- wheel. Whatever descrip- tion of dairy is constructed, there are some leading points equally applicable to all. It should be placed on a porous soil and in a sheltered situation, more particularly from the north and east winds. The room in which the milk is kept should be liaed with some hard material, as Dutch tUes, Keene's cement or glass. The floor should be sunk about three feet below the level of the ground, and paved with some cheap description of marble, slate. Or similar material. The floor is to be laid with a regular slope towards a drain, which should have a trap affixed to it to prevent the escape of any gases back into the apartment. The shelves should run round the room on three sides, and be of polished marble, slate, or glass. "Wood is not so good, but if it is used it should be either beech or plane tree. Both ceiling and walls should be plastered smooth, if not covered as I have described. The window should be covered with fly gauze and be fitted with Venetian bUnds and shutters opening outwards. A plentiful supply of water is very necessary to the dairy, as tending to promote that cleanliness we have before mentioned as being so important. A lean-to shed is useful outside the scalding room, where the various utensils may be placed to dry upon benches. Poultry-houses. — Eegularly constructed buildings are rarely to be met with for keeping poultry in farm-steadings. Poultry is generally looked upon as unworthy of notice on the part of the farmer, con- sequently only a few chickens and other descriptions of this stock are to be met with, and these are entirely in the hands of the mistress of the establishment. It is a question, however, whether fowls of all kinds might not be propagated and fatted with great profit ; enormous quantities of eggs and poultry are now being brought into this country from the con- tinent, and it is said with considerable advantage to those who produce them, although they have no greater facilities than those who here despise them and think them unprofitable. Poultry-houses need be only small buildings having yards attached, and provided with boxes and perches inside. The boxes are for the hens to lay in : they should be placed low down, and be made snug and comfortable, as the hens wiU lay and sit better if they are in retired and quiet situations. All buildings for poultry should open to the south-east or east, as it is of importance that they should have the first of the morning sun. Each description of birds should have separate yards and houses to themselves. The aquatic birds must be provided witfe small ponds. '? "t i^'l fI t*'-f . FRONT ELEVATIOIf. -j^''^ [.■^^^^i^'?^;^4^^^i»=^' BUILDINGS. 91 The whole must be well paved, drained, and ventilated, and arti- ficially warmed in winter, if necessary, and also made thoroughly inaccessible to vermin, as foxes and cats. The excessive heat of summer must be as carefully excluded as the sharp frosts of wiater. THE PARMER'S RESIDENCE. This will entirely depend on the size of the farm, and the amount of capital embarked in it. If the farm be of greater extent than 200 or 250 acres of arable land, and the whole be highly farmed, the dwelliag-house of the farmer need form no part of the steading, nor need it be in any way connected with it — but if less, of course it must be so placed that the principal may at any time he pleases, in the day or night, without difficulty, visit any part of his premises, or any stock that may require special attention, for on a farm where the size is limited, and a bailiff of sufficient trustworthiaess and intelligence can- not be maintained, the master must attend to all matters of importance himself, if he would have his business weU done, and his interests attended to. If the buildings of the steading be of a complete character, the dwelling-house of the tenant may be merely such an one as any other person would require having a similar income, as no part of the business of the farm need be done in any part of the house any more than would the proprietor of a factory or shop mix up his family and its privacy with the affairs of his business. This, of course, applies only to an arable farm j but in the case of a dairy farm, where the manufacture of butter and cheese forms the principal portion of the business, then the dairy, cheese-rooms, and all matters connected therewith must be under the eye and immediate control of the female portion of the household, to whom this department is always entrusted, and by whom it is always exceediugly well executed. If the farm be large, and a large capital embarked, the house must be a question entirely for its occupier and his architect, for certainly those who have embarked their fortunes in agriculture are not less entitled to the refinements and elegancies of life than those who may have embarked a similar amount in spinning cotton. The dwelling- house of the farmer will therefore be such a one as may be required for any English gentleman of similar income from whatever source it may be derived. Pig. 12 represents the plans, elevations, and section of a design for a small house adapted to a moderately sized farm. rig. 13 is the plan of a dwelling-house attached to a farmery in which I for a considerable time resided, and found in practice to be 92 MODERN HUSBANDllY. CHAMBER-PLAN. GBOHND PLAN. BUILDINGS. 93 a very good arrangement ; the front part of the house being open to pleasure grounds and a garden, and the back to the yards and premises, the sitting-room or library, and the bed-room over both, overlooking them. Fia. 13. GROUND PLAN. The court-yard at the back, surrounded with all the necessary out-offices, is a very good arrangement, as every thing is in its place, and accessible ; the door in the passage at 14, encloses the whole of the premises, and cannot be opened or shut without the knowledge of the master. EEFEEBNCE TO FIGURES. 1. Drawing-room. 15. Court-yard. 2. Hall. 16. Covered way round. 3. Dining-room. 17. Larder. 4. House-place, 18. Wood-house and Store. 5. Closet. 19. Knife-house. 6. Library. 20. CoaU. ?. Kitchen. 21. Ashes. 8. Closet. 22. -Front-room. 9. Passage. 23. Potatoe store. 10. Dairy. 21. Warehouse. 11. Beer and Store cellar. 25. Laundry. 12. Boulleiy. 26. Servants'-hall. 13. Brewery. 27. Farm-yard- 14. Passage. 30. Pleasure ground. Ldboti/rers' Cottages are of two kinds, those erected about the estates of noblemen and gentlemen, and which are of an ornamental character, and those which should exist on, or in the vicinity of all farms, merely to accommodate the labourers employed upon them, the tenant of the farm being charged for them, and he again chargiag a rent to his labourers who inhabit them. Now if these cottages 94 MODERN HUSBANDRY. are to be expected to pay interest for the money spent in erecting them, they must be of the simplest possible form, and of the cheapest materials, for it is quite impossible that labourers can pay a rent equal to the most moderate rate of interest for such costly and ornamental buildings as are designed by architects generally. Pig. 14. ELEVATION OF LABOtJHER S COTTAGE. J, ,11, !.',. 1. House-place. 2. Bedroom. 3. Bedroom. 4. Back Wash-liouse. QHOUND PLAN. A labourer's cottage must not cost more than £75, and should be built in pairs, as the cost is less than when placed singly; each cottage should contain a kitchen, or house-place, in which the family- live, a wash-house or back office, and two bed-rooms. A water-closet and pig-stye should adjoin ; each cottage .should have about a quarter BUILDINGS. 95 of an acre of garden. An oven and copper stould exist in every cottage. Kg. 14 represents an elevation and plan of a cheap labourer's cottage ; many were constructed in a similar manner, looked very picturesque, and gave satisfaction to their inhabitants. Building Materials. — The very small profit that is to be obtained from the business to be carried on in the buildings of the farm, and the limited amount of business that can be done in the steading, render it of the greatest possible consequence that the buildings be all constructed in the cheapest possible manner consistent with durability and their fitness for the purposes for which they are required. It is necessary therefore, before deciding upon the materials to be used, to ascertain the nature of those in use or to be got in the locality, as there are many descriptions of materials that may make excellent work in the neighbourhood where they are found, because only the best need be used, and the local knowledge in the manner of working them is of the first importance, for, with many stones, if not used in a parti- cular manner with reference to their position laid in the quarry, they Would soon decay and entail endless expences in repairs. If proper care be used in selectiug, and good judgment in using them, I think that almost any description of stones may be turned to account in the construction of agricultural buildings, for if good lime is to be had, small stones may be made into concrete, and largeir ones, if properly wrought, make the strongest work. If the local stone be of an exceedingly sandy and absorbent nature, it should not be used for external walls of buildings that are to contain stock, as the temperature inside will be kept too low from the evaporation of the water in the walls. 'Flints of all kinds make good walls, not only the black flint, faced, but all irregular shaped pieces. I have constructed some walls of this description that I believe to be as durable, and in every respect as good, as of any other material. In choosing stone, it is of much more importance to select the hardest, or such as will resist the weather, than the largest, as some large and good-looking stones will burst at the first frost, and decay in a single year ; although, when newly quarried, they would even take a polish, the stone should be pure in the grit, and free from aluminous combinations. If flag-stones can be easily procured, it is best to lay a. foundation of them before commencing the walls, as it gives the wall an even and proper bearing. It is a good plan to have immediately above the ground, a course in cement, or a slate course, as it prevents the damp rising, and ensures dryness and warmth in the buildings. If no stone is to be had, bricks must be used, and as this work is 96 MODERN HUSBANDRY. expensive, it is necessary to economise as mucli as possible ; this may be done by constructing only such buildings as vrill contain the machinery, and require to be stronger and more durable, entirely of brick, and the rest of brick and timber, or all timber. The thrashing- barn, granary, boiling-house, should be entirely of brick ; the stables, bullock-sheds, of brick and timber ; and the straw barn or buildings to contain hay, may be made of open sparred work. The hay and straw will both be kept in better condition in such buUdings than in close and confined receptacles ; but, though the sides may be very open without injury, the roof must not be so ; whatever the materials used in constructing the walls, the roof must be always thoroughly well done, so that no wet can enter, or snow beat in, for if it does, the premises will rapidly decay, and the purpose for which it was erected, that is, forming a shelter from the injuries of the weather, will not be obtained. The way I should recommend as best for constructing the generality of the buildings, is a low wall built of brick, and having a course in cement just above the line of the water splash on the ground. On the top of this wall is laid a plate of oak (if possible), and into it are tenoned the upright timbers that support the waU-plate ; the whole face above the wall is then covered with weather boai'ding, laid with a good lap. I think this plan of constructing the premises will be the cheapest of any, if no local material is to be had. It is of importance to have as much as possible of the work of the same dimensions and uninterrupted lengths without breaks, because the sawing may then be done before the material is brought to the place, and the work- manship is much reduced, and rendered more easy of execution. I am presuming that the timber used is foreign, and in nine cases out of ten, the use of this wiU be found the most judicious course to pursue, as the facUities for conveying it to any part of England are so great, and it is so easily convertible, while the timber grown on the estate would most likely be much more profitably disposed of at the nearest searport. Por paving stables, cattle-sheds, &c., it is best to get the hardest and least absorbent materials possible ; if bricks are used they should only be those most thoroughly vitrified. Chalk puddled in, makes excellent floors for cattle-sheds, as do also clay and ashes. When these have got thoroughlyhard, few floors will be found better. An article called burnt-ballast has come a good deal into use lately, for constructing roads, &c. It makes excellent flooring for sheds of some descriptions, as well as good roads, courts, &c. BUILDINGS. 97 The making it is a simple affair : a fire is made with a heap of coal, and when thoroughly ignited, pieces of clay are placed all over it ; upon these are strewed small coal, and as the first clay becomes heated, more clay and then more coals alternately, until the heap becomes of immense size ; the coal requires to be evenly spread and kept covered lightly with pieces of clay. Immediately anything like a flame appears it should be covered with clay, so that no heat be wasted, and yet the fire be kept up in all its intensity, for under-burning is the fault most likely to be committed. Lime cannot be too good where economy is to be practised in the use of the materials, and the best will always turn out to be the cheapest : it should slake slowly, and only break to pieces of itself — not fall into fijae flour : it should always be a drab or yellowish colour, and never speckled or white. Too much care cannot be bestowed in selecting and using lime, yet . the greatest carelessness and neglect are often practised in the preserv- ing it, and in the manufacture of mortar and plaster. Cement. — If cement is used in agricultural buildings it should be of the best quality, as it should be used only to prevent damp or to economise the materials by allowing of thinner walls, and very great saving may be made by adopting them instead of thicker walls ip. mortar. Grreat care is required in using cement, for if the workmen be careless they will spoil the best materials, by mixing or gauging it in too large quantities, or quicker than it can be used. If cement be not good or prpperly wrought, it is inferior to mortar though so much more costly. Iron-work. — This is now manufactured in large quantities and at a cheap rate, cast-iron being substituted instead of wrought, as formerly. A great variety of the interior fittings are now made of iron, as mangers, racks, troughs, &c. ; these descriptions of fittings are well deserving of attention by any one about to erect agricultural buildings, and to those who propose farming in the colonies they are the best things without a doubt, as they pack easily for carriage, and are always in repair ; where labour is dear this latter point is of con- siderable moment. A plan has of late years been introduced into England of coating iron with zinc to prevent oxidisation. I believe I was the first person to practise this art, having been employed by J. Gibbs, Esq., in the year 1839, to carry out a series of experiments upon an extensive scale, the result of which was that I could cover iron of every description, from chain-cables of large size down to the smallest nails, with the greatest certainty and facility; the experiments were 98 MODERN HUSBANDRY. conducted in a laboratory built on purpose, at Kennington. The company for wbom they were made was wound up, and the project abandoned, the general opinion at that time not being in favour of it ; yet now nearly every description of ironwork is gahcmised (a name improperly applied in the first instance) and every day increases the demand by suggesting fresh uses for it. In agricultural iron- fittings, that are exposed to the weather, it is of the greatest use and much to be recommended. Lead. — All work done in this material should be weU looked after, to see that the lead is laid down of the weight per foot super, agreed upon, for as it is a Tery costly material, considerable inducement is offered to dishonest persons to lay a lighter weight. Milled lead only should be used, cast lead is not to be depended on, though often laid down. Particular care is necessary in plumbers' work and in the quality of the materials. Zinc. — This material is so much afiected by the weather that it cannot be recommended for agricultural purposes, except for utensils and a variety of separate articles, but on no account should it be used as a substitute for lead. Hollow Briclcs. — These are manufactured by the tile machines in a variety of shapes and sizes, and are said to be very economical, as much as twenty-nine per cent, less, and consequently a great saving in cartage, and twenty-five per cent, saying in the mortar and labour. Slate is one of the best materials that can be used for covering agricultural buildings, as it will allow the roof to be of as low a pitch as any other ; and on account of its lightness the scantling of the roof may be of the smallest dimensions. It is a good plan to cover the roofs of cattle sheds, and similar build- ings, with thin boards, five-cut stufi) and upon them place a layer of felt, and on the felt lay the slates ; this will keep the buildings cool in summer and warm in winter, and is the cheapest roof in the end. Meeds and Straw. — Thatched roofs are not now so common as formerly, in fact, a strong prejudice exists against them, and in many cases I think very unjustly. Eeed-thatch is an excellent covering for buildings, and is exceedingly durable. Two kinds of reeds are used. The most common is the marsh reed (Arundo Fhragmites) ; the other, the marum grass or sea-reed, is better known, as growing on low sandy cliff's upon the sea-shore, which it binds by its matted roots and prevents the surface from blowing away. MACHINERY OP THE HOMESTEAD. 99 The outer coating of all reeds contains a large quantity of sUex, and the thicker the reed the better is the material for thatching. In Holland a large amount of roofing is covered with reed-thatch, and so thoroughly well is it done that the roofs of farm-houses and agricultural buildings often last fifty years without renewing, and if weU repaired at the end of that time, will last fifty more. Many roofs of this description in Holland are two hundred years old. THE MACHIlSrERT OF THE HOMESTEAD. In constructing any new steading, the principle should be adopted of having the machinery required for all the usual operations carried on there, arranged on a regular plan, and driven by some one motive power. An immense saving will take place if this be done, as the machinery being fixed, and consequently working steadily, will consume much less power than is done by such rude portable machinery as is usually seen on English farms. Having a steam-engine properly fitted up, it is quite easy to throw upon it a variety of heavy work : indeed everything that can should be laid on the back of this cheap and never- tiring servant. Thrashing, grinding, dressing, bruising, cutting, sawing, pumping, churning, and a variety of other employments, may be performed by it, at a much cheaper rate than they could be executed in any other way. Motive powers adapted to agricultural purposes are either water- wheels, steam-engines, or horse- wheels. "Windmills are sometimes used, but in England they are not worth erecting, on account of their great uncertainty and irregularity ; in the colonies, however, there may be situations where windmills may be used with advantage. The water- wheel is by far the best and cheapest, if it can be had. There are many situations where a fall of water may be obtained by collecting a number of small riUs, and carrying them through ducts which have the minimum amount of fall ; and I have seen water-wheels put up in situations where, previously to proper levels being taken, and an exact survey being made, no one would have dreamed of finding a sufficient fall. In some cases the drainage water from the land has been collected and made to turn a wheel ; an interestiag case of this sort occurs at Teddesley Hay, iu Staffordshire, on an estate belonging to Lord Hatherton. After a quantity of land had been drained, the water was collected into two channels, which convey it to an extensive reservoir ; from this the water flows underground for a distance of a2 100 MODERN HUSBANDRY. nearly half a mile, in a culvert fifteen inches diameter to the farm buildings, where it is discharged upon an overshot wheel, and so furnishes power for the various purposes required upon the estate. The water-wheel is of wrought iron, thirty-eight feet iu diameter, and let into a chase cut into the red sandstone rock, which is the subsoil upon which the premises stand. To get rid of the tail-water, a tunnel had to be cut through the rock for about 500 jards, until it could be turned into open channels sufficiently low to carry it clear of the wheel. A thrashing machine, chafi"-cutter, several mills,' and a sawing- machine, are all driven by this wheel. It might be imagined that this power had been purchased too dearly, but such was not the case, a fair return having been got for the outlay ; in fiact, the results are in. every way most satisfactory. In this case the power was entirely gained by the ingenious manner in which the water drained from the land had been applied. Although strongly advocating the use of water-wheels, if it is possible to get a fall of water, yet it may be purchased too dearly, as the works required for storing and conveying water are of necessity of a costly character, as are also the works about the wheel, both above and below, and the sluices for regulating the supply. A steam-engine, therefore, may be the more economical machine, the cost ' of' fuel not being so great as the interest of money expended in making and maintaining the water-wheel and the works connected with it. ' Water-wheels are of three kinds, named in the order in which the water is delivered upon them. Those which have the water delivered iipon or near the crown on either side are called overshot. Those that receive it near the centre are called breast-wheels. Kg. 18, while such as act by the water simply flowing under, or having only a small fall, are called undershot. The overshot is of course the most powerful for a given supply of water, and is also the most economical if the wheel be properly constructed, as much as seventy-five per cent of the actual power of the falling water being obtained. The overshot wheel, Fig. 17, is generally used on small streams, with considerable fall, and the breast and undershot are applied to large streams having but little fall. Iron is the best material for constructing wateriwheels, but wood, with iron fioats, answers the purpose; but on such streams as corrode iron rapidly, it is best to have the iron floats coated with zinc ; they will last a long time when so protected, and always remain clean. All works required in connection with water-wheels, such as the wing- walls, the mUl-raoe, the apron, trough, &c. should be executed , WATER WHEELS, 101 with gi-eat care, the brick-work all laid in cement, and none but the best bricks be used ; all the walls should be backed'with clay puddle, and every precaution taken to prevent any leak from the head to the tail below, for if it happens that the water finds the smallest passage through to the lower level, it will, by the pressure upon it, rapidly make a larger aperture, and this will, in a little time, unobserved by Pig. 17. .^.i.+j...:f.j^^4iL^,^::>^i IS OVEBSHOT WHEEL. Fig. 18. BREAST WHEEL. any one, cause such damage-to the works, that a large amount will be spent in repairs. Farmers not being in the habit of using such works may be ignorant of the- care necessary for their preservation, and I am, therefore, the more particula,r in impressing upon their mind the necessity of that of which I have had myself much experience. 102 MODEJIN HUSBANDRY. Those who use small water-mills often allow them to get into the most neglected condition, and seem to consider, that care and cleanli- ness are not necessary to them ; they are allowed to get out of square by the sinking of the water end of the lay shaft, its bed most likely decaying from neglect of the most ordinary precautions ; the troughs are allowed to leak, and water is wasted at every turn. Now it should be borne in mind that all these things cause loss of power, and bring on endless expenses. The water-wheel, and everything in con- nection with it should be as well looked after as a steam-engine ; it should work thoroughly true, and with the least possible friction, and without, noise, with the exception of the splash of the water, which should, if the water is properly delivered on it, scarcely be heard. Windmills. — In Scotland mahy steadings were formerly fitted with a motive power worked by the wind, but its uncertainty prevented its general adoption. Windmills for driving scoop-wheels to unwater .land are of course not subject to the same objections ; these will be found treated of in the chapter on draining. THE STEAM-ENGINK As it will be only on comparatively few farms that a fall of water can be obtained sufficient to drive the machinery of the homestead, and horse-work is unfit and uneconomical for farms of any magnitude, the steam-engine becomes the great auxiliary to which the farmer must look for assistance. I have no doubt but that in a very few years every farm in England above 100 acres, and not having watei^ power, will be provided with a steam-engine. They are now made ia the simplest possible manner, and at a very moderate cost ; not more for engine and boiler than the price of the number of good horses of equal nominal power, yet not capable of doing half the quantity of work ; for with a steam-engine there need be no resting, it will work on from the beginning of the year to the end, without injury or stopping, if properly treated. Engines for agricultural purposes are now made of such simple forms and so complete, that they can be set up in a few hours, independent of walls or buildings, and can be removed from one farm to' another as easily as any other machine. The extreme simplicity of the parts of some of the best is such that the most ordinary labourer can understand them, and will in a short time be quite able to manage an engine properly. If all the barn machinery be well arranged, the same person may superintend all the grinding, bruising, kibbling, &c., that may be required, STEAM-ENGIi^ES. 103 1 see in Mr. MecH's balance-sheet that he only pays £39 8s. lid. per annum to a man who acts as engineer, stoker, and miller; showing at once that the cost of working a steam-engine is not great in respect to superintendence. Many persons imagine that it is necessary for the person who drives or superintends an engine to be an engineer or maker of Fig. 19. cboskill's faemees' fixed steam-engine. engines ; but this is not the case. Few if any engine-drivers are engineers either on railways, in steam vessels, or fixed land engines ; nor is it at all necessary that they should be. The parts of modern steam-engines, of whatever kind, are now made so well and so proper for their separate duties, that the chance of their becoming deranged (which was the case in the early forms of engines) is now almost prevented ; a knowledge of the parts, and their proper packing and adjusting, is all that is required, beyond that the person who is intrusted with the engine, be a sober, careful, intelligent, and pains- taking person, allowing nothing to get out of order from neglect, and maintaining everything in precisely the same state as it was in when delivered to him by the manufacturer. I know a great prejudice exists against the steam-engine among farmers, from the erroneous notion they have that it requires more skill to manage than they or their people possess ; but I can assure them that any of them who can manage the proper adjustments of a plough, drUl, or thrashing machine, wUl, in a very short time, be equally able to take charge of a steam-engine ; more especially such 104( ~ MODERN HUSBANDRY. simple forms of fixed engines as are now commonly used, and wticli although not perhaps the most economical in fuel, are decidedly thef best for all the purposes required by the agriculturist. Of the different forms of Steam JSngines. — Por engines above 10-horses power, it is decidedly the best to erect a Boultoh and Watt beam condensing engine, as being by far the most economical in working, although of greater cost in the first outlay. These engines are usually constructed on a metal framework, the lower portion containing the bed for the cylinder, the condenser, the air pump, feed pump, and carrying the bearings for the crank and fly-wheel shaft. The beam is supported on a metal framework carried by columns or similar supports. The engine is thus quite complete, independent of any walls or parts of buildings, and consequently can be easily removed should the tenant move to another farm. As a proof how economically this description of engine works, I may mention one at work at Mr. Whatney's mill, at Wandsworth, made by Wentworth & Co. of that town, which consumes only seven tons of coal per week, while working up to 25-horse power for 23 hours out of every 24 the whole week through ; but this engine is con- structed with two cylinders, and is of the most recently improved description. I have quoted it to show the cheap power obtained from a steam-engine, not as one adapted to the requirements of a farm. If sufficient cold water cannot be procured at the homestead to supply the condenser, then a similar form of engine may be used, but"' worked with high pressure steam ; the cost of this will be of course less, as not having the condensing apparatus. The prices vary according to the style and- workmanship ; one manufactured in the best possible manner, of 10-horse power, wiU be with boUer complete about £350. It is impossible to construct this engine much cheaper, if it be well done, because of the number of parts and weight of metal contained in it. A great variety of engines have therefore been designed, with a view to simplify it and reduce its cost, by getting rid of the beam, parallel motion, and connecting rods. In one class of engines this has been done by working a cross head attached to the top of the piston rod between fixed guides ; and between this cross head and the crank is placed a connecting rod, which takes at its outer end the curvilinear motion of the crank, while its lower works truly upwards and down- wards with the piston. Some very good engines have been made upon this plan, and I am inclined to think that it is the best suited to farm-work ; the defect in it is the great friction of the cross-head - STEAM-ENGINES, 105 figainst the guides, and the thrust and pull of the piston rod being so much out of a straight line, and this is excessive if the crank be large and the connecting rod short, which is always a bad arrangement of parts. To obviate this, and have a long connecting rod, the engine must have high frames, and lose the compactness that this arrange- ment gives, and of course the longer and more distributed the parts, the more difficulty is experienced in keeping the machine steady. r am, therefore, of opinion^that it is better to make this description of engine horizontal, as a long connecting rod may then be had without losing the compactness and solidity of bearing. Such an engine (Fig. 20) is manufactured by Messrs. Clayton, Shuttleworth, & Co., and was exhibited by them at the Smithfield Club Show last year, but it was rather too expensively got up and had an iron bed. I think for a farmer's engine, a well framed wooden bed would have been much better. Kg. 20. Another method, and one that is a great favourite, is that of having the cyUnder suspended upon two trunnions, in a manner similar to a cannon. In this case the end of the piston rod is attached at once to the crank, and the cylinder oscillates as the crank carries round the outer end of the piston rod ; this forms an exceedingly neat and compact engine ; it was originally invented by Mr. Watt, but did not come into use until a comparatively recent period. Oscillating engines are now manufactured of every size, and in a variety of different forms ; in some recently introduced the cylinder is placed horizontally, and has only one trunnion. An excellent variety I think is one in which the steam is inducted and discharged through a transverse- hollow trunnion placed at the" 106 MODERN HUSBANDET. bottom of tte cylinder, and upon which the cylinder moves, oscillating from a point at the bottom instead of the middle. One of the best forms of this engine that I know of is manufactured by Crosskill, of Beverley, as shown in elevation, fig. 19 ; it is very compact, and may be set up anywhere, without any other extra foundation than two or three good wooden sleepers, or a large flagstone. It is well adapted for a colonial farmer. The oscillating engine Is doubtless the most simple form of engine ; yet as some little extra care is required in packing the trunnions, I doubt if it is quite the best for the agriculturist. An engine has been lately introduced, as adapted to farmers, by Messrs. Eansome, of Ipswich, and is called a trunk engine ; in this the direct action of the oscillating engine is obtained, without oscillating the cylinder. This is done by having a tube attached to the piston, and working through the top and bottom of the cylinder ; the tube is open at the end, and the connecting rod (there being no piston rod) is attached, one end to the piston and the other to the crank. As the piston passes up and down the cylinder, and the crank is turned, the deviation of the connecting rod from a line parallel to the sides of the cylinder takes place within the tube. But for the defect of exposing a large heated surface to be cooled down at every stroke, this might be pronounced almost a perfect engine ; but I should, nevertheless, not recommend it to a tenant-farmer as the best I know of for his purpose. Motatory ^Engines cannot yet be said to be in such a state as to warrant the farmer in applying any to his machinery. Some of them are extremely ingenious, and many have appeared to work tolerably well ; but none that I know of have come into use for performing any heavy and regular work, and I doubt much if such machines, however well they may be made, and however good in principle, will supersede the best reciprocating engines now in use. On looking over all the different forms of engines now put forth as adapted for agricultural purposes, I decidedly give the preference to a simple horizontal engine upon a timber bed, as I beUeve such an engine may be made much cheaper, is much simpler, and will work as well as any other that I know of. It may also be removed from one farm to another, on a timber truck, or on the bottom of a waggon, with greater facility than any other, and it requires less foundation, and may be put to work anywhere, by simply forming a pit in which the fly-wheeL may run. Pig. 20 represents this engine as manufactured by Clayton & Shuttleworth, but with an iron bed, which adds considerably to its cost. STEAM-ENGINES, 107- PORTABLE ENGINES. These at present seem to be the favourites amongst farmers, but I do not think they are always destined to remain so. At present the machinery of the steading is seldom well arranged in one building, and consequently a portable engine is better suited, as the connection may be made with any machine wherever it happens to be placed. The heaviest work on the farm is thrashing, and in England nearly all thrashing machines are portable. In Scotland they are nearly always fixed, and consequently fixed engines are there even more generally used than portable ones are here. Fig. 21. HOENSBY 6 PORTABLE AGRICULTUilAL STEAM-ENGINE. Thrashing in the field seems also to be a favourite plan now, and portable engines are of course necessary for that purpose ; but I am certain, nevertheless, that the only true way of obtaining the fuU economy that may be gained from the use of the steam-engine, is to have it fixed, and all the machines to work from it in a manner as similar as possible to the practice pursued in any factory. On some large farms, with outlying lands, it may be worth while to thrash in the field, but as the straw must or ought to be brought to the steading to be consumed by the stock, I think it might as well be brought nntbrashed as not. A portable engine may be necessary also where extra stack-yards or sheds exist on other parts of the farm ; the straw should then 108 MODERX HUSBANDRY. certainly be thrashed there, and used as dung, on the lands adjoining, so avoiding as much as possible all unnecessary carriage of such heavy and' bulky articles as straw and manure. In situations where a scoop- wheel may occasionally be used, a portable engine is useful to un water a piece of land, the crops on which might be spoiled else. ^Nearly all the large makers of agricultural machines manufacture good portable engines. Messrs. Barrett &Exall, of Eeadiiig; Messrs. Homsby, of Grrantham ; Tuxford, of Boston ; Garretts, of Suffolk ; Eansome — i — : — 1 i 1 -^^'/■f - -.- ■-^-3^"^^-- THE LAST LOAD. WHEAT. 245 that the bread made from it is the best that can possibly be obtained, far exceeding all others in its palatable and nutritious qualities. Wheat is supposed to be indigenous to Africa and Asia, but it is mere conjecture, as the country from whence it first came is quite unknown ; it is now, with very few exceptions, cultivated in every part of the temperate and torrid zone. Wheat has been cultivated from time immemorial in Britain, but not at greater elevation than 600 feet above the sea; in other latitudes, however, it has been grown 2000 feet above the sea. Of the varieties, botanists reckon seven species of triticum cultivated for their grains, these seven species being again divided into an immense number of varieties and sub-varieties. The species are : — 1. Triticum aestivum, Summer or Spring wheat. 2. „ hyberuum, Lammas wheat. 3. „ Compositum, Egyptian wheat. 4. „ turgid um, Turgid wheat. 5. „ polonicum, PoUsh wheat. 6. „ spelta. Spelt wheat. 7. „ monooocoum. One-grained wheat. Summer Wheat has long been cultivated in Lincolnshire and the southern counties, but it does not do weE in more northern localities. The straw is short and slender, while the ears are narrower, the beard longer, and the grain smaller than the other varieties. Winter Wheat. Of this there are numerous varieties, but it may at first be divided into two principal divisions, the white and the red or brown. Of the sub-varieties there are the bearded and beardless, the woolly chaffed and hairy chaffed, both red and white. Sed Wheat is considered by far the most hardy, but does not yield such good flour ; the woolly chaffed wheat is considered to make the best flour, but is more subject to injury afterwards than the other sorts. The turgid or many spiked wheat is only occasionally cultivated. The Spelt Wheat is much sown in the south of Prance, in Swabia, Switzerland and Spain, but is not cultivated in Britain ; it has remarkable stout straw and long stiff arrows. The One-grained Wheat is much sown in the north of Switzerland, where its straw is highly valued for thatching. It has a single row of grains and tillers very much ; the bread made from it, of a light brown colour, is considered excellent. The other varieties mentioned may be considered as only varieties of the common winter wheat ; of the various kinds of wheat named, the best are the thin skinned white kinds, these being preferred by all agriculturists whose localities admit of growing it and autumn sowing. 246 MODERN HUSBANDay. It is the general opinion that wheat should, like other grain, fall into a course of cropping, and not occur oftener than once in four years ; some persons think it should be seven or eight. Grood crops are, however, often obtained on strong clay lands by growing alternately beans and wheat for a number of years. Clover is the best preparatory crop for wheat in the generality of soils, as the decayed roots of the clover furnish nourishment for the growing crop. Stiff soUs are the best adapted for the culture of wheat, in fact so suitable, that strong lands are often spoken of as wheat lands ; soils of a light and sandy character are not suited, but the clover crop does much towards making a firmer sod, and is therefore especially fitted to precede wheat on all light land. "Wheat, being the most valuable of aU the cereal crops, requires the greatest care to produce it, and the land should always be in the best possible condition when such a crop is sown on it, both as regards fertility and tillage. It is a great error to attempt to force crops of wheat on lands in situations to which it is not adapted. "Wheat, in this country, will not flourish at great elevations, nor on the lightest soils ; it is therefore always better and more profitable to cultivate other of the cereals, as barley and oats, in such situations. "Wheat should always be sown in the autumn, if possible ; but if the ground intended for it cannot be cleared of the crops on it, it must be delayed until the spring, as will be the case when it succeeds turnips and other green crops. On the stiff and true wheat soUs, the practice has always been to summer fallow the land previous to planting the wheat crops, as without that preparation it is often exceedingly difficult to get the land ready, and in some situations quite impossible, unless such practice is adopted. Many persons plough in the wheat after summer fallow, but drilling is better, as 'the seed is then ail put in at the proper depth and distance, and it can be horse-hoed. The best period for sowing is about the middle of September, and previous to the seed being put in the ground, it is usual to subject it to the operation called pickling or steeping, which is done to prevent the disease called smut. The pickle is usually human urine, which is saved for the purpose. The wheat is allowed to remain in the pickle about ten minutes, being kept well stirred during that time, and all such kernels as will not sink should be removed as unfit for seed. The wheat, when removed from the tubs, is laid out to dry on the barn-floor, and Bometimes hot Ume is lightly sifted over it to dry it ; it should then WHEAT. 247 be sown as quickly as possible, or its vegetative powers may be much weakened. Brine is sometimes substituted for urine, but is not so well liked ; a chemical preparation, made on purpose, is now sold, but I am not aware of tbe advantages it possesses. Wheat is sown either by hand or machine, broadcast or by the drill in rows, or in patches by dibbling. "When broadcast by hand, the sower carries the seed in a peculiar shaped oblong box slung from his shoulder and suspended under his left arm. As he steps forward he takes a handfiil of seed from the box, called a seed lip, and scatters it in front of him and around him, as he swings his arm to and from the box, walking over the ground he has sown, while supplying his hand with a fresh quantity of seed. Men used to it will sow with wonderful regularity, and consume an exact amount of seed per acre, but as windy weather and other circumstances will, nevertheless, sometimes prevent even sowing, it is much better to use some of the many excellent machines constructed for every different kind of work; these wUl be found described under the head of Sowing Machines. When sown in rows it is usual to have them from nine to twelve inches apart, and the larger widths are preferred. The quantity of seed sown is usually from two to three bushels per acre, more being sown for spring wheat than when sown in autumn. A considerable controversy has taken place, of late years, as to the advantages of thick and thin sowing. The results of the following experiment, made by Mr. E. B. Wolfe, of Wood Hall, Newport, Essex, may, therefore, be introduced with advantage.* The land upon which the experiment was tried, consisted of three acres of heavy clay in good heart, and the seed used was Spalding wheat. The land was formed in flat stetches seven feet two inches wide. 'experiment. Width of driUs Seedati^te Produce in Produce in gi-ain Produce at rate lbs. weight in inches. per acre. sheaves. from 3 roods. per acre. per bushel. Qrs. B. P. Qrs. B. P. 9 5 pecks. 689 4 5 2 2 62J 64 7 „ 665 4 5 2 2 22A 8 6 „ 681 4 3 5 3 2 63 Dibbled and"] dropped by 1 hand at 8 | 6 „ 692 4 10 5 4 6H inches . .J * Journal of R.A.S. 248 MODEUN HrSBANDIlY. Mr. "Wolfe remarks, on the above experiment, " that from the frequent observations that I have made, and judging from both the above experiments, I have come to the conclusion that, taking the average of seasons and all other circumstances into account, there is great risk of loss in drilling wheat in such land as mine, at a distance of more than eight inches, and with less seed than six pecks per acre. In heavy land, of average quality, weU-drained and in good heart as mine is, the above quantity of seed (six pecks) and intervals (eight inches), wiU, I think, be found the safest and most productive — at the same time it is very probable that less seed and greater intervals might answer as well or better in lighter land of superior quality, supposing the system of cultivation to be carried out upon the most approved principles. " I have this year acted upon the conclusion I have come to, and drilled all my wheat (eighty acres) with six pecks of seed, and at eight inches apart, and up to this time I am perfectly satisfied with the promise." Of the different kinds of wheat now usually sown, the following experiment may, tend to assist in forming a correct judgment. It was made by C. Hillyard, Esq., of Thorplands, Northampton, and is published in the Eoyal Agricultural Society's Journal ; seven half acres, after mangold wurzel were dibbled with wheat, seven different sorts, in the three last days of November. The annexed statement shows the produce of each half acre and a miller's estimate of the value per quarter : — No. Name. Bush. Good. In- ferior. Weight per bushel. Value per Quarter. Per Acre. 1 Quantity. Value. 1 2 a 4 5 T Essex Brown . Surrey white . Brown,oalled "1 Clover . J Snowdrop white Burwell \ brown . J Whittington white . 20 18 20 224 18 19 17 22 17 lbs. 64 64 63i 63 63 62 64 66 63 64 63 62 Qrs. Bush. 5 4 4 5 4 7 5 5 i 4 £ s. d. 15 17 14 14 15 13 6 15 9 17 12 14 16 9 No. 1 was the prize wheat of Mr. Eisher Hobbs, of Mark's Hall Dssex. No. 2. Mr. SeweU's, of Surrey, a prize white wheat. WHEAT. 249 1^0. 3. Clover, a brown wheat having that local name. No. 4. A white wheat, which Mr. HiUyard had christened Snow- drop. No. 5. BurweU, a brown wheat, much grown in Northamptonshire and the adjoining counties, and procured from BurweU in Cambridge- shire. No. 6. The Grolden Drop was not a fuL. crop, the seed being defective ; it generally produces more than any other kind, and is sixpence per bushel less in value. No. 7. Whittington white wheat. Mr. HiUyard remarks on the above experiments, that he considers " the brown Lammas wheat is best suited to loamy soils and for general growth ia this country, besides which in every market in the country, it will always fetch a higher price than the white." In Mark Lane it is the reverse of this, therefore the white may answer best to those growers whose grain is sold there, and more hkely so if their soil is a strong clay or chalk. A greater quantity of wheat is now produced per acre than formerly, by greater attention being paid in selecting seed from the best and most prolific kinds, and by close examination into growing crops, many new and valuable varieties are likely to be obtained, and thus there will be wheat best suited for every description of soil. The variety of wheat must be suited to thq soil and climate ; and the knowledge of the varieties best suited to a particular soil can only be obtained from the experience of the farmers who cultivate that soil. It is not good judgment, however, to sow any particular sort to the exclusion of all others, as the best may deteriorate in time, and new varieties are being constantly introduced that might be found superior to those long used. It should always be borne in mind, that those which are the most prolific are generally of inferior quality ; but, as a general rule, the most prolific are the most profitable. On rich soils short-strawed wheats are the best, as less likely to be laid by storms ; of these Spalding's Prolific, Piper's Thickset, are favourite kinds. The latter is often called protection wheat. Long-strawed wheat should be sown on poorer soils, and sometimes a mixture of red and white are sown, care being taken that the two kinds are such as ripen at the same time. Bellevue Talavera, Mexican Vicario, &c., are among those celebrated for the earliness of their growth. Change of seed is always an advantage in sowing wheat, and (especially when the localities are of different characters. Plants 250 MODEEN HUSBANDRY. removed from one climate to another, will, in some measure, con- tinue in the same habit of growth. Thus, seed brought from a warm country wiU produce an early crop, though it wiU be inferior in hardihood to plants grown from seed brought from a cold climate ; and it wiU be found, that while the latter improves by cultivation, the former deteriorates. Dressings for Wheat, — Dung from box or stall-fed animals is the beat for this and all other crops ; but, as it is not always to be had, others are substituted. Dung should be applied to the crop pre- ceding the wheat, or an excess of straw may result. A compost of earth and dung is highly beneficial on light, chalky, and silicious soils. Pour or five loads of dung, and half a folding of sheep, is frequently the practice of the farmers of the Midland counties. A large breadth, especially of the drier class of soils, is manured by the sheep-fold alone ; it tends to solidify the ground and prevent the spread of grubs and wire-worm. Green crops are occasionally ploughed in, but it is better to feed them off. Pigeons' and hen-house dung are often applied at the rate of thirty bushels to the acre, and with certain results. Soot is a valuable manure for wheat, as it increases the bulk and quality of the seed and not the straw. From forty to sixty bushels per acre is a liberal dressing. It should be covered immediately after being sown or the ammonia may be dissipated. Eape-cake and malt-dust are also used as top-dressing. Bones and guano are extensively used on some descriptions of soil ; as also is nitrate of soda and common salt : the latter is said to assist in bringing the ears to perfection, and to increase the weight of the grain. In the chapter on Manures, more detailed information as to the effects of certain manures will be found. The time of Sowing. — On strong clay soils it is better to sow early. , say the middle of September, as, by so doing, the wheat has time to take a firm hold of the soil before hard frosts set in. There will be no danger of its growing too fast or becoming (as it is called) winter- proud on such land ; it will also come earlier to the sickle, and very likely be a much superior crop. On the loams and more genial soUs, late sowing is better, from the 20th of October to the 30th of November. Spring wheat is generally sown in February and March. During the early part of the spring the Croskill's roUer should be passed over the land, a dry day being chosen for the operation. If this valuable ■WHEAT. 251 implement be not at Land, pressing rollers, or sheep, or any similar contrivance for consolidating the land must be adopted, as the bursting of the ground after frost wUl have laid bare the roots of the young plants. In some places gangs of men and women are employed in walking between the drills. In Lincolnshire this plan is commonly practised. If the land be foul, the use of the hoe must not be neglected. It miist he made clean either by hand or by horse-hoeing ; the last expedient can only be used when the crop is drilled, and, as horse- hoes are now very perfect machines and work effectively at little cost, it is important to drill the crop that it may be used. The horse-hoe is described under the head of tillage implements. In some cases sheep are turned on to the young wheat in spring, and the plants fed off. This is only done when it is likely to run to straw from the soil being very rich. Many persons have attempted, from the days of Jethro TuU till now, to grow certain crops on the same land year after year by adopting a peculiar management, and I know of instances where wheat has been grown eighteen years upon the same spot, and it is wheat now, and without any appearance of the crops being at all inferior to others in the same county, where the land has been worked in regular shifts ; but these cases are exceptional, and may be looked upon more as curiosities in farming than as an approved practice in husbandry. In the E. A. S. Journal, Part I., for 1851, is an interesting article by the Eev. S. Smith, of Lois Veedon, near Towcester, on the growth of wheat year after year on the same acre. The plan adopted is to plant the wheat in triple rows a foot apart, and each triple row three feet apart. Mr. Smith, in describing his plan, says, " seven years ago I broke up a few acres of pasture, having breast- ploughed the turf and taken it off. Setting apart a portion of this land for my purpose, I devoted the first year to oats, the second to vetches, and the third year to my first crop of wheat on the plan of three-feet intervals and double digging. I have now the fifth crop on the same acre of unmanured land promising, at least from the half portion of the acre, the customary yield of 34 bushels ; many place it as high as 40." In a foot note, dated August 27, Mr. Smith says, " the four acres crop has now been thrashed out and has given 20J quarters of good clean wheat, weight 61 lbs. to the bushel, with eight tons of straw.'' The following extracts from the same paper wiU explain the principle upon which Mr. Smith proceeds. " Prom science we learn that the wheat plant requires a sufficiency of organic and inorganio 252 MODERN HTTSBANDRY. food to bring it to perfection. And here I beg permission to refer to the experiments at Eotherhampstead. A certain portion of land has there been exhausted for the purpose, and wheat has been grown on it, in the usual mode of cultivation, year after year, the natural produce of the soil per acre being found to be 17 bushels. ' Now it is the object of Agriculture,' says Mr. Lawes, ' to increase the produce of the soil beyond its natural yield, which can be done by various means.' He then describes these means, one of which is by fallowing. ' The field may be fallowed, that is, the natural produce of the soil may for two years be concentrated into one. The repeated exposure of the soil to the atmosphere by means of ploughiug, causing a decomposition of mineral matter, while the ammonia of the rain imites with various acids in the soU.' " By the method of tillage which I advocate this condition is fulfilled. I have the advantage of a fallow year after year, though, on the same acre of land, I have, year after year, a growing crop, and what has been the result ? I have shovm that I concentrate the natural yield of two years into one, and raise the produce from 17 bushels to 34." Eed wheat is ready for harvesting when it can be squeezed between the thumb and finger without any moisture being forced from it ; if allowed to stand longer the quality of the sample will be impaired. "With white wheat this is not the case, and it should stand a little longer ; the ear ripens before the straw. Wheat is cut in several ways — by reaping, which is the most expensive way, and not the best ; by bagging, which is performed with an instrument called a bagging-hook, the straw being cut close to the ground ; and by mowing, which is done with a scythe on which is fixed an apparatus called a bale, which lays the corn in one direction. One man will mow, tie, shock, and rake three roods a day. The best method is thus described by Mr. Soberfcs in the Royal Agricultural Society's Journal, — "A company of men, say four, are employed mowing ; four strong lads will gather with their hands and bind the wheat as fast as it is cut ; and a couple of men, with a boy, can stock the sheaves, rake the stubble and bind the rakings." The great advantages of mowing wheat are : — 1st. Cheapness and despatch. 2nd. A breadth of wheat can be cut down early in the morning, while the grain is damp, and tied up and shocked without injury in the middle of the day. 3rd. It is allowed that mown wheat is sooner fit to cart, and sustains less injury than when reaped in bad weather. 4th. It leaves the land clear for the commencement of tillage. EYE. 253 5tli. The securing a greater quantity of straw, and tence the making more manure. A crop of mown wheat is more expensive to carry and thrash. Eeaping machines are described ia their proper place. The extra expense of thrashing mown wheat, by four-horse machines, has been estimated at 2s. 6d. per ten quarters. The thrashing and dressing of wheat will be described in the chapter on the Preparation of the Crops for Market. "Wheat is liable to a variety of diseases, as smut, rust, blight, mildew, &c. &c. Smut, the most prominent, is easily guarded against by careful steeping, which we have before described. For a detailed description of the others the reader should consult Baxter's Library of Agriculture, or the Journal of the Eoyal Agricultural Society, where will be found important essays upon the subject. EYE. Eye is much used as bread com, throughout a great part of Europe. It contains a much larger proportion of nutritive matter than either barley or oats, it is the bread corn of Eussia and great part of G-ermdny. In England it is but little grown, and not at all for bread. Eye is supposed to be a native of Crete, but it is doubt- ful if any country can be said to be its native soil. Eye-bread is by no means so bad as is generally imagined ; it does not look a good colour, but it is wholesome and nutritious nevertheless. It is firm and solid, and retains its juiciness longer than any other kind. Wheaten flour mixed with one third rye is said to make better bread than aU wheat, and those who live on it for any length of time object to the white wheaten bread as being poor and flat tasted, nor can they work (they say) so long and so well upon it. The mode of cultivating rye is precisely the same as wheat, but it can be grown on inferior soils, and difiers from wheat, particularly in one respect, that while wheat requires a stiff' soil, rye will flourish on the light sands. The varieties of rye are fewer than those of wheat, there is a winter and a spring species ; that sown in autumn takes longer to vegetate, tUlers more abundantly, and gives larger crops than that sown in the spring. The flour, however, is the finest when made from that grown in the spring. The soils best adapted to rye are those that contain a large per centage of sand, and it is the only com that can be grown in soils 254 MODERN HUSBANDRY. that contain more than eighty per cent of sand with the other earths. Eye, however, will grow well on all sandy loams, and the crop will be good just in proportion to the goodness of the soil ; it will grow on the poorest land, but is all the better when grown on good soil. Kye is much sown for the sake of its yielding herbage in spring and green forage at a later season, particularly in the absence of turnips and the cultivated grasses ; it grows to greater height than wheat, the straw being thin but heavy ; it is little valued for fodder, but for thatching its hard and wiry character causes it to be highly esteemed. Eye straw is much grown for making straw-plait. It should be sown early, the middle of August or beginning of September at latest ; if sown late the quantity of seed must be increased ; from two to three bushels is the usual quantity. It should be but lightly covered, or it may not germinate. This plant is subject to a peculiar disease called ergot ; it is of fungous growth, and although found on other plants, it more especially attacks rye. It is a long cartilaginous-like substance projecting from the grain, and often taking the place of it. It prevails most in wet or humid seasons ; animals refuse to eat it, and if made into bread and eaten by man, it is said to produce gangrene. BARLEY. Barley is an annual plant, but like wheat, it may be sown in autumn, and then it acquires the habit of later ripening, and is called winter barley. The two-rowed species is that in common cultivation ; the spike is composed of two rows of perfect seeds, the palese remaining closely attached to and covering them. The different varieties are chiefly the effect of differences of climate and situation, which causes them to ripen earlier or later, and produce a larger or lesser amount of grain. It is generally sown in spring, and but rarely in autumn. Barley, though not cultivated in England for bread corn, may be considered as next in value to wheat. It is not known of what country it is native, but is generally believed to have come from Siberia and Tartary. It was much cultivated by the Eomans as food for both men and horses. In Sweden and Lapland it is more culti- vated than any other grain, being from its quick growth particularly adapted to their climates. Barley requires great care and attention in cultivating, and may be easily injured during its growth. There are six species and sub-species in cultivation, besides BAELEY. 255 varieties. The spring or early barley is the sort principally cultivated in England and Scotland ; it is distinguished by its double row of beards or awns standing erect ; it has a thin husk, which renders it favourable for malting. The Siberian harley has broader leaves, and is considered more productive than the other, but has now merged into other species. Six-rowed ha/rley is much cultivated in the north of Europe ; the variety called Bere, or Bigg-barley is the one generally used in England. It is a winter barley, and has smaller grains but more numerous. Professor Martyn says he has counted forty-two grains on one ear of bigg, when the common sort had only twenty-two. Naked, or wheat barley. Sprat o' Battledore barley, Ble de Jerusalem, Orge c61este, are varieties not much cultivated in England ; but in Germany and France they are highly esteemed. New varieties may be procured by selection and crossing, as in the case of wheat. In choosing a sort of barley for cultivation, regard must be had to the soil and climate. The hardiest is the winter barley, and the earliest and best the spring. The Bere or winter barley is the hardiest of aU. grain, and is remarkable for withstanding the inclemency of the winter, and ripening at a much earlier period than the common kinds. Every kind of barley requires a light, rich, friable and meUow soil, moderately moist, but in no wise a wet soU. Loam containing about 60 per cent of sand, and the remainder clay, is perhaps the very best, but it is grown on lands containing a far greater per-centage of sand, aiid, if the summer be a moist one, such lands produce very heavy crops ; but if it be a very dry season, a failure of the crop is sure to be the result. Soils of a clayey nature, and such as might be called wheat land, carry good crops of barley when well mixed with chalk, as the latter material has the quality of neutralising all acidity that may exist, and which would else be peculiarly injurious to the barley crop. In Hertfordshire pits are dug in the fields and chalk brought to the surface from great depths. The crops of barley grown on land so treated are exceedingly fine. On whatever description of land barley be grown, it requires to be thoroughly well worked, and brought to a state of clean and friable tOlage : the land cannot be too much stirred and tilled. If it follows upon a wheat stubble, three ploughings are necessary to ensure a fine tilth. After spring crops that have been well hoed, one ploughing may be enough. Barley being an early ripening grain may be sown as late as the 256 MODERN HTJSBAUDEY. month of May, but April is the proper month, and, if earlier, it is better. The grain of early sown barley is heaviest, but the straw is lighter. In the order of rotation, barley comes generally after turnips or other green crops; these require the cultivation which best prepares the land for it, as it loves a good tilth and land heavily manured. As these crops are generally fed off, the land is likely to be in the best possible condition. These crops not being removed until spring, and as barley does not require to be sown till then, it becomes, by being more valuable than oats, the fittest crop, in every respect, to follow the green or fallow crop. Barley may be sown broadcast, or in rows, giving it a single harrowing afterwards. The land from which the green crops are fed should be ploughed as close as possible upon the feeding to preserve the value of the " teaihe " (as it is called in Norfolk) , that is, the excrement that has fallen, and the effect produced on the land by the bodies of the animals coming in contact with it. Barley often succeeds a summer fallow, and sometimes potatoes and beans ; but as in both cases wheat, the more valuable crop, may be sown, it is seldom done. It is always found of advantage to roll barley either immediately after harrowing, or when the crop is just above ground. The general practice is to sow clover and grass seeds along with the barley ; some persons prefer to sow seeds at the same time ; others prefer to let the barley get above ground and then harrow them in with light wooden harrows. The growing barley crop should be quite clean, all weeds being pulled out by hand, as there wiU be no opportunity afterwards, and the clover crop wiQ be injured if they are allowed to remain. TEE OAT. There are three varieties of the oat cultivated in Great Britain, the white, the black, and the dun. The first named are separated into two principal divisions, the early and the late, and these again into many others, each having slight peculiar char&,cteristics. The Potato Oat is one of the finest of the early kind, yielding well, and of fine quality. It is called the potato oat according to some persons, because a small parcel first came to this country packed in a large case with potatoes ; and to others, because the first was discovered growing amongst a crop of potatoes. It is white, plump, and short ; a superior sample weighs forty-eight pounds to the bushel, and it will yield nlore meal than the same weight of any other kind. THE OAT. 257 It should be cut before it is quite ripe, as the seed will shake out with the least motion when it is perfectly ripe. The Sandy Oat. — This is not quite so good as the last mentioned, being smaller and lighter ; it is nevertheless valued by millers. The straw of this oat is particularly strong, and consequently well adapted for sowing on soils where the crop is likely to be laid. The Sheriff Oat is light grained, with moderate length of straw, and is much earlier than those before mentioned, but not so heavy per bushel. Hopetown Oats were formerly in much request, but the seed is supposed to have degenerated, the qualities formerly attributed to it not now appearing. It is generally sown with other kinds, as the potato and sandy oats, the straw of this variety being so weak as to require the assistance of the other kinds to support it. Crops of this mixed kind are said to produce a larger amount of grain than when either of the sorts are sown singly. TheHopetown Oat has a large grain, thick husk, and is of a brownish colour ; it does not meal so well as those before mentioned. Other oats, of similar character, are early Angus, and English berlie, or barley oat, &c. Late Angus are well adapted for clay soils. Siberian early white is a prolific variety, with a thick husk, but such inferior straw, that it is unfit for fodder. Late, or common oats, grow freely on poor and light soils ; the grain is large, and the straw particularly good for feeding cattle. They grind well, and are much preferred by the millers on account of their flinty character. The Black Tartarian Oat is particularly well suited to peaty and marshy soUs. The straw is tall and thick, but too reedy for fodder ; it succeeds best in moist gituaitions. It is an ^icellent kind for feeding horses, for which purpose it is largely grown in England. In Scotland it is occasionally made into meal, but the millers do not like dark skinned oats, as the meal is discoloured if any portions of the husk remain. The Dun Oat, and the winter dun, are both much grown in Scotland, and are considered as good varieties. There are a great number of other differently named oats in common use, but they are chiefly varieties of those before mentioned. The soils best suited for the growth of the oat are wherever they have been formed by the alluvium of strata not characterised by the presence of too great an amount of aluminous or clayey matter. Such soUs, if drained and in proper condition, wiU produce the best crop3 of the finer varieties. 258 MODEKN HUSBANDRY. The county of East LotHan is of this character, and the crops on it are of the finest quality, weighing 'from forty-four to forty-six pounds to the bushel, and areragiug from ten to twelve quarters per acre. Mountain limestone also produces excellent crops of oats in certain situations ; but the grain is not equal to those before mentioned. Oats are extensively cultivated in many parts of England on clay lands that are unfit for barley, and generally succeed a crop of red clover ; as a rule, the better the clover the better the oat that follows. The fens of Lincolnshire and adjoining counties are celebrated for good oats, especially where the fen has been well drained and gaulted. It would seem, that in this case, depth and dampness in the soil Qompensate the plants for a high temperature and lack of moisture in the atmosphere. Soils rich in vegetable matter, when pared, burnt, and limed, will produce large crops of good oats. In wet and cold climates they are the only graiij-crops that can be cultivated with success on aoUs chiefly composed of vegetable matter. This is the case, particularly iu Ireland and Scotland ; in England the fens produce excellent crops of wheat, but they have a better climate, and are dressed with the clay sub-spU. The most unfit soils for oats, are the loose dry sands and gravels and the upper chalk ; lime, in moderate quantities, does good on the sands and gravels; but over-dressings have the efiect of positively injuring the crop. Moorland soils, upon which both wheat and barley crops have been obtained, will sometimes be found utterly unfit for the oat. Mmiagement. — Throughout Scotland the rule is to place oats after grass, either depastured or cut for hay ; yet in some particular circumstances they succeed green crops. The ground is ploughed in January if possible, if not, in Eebruary, the older leas first and the stubbles last, so that the former may have the most time to decom- pose and crumble. In England the land is often ribbed in autumn and harrowed ; last ploughed and sown in spring. In Scotland the oat crop is generally sown broadcast on the winter furrow, and covered in by three or four iarrows coupled together. On the light lands the press-roller is used in addition to press down the sod and prevent the attack of the slug and wire-worm, for it is without doubt a fact, that rollers of this class do give immense protection to the young plants from these terrible enemies. Some pressers have a seed apparatus attached. " The presser, drawn by two horses, goes behind two, three, or more ploughs as may be INDIAN COKN, OR MAIZE. 259 required ; the wheels form the seed-bed, and the sowing apparatus, driven from the same axle, deposits the seed, which is covered by a small harrow hooked on behind. The quantity of seed sown in Scotland is from four to five bushels per statute acre. The potato and other early sorts are sown thinner than the Angus or Tartarian. About three bushels of seed are sufficient for an imperial acre of early oats, and a bushel more for the later and coarser kinds. Sm-vesting. — All the earlier kinds should be cut before they are quite ripe, or the seeds will be shed ; with the late oats, this is not the case ; but it is never right to allow oats to become thoroughly ripe and the straw dry, as the quality of the straw for fodder is lost by so doing.' INDIAN CORN, OE MAIZE {ZeaMdis). Indian corn is extensively produced in Africa, Asia, America, and in the south of Europe, on the shores of the Mediterranean, in Spain, Italy, and the countries of the Levant, where it supplies much of the food in common use. It is also grown in Germany and the Nether- lands, and a species of it has been partially cultivated in England. The manner of cultivating maize is in rows three or four feet apart, so that the hoe may be freely worked between them, and the earth ridged up to the roots by the plough, which is important, being necessary to give support to the stem. These operations are carried on during the whole time the plant is growing. A peculiarity in the manner of treating this plant is necessary, in consequence of the peculiar manner of its growth, it being moncBcious. The flowers bearing stamens are produced in a branched spike at the summit of the stem; the female flowers grow lower down on the stem, and upon these the poUen falls from above ; as soon as this has taken place the operation called topping is executed, the proper time for it being determined by the state of the plant. When the female flowers are withered and the grain becomes hardened, the tops and leaves may be. removed, and, if carefully preserved, will be good food for horses and neat cattle in spring. The husks are removed on the barn-floor, and the grains removed by bruising or scraping. Husking is done either by machinery, or the grains are scraped or rasped from the cob by being drawn against a bar of iron fixed across the top of a tub into which the grain falls. The flour obtained from maize is deficient in gluten, consequently it is greatly inferior to wheat flour for making bread. It is, however, a very nutritious and wholesome substance, and is used by all classes in some countries, prepared in a great variety of ways. s2 260 MODERN HUSBANDRY. 4=11 kiiifls pf stock thrive well wten fed upon tJiis:p)flnt,;hpg8»ore especially ; ppuljjry, tpp, are fond pf it, »nd li^e io eat the grains unbroken, aa dp hpgs. Jn the countrifia ■v^here maize is prpdnced, it is from a variety of circumstances a plant pf nmoh greater value than it would be in England. It requires a hot summer tP .ripen it, and -grows ibest on freah broken land. The time pf spwing is stated to be from the 15th to the 2Dth pf April, and may be cpntinued at any time in the month of May ; the sowing must not be delayed, as the plant is liable to injury from the slightest frosts. The harvesting of the ears takea place in November, when the grain is quite hard. The crop will yield,. according to Oobbett, 100 ;bnshels to the acre, but 75 is perhaps a Iftrge crpp. Indian com is not subject to blight, smut, pr mildew ; the grain weighs 60 lbs. tp thP hushql and yields but little chaff. The stiraw is very valuable. The husk is used fpr gtufi^iig mattresses, and the pith of thexobs, wh|Bn cpmpletely dried alpng with the staft, is good fuel. THE BEAN. This grain grpws best pn such spUs as are suited fpr wheat, clays and strpng loams ; many varieties of beans are cultivated byigardeners, but by the agriculturist two sorts only are in cpmmpn use, hprse- bqans and ticks ; the Mazagan and Heligoland are pc^asionaUy seen, but are not common crops, The large ticks are preferred g-enerally by farmers ; they ripen ■ earlier and produce heavy crops, and although the small sorts are most liked in the stable and fetch the highest price, yet the increased quantity of the large kinds more than complensates for the want of price. Horse-beans grow taller than the ticks, bnt do not carry so many pods ; there are niany varieties of tick be^ns, aa flat ticks, May beans, Essex ticks, nearly to the garden peas ; their flowers are of a rich pui-ple, and the seeds variously coloured, as blue, gray, dun, or speckled. The early gray pea is the one most generally cultivated as food for stock; The period for sowing extends from the end of February until the beginning of May, but it is best, to plant early. In the neighbourhood of London and other large towns a great profit is made by the growers of peas, if they can be got early , and gathered green for the table. Nothing can be more profitable than this, as the land will be ready by the middle of June for a crop of turnips in the same season. PEAS AND BUCKWHEAT. 263 Peas will grow on stiff soils, but the best land for them is good loam, of a moderate degree of sandiaess, and thoroughly dry. In the order of rotation, peas may succeed to any com crop, as they (if well cultivated) may Be treated as a cleaning crop, and precede the wheat, as is done with beans. The produce of the pea crop is very uncertain, as it is subjected to aU sorts of ravages as seed in the ground, and while growing. The yield will depend entirely upon the state of the atmosphere when the plant flowers, and nothing is known as to how this effect is produced ; but certain it is that the same kind of peas sown on precisely similar ground, and which may flower a few days earlier or later than others, wUl produce large crops, while the other produce scarcely any. In many parts of England the pea crop succeeds grass and clover, but a crop of oats may then be taken and the pea crop follow. When the pea succeeds a corn crop, the land is ploughed in the autumn, and cross-ploughed and harrowed in the spring ; the peas may then be either dibbled, drilled, or sown broadcast, — the latter plan is decidedly objectionable. Land should be manured in the autumn if intended for peas, as new dung is said to make the plants grow straw and not rich grain. A lime dressing always has a good effect on this crop. Peas are given to horses with their oats, and are excellent for fattening hogs ; large quantities are also used for human food after being rid of the husk, and are termed split-peas. The straw is most excellent fodder for all kinds of stock. BUCKWHEAT. Buckwheat is much more cultivated in some countries than it is in England. In the East it is used as bread corn, and also in some countries in Europe. In Russia it forms a considerable portion of the food of the people. In Germany and Poland a large breadth of land is annually covered with it. It grows best on soils of the lighter kinds, and wiU also grow on very poor soils. The land is prepared as for the cultivation of peas, and the buckwheat is sown broadcast at the rate of from one to one and a half bushels per acre ; it produces from twenty-five to thirty bushels per acre, varying, of course, according to situation and richness of the land. A peculiarity of this plant is that the seeds do not ripen all at once. They are excellent food for poultry and hogs, and it is often grown in small patches in the neighbourhood of preserves as food for pheasants. Buckwheat -will not make bread well, but is excellent when prepared 264 MODEEN HUSBAUDKY. in the form of cakes. The straw is of little value as fodder. On land deficient in vegetable matter, buckwheat may be grown with great advantage for the purpose of being turned in by the plough, as is done sometimes in the case of turnips ; but tit is not indicative of good husbandry to plough in green crops, as the advantages of properly feeding them oif with stock are so much more numerous and important. TURNIPS (Brasska Rapa). Turnips, as field-crops, were introduced into England about two centuries since, and fijst cultivated (it is supposed) in the county of Norfolk. Since that time the practice of growing them has gradually spread all over the kingdom, and has contributed more than any other improvement in rural economy to the advancement of agri- cultiire. Before their introduction, it was difficult to manage the lighter and poorer class of soils, for, as no green crops Were in use, after having grown a crop of grain, no other course was left but to let them remain in pasture until the fertility was restored. The fattening of stock during winter was also a difficult matter, as nothing but hay or cut straw was much used, and, in consequence, the advantage of making, during winter, a large bulk of manure was lost. Turnips are now grown largely throughout all England and Scotland, but not so much in Ireland as could be wished. The best soil for turnips is a dry-bottomed, sandy loam, b;it, with proper management, there are few soils upon which good crops may not be obtained ; the exceedingly stiff clays are the worst. The kinds cultivated may be divided into three classes, known as the globe turnip, the Norfolk turnip, and the tankard turnip. The globe turnip, as its name expresses, is of a globular shape ; the Norfolk turnip is a flattened or depressed globe ; and the tankard turnip is fusiform. They are further distinguished by the colour of that part of the root which grows above the ground ; this is either red, white, or green. Another distinction is the colour of the internal portion of the root, in some it being quite white, and in others warm yellow. Boots of the latter coloiu: are the hardiest, and best resist the frosts of winter ; these are again distinguished by the colour of the roots above ground, which is sometimes a- dark purple and sometimes green. Another class are called Swedes or Swedish turnips. These are by far the most valuable as food for stock, and will withstand the winter better than any other kind. Of these different classes there are an immense number of varieties. TURNIPS. 265 named after the growers, the places where the crops may have been raised, the shape of the root, or the time of ripening. The white, or Norfolk turnip, was the first one introduced, and is the most cultivatedf It produces heavy crops, and comes early into use. It grows very large, partly out of the ground ; it is very sweet and much liked by sheep, but does not keep so well as some other varieties. The stone turnip, another variety of the purely white turnip, is much more nutritious, and growing entirely in the ground, resists the frost better, but it does not grow to a large size. The yellow turnip is an intermediate class between the white and the Swede. It is very hardy, grows slowly, and comes into use after the white globe. There are great varieties of this kind more or less merging into either the white turnip or the Swede. The Swedish turnip, ruia haga, is comparatively of late introduction into this country ; it is the hardiest kind known, the frost rarely having any effect upon it. The true sort has yellow flesh, and is without a stem ; it is apt to degenerate, either by the flesh becoming white, or by the crown running up into a stem. The root of the Swede is more solid, and its leaves more palatable than those of the common turnip ; but the great value of this root is, that it wiU remain through the winter uninjured, and so may be used as food for stock at that critical period that intervenes between the com- pleted consumption of the white turnip crops and the growth of the new grass. The management of the Swedes is, in every respect, the same as for white turnips ; but the ground upon which they are planted must ^be of good quality, and liberally dressed with manure. The preparation of the land for the turnip crop is a matter of considerable importance. Immediately after harvest the land should be deep-ploughed, and care be taken that no water is allowed to remain on the surface. In the following spring, after the sowing of the spring corn, the land being sufficiently dry, the preparation must be resumed — that will be in the latter end of May or beginning of June. The land must then be cross-ploughed, and well worked over with the harrows in every direction to thoroughly clean it. The Crosskill clod-crusher and grubber will also materially assist in this business if the land be foul and cloddy, the rubbish being got together in heaps to be mixed with lime for compost, or burned. The land having been thoroughly prepared and reduced to a fine even tilth, it is formed into drills or single-bout ridglets from 27 to 30 inches from centre to centre. The dung, which is the manure 966 MODERN HUSBANDKY. generally applied for this crop, is then brought in single horse carts and evenly placed on the bottoms of the furrows. This being done, a double mould-board plough splits the ridge between the furrows and covers the dung, as here sh§sm. A more detailed account of the method of spreading the manure and sowing on ridges will be found described at page 271, the turnip drill wUl be found under the head of sowing machines. This operation is sometimes performed by the common plough in two turns. A light roller, which covers two drills, and therefore passes twice over the same ground, is then passed over the tops of the ridges to flatten and compress them ; the seed is then sown by means of a small seed-barrow drill attached to it. It is a very simple machine and works very well. A triangular shaped box, supported on two wheels, contains the[seed, and revolving in it is a small brush similar to a seed-machine ; the brush forces the seed through a small perforated plate ; a coulter moving in front opens a small drill into which the seed falls ; the earth is then raked over th& seed by a forked piece of iron or a loop of chain, which some persons consider better. This is the most ordinary and simple manner of drilling turnips ; but very superior machines are manu- factured now for sowing either the seed alone or with manure, either on the flat or on the ridge. These wiU be found described under the head of " Sowing Machines." Turnips are often sown on the flat, but ridges are preferred by many. Broadcast sowing of turnips is not now much practised, as the horse-hoeing cannot be applied, nor is it so advantageous in many other respects. Enough seed should always be sown to allow for the risk of loss from the attacks of insects, and other contingencies. About two pounds to an acre will be enough. After the sowing has been com- pleted, the plants generally make their appearance in about ten days or a fortnight, according to circumstances. When they are in rough leaf and about three inches high, the process of horse-hoeing commences, to destroy any weeds that may have come up two or three days afterwards ; they are hand-hoed and pieced out into spaces about ten inches or a foot apart ; after that they must be singled, that is, out of every bunch of plants left when pieced oflF, the strongest must be selected and allowed to remain ; the rest are pulled up. This operation must be carefully done, and the earth TURNIPS. 267 brought up to the roots of the plants left. As soon as the weeds again appear, the hoe must be again at work, and again if necessary until the broad leaves of the plant quite coyer the ground. In the cultivation of this crop no expense must be grudged to get it as clean as possible, and to do everything in the most perfect manner. "When the bulbs are well formed, or bottled, as it is called, a double mould-board plough is passed between the rows to earth them well up ; but this must not be done to excess, as the deep furrows are inconvenient when the sheep are feeding. Pat sheep falling on their backs in the furrows cannot turn themselves, and may die if not observed. The culture of the turnip is then concluded. Towards the end of October or beginning of November, when the pastures fail, the turnips may be used for food, either as feed for sheep on the ground where they grew, or they may be carried on to pasture lands, or to the homestead for other stock, or they may be stored for after use ; if the latter plan be adopted they should be removed from the field before the frost touches them. Previous to storing them the tap-root and top leaves must be removed, but not so as to injure the bulb. Turnips may be stored either in covered buildings, in pits, or in heaps ; the latter plan is preferred. The heaps should be about eight feet wide at the base, of any length, and piled as high as they will stand ; the heap is then thatched with straw and secured with straw ropes. Some persons make wattled walls round the heaps, and thatch above that. The point is, to secure ventilation, and, at the same time, keep out the frost. Turnips will, if carefully stored, keep a long time ; but they are not so nutritious after being kept long as when first gathered up. The manner of eonsumiag turnips on the ground is described under the head of " Sheep." The turnip crop is liable to a variety of casualties, more especially in the early state of its growth, either from want of moisture when the seed germinates, or afterwards from the attacks of the tumip-fly, a species of beetle that attacks the young plant. It is considered safe from this when the leaves appear rough. A vigorous growth, therefore, is the most likely thing to escape its ravages. There are other insects that attack the plant in its later stages, but not so frequently. They are also subject to a species of blight or canker, which prevents their growing. The roots, instead of enlarging, form excrescences, and are distasteful to cattle. A maggot is found in them when they begiu to decay. This destructive disease is well known, and is generally called " fingers and 268 MODBEN HTTSBANDEY. toes." If It appears very prevalent in a partibirlar locality, it is better to substitute some other crop for a time, and! it mil disapprear entirely. Turnips are grown chiefly by tbe aid of artificial manures, such as bones, guano, preparations of night-soil, ammonia, and many others. These will be found described under the head of " Manures." Machines for washing and slicing turnips will be found described with the machinery of the homestead. CABBAGE (Brasdoa ileraoa). Cabbage, as food for cows and sheep, is now beginning to be much esteemed, and large crops of it are cultivated in many parts of England. There are a great many varieties of the cabbage tribe, but only a few are cultivated in the fields. The sorts most used are the drumhead, and large Scotch, and Torkshire. In Jersey and Guernsey cabbages are much cultivated ; they are sown in beds in autumn, and planted out in succession in the months of November. In April the leaves are stripped off and given to tlie stock, often haviug been boiled with farinaceous food. The leaives continue to grow during the summer, until the plant attains several feet in height. Cabbages may be cultivated in exactly the same way as turnips, but it is better to plant them out from beds, and the ground must be heavily manured. I am assured by some Cheshire farmers of celebrity, who cultivate drumhead cabbage largely, that their cows do better upon them than on any other food. Cabbages do not keep like other roots, they must therefore be consumed early. KOLL-RABI. This plant is much cultivated in Germany, and has been tried iu England, but with partial success. It produces a root much like a turnip, but entirely above ground, and has stems bearing leaves branching out from it. It keeps better than any other of the cabbage tribe, and I have seen it growing on land where no cabbages could be obtained. The manner of cultivating it is much the same as for turnips. RAPE {Brassica napm). On soils that are too stiff for turnips, rape is often used as a substitute, upon which to feed sheep, and it may be grown for that purpose on any description of land. The quantity of seed per acre is about four pounds, generally sown EAPE. — BEET. 269 at,tbrep different periods, between the middle of May and tte end of June, the sheep being put upon it three months after. It is often sown broadcast upon a fallow and left to its fate, being neither hoed nor cleaned ; but this is a most improper practice — the drUl and horse- hpe should be used, and the plant cultivated with care. It is some- times sown in August, as spring feed for ewes and lambs, but it produces only light crops. Sheep are very fond of rape when the plant is luxuriant, and the stem thick, and they will then fatten rapidly upon it, preferring the stalk and the pith it contains to the leaves. Hape is cultivated in a manner very similat to the turnip, only the rows are not bo far apart, being just sufficient to work a horse-hoe. It is often cultivated on the flat, in drills. Bolxes are much employed as manure, and are sown ground fine, being drilled in with the sepd. Bape may be sown when the time has. passed for getting in turnips, apd if ithe corn harvest is early, the stubble may be ploughed and rape put in for spring feed. It is in a sort of intermediate system of cropping that rape is of most value. It may be mown for forage, and will spripg again, but it is always best to feed it off. MANGOLD WUEZEL, OR FIELD BEET. Tbis useful plant was first introduced into Eqgland for general use about the year 1786, by Thomas Boothby Parkyns, Esq., residing at Metz ; he sent a packet of the seed to the late Sir Richard Jebb, Bart., which he presented to the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, &c., and by the secretary some of the seed was presented to a few of the members, among whom Dr. John -Cpakley Letsom was included. He so successfully cultivated this plant, that at one time it had almost acquired the name of Letsom in consequence. It is now grown moat extensively all over England, for the genial climate of which it is very well suited. Like most other plants, the field beet flourishes most in deep moderately moist loams ; but it will grow well on clayey, peaty, and moderately calcareous soils, and on fresh broken up pasture. On the light sand, gravels, chalk, and very stiff clay, it wiU not . grow with flidvaiitage. Beet, unlike the turnip, likes dryness and warjnth, and flourishes in the neighbourhood of the sea ; a wild kind is often found growing upon its shores. The kind3 generally cultivated for feeding cattle are the long red, the long yellow, the red and yellow globe, and the horn beet (a variety pf the long red) ; a great many 270 MODERN HUSBANDIIY. varieties are obtaiaed by hybridising, wbich have local and peculiar names, but they all partake more or less of the species mentioned. The globe beet is preferred for light land beet. Mangold wurzel succeeds best with deep cultivation, and exhibits in a great degree, the benefits of the subsoil plough. As a general rule, beet is grown as a fallow crop, after wheat oi: oats, and followed by barley or wheat. Land intended to be sown with beet should be prepared in the autumn, as it requires to be planted early in the spring ; the prepara- tions should therefore commence immediately the corn is removed. If the stubble is very clean it will merely require common ploughing, but if it is foul, then it must be broken up with a skeleton plough or scairifier, and afterwards worked over with the drag and harrows until made quite clean and brought to a good tilth ; this having been done about Christmas, if it can be managed, the land should be ploughed into three rod lands. A small description of subsoil plough or Bead's subsoil pulveriser, should follow the ordinary plough, stirring the soU as deep as possible. The furrows of the land should be ploughed so that the horses do not trample on the first-ploughed land ; no more preparation is then needed untO. the time approaches for sowing, previous to which a slight scarifying, roUing, and harrowing, may- do good. Manure for mangold may be either farm-yard dung or artificial manures, or both. Farm-yard manure is mostly applied, though a dressing of part dung and part artificial manure (such as guano) drilled in with the seed is frequently used, and is perhaps better than dung alone, though it is better to depend entirely on dung than entirely on artificial manure. The time for sowing is April and the beginning of May ; the time varying, of course, with the weather and land. The following plan of operations is extracted from the Prize Essay on Beet Cultivation by Mr. Eaynbird in the E. A. S. Journal, Yol. 8', Part I. " In commencing ridging and manuring, the following is the plan pursued, the great object being to cover the manure before it becomes wasted by evaporation, and to drill the seed before the land gets dry on the surface : — Three acres are ridged, manured, the manure covered in, the ridge roUed, and the seed drilled in and then rolled ; to effect this one man is employed drawing out- the ridges at 27 inches, with a double mould-board plough drawn by a pair of horses, and another man, with a similar plough, splitting the ridges to cover the manure ; about fourteen two-horse loads of dung are BEET. 271 applied per acre, and, to manure three acres, it will require three carts and five horses, the manure heap being conveniently placed in the field ; — viz., one cart filling at hill, one cart going and returning to the hill, and one unloading ; three men filling manure, two boys driving, two men throwing off the manure from the cart, and four or five women or boys spreading the dung in the ridges. The manure is spread by the two men, one standing on each side of the cart over the five, ridges, or rather five furrows, the horses being kept at slow, walking pace by a boy who rides the shaft horse. As soon as spread from the cart, the boys and women divide and shake the manure with forks evenly at the bottom of the furrows, and the plough follows closely upon them to cover in the dung before the gaseous parts fly off altogether and the liquid becomes wasted by evaporation. After the ridges have lain exposed to the air a short time they are rolled with a light roller, and the seed drilled, from 4 to 5 lb., according to its quaUty, with a one-horse driU (which sows three acres in about two hours), the coulters of which have universal joints, so that they will admit of both lateral and perpendicular motion. The coulters, three in number, being fitted with handles, are steered by a man and a boy ; by this means the drills are kept exactly on the top of the ridge (which would not be the case if the coidters were fixed) and at equal distance from each other. This is important because the horse-hoe has to work between the rows. " The depth at which the seed is deposited is thus regulated with great exactness, for the person steering has nothing to do but to elevate or depress his hand as the soil varies in solidity, and by that means secure an uniform depth, which is essential in sowing beet, because if planted very deep the seed does not vegetate, and if very shallow it does not grow, if dry weather foUow. As a general rule we driU beet seed rather deeper than Swedes. The light roller is again used after the driU, the whole of the manure (with the exception of about five ridges for the plough to begin on the next morning) being ploughed, and the seed drilled on all the finished ridges, will complete the day's work." When artificial manure is used in addition to the dung, it is either spread by hand on the dung in the ridges, or a manure driU is employed, but the spreading by hand is preferred. Beet is grown on the flat as well as in ridges, and is often dibbled, and, in some cases, artificial manure placed under the seed as described in the article on turnips. Steeping the seeds in soft water is considered by some to be of great consequence, while others attach no importance to it unless 272 MODERX HUSBA>"DEY. it is important to hasten its germination by the, sowing having been deferred till late. If it be steeped it cannot be properly drilled, unless it be agaui dried, which is tantamount to :destroying the seed. It is a common practice on light soils to leave pne-fourth of the ridges to be planted with turnips, to be fed pff with the leaves of the beet, after the roots haveTbeen carried away. As soon as the njangold is well up, the horse-hoe, share, or skim shoiild be got to work. Three acres may be done in a day by one man and horse ; the plants must then he pieced out at disl^ances varying from fourteen to eighteen . inches, as may be thought expedient, and afterwards women carefully look over the plants and pull out all those that are unnecessary, thus making the rows perfect. Storing the Crop. — The usual time for taking up and storing the crop is the end of October or beginning of November; the earlier time is best. Dry weather should always be chosen for storing crops of any kind. The beet is withdrawn from the land with as little injury to it as possible, land laid in heaps at small distances apart, between every fifth double row of plants. The leaves of this root are excellent food for ,cattlei, ,and are fed off either by folding sheep on the land, or by carrying them .to pastures. Beet is TisnaHy stored at the head of the field where it is grown, in heaps of any length, but about six feet high and four feet wide, tapering up from the ground to a sharp angle ; it is then thatched with straw a foot thick, and, a few days afterwards, two trenches are cut, one on each side the heap, and the mould taken from them is laid all over the straw except at the ridge. It is there left exposed, that the heap may vi^ntil^te through the straw and prevent heating ; or bundles of straw made up like faggots may be placed at convenient distances, and, the heap then covered up everywhere else. The best plan is to leave the ridge open. Many plans are ad'-pted for storing beet, but this is the simplest and cheapest, and has been found to answer very well. Beet may thus be kept till spring in a perfectly secured state, and, of course, is then of great value for spring feed. No other plant will keep so well and so long ; hence its great value as food for stock when Swedes and turnips may have been exhausted. THE CARROT {Daueus Carota). The carrot is of the natural order UmbelliferfB, some species of which are poisonous, ,and others, like the carrot, Mghly nutritious. The wild carrot is well known as the weed palled bird's-jiest, which CAHiioTS. 273 bears, in appearance, not the slightest resemblance to a cultivated carrot. Carrots require a deep sandy soil, free from large stones, and they will not grow on stiff clays ; peaty soils- will, however, some- times produce good crops. In preparing land for the carrot crop, it is most important to plough as deep as possible, and after the plough has opened a furrow follow it either with Eead's subsoil pulveriser, or an ordinary plough from which the mould board has been removed ; this should be done before winter. In spring it should be well cross ploughed, harrowed, andmade thoroughly clean ; in fact, it must be ploughed and hari-owed over and over again, until the soil is light, friable, and in as good tilth as a garden bed. The seed may be sown broadcast or drilled. In Belgium, and those parts of England where carrots are much cultivated, it is generally sown broadcast, but then the land milst be thoroughly free from weeds ; if it be not so, it is better to drill, that the hand and horse hoe may be freely used ; carrot seed does not drill well, the seeds cling together, but if some dry fine wood ashes be mixed with the seed, this difiiculty will b'e considerably removed ; from seven to eight pounds of seed per acre will be required when sown broadcast ; the sowing should not be later than April. As soon as the plants can be distiactly seen they must be hoed to distances of four inches apart ; great care will be necessary in doing this, there being some weeds resembling the carrot so closely that many true plants may be hoed up by mistake ; about three weeks afterwards they must be again hoed out to double distances, so leaving the plants about eight inches apart. The crop will, generally, be ready to store in October ; sometimes they are allowed to remain in the ground and drawn for use as required. The kinds most in use are the long red, orange, and Altringham. The Belgian, or white carrot, is now much cultivated ; the following is an account of a crop of this root grown by J. Morton, Esq. : — " The seed was sown in the second- w'eek in April on land that had been ploughed ten inches deep. It was sown on the flat in rows eighteen inches apart, by the common Suffolk drill. The seed had been mingled with damp sand for several days previous, as well to sprout it partially as to render it capable of being drilled, as carrot seed clings so much together. They were singled out; when a fortnight old, to intervals of six inches in the row, and two horse-hoeiags, with a hand hoeing whenever the weeds made their appearance, was all the cultivation thev received. 274 MODERN HUSBANDUY. " The result is a crop not only much more raluable per ton than any other green crop we have, but also heavier per acre, and raised at an expense less, by at least one half, than that attending the cultivation of the turnip. " The crop was at the rate of 26 tons 3 cwt. per acre. " The soil a deep sandy loam, of the new red sandstone formation." THE PARSNEP {Paatinaca). This is an exceedingly valuable root, and not half so much cultivated as it ought to be ; it is highly nutritious, and cattle are very fond of it. To milch cows it is always acceptabie, and gives the milk and butter a richness that no other winter food, except carrots, can do. Parsneps are chiefly cultivated in the islands of Jersey and Guernsey; the Jersey parsneps are those usually cultivated in England, both in the garden and the field. The parsnep will thrive in any deep land, but the most favourable to its growth is the soil resting on granite, or sienite ; on poor sands it forks off into clubs, but if they are well dug and dressed the largest roots may be obtained ; fresh broken grass leys produce large crops. Parsnep seed should always be fresh ; if kept long it will not vegetate, although it may have been kept dry and look well ; three or four pounds is usually sown. The plants require frequent hoeing, constant weeding, and the ground occasionally stirred between them ; they should not be less than nine inches apart. This root requires a deep richly-manured soil and good cultivation, and if these things can be effected, I believe a good crop may be always obtained. Parsneps are sown both broadcast and in drills, the latter method is the best, when the land is well harrowed and levelled drill in the seed, as with other crops ; parsnep seed should be damped before sowing, but that renders it diificult to drill, consequently many sow it broadcast and- afterwards hoe it into drills ; if moistened seeds be sown during very hot weather they are apt to get dried up ; if possible the ground should be moist when the sowing takes place. The crop should be taken up in October or November, though parsneps are not much injured by frost, and probably if earthed up would stand through the winter. The average weight per statute acre in the island of Jersey is about 10 or 12 tons, but as much as 27 tons have been grown. POTATOES. 275 Parsneps will fatten oxen, pigs, and, if boiled, poultry, with great rapidity ; they wiU keep if stored dry until April ; 1000 parts of parsneps, according to Sir H. Davy, afford 90 parts of saccharine matter and 9 parts of mucilage, which accounts for its butyraceous and fattening qualities. THE POTATO {Solamtm. tiiberomm). This root is said to be the most precious gift of the new world to the old. It was brought to England from Yirginia by Sir Walter Ealeigh. It had not met with much favour at first, but is now most extensively cultivated aU. over Europe. Previous to the attacks of that dreadful disease which has annually destroyed such a great breadth of crop it was considered to be peculiarly free from the hazards that attend most other crops, its tubers being ripened in the earth, and thereby much protected. It is now, however, one of the most uncertain of all the crops cultivated either in the fields or the garden. I have this autumn (1853) made a tour through a great part of Ireland, and am sorry to find the potatoes in a very bad state. The crop, however, is unusually large, which may help to compensate in some measure for the loss of a large portion of it. It is a remarkable fact that the consumption of potatoes would go on increasing in spite of the price if they were to be had ; so much have they become a part of the food of the people that they are equally in demand be the price high or low. The potato grows with a succulent branching stem and bears white and purplish flowers. The fruit is a globular green berry when young, but blackens as it ripens. In this the seeds are contained- The roots have numerous tubers attached to them of various forms, in general oblong and round. The potato is propagated from its seeds for the purpose of obtain- ing new varieties, but the ordinary plan is by planting the tubers which produce new plants similar to the old ones, and yield the full produce in one year. If the seeds are planted this will not be the case. One tuber usually contains several buds or eyes, as they are tech- nically called, and from each of these germens a stem will shoot ; it is therefore not necessary to plant a whole tuber. The potato is there- fore cut into pieces, each piece containing at least one bud or eye. A difference of opinion exists as to whether it is best to plant one whole small potato or one eye of a large one. , I have seen some experi- T 2 276 , MODEXN HUSBANDRY. ments tried* the results of whicli showed that one eye or set from a large fine tuher produced a better plant than the whole of an inferior tuber, but I believe, nevertheless, that the whole of a good tuber is likely to produce a better plant than a part of one. Gardeners who cultivate for very early crops and choice plants, enter into great refinements about the seed, sorting out the eyes from difierent parts of the tuber for particular objects ; nothing of this sort is necessary for growing on a large scale ; the only thing is to take care that good tubers are chosen for seed, the common practice being to plant any rubbish, to which the name of a potato can be applied. There are great varieties of potatoes as well as of other plants, but the principal division is that of the early and late sorts. The earlier sorts are raised chiefly in gardens, the latter in fields, though there is no reason whatever why they should not be grown early in the field if any advantages are to be gained from it. The soils best adapted for the potato are dry, light, rich loams, containing much vegetable matter. Soils termed peaty produce potatoes of good quality. The potato forms a good preparatory crop for wheat ; its place ia the rotation is therefore after a crop of corn aiid preceding one, a heavy dressing of dung being laid on for it. Ail fresh broken-up ground as inferior pastures or plantations pro- duce heavy crops. Land intended for potatoes must be deeply and well ploughed and harrowed, as early in spring as it can be conveniently done. It is then worked in single or double bout drills, the distance from centre to centre being about thirty inches. The dung is spread in. the trenches in the same manner as described for turnips, the sets are laid upon it, and the ridges then split with a double mould board plough. Twentj' tons of good dung per acre is a moderate dressing for this crop, as the quahty of the tuber is bad if the land be nofr rich. The sets should be cut some days before planting, that they may skui ; they will then be less likely to rot. The usual period for planting is during the month of April, but it may be continued till the middle of May. Early potatoes are planted in the middle of March. A fortnight after planting the whole field is harrowed to partially level it. As soon as the plants are above ground and the rows apparent, the horse-hoe may be carefully passed between. them, and then the space between the plants hand-hoed. After about a fortnight this will require to be repeated, and if the land be very foul it may require POTATOES, 377 doing a thiid time. The last operation is to earth them up. This is done by passing a double mould board plough between the rows which carries the earth well up to the roots ; after that the plant may be left to itself. It v/ill grow rapidly, and soon entirely coyer the ground. Sometimes potatoes are planted on the flat and dibbled, a hole being made with a dibber, and the set dropped in. This is not a good plan at any time, and if the land be wet it is a very bad one, as the effect of the dibber is to puddle and consolidate the earth round the spot where the plant lies ; if the land be wet, water will drain to it and the plant will rot. Market gardeners prefer forming a trench and laying the sets in their places, afterwards covering them over. In Ireland a favourite plan of planting potatoes is, on what are properly called, lazy beds ; in this case the sets are laid on a piece of ground and earth taken, from trenches cut parallel with the beds spread over them. It is true that large crops (when dung has been liberally supplied) have been raised on this plan ; but there is no proof that larger might not have been got if they had been properly planted. The plan is peculiar to Ireland, and it is better that it should remain so. The potatoes, when ripe, are removed from the' -ground, either by digging with a three-pronged fork, or they are ploughed out. To do this the coulter of a plough is removed, and it is passed along, deep, under the centre of the ridge opening up one-half of it. A number of persons must be at hand to_ pick up the tubers and place them in baskets or sacks ;' the plough then returns, and casts out the other half of the drill, but at the third bout. It is most important that the potatoes should be taken up in dry weather and before frost "Wheat generally succeeds potatoes, the ground being well prepared for it by such crop, Potatoes in some cases 'have been planted in the month of November, and being kept covered with litter and placed deep in the ground, they have been harvested in the beginning of May, but this can only be done i4 garden culture. Potatoes are either sold as food for human beings or they are used as food for stock both raw and in a cooked state. It is much the best plan to cook them first; to hogs they never should be given raw. Horses thrive well on boiled or baked potatoes and cut straw, and for hogs no food is equal to it. The potato is liable to several diseases, one called the curl ; but a far more destructive one has now seized upon it, of which no satisfactory account has yet been given. 278 MODERN HtrSBANDEY. It attacks all kinds of plants, the early and late, those on the dry or the -wet land, on the hills and in the valleys. I never yet heard of any locality or description of the root that escaped it. The produce of the potato varies greatly ; about 400 bushels to the acre is considered a good crop. Potatoes are generally stored in heaps or pits, well covered with straw, and earth placed on the top of that ; funnels of straw are placed at intervals to procure ventilation. They will keep well when so cared for ; the pits must be excavated in a dry place. In Eussia potatoes are preserved through the severest winters in the following manner : — A building is erected over a pit sunk two feet in the ground, the walls and roof being formed of turf, and the whole inside lined with boards. On the most sheltered side a small door is placed, and kept covered with bundles of straw to prevent the ingress of air. The interior is divided into compartments reaching along the side. Into these the potatoes are piled in heaps and reaching nearly to the roof. No straw is used inside, and the potatoes keep remarkably well. Close apartments, as cellars, are not good places in which to store potatoes. In dry sandy counties nothing surpasses excavations. The great importance of carefully preserving this valuable, but unfortunately now precarious crop, renders any information upon the subject of value; I have, therefore, thought it prudent to introduce the advice laid down by the Commissioners appointed by Government to inquire into the best means of treating the plant in Ireland. ADVICE CONCERNING THE POTATO CROP. " The dreadful disease that has attacked your potatoes is one the effects of which you can only stop by strict attention to those interested in your welfare. Many plans have been proposed, and after examining them all, we recommend the following as the best ; and all competent persons are of opinion that the first things to bear in mind are the following directions : — " Dig your potatoes in dry weather if you can, and if you cannot get them dry somehow as fast as you can. " Keep them dry and cool ; keep the bad potatoes separate from the good. Do not pit your potatoes as you have been accustomed to in former years. EecoUect, that if they get damp, nothing can make them keep ; and do not consider them dry unless the mould, which sticks to them, is like dust. Do not take them into your houses, imless you want them for immediate use. POTATOES. 279 " Digging and drying. — As you dig the potatoes leave tliem in the sun all day, and, if you can, throw them upon straw, turning them over two or three times. At night you may gather them together and cover them with straw so as to keep off/rost. Next day take off the straw, spread them out and give them the sun again. Do this for three days running, if the weather permit. If you put straw enough upon them at night they will not suffer. If the weather be unfavourable, and you have a dry lofb or out-house large enough to hold them, you may spread them thinly on the floor, allowing a free circulation of air so as to dry them there. Thet must be GOT DBT, " Sorting the Potatoes. — As soon as they are dry you must sort them. Pick them one by one, and put in one heap those that are bad, and iu another those that are not so^bad, and in a third those that are sound. Treat the bad potatoes as shall afterwards be directed ; and store the sound ones according to the directions given in the next paragraph. " Tou win know the very bad potatoes by their unpleasant smeU, and the second set by their skin looking brown and dull, and not bright as it generally does. A very little practice will teach you how to distinguish them easily from each other. "Storing. — When the potatoes are quite dry and well sorted proceed to store them thus : — Mark on the ground a space six feet wide and as long as you please. Dig a shallow trench two feet wide all round, and throw the mould upon the space, then level it, and cover it with a floor of turf sods set on their edges. On this sift or spread, very thinly, the dry mixtures or any of the dry materials described below, and called the packing stuff; also, get some dry slaked Hme, and dust all the potatoes with it as well as you can ; then put one row of turf sods, laid flat on the top of the floor, aU round the sides, so as to form a broad edge, and within this spread the dry potatoes mixed well with the packing stuff so that they do not touch one another. " When you have covered the floor in this manner up to the top of the sods, lay another row of sods aU round the first, so that half of each sod may rest upon the bed of potatoes, and the other half on the first layer of sods ; this will make another edge one sod deep which must be filled up with dry potatoes and any packing stuff as before. Then lay another edge of sods in the same way, fill -it again, and so go on tiU. the heap is made. When the building of this pit is finished it may be covered with sods at the top and will be ready for thatching. If rightly made it wiU look like the roof of a cottage. 280 MODERN HHSBANDEY. " Packing Stuff. — This, which is of the greatest consequence, may- be prepared in either of the following ways ; some of you may prefer the one and some the other. "First way. — Mix a harreLof freshly-burned unslaked lime with two barrels of sand or earth as dry as you possibly can get it ; the lumps of lime should be broken into pieces as large as marbles, and the mixtures should be- left twenty-four hours ; at the end of that time turn the heap well over, mixing together the lime and sand (or other dry materials) till no' lump of lime can be found. " Second way. — Mix well equal quantities of earth and broken turf, or dry sawdust ; put a few sods of lighted turf on the ground, pla«e the mixture on them, till, by degrees, a large heap is made ; in a few hours the fire will haye spread through the heap, which is then to be covered with earth so as to put out the fire ; in fact, this is to be managed just as if you were burning land. This burned mixture forms a very good kind of packing stuff, perhaps as good as the mixture of lime with the dry materials." LUCEENE {Medkarjo sativa). Although this valuable plant has been so little appreciated and cultivated by English farmers, on the continent it has been for ages an ordinary tfrop and highly esteemed. Lucerne grows, when cultivated, from eighteen inches to three feet in height ; it has a perennial root and is covered with leaves having a downy under surface ; the flower is of a purple violet colour. The best time for sowing it is before 'the middle of April ; it flowers in June and July ; when sown broadcast, about sixteen or eighteen pounds to the acre are required, but when drilled ten pounds will be suflicient. The soil should be well prepared by deep ploughing and a previous summer fallow or a fallow crop ; the ground must be thoroughly clean and in good heart, and, if deep, tilth.' When the plants appear, the greatest care must be taken of them by eradicating all weeds as soon as they make their appearance. The rows when drilled should be about eighteen or twenty inches apart, to give ample room for hoeing. In the month of August of the first year it may be mown while in flower, afterwards it may be fed off with sheep during dry weather only. In the following spring the earth must be moved between the rows, and every weed that may appear eradicated. It will be ready to cut in the month of May, and, if properly attended to, it may be mowed four or five times afterwards during the same season, but it POTATOES. 281 does not arrive at its full growth until the third year ; it will then amply repay, by a continuation of rich and luxuriant crops, the trouble' bestowed upon it preyiously. If not sown in drills, the weeds must be eradicated by careful harrowing ; this will effect the object, as the roots of the lucerne are much stronger than those of most weeds, and instead of being eradicated as they are, will be benefitted by the earth being moved a,bout them. The following statement in reference to this crop, by J. EodFell, from the E. A. S. Journal is of value : — " 1841. My growth of lacerne this year, in a field of eight acres of sandy soil, with dry sandy loam for its subsoil, being the third year's growth (the seed having been sowii with Bennett's seed engine, with a crop of barley), produced me on its first mowing this year (which commenced May 2ttth) six weeks' entire support for thirty horses, keeping them in good condition and in good health, with constant employment : the second mowing begun July 3rd, fed me twenty horses in six weeks ; and the third begun September 15th, supported thirty horses fourteen days. After which the autumnal feeding with sheep was equivalent in value to the expenses of cleaning, &c. in the previous spring, which was effected by the extensive use of the !Finlayson harrow, a process necessary every second or third year, if upon soils inclined to grass ; the only manure used upon this crop has been soot, at about the rate of thirty bushels to the acre, applied twice since the sowing in 1838." It would be unnecessary for me to offer any comment upon the practical utility of this valuable grass, further than by urging its cultivation on. all ; and merely to"add that in every case in which the land has been again returned to its ordinary culture of vegetable and corn produce, after having lain from eight to ten or twelve years in lucerne, it has invariably been more congenial to its production. Lucerne is both wholesome and nutritive as food for stock. Cows fed with it yield abundance of good milk, and horses do well upon it ; it comes to use earlier than clover, which is a great advantage. If it be not cultivated as a regular crop it will be found a most advantageous thing to have a small patch for occasional feed, and small plots, highly manured, have been known to support a larger amount of stock than the same breadth could of any other crop : lucerne is eminently suited for the application of manure in a liquid form. Medicoffofalcata, or yellow sickle medick, and Medicago lupulina, . black medick, are also occasionally cultivated, the latter often being called hop trefoil. 282 MODEllN HUSBAKDEY. SAINFOIN (Onohrichis mtiva). . Sainfoin is a native of Britain and is much cultivated for green food, more particularly on sandy, chalky, and calcareous soils generally. The root is perennial, striking very deep. The stem is branch- ing, and bears spikes of beautiful flowers. On rocky soils it flourishes most, its roots penetrating into crevices and fissures to an extraordinary depth. Wet clays are utterly unsuited to it ; down-land and calcareous sands are the best. It is sown in the same manner as clovers and grasses with a crop. In the following season it is mown for hay or for green food. It attains maturity in the third year. Sain- foin is usually mixed with white clover, but may be cultivated in drills in the same manner as Lucerne. "When sown broadcast from three to five bushels may be sown ; if drilled, half the quantity is sufficient. The time of sowing is usually from the middle of February to the end of March. Sainfoin is often used as a substitute for red- clover, as it wfll grow well on soils not adapted for that plant. It is a productive crop, and yields well. If made into hay care should be taken not to let it stand long, but cut it as soon as the flower is fully formed, and make it as quickly as possible, which may be done so soon as its liability to heat ceases. RYE GRASS. Perennial rye grass is a highly esteemed herbage plant, and one generally cultivated ; it comes early to maturity and is easily culti- vated. There are two kinds, the perennial and the annual, or more properly biennial rye grass ; the latter is preferred when the land is to be broken up after producing a crop of hay. It is extremely difficult to ascertain by the seed the difierence that exists between them, and thus frequent mistakes are made in their growth. ITALIAN EYE GRASS. This plant has but lately been generally introduced into England, although it has long Ijeen grown in Italy and other parts of Europe. It is of biennial duration, but by being cropped is mown before flower- ing. It may remain for several years in the ground. Experiments made by it show that animals prefer it to any other kind, and in analysis it gives more saccharine matter than the common rye grass. It has beensown with barley without hurting the crop, and by sow- EYE GKASS. 283 ing a little thinner it is found not to choke the clover in the first crop, while its quick growth enables it to keep a-head of it in the second, producing hay little inferior to the first. Italian rye grass gives the greatest results from the application of liquid manure. It wUl be found agaia alluded to under the head of Liquid Manure Irrigation. This crop is now highly esteemed, and getting fast into common use. It was at first disliked, and considered too exhausting a crop to be often adopted, but since the practice of using liquid manure it has become common. A great breadth of it has been sown. It may be mown many times in the year, and wUl grow almost any length if liberally supplied with liquid dressing, for which it seems to be particularly adapted. All animals eat it with great relish. The following is the result obtained on one farm, and which may give a better notion of its value than anything else that I could say about it. " Pifteen Scotch acres were under cultivation, some with seed supplied by Mr. Dickenson, whose successful cultivation of it by similar means, near London, has been long known. The first cutting of this had yielded about ten tons the acre, the second nine, and the third, which was ready for cutting, was estimated at eight or nine more. Some crops of turnips and cabbages were pointed out to us. For a good deal of the Italian rye grass not required for his own con- sumption he obtained upwards of thirteen shillings per ton, the profits of which, taking into account the yield before stated, may easily be imagined. " Mr. Dickenson, at "WiUesden, estimates his yield of Italian rye grass at from eighty to one hundred tons an acre, and gets eight or ten cuttings according to the season ; an d there is no peculiar advantage of soil or climate, the former ranging from almost pure sands to cold and tenacious clay, and the latter being inferior to that of a large portion of England. " At Myer Hall Farm, one field of rye grass sown in April, has been cut once, fed off twice with sheep, and was ready (August 20th) to be fed again. In another, after yielding four cuttings within the year, each estimated at nine or ten tons per acre, the value of the after- math for tte keep of sheep was stated at twenty-five shillings per acre. It seems that Italian rye grass with greater facility than any other plant receives its nourishment in the form of liquid manure. In fact the maximum of produce is not yet reached. It is an important fact that, however rank and luxuriant it may grow, animals eat it with the same avidity as they would the youngest shoots, and it never 284 MODEll>^ HUSBANDRY. lias the effect of scouring them, but, ou the contrary, they thrire better upon it than on a?iy other description of grass ■whatever." * TARES AND VETCHES. The tare, vetch, or fitch (Vicia sativa), has long been cultivated in , England ; it is considered to be a native plant ; it is also found in parts of Asia, and elsewhere. It is of hardy growth, and when sown upon rich land yields a very large amount of green fodder, adapted either to feed horses or fatten cattle. The varieties are either winter or spring tares,, and each h^ve local names to distinguish their peculiarities. The neiw varieties are obtained in the usual manner. The soil best adapted for tares is clay, but they may be cultivated on any tolerably good soil, provided it be not over dry. The preparation of the soil seldom consists of more than one ploughing if for autumn sowing, and of a winter and, spring ploughing if for spring sowing. Tares require the land to be well cultivated and stirred. The time of sowing will depend entirely upon the purpose for which they are intended to be used.- The winter variety is sown in September and October, and the first sowing in spring ought to be as early as the season will permit. If they are to be cut green for soiling throughout the, summer, which is the usual custom, successive sowings should follow until the end of May. Summer tares, when meant for seed, should be sown early ; but if for green food, any time between the 1st of April and the end of May, according to circumstances. In Belgium, tares are niuch used for winter fodder, being cut when in flower and made into hay. This is usually stored away in the roofs of the farm-houses or in barns, and is highly esteemed. Tares may be either sown broadcast or in rows. The quantity of seed per acre, from two to three bushels ; it must be protected fr6m birds, they beiag particularly fond of it. Tares are either eaten off the ground or eat with a scythe and carried to the stack ; the produce is about ten or twelve tons to the acre, or from four to six sacks of seed. - In reaping and harvesting tares, they are treated -in the same way as peas. It is a common and a good practice to sow some rye with the winter taxes,^ and a few oats with the spring sorts, as it gives strength * Report of Board of Health oa Practical Application of Liquid Manure. ARTIFICIAL GRASSES AND BED CLOVER. 285 to the weak stems of the vetelies, and keeps them up from the ground, so preventing their rotting below, which heavy crops are liable to do. The diseases of tares are very few. Mildew sometimes causes the loss of a crop, but very rarely. Cows give more butter .when fed with tares than on almost any other crop. Horses do better with them than on either clover or rye grass. Danger often arises from animals eating too much of this crop when green, as a great quantity of fixed air is contained in it. Spring tares are said to draw the soil less than most other crops, and the seed is always much brighter than the winter sown.t Two mowings may generally be made, and sometimes three of this plant, in its green state. The seed of the tare is in England generally taken for reproduction, but on the continent it is given to stock of all kinds. Pigeons fatten rapidly when fed with it. HERBAGE PLANTS AND GRASSES. There are a great variety of pea-blossomed plants of this class, but the kinds usually cultivated are known as white and red clover, and the trefoil caUed cow-grass. White clover is commonly found native in calcareous soils, where its oily seeds- have lain dormant for ages. It frequently springs up naturally when they are turned up, or if rough lime be allowed to remain any length of time upon the ground. It is a perennial plant, and is sometimes called creeping clover. White clover is so luxuriant in its, growth, nutritive in its quality, and sweet in flavour, that it is rendered one of the most valuable of the artificial grasses, and is invariably mixed with seeds intended for laying down permanent pasture. Sed Clover. — This is so called from the colour of its leaves and blossoms. It was originally introduced from Handers, and called the great clover. It rapidly found its way all over England and into Ireland. It was a great step, in the improvement of the tillage system, for its abundant produce is not alone its chief recommenda- tion ; land that has been exhausted by the growth of corn is greatly restored to fertility by the " shade, smother, and decomposition of a heavy crop' of this kind." Eed clover may also be considered one of the most valuable of the artificial grasses. It is a biennial plant, and does not arrive at maturity until the year after it is sown. On poor land it is sometimes allowed to remain a second year in pasture to give it rest ; the plant, 286 MODERN HUSBANDEY. however, dies soon after arriving at maturity ; the land may therefore be as well ploughed for another crop. Yellow clover, or yellow trefoil, is a plant frequently cultivated. It is an annual plant. Crimson clover is sown in autumn, that it may flower and arrive at maturity in the following summer. It is not considered so good as the red and white kinds. Gow-grass, or zig-zag trefoil, is a native perennial plant, of easy culture, and is considered a good forage plant. King's clover, or yellow melilots, is a native species, and, though an annual, will remain on the ground more than one year. It is a bitter tasted plant, but is liked by animals, and is considered good for forage. Gommon lird's-foot trefoil, and great bird's-foot trefoil, grow abundantly in natural pastures. In some localities they are perennial, and bear yellow flowers in June. Of the genus Trifolium, more than one hundred and sixty varieties are enumerated by botanists ; but the white and red clovers are the most commonly cultivated. The narrow and broad-leaved ever- lasting peas belong to this class, as well as the meadow and yellow vetchling. "A great variety of the lesser grasses are used as herbage plants a(iapted to the different soils, a cultivated kind in one locality being looked upon almost as a weed in another. The best known and most used are the meadow fox-tail, (a generally diffused species), meadow cat's-tail, called herd-grass in America. Oat-grasses, red, floating, annual, smooth and rough-stalked and fertile meadow grasses, rough cock's-foot, crested dog's-tail, sheep's, hard, spiked, and meadow fescue grasses, vernal and bent grasses. When land is intended, for temporary pasture, a large proportion of one plant (as rye grass) will be sown ; but if for permanent pasture, then such general selection should be made as the nature of the soil, climate, and situation of the land may require. WHITE MUSTARD. The introduction of white mustard, as a fallow crop, to be either ploughed in green or eaten off by sheep, is but of recent date ; but it is now becoming a common crop, and many advantages are obtained by its use ; one, most especially important, is, that wire-worm is not common on ground that is occasionally cropped with white mustard. WILD SUCCOKY, AND GORSE, FDRZE, Oil WHIN. 287 There are two sorts of mustard, the Sinapis nigra of Linnaeiis, and the Sinapis alba. It is the latter plant that is called white mustard, and is the only one proper to be used . This crop will grow on nearly all soils ; but a good friable turnip soil is the best, or a peaty soU, upon which it flourishes with great luxuriance. The land should be brought to a fine tilth, and about a peek of seed sown broadcast, or evenly, to cover the land. It should be sown in May, June, or July ; but I have seen it sown on white crop stubbles after harvesting, and a good green crop got, either to feed off or plough in before winter ; but this can only be when the harvest is early. It blooms about seven weeks after sowing. WILD SUCCORY {Cichorium Intyhm). This plant is a native of Britain, but is not so much cultivated here as it is elsewhere. In Prance, Italy, Switzerland, and other parts of Europe, it is highly esteemed for feeding all sorts of stock, more particularly cows, and is usually made into hay for that purpose. It is a hardy plant, and can withstand severe cold and drought. It grows quick and luxuriantly, and may be cut several times during the year when used for forage. It is sown at any period from March to September. If in rows it is cultivated like carrots or parsneps, and is cut for forage in the next spring. It is sometimes sown broadcast with other crops ; but the first- mentioned plan is best. The Cow-parsnep, JSeracleum spondylium, is a native plant of the family Umbelliferse. Its leaves are eaten by cows in spring. GORSE, FURZE, OR WHIN {Ulex). A genus of evergreen shrubs of the Broom division, of the leguminous order, the plants having sharp pointed spiny leaves, yellow papilionaceous flowers and turgid pods. There are several varieties of this plant, but the European, a common variety, is so well known as to require no particular description. It abounds in wastes and sandy soils, where the situation is dry and the climate mild, and at less elevation than 900 feet above the level of the sea. It covers extensive tracts of land on the borders of moors, and luxuriates in the rocky debris that has been excavated from quarries 288 MODEKN HUSBANDRY. and pits, and on the heaps of shiDgle tliat have been thrown up on the banks of rivers by floods of unusual magnitude. It abhors stiff clays and wet and mossy situations. It grows, in some cases, to an enormous size ; in a hollow place between some sand-hills near the entrance to Pool Harbour, in Dorsetshire, I remember to have seen some, so large, that 'in following a footpath I passed beneath large branches quite covering me overhead, while the stems appeared- like small forest trees, some of them measuring several inches in diameter. It resembles the common heath in its usurping and gregarious habits, constantly extending itself to the exclusion of the feebler plants. It cannot stand a severe winter, and large tracts are often destroyed by one intense frost. Gorse, or furze, is one of those plants which disperse their seed with a jerk, the pods being elastic, a provision of nature to enable it to increase its dominion, which it would not do else, as the seeds would be dropped so near that the young plant's would spring up under the old one, and being so thickly covered would soon die. Gorse is but little cultivated as a crop in England, although it is one that offers many advantages. Cattle are very fond of it ; -it increases the quantity and improves the quality of the milk, when- ever the cows are put upon it. Horses work well when fed with it ; but it is inclined to fatten them rather than fit them for labour. They will, however; eat it in preference to either hay or grass. Mountain sheep thrive better on gorse than grass ; and all' animals browse upon it with dehght, its prickly nature alone pre- venting them from eating it all up immediately. Mr. Youatt says, that " if twenty pounds of furze are given to a horse, five pounds of straw, the beans, and three pounds of oats may be withdrawn." An acre of cultivated gorse w;ill keep six horses during winter. Gorse may be artificially propagated by sowing the seeds very thickly in beds in the same manner as cabbages, and planting out the seedlings as they are wanted; or it may be made a regular field crop. Dr. Anderson's practice was, after the land had been pro- perly prepared for a crop of barley, to sow the seed' of the whin with grass seeds. The quantity per acre being from -fifteen to tweilty pounds, the young plants sprung up amongst the crop and kept alive during winter; if the young plants be not choked by weeds they will grow rapidly after Midsummer, and produce a full crop ia autumn. The best way of cultivating them, however, is to plant out the seedlings in rows aiid carefidly cultivate them. The principal drawback to the use of gorse is the great difficulty GOESE. 289 there is in crushing the prickles so that the cattle may eat it. In some situations, where it ia much used, an edge-runner, working in an horizontal stone-bed, is used ; this effectually reduces the material to a pulp. In North "Wales gorse is much used by the carriers and innkeepers as food for their horses ; and their plan of bruising is by the aid of a mallet and block. The mallet is a round piece of wood nine inches long, and four and half in diameter ; one end is armed with a knife, and the other is studded with nails. The gorse being placed upon the block ia first chopped into lengths with the knife, and then hammered with the mallet. In some parts of Ireland a native gorse is cultivated called the upright gorse. Its shoots are much more soft and succulent than the British variety, and do not require to undergo the same crushing process. It blooms from Aug^ist tiH December. The following extracts from the journal of the Eoyal Agricultural Society will afford information upon this subject. From Mb. Edwaeds, a Farmer and extensive Land Valuer. " Fboneroh, April 18th, 1815. " A good two-year-old crop of gorse is worth 91. or 101. with us in this country. I myself have paid, for the last two years, at the rate of 81. per acre, from which I got thirty-six two-horse cart loads, and I considered I had a bargain. This gorse grew on land which I had valued at 9s. per acre ; and it was and it is so let now. The tenant considered he was doing me a favour by letting me have the gorse so low. I was, last autumn, travelling with Mr. Aneurun Owen, and passing extensive patches of gorse growing on side land (sandy) worth Is. per acre. He asked me what such a crop of gorse was worth with us ; and I told him what I paid ; but those thait we were then seeing were inferior to what I bought. He said that he had bought an acre in his neighbourhood just such as those we were looking at, and for which he paid 71. Horses thrive better when they" get gorse smd hay than on hay alone. Our men are always grumbling and in bad temper if they have not plenty of gorse to feed their horses. They will ask you, when you hire them, if you have plenty of gorse for your horses ; and they wiU tell you that they would sooner take charge of a team of horses to feed with gorse alone than with hay alone. In point of cheapness, I should say that the cost of feeding with gorse is not more than one-third of what it is with hay. I have never given them to cows ; but this winter they have been given very extensively even by large farmers. Mr. John 290 MODERN HTJSBANDKT. Hughes, of Tyddyn Cae, a large farmer, was telling me last week that his cattle did remarkably well on them, and they did not leave any behind in their mangers. Mr. Hughes prepared the gorse with a common cutting machine for his cattle, the same as for his horses. Some of his cattle had a few Swedish turnips with the gorse, but many were fed on gorse with a little hay, without any turnips. The fact is, that if it had not been for gorse, one-half of the live stock in this part of the country would have been starved the last winter. Small farmers in Llanengan, generally feed their cows with gorse and straw, as most of them have but little hay, and many none. " A man wiU cut a load of gorse in four hours, such load to contain ten bundles. A bundle is what we call ' baich gwr.' Two men and a boy will grind, in a gorse-mill, a bundle in twenty minutes. A bundle so ground, mixed with chaff, is sufficient food for two horses for twenty-four hours, with a very little hay put in their rack at night. " The chief point in the raising of gorse is to clear the land from couch-grass, and to make it tolerably dry. To attain the former object, the best plan, if the soil be tolerably deep, will be to carry off a spit deep of the surface. The value of the soil, in forming a compost with lime, sand, clay, &c., will amply repay the expense. After repeated failures, by removing the active soil which abounded with roots, and exposing the yellow rammel, comprising the sub-soil, farmers have succeeded in producing heavy crops of gorse. Mr. Hugh Eoberts, of Ehosmenlan, adopted this plan, and sold the first cutting at the rate of SOI. an acre. Where soil is thin and the surface is foul and loaded with couch-roots, it should be pared with a breast-plough and burnt. "Where the land is composed of cold, stiff, retentive clay, the best expedient will be, should the surface be loaded with couch-grass roots, &c., to take off a thin paring and to burn it. The land afterwards, in order to preserve the plants from the bad effects of water, should be put into ridges, similar to those prepared for the reception of turnip-seed. " The sort of gorse cultivated for provender is known by the name of Prench gorse (Eithin Efrengig). The best time to sow the seed is in March or April. If sown broadcast, about five or six pounds, or if drilled, two or three pounds per acre will be the quantity of seed required. "When the plant is to be in rows, and where the ground is very steep, as on the sides of hiUs, road-cuttings, the sides- of embankments, &o., the direction of the rows should be oblique, and not directly up and down. The distance between the rows should be from fifteen to eighteen inches. GORSE. 291 " Where the plant is to be raised on level ground, eighteen or twenty-four inches should at the least be allowed between the rows so as to afford to the plants the full benefit of the sun and air. Light, and the warmth of the sun's rays, and the free circulation of air, are aU indispensably requisite to promote luxuriant vegetation. , " The seedling plants of gorse are far more delicate and susceptible of injury than they are generally considered to be. It is, therefore, of the utmost importance that they should not be smothered with couch-grass and other weeds, and that they should be carefully protected from sheep and cattle. Inattention to these points will, generally, render the cultivation of gorse a failure. " To reclaim old gorse-covers, such as are to be met with in Cheshire and in Shropshire, and in most fox-hunting Counties, and to make them a source of profit to the farmer, the plan is, during the winter, or early in spriag, to cut the woody plant as close to the ground as possible ; afterwards, with mattocks, to stir up the soil in the spaces between the stumps and to divide the roots of the plant freely. After this has been done an abundance of young shoots will be thrown out, which will afford a rich supply of provender, to be available either at one year's growth or two, as the demand for it may require. " Seedling gorse should not be cut for use until it is two years old ; but after the first cutting it may be cut every year should there be need of it. It will, however, generally be found to produce a heavier crop, and yield a more profitable return in some localities, by allowing two years, instead of one, to intervene between each cutting. " When the plant is raised in rows it will always be found advantageous, after the first cutting, to take for use, every year, alternate rows. By adopting this method there will be secured a constant succession of two-year old gorse. This plan will also secure to the lower branches of the plant a free exposure to the influences of light and air, and so prevent a great portion from becoming brown, dry, and withered, as two-year old gorse wiE when the crop is thick and close upon the ground. " Various kinds of dressings, have, from time to time, been suggested as proper and necessary for the sustentation of the plaut. Sand, lime, coal-ashes, cinders, &c., have each of them their strenuous advocates - and partisans. Experience has fuUy proved, that heavy crops may be had from the same land, for any number of years ia succession, without any manure whatever. But for this purpose the land must be kept sufficiently free from water, care miist but talieii 292 MODERN HUSBANDRY. that the seedlings are not smothered by couch-grass before the plants have become strong and vigorous, and the young shoots must not be exposed to the browsing of cattle or sheep. " The injury done to gorse by cattle, sheep, horses, and asses, is not confined to the mere browsing. By nibbling and jagging the young shoots they check the grovyth of the plant, and this, conjointly with the tracks which they form in walking about, gives to the couch-grass the advantages of a start, which it could not have had if the growth of the gorse-shoots had not been checked, and if no tracks had been made. " In many parts of the country gorse is cultivated on the sides of turf fences, and at the foot of stone walls, as well with a view to protect and to strengthen the fences as for the feeding of cattle. " In some places the enclosures are made and the land is divided by fences made partly of stones and partly of sods, the middle of the fence being filled up with earth. In both cases the turfs or sods, and the earth to fill up, are taken out of a ditch made for the purpose on both sides of the fence." Analysis ov Gorse, by Mr. D. Waldie, of Liverpool. Apothecaries Hall, April 23, 184S. Chlorophylle, or green colouring matter . . . . .2.8 Saccharine matter and extract of a slightly bitter taste . . . 15.7 Gum and mucilage 5.1 Glutinous extract, nearly tasteless, by boiling water . . . 6.5 Vegetable albumen . . , 1.1 Lignin, or woody fibre 51.1 Water 16.2 Loss ,2.5 100. Amount of ash left by burning, 21-8 in 1,000 parts. Analysis OF THE Ash. Proportions deducting the three last constituents. Potash 26.70 34.4 Soda 22 .3 Lime 23.37 29.9 Magnesia ........ 4.31 5.5 Sulphuric acid 8.84 11.2 Chlorine 3.83 4.9 Phosphoric acid 2.87 3.6 Persulphate of iron 4.22 5.4, SiHca 3,77 4^8 Carbonic acid 17.60 Charcoal and sand, 2.22 100. Loss , . . _ 2.05 100. FLAX. 293 FLAX. Flax is an annual plant growing with an upright slender stem, branching out near the top. It is grown for the sake of its seeds, and has also been from remote ages cultivated for the sake of its fibres for making cloth. The soils best suited for flax are those which contain a large amount of vegetable matter. The best are the rich alluvial deposits. A very great controversy has been carried on for many years as to the value of the flax crop, and the propriety of the English farmer growing it in a regular course of cropping. Some few years ago an argument was carried on upon this subject, in consequence of Mr. Beamish, of Cork, quoting from Stephens' " Book of the Farm " the following and other passages : — " It should never be lost sight of in considering this question, that to raise flax, must bring it into competition with white crops, and not green crops, because to raise it as a green crop would be to dete- riorate its quality by bringing it into immediate contact with manure, and if it be raised without manure as a fallow crop, it must deteriorate the soil materially, no species of cropping being more scourging to the soil than flax, not even a crop of turnip seed. In the harvesting a flax crop we are placed in this dilemma, that either the quality of the flax or the seed must be sacrificed. The seed separately will not pay the expense of culture. Seed is produced from six to twelve bushels per acre ; taking the -highest at twelve bushels, that is, one-and-a-half quarter ; and taking it also for granted, that it wiU be aU fit for sowing, and worth 31. per quarter (the highest price given in J.844), the gross return would only be 4Z. 10s. per acre. The fiax crop varies in weight : if rough dried fibre (according to season and soil) from three to ten cwt. per acre ; and taking the high pro- duce, five cwt. per acre ; if dressed, flax at the highest price in 1844, of 61. per cwt., the yield will be 31?., from which have to be deducted the expenses of beating, scutching, and hackling, ^nd waste and loss of straw for manure, when the profit will not exceed 8Z. per acre ; but though such a profit would certainly repay the expenses of cultivation, yet it presents the most favourable view that can be taken even with the sacrifice of the seed. In Ireland the case, I beKeve, wiU be the same, though much of the soil of that country being mossy is more favourable to the growth of flax than that of England or Scotland ; yet, even there, it will be found impracticable to raise good flax and good seed from the same piece of ground at the same time ; and if the seed is not good the oil cake will be bad." MODEKN HUSBAMDKY, These opinions, coming from so high an authority as Mr. Stephens, caused considerable excitement amongst the advocates of flax culture, and a paper war was carried on, which ended, I think, in the defeat of Mr. Stephens and the Scotch opinions upon the subject. Mr. Dixon, replying to Mr. Stephens' reinariis, says, " I fear the author and those Scotch farmers have taken the same view that the Irish farmers did some few years ago, when they knew little about the proper course of management ; they thought it ruinous, and had almost given it up. The seed in those days, with the water the flax was steeped in,~ all flowed into the rivers. The seed, 81. per acre, and the flax water equal to liquid manure, were lost." At the meeting at which Mr, Beamish had made the quotation that raised the controversy, Mr. "Walker, an extensive county Down farmer, and who annually cultivates from 40 to GO acres of flax,, came forward at the request of the chairman to state the result of his practice. He (Mr. Walker) said that aft-er many years' experience of flax cultivation, he found there was a profit on an average crop of from 15Z. to 201. annually per acre, after payment of all expenses. The rotation he would recommend, from practice, was a five course shift ; the flax to be sown in every alternate rotation ; some other crop to be taken during the intermediate one, and on no account should flax be sown at shorter intervals than seven years. He found that flax did not deteriorate the soil for producing any other description of crop, although, when sown too closely in succession, the flax crop itself was not so good as when sown according to the rotation he had stated. In answer to a question put by Sir Percy Nugent, he (Mr. Walker) said that a small portion of the flax next to the root was injured by the clover ; but he also found that the clover was materially benefitted by being grown with a flax crop. It was a crop wjjich gave more employment to the labourer than any other, and at a time of the year when labourers' services were little required, as a large farmer could have his flax puUed and otherwise treated before the harvest operations commenced. It was thus a very convenient crop for an extensive farmer. In answer to a question put by Sir Percy Nugent, Mr. Walker stated that the general custom was to allow the flax to stand too long ; he conceived that it should be puUed before coming dead ripe, otherwise the quality of the fibre would be deteriorated. In reply to a question as to how long the flax should be allowed to lie on the .ground, Mr. Walker stated that it greatly depended upon the state of the weather, but from eight to ten days were generally required. The ground best suited for spreading it on was a newly-mown meadow, and that, if thinly spread, it did not require to be turned. PLAX. 295 Mr. Hazlitt, Agriculturist to the Flax Improvement Society, at the same meeting, also stated that the soil best suited for growing flax was a strong loam on a clay subsoil. He stated that the difference in favour of the flax when puUed green and when allowed to ripen was 4:1. per acre. The produce of an acre when pulled green would realise 201., whereas, when allowed to become ripe, it was worth only 161. i but the green bolls were only worth_3Z. per acre, while the ripe ones amounted to four barrels, which, at 21. each, would be worth 81. per acre, thus leaving a balance of 11. in favour of the ripened flax. In the ^' Irish Farmers' Journal " of the 26th of March, 1845, the editor, in his remarks on Dr. Kane's work, says, " In the case of the flax plant, to which our author has paid more than ordinary attention, it is seen that the really valuable part of the fibre is produced from ingredients supplied by the atmosphere ; and however much it may be regarded as an exhaustion of the soil on which it is produced, yet it cannot be said to be an exhauster of the farm, the materials originally derived from the soil being again returned to it after the plant has undergone the manufacturing process. " Hence the fibre which constitutes the entire money value of the flax crop is produced during the life of the plant by the elements of the atmosphere, and the materials taken from the manure and from the soil are in reality employed by the plant in organising substances, considered to be positively a disadvantage." It is, therefore, of importance that it should be understood that, by a proper system, the growth of the flax and similar fibre crops would be destitute of all exhausting influence, that the materials drawn from such a crop would be found in the waste products of its manufacture, and would be available by being returned to the soil, to restore it to its original condition of fertility. The flax, when it has grown to suitable maturity, according as the design is to allow it to ripen its seed or not, is pulled, and either immediately or the next spare season, according to the circumstances of the locality, it is subjected to the process termed rotting or watering. In the stem of the flax there may be recognised these structures ; the outer skin, or epidermis, covering a close net-work of fibres, which encloses the plant as in a sheath, and in the centre a stem of dense pithy material. The fibrous net-work is connected together by a glutinous matter, which must be decomposed before the fibres can be separated from the stem, and it is to soften zni rot this substance that the plant is steeped. If the steeping be continued too long the fibre itself may rot, and 296 MODEBNHUSBANDEY. be weakened and injured in quality ; and if the steeping be not con- tinued long enough, the fibres are not thoroughly separated from each other, and the quality of the flax is coarser than it might be. The general tendency is not to rot the flax enough, but it is a process requiring very careful management and attention to conduct it with the greatest adyantage. Many gentlemen have taken up the flax crop, and produced great results, by stall feeding animals on linseed preparations, and among these Mr. Warne, of Tremingham, Norfolk, holds a conspicuous position ; the practice, however, has not become general. The following statement iu reference to the cost of growing flax was communicated to the Belfast Max Improvement Society, by Mr. John Barr, manager of the Earl of Caledon's model farm : — CROP. & s. d. Produce of 1 acre, 1 rood, 39 perches, sold at lis. 9d. per stone 65 19 74 Tow 080 130 bushels, bolls, which I consider well worth Sd. per bushel 468 £60 14 3i EXPENSES OF CROP. £ a. d. 5 Bushels of seed 3 16 6 Weeding 10 Pulling, rippling, and steeping .... 4 3 8 Taking out of steep and spreading .... 2 1 4 Lifting and tying 12 8 Scutching 4 9 44 16 3 64 Leaving a balance of £44 10 9 Or at the rate of 291. 13s. lOd. per acre after deducting all expenses. HEMP {0 1 ' ' I HOPS. 299 the hills upon which the hops are grown, tend to produce the most perfect hop-plantations in the world. The hop sets are planted out into rows. This is done by drawing out plough furrows at right angles to each other, several feet apart ; at the point where these furrows intersect, is the place for the set to be planted. This is done by digging a hole, and into that putting some manure and forming a little hillock over it ; into this six or seven sets are placed in a circle round its summit, the sets inclining inwards, and one being placed in the middle. The plants are carefully earthed up and kept clean during the whole time -of their growth, manure being liberally applied every second or third year. The hop plants require artificial support, and poles are provided of ash, oak, &c., these are placed in the ground in the spring, two or three to each hUl (as the little mound is called in which the plants grow) . The poles are driven firmly in the ground, their heads inclining a little outwards ; to these the shoots of the plants are attached, and then they rapidly ascend the pole, covering it with masses of rich foliage. A hop garden in full bloom is, perhaps, one of the most beautiful sights that can be seen, surpassing in efiect even the vineyards of the grape-growing countries. Hop-picking commences generally about the beginning of September, when the hop emits a strong scent. The manner of gathering the hop is shown in Mr. Duncan's beautiful illustration. Frames of wood are placed at convenient situations and the hop- poles placed upon them, the plants having been cut off at the bottom. The hop-pickers carefully puU off the flowers and drop them on a large cloth which is suspended for that purpose, or into large baskets. The hops have then to be kiln-dried. This is done in a kihi or oast-house ; this building is constructed similar to an ordinary kiln, being a circular brick apartment with a lofty conical brick roof, at the apex of which is an apertiire, sur- mounted with a large hopper. The hops when drying are spread upon a hair cloth 10 or 12 inches deep, the heat being gradually increased to the proper point, at which it is allowed to remain for eight or ten hours — they are then removed to a room to cool. Hops are tightly packed for market in canvas bags, called pockets. 300 MODERN HUSBANDRY. The poles upon whicli the hops grew, having been stripped of "the, bine, are carefully placed on end in groups, in such a manner as may most preserve them from injury from the weather. Thus they remain until they are required for the next season. The produce of an acre of hops varies from nil to 20 cwt. ; it is therefore a most speculative crop — but taking the average of seasons, very large profits are gained by the cultivators of it. Mr. Nesbit, of Kennington, made a careful analysis of the ashes of the bop plant, which was published in Journal of the E. A. S., part 1, vol vii. ; from that article we extract the following :^^ " The Gtolding Hop. These were picked in September, 1845, and, together with the leaves and bine, were sent in the latter end of that month. The hops of the four hills, dried, weighed 2 lbs., the dried leaves 9f oz. ; and the dried bine, 1 lb. i\ oz. 1. ANALYSIS OF THE ASHES OF THE HOP. " The 21bs. of hops when dried at a steam heat, lost 3 oz. of moisture, and left lib. 13 oz. of dry hops. The dry hops were burned to ashes in a large earthen crucible, and furnished 12'82 grains of ashes, being at the rate of 9^^ per cent. ; these ashes were analysed in the usual manner, and every hundred parts contained as follows : — Silica (a pure sand) 20.95 Chloride of sodium (common salt) . . . 7.05 Chloride of potassium 1.63 Potash 24.50 Lime . 15.56 Magnesia . . 5.63 Sulphuric acid 5.27 Phosphoric acid . . . '. . . 9.5i PhoapKate of iron 7.26 Carbonic Acid 2.61 100.00 WOAD, MADDER, AND WELD. These plants are cultivated for their dyes. Woad, Isatis tinctoria, is a hardy plant (in this country biennial) it yields the deep blue colouring matter of indigo. This plant requires a deep rich loam and a high style of cultivation to bring it to perfection. The seeds are sown in rows early in spring, and the leaves are obtained the same year, or it is sown in autumn, and the leaves obtained the next year. TEAZLES. 301 The leaves are picked off by hand, and after being washed and dried are carried to a mill similar to that used for bruising the seeds of oil plants. A paste is then oTjtained from them, ■which is allowed to ferment in heaps — it is then formed into balls which are the subject of commerce. The cultivation and preparation *of this crop for market requires the greatest possible care in every stage. Madder, Rulia tmctoriwin. The dye is obtained from the root of this plant. It is best raised in rows a good distance apart, from sets, which are taken up before winter in the third year. The roots will penetrate three or four feet down, therefore deep loamy sands are the best localities for its growth. The roots, after being removed from the ground, are dried, and then subjected to the action of stampers ; a dye of a deep red colour is then produced, which is used as a substitute for cochineal ; the first beating producing the least valuable material, the second something better, and the third is called the crop madder, and is the most valuable portion of the plant. Weld, Reseda Luteola. This is often called dyer's weed, and is of the Mignonette family. It is a native biennial plant, and yields a bright yellow dye for cotton, silk, wool, &c. It is easily cultivated and no part of the preparation of the dye is thrown upon the grower. It is cultivated in the same way as clover and other grasses, and often sown like them with corn crops, and harvested^the following year. When cultivated by itself it should be sown in the month of May, in rows ; the seeds being but lightly covered, the plants wiU require careful cleaning while growing. They are harvested while in full flower in the second year ; they are then set up to dry, and being after- wards tied in bundles are ready for market — or they may be stacked, and will remain any length of time without injury. TEAZLES. The teazle requires as great care in its cultivation as any crop grown in this country, and although the expense attending its culture is as great as any agricultural crop whatever, yet the yield wUl be in proportion profitable, provided the proper soil is selected, the season favourable, and the requisite attention and inspection paid to it from the sowing of the seed to the time of harvest. The land where the teazle is principally cultivated is a deep rich loamy clay, divested of all other vegetable productions. 302 MODEHN HUSBANDEY. This crop tas been cultiyated in many parts of England as ■vrell as the Continent, but none axe of such good quality as those from the north- east part of Somersetshire, and the Berkley Vale, in Gloucestershire. Many attempts have been made, and large fortunes expended, to invent a substitute for it, but hitherto nothing has succeeded for the dress- ing of the fine superfine wooUen cloth this country is so celebrated for producing. The teazle is propagated from seed sown during the latter part of July or the beginning of August, in a bed prepared especially for it, and when the plants are of sufilcient size removed to the field for the general croj) ; all weeds of every description must be eradicated by hoeing, which is also beneficial to the plant by keeping the earth hollow round its roots ; this, in the spring and summer, requires to be done many times. The crop is gathered in at different times according to its state of ripeness, and selected in sorts according to size and coarseness of look ; thus the king teazle is produced from the top of the centre stem, and the queen teazle from the extremity of the different side shoots, which are thrown out from the centre stem or stalk. The middling teazle is the majority of the crop. It is produced on aU parts of the plant, and the small teazles which are near the bottom of the stalk, and from the weakly shoots ; thus the kings are the coarsest in the hook or barb, and principally used in the dressing of the coarsest manufacture, as blankets, horse-cloths-, &c. The queens, for finer description, and the middlings and small, for the superfine cloth. The operation is performed by divesting the teazles of the long loose barb and stem ; they are then set firm in a handle or frame, which frame is placed in a cylinder, containing twelve rows of six handles each row. This cylinder revolves with great velocity upon the cloth, and thereby raises the nap or dress. In harvesting the teazle, they are cut from the plant with about twelve inches of the stem-end, gathered in handsf'ull, and then tied together at the extremity of the stem, spreading out in the form of part of a circle ; the handsfull are then placed on a cleft rod of about three feet long, placing them alternately on each cleft, thereby forming a roU. "When the requisite number are thus placed the two clefts are tied, and it is then termed a staffl', in which state they are loaded on carts and taken to the manufactory for sale. In the case of catching weather the handsfull are hung on long rods and placed in a shed until they are sufficiently dry for placing on the staves. IIOTATION OK CROPS. 303 BOTATION OP CROPS. A variety of circumstances have tended to render it an exceedingly difficult matter to lay down any fixed and exact rules as to the best manner of arranging the order of the succession of the different crops, formerly it was a very much simpler thing than it is now, in conse- quence of the introduction of the numerous artificial manures, and the variety of root and green crops instead of the old practice of fallowing and pasturing for two or three years. There are many farmers who assert that it is of no consequence how many years the same crop be repeated on the same land, provided it be kept well dressed, and of my own knowledge I could point out many pieces of land that have carried wheat, crop succeeding crop, for many years. At a short distance from where I write is a plot of land that carried potatoes last year, for the thirteenth year, and produced a good crop. Ifevertheless, these must be taken as exceptional cases, and in no way worthy of consideration, as affecting the question of the rotation of crops. All good husbandmen are particular not to break through certain rules in this respect, as it would be difficult to carry on the business of the farm with the regularity so necessary, if an indiscreet method of cropping was adopted. Different crops require to be' sown or planted at different periods of the year. "Were a whole farm ia one particular kind of crop, it would be impossible, with the usual number of men and horses, to overtake in proper season the labour required; but supposing it was accomplished, the requisite number of men and animals might consume the whole produce whUe they would be comparatively idle for perhaps ten months out of the twelve. "Whereas by having a due proportion of each of the cereals and of the leguminous, the forage and root crops, a more economical staff of labour is kept actively and profitably employed throughout the year. One of the chief elements of profitable farming consists in having everything done as cheaply or economically as possible. It is necessary to keep the land clean as well as rich, which, with a succession of grain crops, is almost an impossibility. A cereal crop may be worth more money than a pulse or root crop, but from the later period at which the latter description of crops are put into the ground, longer time is allowed to clean and ameliorate the soil by repeated ploughings, grubbinga, and rollings, and when growing they admit to a much greater extent than . cereals of the use of the horse and hand-hoe for the destruction of weeds. It is from this that root crops are styled ameliorating, 304 .MODERN HUSBANDRY. wliile cereals are esteemed exhausting crops. Eoot crops and beans, also, are certainly cleaning crops, but when tbey are all Sold off the farm, they are not less exhausting than grain crops. Previous to the introduction of the turnip crop, all land was allowed to lie fallow at certain times ; — that is, for a season it bore no crop, but was ploughed and harrowed to free it from weeds and rubbish, (for but little hoeing was done when in crop, the Crop being always sown broadcast), and to improve the soil by exposing it to the action of the sun's rays, and to allow it to acquire from the rains 'and air, renewed elements again to bear cropping. The introduction of turnips and root crops rendered this pra,ctice of fallowing less necessary on the lighter class of soils, as the land was thoroughly stirred and pulverised in preparing it for the turnips, and during their culture the hoe eradicated the weeds until their leaves covered the ground, and while retaining moisture for the benefit of the land and the plants, prevented the further growth of weeds and rubbish ; such crops are therefore now often spoken of as fallow crops. Such lands as are now called turnip soils were kept for two or three years in pasture and then ploughed up for a grain crop ; this practice is now much modified by the use of the numerous crops that are substituted for the naked fallow. Judicious cropping is that mode of management which is the most likely for a series of years to yield the greatest quantity of useful produce, at the smallest comparative expense and risk, from any given extent of land. The propriety of adopting any particular system of cropping, wiU be considerably influenced by the following circumstances: — 1st. The climate, whether it be wet, dry, warm or cold ; and the situation, whether high or low ; wet climates, and high situations, for instance, are rather favourable to the growth of oats ; dry climates, and low situations to that of barley. 2nd. The soil ; for sand, gravel, clay, chalk, peat, and loam, have various crops calculated for each respectively, 3rd. The situation of the farm, in regard to the facilities that may exist for disposing of any particular crops ; — in the neighbourhood of cities or large towns, potatoes, clover, hay, &c., may be of more value than those crops would be if far removed from such localties, though the introduction of railways gradually tends to equalise prices. 4th. The means that may exist for procuring large quantities of manure at cheap rates, as stable dung, sea-weed, marl, lime, &o. Lastly, though by no means least in importance, the fitness of the soil for carrying particular crops. The two annexed tables may help to give an idea of the manner of EOTATION OP CROPS. 305 cropping formerly practised in England on stiif clay soils, and on the light loams, OLD EOTATION ON A CLAY SOIL. In- closure. First year. Second year. Third year. Fourth year. Fifth y6ar. Sixth year. 1 Fallow. Wheat. Pease. Barley. Hay. Oats. 2 Wheat. Pease. Barley. Hay. Oats.^ Fallow. 3 Pease. Barley. Hay. Oats. Fallow. Wheat. i Barley. Hay. Oats. Fallow. Wheat. Pease. 5 Hay. Oats. Fallow. Wheat. Pease. Barley. 6 Oats. Fallow. Wheat. Pease. Barley. Hay. 7 Pasture. Pasture. Pasture Pasture. Pasture. Pasture. OLD ROTATION ON A FREE SOIL OB LIGHT LOAM. In- closure. First year. Second year. Third year. Fourth year. Fifth year. Sixth year. ; 1 Turnips. Barley. Hay. Oats. Fallow. Wheat. 2 Barley. Hay. Oats. Fallow. Wheat. Turnips; 3 Hay. Oats. Fallow. Wheat. Turnips. Barley. 4 Oats. Fallow. Wheat. Turnips. Barley. Hay. 5 Fallow. Wheat. Turnips. Barley. Hay. Oats. 6 Wheat. Turnips. Barley. Hay. Oats. Fallow. 7 Pasture. Pasture. Pasture. Pasture. Pasture. Pasture. The introduction of what is called the Norfolk, or four-course system, effected the greatest possible good on a large breadth of light land that previously was difficult to 'Vfork. The Norfolk four-course system is to heavily dung or otherwise manure the land the first year, and procure a heavy turnip crop, which is in part, or entirely fed off with sheep, the land being as much benefitted by the tread of the sheep and the contact of their bodies, as by the manure ; if the turnip crop is very heavy, a portion is removed for animals fattening elsewhere, but in its stead must be brought clover, meal, oilcake, or any other material which being eaten by the sheep, the excrement compensates for the loss of the turnips consumed elsewhere. The land being ploughed as quickly as possible after the sheep have consumed the turnips, is left ready for the barley crop in the ensuing spring, having been thoroughly cleaned during the early stages of the growth of the turnips, Along with the barley ia the second year are sown seeds (that is clover, &c.) ; in the autumn of the second year the 306 MODERN HUSBANDRY. barley is tarvested, and the land left in possession of the clover crop, which has been making way during the ripening of the barley ; the third year of the rotation is, therefore, a crop of clover, which is cut as soon as ready and carried away as hay ; another crop will appear, which it is usual to feed down with sheep, and dress with liquid manure if available. In the autumn the land is ploughed for a wheat crop, which is harvested the next or fourth year ; — this eompletes'the course, the land is manured and sown with turnips the next year, and the order of that rotation repeated. This system of cropping is that pursued with modifications over a large extent of the light lands of the southern part of England. The ploughing up a grass sod for wheat is of great benefit on such land as tending to produce a stiffer character of soil and better adapt it to that plant. On some land the clover is allowed to stand a second year as pasture, and is wheat the fifth year, and in many cases a crop of oats is taken after the wheat, !French mustard or a similar crop being obtained after the wheat crop has been harvested, so making six crops in five years. On land troubled with wire-worm it is of great importance to get this French mustard crop, if possible,, as it will stay their ravages more than any other plan that I know of. Some of the modem drags or scarifiers answer the purpose of ploughing for this crop, and enable the farmer to get it in with great rapidity after the removal of the wheat. This four-course shift system is the foundation of all rotations of crops on those soils not rank clays, and may be modified to introduce any other crops that the fairmer may think judicious, or that the locality may render desirable. On many of the clay soils of England the Norfolk system will not apply, nor can fellows be dispensed with, so difficult is it to get some of the stiif yellow and other clays into tilth, althoiugh efficient draining and Groskill's clod-crusher are every yoar' lessening the difficully of managing such soils. "When they are got into crop and in good heart they produce such heavy results of wheat, beans, &c., that they wiU repay the trouble and expense bestowed upon them ; nevertheless, I believe, working a rank clay farm sours a man's temper. The following rules should be kept in mind in deciding upon the order of the rotation of any crops : — 1. When commencing with land out of he?irt or condition, it is necessary to commence with such crops as are the most likely to produce manure. Hence barley ought to be avoided, -as it produces EOTATION OF CROPS. 307 but little straw when compared with other crops, and two exhausting crops must not follow in succession. 2. The crops shovild be so arranged that the labour of ploughing for each, and of sowing, weeding, reaping, &c., may proceed in a regular succession, by which the labour of cultivation is not too much crowded on the farmer at any one particular period of the year, nor extra stock required to perform the necessary operations, which may, if properly arranged, be all done with the same set of labourers, horses, Ac, with the exception of hoeiiig in spring and summer, and harvesting. 3. All forcing or repetition of the same crop ehould be avoided, and two grain crops should never succeed each other unless a dressing be placed on the ground for the second. Such an arrangement should be made that by the grain crops a sufficient quantity of straw is provided as food and litter for cattle ; while, at the same time, a fair profit is to be derived from the grain. By the green crops and grass a number of animals should be maintained in winter and summer, and being well littered and well fed, a bulk of valuable manure will be obtained. I have consulted many first-rate farmers as to laying down some fixed courses of crops, but I find none who wUl bind themselves to any regular rotation, being guided by locality, climate, quality of the land, prices and the demand for particular crops, and a variety of other circumstances. X 2 DINNER TIllE. CHAPTER VIII. ON THE CULTIVATION OP THE LAND. The land having been prepared by draining, levelling, paring, burning, the removal of useless timber and large stones, the next operation will be to convert the undisturbed soil iato a fine tilth, which must be done either by digging or ploughing, the object of both operations being precisely the same, that is, to disintegrate and make friable the soil, so that the plants intended to be cultivated in it may send down their innumerable roots and fibrous shoots in search of that description of food which the peculiar nature of the plant requires, The most effective way of giving to the compact earth the loamy characteristic so necessary, is by digging vtdth the spade; but, as that operation is much too costly and slow, the plough is the implement always used by agriculturists ; the spade remaining in the hands of the gardener, whose operations are confined to small plots of land. The plough, being the fundamental implement of agriculture, is common to all ages and countries, and mention OS THE CULTIVATION OF THE LAND. 809 is made of it ia the earliest writings ; — indeed, its introduction must have been coeval with the first attempts at cultivating the land upon which to raise com. It is supposed that this was first done on the banks of the NUe, in Upper Egypt. The earliest ploughs used are supposed to be similar to those found sculptured upon the Egyptian monuments, and are little more than mere scratching instruments ; but as considerable advance was made in agriculture in the Delta by great works for both drainage and irrigation, the plough doubtless became considerably improved, for in 1 Sam. xiii. 20, the plough is described as having both a share and coulter, indicating a considerable advance towards an efficient implement. The Greeks received their first lessons in agriculture from the Egyptians, the Pelasgi being civilised by colonies from that country. Hesiod, who cultivated a farm at the foot of Mount Helicon, in Boeotia, in his book called " Works and Days," describes the plough of hia time as being composed of three principal parts ; the share beam, which is to be made of oak, the draught pole and the plough tail to be made of elm or bay, and the whole to be securely fastened with naUs and pegs ; he also recommends that a spare plough be kept in case of accidents. The Romans must have had a great variety of ploughs, as constant mention is made of them by various authors. Mr. Adam Dixon, in his work entitled " The Husbandry of the Ancients," in speaking of ploughs says, " It is probable that I shall be considered as very partial to the ancients if I do not allow the moderns to excel them in the construction of their ploughs. We are not, indeed, so well acquainted with the ancient ploughs as to be able to make a just comparison. I shall only observe, that from the few passages in the rustic authors concerning them, it appears that the ancients had all the different kinds of ploughs that we have now in Eiu-ope, though not, perhaps, so exactly constructed. They had ploughs without mould boards, and ploughs with mould boards ; they had ploughs with coulters, and ploughs without coulters; they had ploughs without wheels and ploughs with wheels ; they had broad pointed shares, and narrow pointed shares ; they even had what I have not yet met amongst the moderns, shares, not only with sharp sides and points, but also with high raised cutting -tops. Were we well acquainted with the con- struction of all these, perhaps it would be found that the improvements made by the modems in this article are not so great as many persons are apt to imagine ; very great perfection was, doubtless, obtained by the Eomans, and ploughs were made to suit both soil and season." Cato mentions two ploughs, one called the Eomanicum, a proper 310 MODEEN HUSBANDED. implement for stiff tod heavy land, and the Campanicum, equally well adapted for the lightest soUs. Varro describes a plough with two mould boards, used for ploughing- in seed. In various parts of Europe, at the present time, may be found ploughs of the rudest possible kind, many of them mere scratching instruments, and no way so good as those described by Roman authors as being in use by the agriculturists of their time. In Spain, at the present day, ploughs are used of the most primitive form. One of these will be found engraved in my work on "Agricultural Engineering," published by Weale, of Holborn ; such an implement can but tear up a shallow seam and push the disturbed soil along in front of it. Agriculture being first taught to the ancient Britons by the Romans, the plough was of course introduced by them ; there are many ancient illustrations of these, from which it would appear that they had no mould boards but were simply pointed blocks of wood, which, in their passage through the earth, tore up the soil sufficiently to allow of the roots of the plant getting a hold in it. Some representations of Saxon implements show the plough as having wheels, but I could never discover from them the exact manner in which the earth was opened. The animals drawing these are sometimes shown fastened to the plough by their tails, and it wiU scarcely be believed that this barbarous custom existed in Ireland until as late as 1634, for an act was passed by the Irish parliament at that date, setting forth — ■ " That whereas there have been for a long time practised in this country a barbarous custome of ploughing, harrowing, drawing, and working vfith horses and other animals by the tayle, wliereby the breed of animals in the kingdom is much impaired and great cruelty perpetrated," these practices were, henceforward, to be considered illegal, and the offender subjected to fine and imprisonment. The ox is always mentioned in sacred writings as being the only animal employed to draw the plough. An old British law forbade other animals being used for such purpose, and also compelled ploughmen to be able to make, as well as guide, their own implements ; consequently the plough remained a rude implement in England until about the commencement of the seventeenth century. About this time much more attention was paid to agriculture, and Dutch engineers came from Holland to drain the countries lying contiguous to the east coast and other localities. These iagenioua people, whose intercourse with the eastern nations ox THE CULTIVATION OF THE LAND. 31 1 had made tliem acquainted witli many improved methods connected with agrieultural science, introduced into this country a new form of plough, which is that known as the Eotherham plough, so called because the first was made there by Jos. Fdljambe, under the direction of that exceedingly clever person, Walter Blyth, whom I have before alluded to in the chapter on Drainage. A patent was granted for this plough in 1730 ; other accounts say that it was made by Lammis, upon strictly mathematical principles which he had learned in Holland, and others by a person of the name of Pashley, who was plough-maker to Sir Charles Turner, at Kirkleaton. The son of this last named person Established a manu- factory for this plough at ilotherham, and he also is considered by some to have been its original inventor. The Eotherham {or as it was sometimes called the Dutch) plough was constructed of wood, with the exception of the coulter, draught irons, and share, the mould board was plated with iron, and the sole was also made of the same. The Eotherham plough, having found its way into Scotland, was brought under the notice of a most ingenious mechanic named James Small, bom at Berwickshire in the year 1740 ; this man bestowed a great amount of attention on the improvement of the plough, which resulted in his being able to produce one upon such fixed principles as to ensure a proper and permanent character. The design of this plough had, either from Holland or England, found its way to America, and the honour of its invention is claimed by the people of that country. President Jefferson presented an account of the principle for constructing a mould board, first to the Institute of France, and afterwards to the Board of Agriculture in England, as an original discovery in mathematics. Small, says Mr. Slight, appears to have been the first who gave to the mould board and the shaa-e, a foijn that could be imitated by others, whereby following his instructions, mould boards might be multiplied, each possessing the due form which he had directed to be given to them. Small's improvements chiefly consisted in giving that most important feature of the implement, the mould board, a mathematical outline which enabled it to turn the furrow over iu an equal and regular manner. Erom SmaU's time until now the plough has been constantly undergoing improvements and alterations to suit it to all the various peculiarities of soil, &c., and to the manner in which certain crops require to be treated. The plough is no longer a rude implement that can be made by 312 MODERN HUSBANDKT. any village wheelwright, but a highly-scientific machine made upon strictly mathematical principles, and requiring the most skilful workmen to be employed in its manufacture. The Messrs. Eansome have been great improvers of this machine, the late Eobert Eansome having devoted considerable time and attention to simplifying its parts and improving its form, more particularly that of the mould board and share. THE OPERATION OF PLOUaHING. Before the plough is in a state to enter the land, it requires to be properly set or tempered, that is, all its parts must be adjusted with the greatest nicety to each other according to the nature of the soil, the peculiar manner in which the field is to be ploughed, and the necessities of the crop intended to be planted on it. There is no doubt that to set a plough correctly is one of the most difficult points of the art of ploughmanship. A great deal of management is required that cannot be conceived by theory nor described by WTiting. It must be the result of practice, as continual alterations of adjustment are required according to the nature of the soil and the work to be done. This is more especially the case with the turn-wrest plough, which being of a very com- plicated character, requires a great deal of adjustment. This is done by fixing in a number of diiferent sized nails which are carried in an old shoe attached to the plough. As many as twenty nails have been found placed in the parts of the implement when prepared to compete at a ploughing match. The plough being adjusted to the work, the ploughman, as he follows, holds it nearly vertical, for if he inclines it to the left hand side, which ploughmen are much inclined to do, the surface of the ground and the seams will be of an irregular shape. A smaU ridge, projecting up at each side of the seam, will stop the water in its course to the furrow, while the proper quantity of earth is still un tilled. The following rules, which embody the opinions of an eminent plough-maker, and also a good ploughman, the late Mr. Finlayson, are worth attention.* " 1st. The horses should be harnessed as near the plough as possible, without impeding the freedom of their step, for the closer they are to the point of draught the less exertion will be required to overcome the resistance. * " British Huabaiidry." PLOUGHING. 813 " 2nd. When plougliing with a pair abreast, the most forward and powerful horse should be worked in the furrow ; but if the team be harnessed in line, and there be any difference in the height of the cattle, the taUest should be put foremost, if he be in every other respect equal to the others. " 3rd. "When at work, they should be kept going at as regular and good a pace as the nature of the work wiU permit, for they are thus more manageable, and the draught easier than when slow. By due attention to this, the heavy soil wiE also cHng less to the coulter, and the land wLLL be found to work more freely. "4tb. The breadth ^nd depth of the furrow being ascertained, the plough should be held upright, bearing equally well all along on a straight sole, and be made to move forward in a regular line without swerving to either side. The edge of the coulter should also be set directly forward, so that the land side of it may run on a parallel line with the land side of the head, and in such a position that their slant, or sweep, may exactly correspond. " 5th. The ploughman should walk with his body as nearly as possible upright, without leaning on the stilts, and without using force to any part, further than may be absolutely necessary to keep the implement steadily in a direct line. He should also be sparing of his voice and correction to the team : of the former, because too much cheering and ordering only confuses the cattle ; and of the latter, because punishment, when often repeated, at length ceases to have due effect, and thus leads to unnecessary beating." The ploughman who tills the ground most skilfully will do it with the least trouble, noise and bustle. He presses upon the stilts lightly and evenly, his eye informs him the instant anything is amiss, and the slightest turn of the hand puts all right again ; — while a bad ploughman is continually giving the plough more or less land, or running it upon the heel or the share-point, his horses are ia a lather, as he himself is, with shouting and hard work, while the ploughing is not fit to be seen. The three principal points requiring attention in ploughing are : — 1st. The breadth of the slice to be cut. 2nd. The depth of the seam cut by the coulter. 3rd. The angle at which the seama shall be laid one upon another by the mould board. These points wiU all vary according to the peculiar object for which the ploughing is being executed, and will be treated of elsewhere. The first operation in ploughing is the setting out the land in the form on which it is intended to be wrought. This operation is ia 31 4! MODEEN HUSBANDRY. England called drawing or striking the furrows, and in Scotland fearing. It is performed thus, and by the best ploughman on the farm : — He commences by setting off what are called the head ridges, or head lands, that is, the piece of ground that is left at the end of the line of furrows for the horses and the plough to turn upon, these head ridges being ploughed after all the other part of the field is finished. Having completed this, he sets off, with a pole, from the fence or boundary line to which the intended ridges are to be parallel, one breadth and a half if it is intended to be ploughed flat, and half the intended width if it is intended to be gathered ; a rod is set up at such positions as the point where the plough is to enter, and in a line with this (which line describes the course of the intended furrows) two others are set up, the three varying accurately with each other. If the ground be undulating, he may require several rods — three must always be used, and one must be at each end of the furrow. These rods must be kept in a line between the horses as the plough proceeds, and when it arrives at a rod the ploughman stops, measures off a similar space, and sets up the rod there. Thus, when all the rods are ploughed down from their first situations, a line is prepared, parallel with the last, to mark the course for the plough on its return passage. Many persons, to ensure greater accuracy in the setting out, plough two or more lines across the drift of the furrows, and thus check the work at each crossing. A good and careful ploughman renders such practice unnecessary. When the feering is complete (or some portion of it), the other ploughmen commence the ploughing of the field; this they do by laying the two furrow slices (that were opened by the setting out) together to form the crowns of the intended ridges. The open furrows are formed by two mould furrows being ploughed out in the bottom of the space left between the two flanks on either side of the feerings. The mould (or, as it is sometimes called, the intended furrow slice) is triangular in shape, and fiUs up the space between the sole of the last seam and the surface of ground in which it was cut, as well as partially overlaying the furrow slice or seam. As the water draining through and from under the furrow slices finds its way to these deeper channels, they are called water furrows and down them the water finds a passage to the ditches. Land that has been thoroughly drained does not require to be treated in this manner, the old plan of working the land into high narrow ridges being abandoned, This plan of ploughing is called gathering, and is PLOUGHING. 315 usually wrought into eighteen feet ridges, and slightly raises land. If it is required to give greater elevation to it, it is ploughed over again in a similar manner, an open track being laid along the crown before the first two slices are laid together to enable the ploughman to strike them without overlapping, as, by so doing, they would produce unsightly work, leaving a shoulder or protuberance on the crown of the ridge. The curvature of the ridge should always be even and regular, and if the same elevation be required for the second ploughing it wUl be necessary to plough two ridges into one — an operation called casting. In this ease the plough enters at the open furrow and lays a slice towards it, and again on the opposite side, thus laying all the furrow slices on each ridge in one direction ; or, the original furrows may be preserved by ploughing the first two slices a little distance apart and opening the space between them, that is, the land is taken from one side of each two adjoining ridges and laid towards the other, or gathered from one side and towards the other. Cleaving is another description of ploughing, chiefly used in summer fallow and other cleaning operations. The effect of cleaving is to level the ridges by changing the position of the water furrows, the original furrows being filled up and the new one occupying the position of the former crowns. The plough commences at the furrow and strikes towards it, and, returning on the other side, does the same, each furrow slice being laid one upon another until it reaches the centre of the ridge, when a new open furrow is formed. If it is intended to preserve the water furrows as before, the ridges are split in two, and a new water furrow made between each of the old ones. Cross ploughing is simply the ploughing across the lines of the old furrows and ridges. In doing this, the ploughman takes a proportion of the field, say thirty yards, and strikes a furrow to the right hand, and the same in returning, always from left to right, until he has completed his proportion, each division forming one large ridge. Or he may tiu-n his horses to left about, and, passing along the head- land, return down the corresponding furrow of the next division, always turning left about until he has completed the whole space, between the first furrows. All these operations are exceedingly simple when seen on th& ground, but are nevertheless very difficult to make plain by written description. In describing the manner of setting out the furrows, we have 816 MODERN HUSBANDEY. hitherto considered the land as level, or nearly so, and then the ridges may be laid in a direction running from north to south, for, if laid from west to east, one side of the ridge has a more favourable aspect than the other. But, should the land lie irregular and undulating, the direction of the furrows must be such as will give the greatest facilities for executing the work and discharging the water by the water furrows, and which must be dependent almost entirely upon the peculiar locality to be ploughed. On very dry soils, naturally, or those that may have been properly thorough-drained and artificially made so, it is a common thing to plough the land flat, without ridge or furrow ; — but it is quite necessary to be very careful as to what the efiect of an unusual amount of rain- fall would be, and whether the underground ducts for carrying off the water may be relied on under extraordinary circumstances, as the res alts would be deplorable should they refuse to carry off the water, and aU the land laid flat, and without surface drainage ; I have frequently seen such cases, and the crops entirely spoiled in consequence. Ploughing the land flat simplifies the operation considerably, as it becomes under such circumstances analogous to the operation of cross ploughing, when the divisions are so large that no perceptible curvature is given to the sui-face. As it is difiScult to regulate accurately the spreading of manure, sowing, &c., when no fur- rows are formed, it is a good plan to strike at convenient distances parallel marks or ruts to act as guides in such cases. If the furrows between the ridges be of great length, or if there be hollow places in the field, the water will, of course, collect in such situations and damage the land for a considerable distance around. In passing through many clay districts of England in wet seasons how common it is to see these accumulations of water, indicative of apathy, idleness, and poverty on the part of the farmer ; for their pre- vention is of the easiest kind, merely requiring the plough to be passed across the field, through such situations as to secure a passage for the water to the ditches : a labourer follows and makes a perfect jiinction at the intersections of the furrows, and if the headland opposes the passage of the water to the outlet, a channel has to be cut through it. No water must be allowed to stagnate anywhere, and whenever the ordinary open furrows are insufficient, extra water farrows must be cut, their number and direction being determined by the locality. PLOUGHS. 317 In some localities, and at peculiar seasons, a style of practice of ploughing is adopted, called raftering or rib-ploughing. It consists of turning the furrow slice right over on its back, so covering a piece of land of a width equal to it ; this never gets ploughed at aU, and whatever benefits may be derived by the part that is ploughed by being so treated, an equal loss must exist from a similar position being entirely neglected. In the county of Kent a plough is used called a turn-wrest, in which case aU the furrows are laid one way by the mould board being a mere wedge, which is moved from one side to the other when the plough turns at the headland. This plough will be found more particularly described under the head of Turn-wrest Ploughs. OF THE PARTS OF THE PLOUGH. The Frame is the centre portion of the implement, to which the mould board, beam handles, &c., are secured. It is now nearly always made of east iron ; even to those ploughs whose beams and stilts are of wood, it consists of cast iron plate, with the necessary parts for securing and adjusting the other portions of the implement. The Beam is simply a strong bar of wood or iron, to carry the coulter and muzzle, to which the draught tackle is fixed, the after end being strongly fixed in the frame. The Handles or Stilts axe secured to the beam and plough frame, and so arranged as to give the ploughman the greatest possible control over the work, enabling him to maintain an uniform depth and perfectly even course : the one on the right side (when looking forward, the plough being at work) is called the little stUt, the other the great stilt ; iron bars, called stretcher bolts, are placed between them to keep them rigid and in place. The Coulter is the large and strong knife secured to the beam by a contrivance hereafter described. It is formed of iron, and laid with steel. "When the plough is drawn forward, the coulter makes a vertical cut of the required depth. The coulter must be Very strong, not yielding ia the least, and be sharp on the fore side ; the side of this knife, next the land from which the seam is cut, must be perfectly flat, the other side tapers slightly to give the required thickness at the back. The upper part of the coulter is made round, that it may be easily adjusted. It is placed at an angle of about 55°, but different lands and different ploughing cause this angle to vary ; sometimes the point is set slightly in the rear of the point of the share, generally three quarters of an inch above it, and inclining to 818 MODERN HUSBANDUY. the land side. Tke manner of securing the head of the coulter to the beam has been of late years much improved, the old fashioned wedges (at all times difficult and troublesome) being dispensed with, and a proper apparatus constanicted for holding and adjusting it to any required angle ; these are differently made by different makers, but if properly constructed, may be understood at the first glance by the person about to use the plough. The Share is a triaoagular shaped piece of iron. Its use is to cut the earth horizontally. It is placed on the fore end of tbe sole or slade. The share is made in a variety of forms adapted to different kinds of work. Wrought iron, shares were farimerly generally used, but about the year 1785, the late Eobert Eansome, of Ipswich, so improved the manufactiire of this important part of the implement that none but cast iron shares are now to be met with. The latest improvements consist in case hardening the under side the thickness of about an eighth of an inch, thus producing an effect as if a layer of steel were placed there ; consequently the lower part wears slowly and the upper quickly, by which means a shai^ edge is constantly maintained. The Mrnld-henrd. — After the earth has been cut vertically by the coulter, and horizontally by the share to the depth and width of the Fig. 40. ^ Fig. 41. ^'■y) PLOUGHS. 319 furrow slice, the mould board is required to complete the operation by turning the slice of earth so cut over to the proper angle, as shown in figs. 40 and 41. The mould board starts from the inner and upper part of the share, and is now inyariably a plate of cast iron of a curred form, which enables it, with the least possible resistance, to guide the furrow slice to its new position. On the peculiar form of this part of the plough much of the precision and beauty of the work wiU depend, consequently all plough-makers have, at all times, devoted much of their skill and energy to discover the best form in practice. The result of this proves that no fixed form wiU suit for all descriptions of land equally well, nor even for the same land under all circumstances. This is proved by the fact, that a mould board, which shows, after being much used in some particular situations, all the marks of having worn evenly and well, having acquired a smooth polished surface, wUl, on being removed to another description of land, show charac- teristics quite the reverse, polishing and wearing only in particular places. The plough has been so improved of late years that the agriculturist may be sure of getting mould boards suitable to the locality attached to the ploughs he may purchase in the country where his land may be situated. Should he purpose farming in the fiolonies he had better select two or three different kinds made to fasten to the same plough frame. The JPlough S.ead, bridle or muzzle, is an apparatus fixed at the outer end c£ the beam, and to which the draught-tackle is attached. It is so contrived that the point of draught may be adjusted vertically and laterally. The English and Scotch have diffiBrent methods, both of which are very simple and effective. Other and more complicated plans have been tried, but the best modem swing- ploughs are usually fitted as shown on Howard's plough.* The Skim Coulter is simply a plotigh in miniature, and placed below the beam in front of the coulter, being supported in a manner precisely similar. Its use is to skim the surface of the ground of grass and rubbish, and lay it in a position the most favourable to its being properly buried by the furrow-sUce of the plough. It makes very neat work in ploughing, and is used by the best agriculturists as an important addition io the implement. The Qallows is a kiad of carriage to which two wheels are attached, and constitutes the chief peculiarity between what are called swing- ploughs and wheel-ploughs. In the former the horses draw direct 820 MODERN HUSBANDEY. from the head of the beam, while in the latter, the draught chain is attached to the centre portion of the carriage. SUB-SOIL PLOUGHING. This operation, which is most extensively practised in all parts of England and upon every description of soil, was introduced some years since by the late J. Smith, of Deanston, and the practice is often called, in consequence, Deanstonising. Fig. 42. I have said Mr. Smith dntroduced this practice, for he was not the inventor of it, as is often supposed, sub-soil ploughs having been used for many years in particular localities ; but, until Mr. Smith also introduced the practice of thorough draining, the benefits to be obtained by sub-soiling could not be fuUy apparent; consequently we find the two practices foUow each other. Mr. Dixon, writing in 1813, mentions a sub-soil plough, as used in Lancashire, consisting of a ploughshare firmly fixed to a strong beam by means of a strong sheath and handle, and without any mould board, usually drawn by four or more horses, being made to foUow, in the furrow, the common plough, so as to penetrate into, loosen, and stir up the under-soil, without turning it up, from the depth of from 8 to 12 inches below the tract in which that plough had gone. The description exactly pourtrays the most modern sub-soil plough in use, and its use, that is, the breaking up the stratum of earth immediately under that which is annuaUy ploughed and prepared for crops, and upon which the horses have been walking and consolidating into an impermeable mass ever since the ground was first subjected to the action of a plough. Kg. 42, represents the Deanston sub-soil plough ; as originally constructed ; it consists of the ordinary framework of a plough without any mould board, and constructed in the strongest manner so as to enable it to resist the strains and severe shocks that it must naturally PLOUGHS. 821 meet with, when employed in teaxing up the subsoil of land for the first time invaded by instruments of culture. The frame work is about 15 feet long ; a sole-plate, on which a feather-shaped sock slips, is attached to it by means of two upright pieces of iron and a curved coulter. The height of the plough, from the sole-plate to the beam, is about 22 inches. On the furrow-sock is placed a projecting spur, over which the newly broken subsoil passes ; having been cut by the coulter and raised by the share, it resumes its place again in the bottom of the furrow, but no longer an impermeable crust, being now so broken and the pieces re-arranged that both the water and the roots of the plants can descend to a proper depth below. But few of the modem practices in agriculture have produced greater immediate benefits to the farmer than the use of the subsoil plough, the soil in many situations being doubled in value to the tenant by its operation. What trenching is to the gardener, subsoil ploughing is to the farmer, and unless he practises it and thereby gives the roots of his plants an opportimity to descend into the ground ia search of nutriment, he cannot approach the market-gardener in the cultivation of the same plants. This plough requires at least four horses to draw it, and in some situations where a pan or crust has to be broken through, I have used as many as eight. The cost of driving it, therefore, wiU vary according to the nature of the soil to be ploughed, and certainly that which requires the greatest number of horses to get the plough through, is most in need of being operated upon. The cost win vary from one to two pounds an acre. In working, the ordinary plough precedes it, taking out a furrow of ten inches by sis ; the subsoiUng machine follows in the bottom of that furrow, breaking up the groimd to the depth of ten or twelve inches without mixing it vnth the superincumbent soil. Mr. Pusey attempted to lessen the cost of this important operation, by constructing a plough that should effect the same object with a much lighter draught. This plough is called the Charlbury subsoil plough, and is described by Mr. Pusey in the Journal of the Eoyal Agricultural Society, vol. 1, page 433 ; he says, " it struck me that, possibly, the discovery of Mr. Smith might be carried a little further, and be brought more within ordinary means, if we coidd diminish the friction necessarily incurred in passing through the unstirred subsoil by dispensing with more parts of the common plough besides the 322 MODEHN HTJSBANDET. mould-board ; and I determined to try whether, by combining in one plough the two hitherto used, we might not get rid of the; aple itself in the underground implement, trusting to. thei ordinary sole above ground for preserving the balance, and so reducing the; instrument below the furrow (where the friction and resistance are of, coiu-se very great) to a mere cutting or stirring tool." The e;Kperiment.al plough was cqnatructed.by Hart, qf "Wantage, by placing a strong iron socket behind one of his, own single wheeled ploughs, and constructed, with greater strength in the beam than usual; into this socket a tine, similar tp those of Biddell's scarifier but thinner, was placed — this back tine could be raised or lowered at pleasure ; it was placed on the off sid^ of the beam in order that it might work in, the middle of the fresh furrow, and so act more freely than if it was placed, on the near side, immediately a.gainst the unstirred land. This plough was found, when tested, to be lighter in draught by far than the Deanston plough, the latter being, with the plough that first opened the ground, equal to 14| cwt,, while Mr. Pusey's plough was only about 8 cwt. The work done by the Deanston plough is, however, much better executed, although the opening tenacious subsoils so that the water may find a way through, is effectually accomplished with Mr. !Pu3ey's implement. Messrs. Barrett and Exall construct an excellent plough for subsoiling. It has three tines, the points of which are placed one below the other ; each shajre as it precedes its follower lessens its work by breaking up the upper crust of the soil ; it is, consequently, much less subject to sudden jerks and strains. As subsoil ploughing is a very important, and very expensive opera- tion, and one which, unless it is properly done, might as well remain undone, I strongly recommend aJjl persons, while employing men and horses for such purpose, to stayj in the field themselves, and see to its proper execution, or employ some person whom they can fuUy trust. All depends upon keeping the plough down, and this, is heavy work for both men and horses. If the latter be in good condition and favourites, as they generally are with the ploughman, he wiU certainly sacrifice the efficiency of the siibsoiling rather than distress his favourite animals. It is better to do a small quafitity of work well, than a great; deal with the plough sole six inches above where it ought to be, and where it certainly w;iU be if not watched ; I have tried all sorts of persons at this work, and never could depend on it unless I walked beside.the PLOUGHS. 323 plough, and insisted upon the depth being maintained. It is well to carry a spud and occasionally probe in the furrow, and see if the pan be thoroughly broken ; for as that is the object sought to be obtained, it must. be effected at whatever cost of pains and' labour. One of the best implements I knoW' of as a general subsoil plough, is that known as Eeed's Subsoil Pulveriser, shown- at fig. 4:3. It is simple in form and very effective in working, ttg. a. Sectiou of the beam. BEGB^a SUBSOIL PCLTERISSB. On aU lands that have been long ploughed, the soil immediately under that upon which one plough sole passes, must naturally, by. the pressure of it and the trampling of the horses, get consolidated into a hard compact mass through which water cannot pass, or the roots of the plants penetrate ; much land that has been subsoiled wiO, in a few years, be in this state. Such an implement as Eeed's subsoil pulveriser should therefore be in constant use, some portion of the land being subjected to its operation every year. If the pan or crust below the soil be very hard and difficult to remove, the heavier class of subsoil ploughs had better be used, but in many situations this imple- ment is quite efficient for the purpose. At the trial of implements at the meeting of the Eoyal Agricultural Society at Southampton, this plough was thus described by the judges to have answered the purpose intended. " The old floor was split into fragments like broken tiles, and the soil thoroughly separated and pulverised." This machine may be made to answer a variety of purposes by^ placiog different shappd tines to it, rendering it a grubber, scarifier, horse-hoe or turf-plough. Having had considerable experience fn the advantages to be gained by the use of it, I can confidently recommend it as a very useful and efficient implement. Tf 2 324 MODERN HUSBANDRY. OF THE DIFFEEENT KINDS OF PLOUGHS IN USE. Wheel-ploughs are those which have attached to them a carriage and wheels. The body of the plough is the same as the swing- plough, and so should be the point of draught, notwithstand- ing the different arrangement of the beam ; that is, the point of draught should cut a line drawn from the horse's shoulder to the share which is the point of resistance. Wheel-ploughs are made in great varities of arrangement of detail, but the general principle is the same. They wiU be found in almost every county in England, and great difficulty is experienced in any attempt to introduce a swing- plough, or wheel and furrow-plough, into the locality where they are much used. The fact is, they require much less skill on the part of the ploughman, but great judgment in arranging the parts so that they may act uniformly. The skiU necessary to handle the swing- plough weU, is not commonly attained, but the judgment necessary to adjust the parts of the wheel-plough they have acquired by constantly using it ; consequently they throw aside the Scotch swing-plough in disgust, unable to manage it, while the Scotch ploughman, bothered with the complicated adjustments he does not understand, is equally disgusted with the local wheel-plough. JBoth ploughs mil, however, produce equally good worh when in the hands of those who are used to them, and properly v/nderstand their peculiarities. The advocates of the wheel-plough state that the work can be done more easily and accurately by it than any other ; the wheels acting as gauges serve to regulate the width and depth with certainty, and the manner in which the share is supported by the gaUows enables ploughing to be done shallower than by any other ; also that there are many times and situations, as when the ground is very strong or dried hard, that the wheel-plough may be used when the swing- plough could not work at all. Mr. Eanspme, in his book upon the Implements of Husbandry, remarks that " as a counterbalance to the advantages of the wheel- plough in the precision of the work done, in the saving of the labour to the horses, and the adaptation to hard land, is the time consumed in frequent adjustments of the points of draught. The probabilities of these points as forces being set in a counter-direction to each other, — the greater complication in its construction and its greater cost, with the liability of the wheels to clog in wet weather, and its inapplicability to uneven land." Balancing all these circumstances, pro and con, it appears to me PLOUGHS. 325 that in comparison with the wheel-plough with gaUowa, as described, the practical advantages are in favour of the swing-plough. The Improved Scotch-plough. — This is an attempt to combine the peculiar advantages of the wheel and swing-ploughs into one ; it is a plough with a land and furrow wheel, as in fig. 45. It may be used either as a wheel or swing-plough, and is easy to manage. It differs from the swing-plough by having two wheels fixed to the fore part of the beam. One of the wheels about twelve inches in diameter, is fixed on the land side of the plough and runs upon the unploughed land ; the other wheel, about twenty inches in diameter, is on the opposite side, and runs in the farrow, both wheels are capable of easy adjust- ment both vertically and laterally. In ploughing with this plough it is customary to extend the furrow about two feet into the headridge, to enable the share to arrive up to the right point, which it would not else, as the wheel would lift it when it arrived at the headland, the share not reach- ing at the same time, this two feet being again ploughed when the headland is finished off. Sometimes only one wheel is used, and then it may either be the small one to run on the xinbroken land, or the large in the furrow- The larger wheel is considered the best, especially when a lever is placed, so that its adjustment may be altered by the man at the stilts without leaving his position. A variety of ploughs have been made with wheels secured to the frame within the mould-board, but not having remained in use, we may presume they were not found to answer. Fig. 44. smart's improved turn-wrest plough. The turn- wrest is common in Kent, and is considered by the farmers of that county to be superior to all others for their particular purposes. It is intended for under-surface ploughing, so as to clear the ground from grass and rubbish, as well as to loosen the soil. It is adapted for crossing the ridges, as well as for ploughing in a line with the 326 MODEKN HUSBANDRY. common farrows, and it may be used so as to lay the stitches on lands rounding or flat, as desirei. There are shares of from four to sixteen inches in breadth, which may be used as considered desirable. This implement lays the furrows all in the same direction from one side of the field to the other, and this is effected Ijy the alteration of the wrest, which occupies, to a considerable extent, the place of the ordinary mould-board, and lays over the seatn in the same way that it does. It is an ugly-looting implement, and would never (by a stranger) be supposed to be so good as it really is. A plough of this description was constructed under the direction of Mr. William Smart, of Eainham, in Kent, and with such success that the improved plough might be made equally applicable to the power of two or four horses, according to the staite or nature of the land on which it was to be used. In Vol. XIII., p. 59, of the Farmer^' Magazine, will be found a lengthened description of this improvement, and the views of the constructor in reference to the turn-wrest plough. Smart's plough is so constructed that the ploug'hman can shift the coulter as he pleases and reverse the wrest from right to left without moving from his proper position between the stilts. This he effects by means of a lever, through which the head of the coulter passes, and one end of which is brought conveniently up to a position just above the inner end of the plough beam ; and, by a simple mechanical contrivance, the turn-wrest can be removed from side to side, so that either becomes alternately the mould-board as the fiwrow requires "to be turned. A screw link and swivel is introduced in the chains to get rid of the use of nails for adjusting. This plough, in its improved form, is manufactured by Messrs. Eansome, of Ipswich. The handles and beam are of wood, and the gallows is of wrought iron. Kg. 44 represents this improved plough, the handles being omitted. HOWARD'S PRIZE PLOUGH. This plough made of iron (principally wrought), is intended for ordinary ploughing, and is the smallest of a set of new ploughs recently designed, and patented by J. & P. Howard. The new patent ploughs are made principally of wrought iron, and are all improved from their prize ploughs ; they are made of three sizes, marked, for distinction, X, XX, and XXX, suitable for ordinary, deep, and extra deep ploughing. The improvements consist in greater elegance of design, more equal proportions, and the furrow-turners being made particularly taper and regular in their curve, and formed upon exact geometrical PlOUGHS. 327 principles ; the furrow-slice is thus made to travel at an uniform rate, from its being first cut untU left in its final position, the power Fig. 45. HOWASD S PRIZE PLOUGH.' required to work the implement considerahly lessened, and the furrows laid more evenly and in the best form for the reception of the seed, as well as working much cleaner upon land inclined to adhere or load to the breast or furrow-turner. The shares are fixed to lever necks of wrought iron, made upon an improved principle, the raising or lowering of which gives the point greater or less " pitch," or inclination, as the share wears, or as the state of the land may require. The superiority of this lever neck over others is its great simplicity, and its being tightened at the end instead of by a bolt through the side. When raised or lowered (which can be done instantly) it is secured in a series of grooves ; the iron is thus brought into a state of tension, ensuring firmness, as well as increasing the strength. The centre pin upon which the lever works is a fixture to the neck, and takes its bearing close to the head or socket of the share, so that the top of the share is hot raised above or below the front of the breast when moved into the higher or lower grooves. The lever neck has another great advantage over any other — ^the accumulation of earth inside the plough, in most instances, renders the lever useless, as it cannot be moved without a great deal of trouble ; but in this arrangement, by simply taking off the end next the neck, it may be at once disconnected from the plough, and anything preventing its free action removed. The axles of the wheels are upon a new principle, and are made so that no grit can enter, nor any oil or grease escape. The wheels, therefore, will wear much longer, the axles require little or no repairing, and the friction is considerably reduced. The mode of fixing the wheels is also peculiar. The holdfasts, or damps securing them, are made to slide through a mortice formed in the beam, by which the width may be altered with greater facility, besides dispensing with the old sliding axle, which was an obstacle in deep ploughing, and objection- 328 MODEEN HUSBANDKY. able in dirty land on account of the soil accumialating round it. The wheels by the method now adopted are brought opposite to each other, and the land wheel may be expanded as well as the furrow wheel. A draught chain is adopted in all Messrs. Howard's ploughs for the following reasons : — It removes all strain from the beam, and in hand-work there is a steadiness of movement not to be found in ploughs which draw from the end of the beam ; the line of draught is also more direct, consequently the power required is reduced. The handles and beam, which are of wrought iron, are made throughout in a piece, preventing their shaking loose, which is the case with most other ploughs made of iron. This latter improvement also prevents the accumulation of soil in the hinder part of the plough. Every part is so arranged that a ploughman can remove or replace the irons subject to wear or breakage in the field, without the assistance of a mechanic. It can be worked either with or without wheels, or with one, as required. It may be had with breasts or furrow-turners of various sizes and shapes ; broad-shares may also be had with it for paring stubble or turf, and others of triangular form for subsoiling and ploughing between the rows of beans or root crops. The skim-coulter with which it is fitted is of great importance when ploughing ley ground and stubble ; it precedes the common coulter, paring and turning into the furrow the herbage upon the surface, so that when the soil is turned over by the plough, nothing of grass or weeds is left to grow out between the furrows, consequently the vegetable matter thus buried, instead of living upon the soil, decpmposes, and serves to enrich the land. It will also be found most useful when ploughing in dung, mustard, tares, &c., for, with the addition of a "drag chain," all may be turned in completely. — Catalogue of the M. A. S., at Lewes. Fig. 46. BUSBY'S EXHIBITION PRIZE PLOUGH. This plough is nearly in all respects similar to the last. It is manu- factured by Mr. Busby, of Newton Le Willows, near Bedale, York- PLOUGHS. 329 shire. It may be considered one of the best speeimena of this machine that can be found. It was exhibited at the Great Exhibition of all Nations, of 1851, and had the council medal awarded to it. Since that time Mr. Busby has continued to improve it, and has been successful in maintaining the reputation he then justly obtained. LOWCOOK'S PATENT PLOUGH. This plough is for the purpose of turning furrows in one line of direction, and parallel to each other. It is almost self-acting, as respects its adaptation to each successive furrow; and so simple in its formation that any ploughman may at once use it to advantage. CLARK'S UNIVERSAL RIDGE PLOUGH is the invention of John Clark, of Long Sutton Marsh, to whom a medal was awarded by the Eoyal Agricultural Society of England. It is adapted to the several purposes of ridge culture, and by an easy transition of shape, which is accomplished in a simple manner, it becomes 1st. A double tom or ridge plough for opening or closing the soil as in ridge ploughing, or for setting out the land for ordinary ploughing, or for opening the surface-drains, or water-furrows, &c. 2nd. A moulding-plough for moulding up roots, crops, and other purposes. 3rd. It may be converted into a horse-hoe or cleaning plough, with curved coulters for cleaning the sides of ridges, or with flat hoes for broad work, or it may with slight modification become a broad-share plough, to which rising prongs or shares may be attached for the purpose of clearing land from weeds and rubbish. Moulding Floughs, sometimes called double-toms, have mould- boards on both sides of the frame ; they are used chiefly for earthing up growing crops when cultivated in ridges. They are also used for opening water-furrows, when the mould-boards are removed and a skim-share added. It may be used as a paring-plough, or broad-share, for skimming stubbles, &c., or it may be converted into a kind of light ' subsoUer or subpulveriser. Double Furrow Ploughs. — These are ploughs so constructed that they win plough two furrows at once ; they have two coulters, two frames and mould-boards fastened to double beams. They are rarely met with, although said to be very economical in working light land. 330 MODERN HTJSBANDEY. I haYe had no experience witli tTiem Inyself, therefore cannot say whether any advantages are gained ; but I should think not. There can be but very few situations Trhefe the land is adapted to them, as it must Tae quite free from stones or anything that might throw either of the ploughs out bf work. Mr. Eansome mentions one in use in the neighbourhood of Ipswich, that has three mould-boards ; -he says that it answered well, ploughing a furrow nine inches wide and six deep, worked with two horses abreast, and one man only. l'LO0GHrN-& BY STEAM. Although many attempts have been toade to effect this desirable object, yet I cannot say that I know of any plan being yet adopted that would enable the faTmer to apply the power of steam to the tillage of the land. It is true that land has been ploughed by steam, and^ ploughed well, but there are so many difficulties in the way of its general adoption that I think it will be many years before so desirable an end be arrived at. Some of the most recent trials have been made by Lord Willou,ghby D'Bresby, at Grimsthorpe, and with very great success. In this case a portable engine works down the centre of the field upon a kind of portable railwa.y. The ploughs work backwards and forwards between it and the side of the field, drawn by chains and windlasses. I ought not to forget that Mr. Mechi has pronounced the funeral- knell of the plough, and that he is hard at work at Tiptree upon a digging-machine, which is to do wonders. It is more properly a rotatory-drag or cultivator, than a plough. It is worked by steam, but the whole machine is drawn along by horses. It doubtless may do on some description of lands, but in particular soils great difficulty will be encountered. HAEEOWS AN^D CULTIVATORS. The harrow succeeds to the plough in the natural order of descrip- tion. Its use is to pulverise thfe g'rouud which has been moVed by Fig. 47. DIAGONAL HABKOWS. HAKEOWS AlfD CULTITATOES. 831 tlie plough, to disengage from it all the weeds and roots of whateTer kind that may be in it, and to harrow in the seed when sown broad- cast. It consists generally of a wooden or iron frame on which, are fixed a number of iron teeth. These are pressed into the ground by their own weight, and that of the frame. Until withia a comparatively recent period, besides the plougli, the harrow and roller were the only implements used by the cultivators of the land. The harrows were of two kinds : light harrows for covering seed, and heavy ones called drags. At present there are an immense variety of implements made for more perfectly pulverising, Fig, 48. cleaning, and improving the tilth of the land, both before the crops are sown and afterwards ; these are called by a great variety of names, — as drags, grubbers, scufflers, scarifiers, cultivators, extirpa- tors, clod-crushers, rollers, harrows and horse-hoes. They are all adapted for the different operations of cultivating the land, according to the season, the state of the soil, or the requirements of the crop. Some of these are most valuable implements, and have done much to bring land iato cultivation for certaiu crops that previous to their introduction could not be thought of. Among such may be named CroskUl's clod-crusher, the Ducie drag, and BiddeU's scarifier. Drag- harrows are not so much used now as formerly, as other more effective and manageable machiues have been introduced, the most prominent of which is the late Lord Ducie's cultivator. It is a powerful implement resting on four wheels, the front ones eighteen inches in diameter, the hind ones three feet four inches ; from the front ones rises an if on rod having a circular section which passes tbrough the point or nose of the frame-work, the hindmost one rests on cranks or an axle, which runs straight through the frame-work, thus raising it above the ground twenty inches. The teeth are placed in the frame in such a manner that they shall open the ground clear of each other, and so not be 332 MODEEN HTJSBANDEY. liable to choke or clog. Thus while the teeth are placed two feet apart, the working track is only six inches. It is raised out of the ground (when necessary to clear it of the rubbish it has collected) with the greatest ease, by turning a handle upon which a worm is fixed, working into a wheel fixed on the cranked axle. The depth of working is also regulated in the same manner. Fig. 49. THE DTJCIE DRAG. There are many other forms of this machine put forth having certain modifications, and advantages; amongst these, Bentall's broad-share, or skim, may be mentioned; it is shown in fig. 50, and is a most effective implement for breaking up stubbles, and quickly working the land into good tilth. Fig. 60. bentall's broad-shabe. I Colman's Draff Harrow, shown in fig. 51, is another description of implement for effecting the same objects, not of so heavy a character. It is constructed upon a novel principle, and is well adapted for performing a variety of operations, as harrowing, paring, and culti- vating land. There are seven prongs, or tines, to which shares or spuds varying from two to ten inches wide, may be affixed. These CULTIVATOES. 333 prongs are arranged so as to cut the land eight inches apart ; the depth of penetration being determined by a lever which acts upon a frame suspended about six inches above the lower one, and by an easy movement backwards or forwards, regulates the depth of the rig. 51. COLMAN'S DKAG. tines or shares to the greatest nicety ; different descriptions of shares miay be placed upon the tines, to suit any kind of work that may be required. An improvement has been recently made in it to adapt it to sideling ground ; they are made of different sizes and weights, to suit every description of land. 'EMaysorCs Self-eleanmg JELofrrow. This is another description of drag or harrow, but of a lighter kiad ; it is a most efficient implement Fig. 62. fihlayson's harrow. for cleaning lands under tillage from couch grass and other weeds, 334( MODERN HUSBANDRY. the curvature of itsteeth being so formed as to bring to the surface all weeds and -viegetable rubbish. Many modifications are constructed, by different individuals), but few of them, however, are more effective, than this, which was, with the exception of rulier,'s the first introduced. BIDDELL'S SCABIFIEB. This implement is the invention of Arthur Biddell, of Playford, and was first made under his direction about thirty years ago, with the framing of wood, and tines of wrought iron. It is used for the purpose of cultivating land under a variety of circumstances, and briuging it into a proper state of tilth much more effectually, and at less expense, than can be done by the means generally employed for that purpose. It may be successfully used to clean wheat, bean, and pea stubbles directly after harvest ; to break up such parts of clover leys as may have failed itt the plant, and to break up land after green crops in May or June in preparation for turnips,, coleworts, &c. ; thus accom- plishing fine and deep tillage, without bringing fresh earth to the surface-land, in preparation for barley and oats. The improvements' upon this scarifier consist in manufacturing it almost entirely; of wrought iron, and suspending the frame, so that by means of a lever at each end and corresponding catches, either side may be raised' higher than the other, to suit sloping ground; or to allow one wheel' to run in a furrow whilst the teeth penetrate the cultivated ground to an uniform depth. The teeth are also of wrought iron, and are secured to the frame in such a manner as to allow of varying both their distances from each other, and the depth to which they are to penetrate, allowing also of setting them to suit rounding lands. There are two sizes made, viz. No. 1. with nine teeth, and No. 2, with seven teeth. The No. 1, covers from point to point, six feet two inches, and the No. 2, four feet eight inches. The advantages resulting from the use of BiddeU's scarifier are as follows : — A savmff in tillage of half the labour, both manual and horse, over the ordinary method of cleaning land. Saoing in time. — Lands may be broken and stirred with this implement in much less time than with the plough. Improved cultivation. — The operation oif this scarifier is much more effective for spring crops on strong lands than ploughing, as it occasions less treading by, horses, produces more mould, and CULTiyjLTOES. 335 allows the moisture to be more advantageously retained, and the seed, will be deposited in the soil which has been exposed tp the wiater frosts. Less Jiarrovmig is required, as the land is broken up and left much finer than after the plough. The couch-grass (if any), is brought to the surface without breaking it. The land is left by this implement in a state to be immediately harTOwedj which may be done in time to break the clods before they become too hard. In all cases where itas. desirable to give tUlage to the land without turning down. the. surfacCj this implement may be used with great The tines aire prepared to fit case-hardened cast-iron points, of one, two, or three inches width, or casfc-iron, or steel hoes, of nine inches width ; with these latter, any part of the land will be cut. They are readily taken off and exchanged. JOHNSON'S SKIM CULTIVATOR. This implement has been recently introduced by Messrs. Garrett. It is used for breaking up and pulverising land, clearing it of weeds, rubbish, and of couch-grass. It is chiefly for preparing pea stubbles, tare lands, &c., for coleworts, mustard, rape, and turnips for early autumn feeding, and leaves the land in a good state for the wheat crop. Fig. 53. SKIM CULTIVAiroJft. Kirkwood's grubber and "Wilkie's parallel brake are implements of the same class, and, as nearly every modern agriculturaL machine- maker has some peculiar form of machine for effecting the same object, I need not attempt further description of them. The time and circumstances under which these useful machines should be used must be left entirely to the judgment of the person using them. If properly applied, and in the right season, the greatest 336 MODERN HTJSBANDEY. benefits will be derived from them ; if they are injudiciously used, they will be found clogged up and useless. Each one has its proper sphere of action, and the choice of this can only be determined by the weather, the state of the land, and the requirements of the operation that is to be performed. THE NORWEGIAN HAEROW. Two or three varieties of this implement are manufactured by different iadividuals, but the beat is that by CroskUl. It is most valuable immediately after ploughing ; it breaks and pulverises the land, leaving three or four inches depth of fine mould, well prepared for seed; it saves the use of the heavy and middle-sized ordinary harrows — the small seed harrows, once after sowing, being sufficient. WiiUe other pulverisers consolidate the lands, ■ this thoroughly effects its object without consolidating at all, and neither does it clog. Kg. 64. NORWEGIAN HARROW. In CroskiU's machine three sets of rowels are fixed on a round axle, which renders them less liable to break. The points of the rowels are longer and thinner than usual. This important implement is now coming into general use, and is highly valued for pulverising the soU to a depth of five or six inches. Eeed's subsoil-pulveriser working below, and this above, prepare the soU in a first-rate manner for the reception of aU kinds of crops. CLOD CRUSHERS. 337 CROSKILL'S CLOD CRUSHER. This roller consists of casb metal discs or roller parts, placed loosely upon a round axle so as to revolye independently of each other. The outer surface of each roUer part is serrated and has a series of sideway projecting teeth, which act perpendicularly in breaking clods. The size, 6 feet wide by 2i feet in diameter, consists of 23 roller parts. Each alternate ring is made larger in the eye and in revolving causes an up-and-down motion along the entire surface of the roller, thereby increasing its power and effecting the best means of self-cleansing. Pig. 55. CROSKILLS OLOD CBUSHEK. Mr. Crosskill's square axle-toothed roller first made its appearance in the Eoyal Agricultural Society's show-yard at Cambridge, in 1840, the round axle patented machine at mg. 66. Perby, in 1843, — a premium of 201. was awarded for it by the judges at Southampton, in 1844, — and it gained the Society's prize of 101. at Shrews- bury, in 1845, having on all occasions of trial at the Society's show greatly excelled the performance of every other roller brought iato competition with it. " Eoyal Agricultural Society's Jour- nal," Vol. IV., page 560, contains a large collection of instances of its utility in arresting the ravages of the vsdre-worm — an effect owing probably to the forcible bite of the teeth on the ground — in the pulverisation of stiff, and compression of light soils, together with Side elevation. Fi-out elevation. 338 MODERN HUSBANDRY. the opinions of numerous agriculturists upon its value as a roller of Tarious crops in a state of young growth. Great success has attended its employment on pasture land in destroying the white slug, curing mossiness, and especially in consolidating soft grass land after drainage. Pig. 55 represents a general view of the machine ; and fig. 56 the side and end elevation of one of the serrated rings. It is doubtful if any agricultural implement that has of late years heen introduced has had such beneficial efiects as this, or has become so generally used and highly appreciated. As manufactured now it is the result of great experience ; everything that ingenuity could suggest has been done to render it a perfect machine, and certainly it is one of the most necessary, as well as most valuable, that can be found upon the faj-m. This simple implement is successfully applied to effect three purposes, which the combined application of the spike roller, ^the Norwegian harrow, and the wheel roUer, faU. to accomplish : 1st, in lessening the expenses of tillage, by mechanical aid, in crushing the hardest clods, and pulverising the roughest fallow land ; 2nd, in compressing light and pufiy soil, to grow therefrom stronger and more productive plants ; 3rd, in rolling cultivated land, and prevent- ing the ravages of the wireworm and grub, thereby increasing the quantity and improving the quality of the corn. The patent roller consists of a series of cast metal rings or roller parts placed loosely upon a round axle, revolving thereon independently of each other, thereby producing a self-cleaning action, and by which the machine is turned round about on fields of growing corn without tearing up the soil or destroying the plants, or half burying itself in a hole formed whilst turning. The surfaces of the roller parts are pointed with serrated edges, and a series of inner teeth, projecting sideways, fixed at a particular angle to the centre of the roller axle, so as to act most efiiectuaUy in penetrating clods perpendicularly, and in consolidating the young plants in the soil. The eyes in the centre of each alternate roller part are now made larger in the hold, so that when revolving separately upon the round axle they cause an irregular velocity by the rims perpetually varying, and efiecting an eccentric or up-and-down action along the whole of the roller discs, thereby increasing its power, and the best means for self-cleaning itself in working. "When the roller is taken into a field, a hole is dug under each travelling wheel until the roller rests upon the ground ; then take off the road wheels ; use the same method to get them on when required. CLOD CEUSHEUS. 339 The deep indented edge-points of this ponderous machine penetrate and abrade the roughest clods, reducing big masses of clay-baked soil into a fine mould, where, in many cases, from the nature of the soil and the inefficiency of other implements, it would be utterly impossible to prepare the land without the serrated clod- crusher. It ensures the certainty of a sowing season in the driest weather, and rapidly converts many acres of heavy land iuto the finest condition for the reception of grain or the smallest of seeds, and leaves the soU then equal to once harrowing. The spike roller and Norwegian harrow fail to pulverise big sun-dried clods, either driving the clods before or they are borne over the surface. It is difficult to enumerate all the advantages that may be gained from the use of this roller ; as for all the operations of breaking down clods and pulverising baked land it is of the greatest use, and on light land there is no end to the benefits that accrue from its use. Meadows that are bad and mossy may be improved by rolling with this roller ; and if they have been previously dressed with ashes the advantage will be still more perceptible. It is of importance in using this roller to see that the bearings are properly oiled, otherwise labourers are apt to run it dry and do serious injury. I shall allude to the implement again, as it is used not only in preparing the land for crops, but after those crops have appeared above ground. CAMBRIDGE'S PRESS -WHEEL ROLLER. This is also used to efiect some of the objects obtained by the last mentioned machine. It consists of a number of iron rings or discs Fig. 67. CAMBRIDQE S PRESH-WHBEL ROLLER, of iron, having sharp cutting edges. It is used for crushing clods on rough lands, and for making grooves ready to receive the seeds of the wheat or other grain sown broadcast on light soUs. It answers z 2 340 MODERN HUSBANDRY. very well for either purpose; when employed in the latter operation, a short-toothed light harrow is passed once over after it. Seam pressers, or drill rollers, come more under the denomination of sowing machines than cultivators. SOWING AND DEILLING MACHINES. The laud intended to be sown having been prepared for it, first by ploughing and afterwards by the action of harrows, grubbers and rollers which clean it, pulverise it, and produce the tilthy character necessary to fit it for the plants intended to be placed in it, I now proceed to describe the next operation, which is, depositing the seed in the ground. Seed may be sown broadcast, or in rows by drills, or in patches by dibbling. The first method is by the hand, the sower carrying the seed in a box under his left arm and casting it from him as he walks along. Of course the regularity of the sowing, when done in this manner, must depend upon the skill of the sower ; and it is astonishing with what wonderful precision some men who have had much practice wiU broadcast it. The manner of sowing seed may be better under- stood by reference to the illustration to the Chapter on Crops. The system now generally pursued in depositing the seed is that called drilling, in which case the plants grow in rows, the spaces between them allowing of the weeds being eradicated, the ground opened and laid up to the roots of the plants with greater facility than when sown broadcast. A great variety of implements are used for this purpose, suited to the difierent kinds of seed to be sown, the width of the intervals, &c., which will presently be described. The seed is sometimes sown broadcast, and falling in open channels marked in the ground, comes up in rows, those that show from seeds that have taken between the rows being hoed out. The drill system of husbandry was introduced into this country about the year 1730 by Jethro Tull, an enthusiast in agriculture, whose works are now more highly appreciated than formerly. The practice, however, is not modern, it having been practised in the East Indies and in China, as well as in Arabia ; the inhabitants of those countries having drilled their seed from time immemorial. Tull's first invention was a kind of plough with a drill attached. It sowed ^heat and turnips in three rows at a time. In his turnip drill he had an arrangement for sowing the seed at two diflferent GENEEAL-PUB.POSE DRILLS. 341 depths, so that it might come up at different times and escape the ravages of the turnip-fly. Forty years elapsed after Tail's death before anything more was done in drills ; at length Sir James Anstruther made an effective machine which he used for some years. This caused attention to be directed to the subject, and many patents were taken out for them. The one, however, which answered best was the invention of the Eev. James Cooke, a clergyman of Heaton Norris in Lancashire, and it is upon the principles of this that every drill now in use has been based, the first improver being Henry Baldwin, a farmer of Norfolk. After that time it quickly spread over the country, and bore the name of the Norfolk Drill. I need not dwell further upon these early attempts to construct this important machine, but will at once proceed to a description of the most recently improved kinds. GENERAL-PURPOSE DRILLS. Drills are now made with various peculiar details in their construc- tion, but the general principle upon which they act is the same^ it will therefore be better to describe the general arrangement which is common to all, before I enter further upon the subject. The drill consists of an oblong box mounted in a peculiar manner upon a carriage supported by high wheels ; the box is divided longitudinally by a partition, thus forming two compartments, the inner one called the seed box, and the outer the delivery box ; between these two boxes are passages, called pigeon-holes, through which the seed passes from the seed box to the delivery box, the supply being regulated by small sliding shutters or hatches. Through the delivery box, lengthways, is an iron shaft, and upon it are placed flat discs of sheet iron, projectiag from the sides of which are a series of spoons ; the shaft is made to revolve by motion communicated from the wheels of the carriage. The seed being admitted to the delivery box in fitting quantities from the seed box, is taken up by the little spoons, and as they turn round at the top they cast it into tin boxes or hoppers. The orifices at the bottom of these fit into tin tubes, which pass through the bottom of the seed box. Attached to these tubes are a series of conical cups fitted one into another, and held together by little chains, as shown in fig. 58 ; these cups thus form a continuous tube through which the seed is conveyed to the ground. The portion of the machine thus far described, is simply to produce 31.2 MODERN HUSBANDEY. a regidar stream of seed at any required quantity per acre and conrey it to the ground, which must be prepared for its reception by other arrangements. Attached to the forepart of the machine are a series of long lever bars, which move freely upwards and downwards, being connected with the carriage by hinges ; attached to these are coulters to open the ground and prepare it for the seed ; on the outer end of the lever is placed a weight to press it into the groimd. As the drill moves forwaad, the coulters prepare a small furroW or channel ; the seed falling through the pipes, drops into it, and is afterwards covered over. Fig. 58. GENERAt-POTtPOSE UBIIiL. Side elevation. I have described the operation and apparatus as for one line of seed, but drills' are made of great width and to sow many rows ; but then it is merely a repetition of the parts I have alluded to. Besides these, there are some other adjustments necessary ; first, that for varying the quantity of seed to be sown. This is done by altering the arrangement of wheel work shown in fig. 58 at the side of the box, the cog wheels being arranged of various sizes, and the motion of the shaft in the seed box may be stopped altogether. GENERAL PUEPOSE DEILLS. 843 Each lever bar and coulter is suspended, by a chain which winds round a long roller placed at the back of the machine; this, by levers at one end, may be turned when required at the end of the field, and all the coulters be lifted out of the ground. "When the machine is working on hUl sides one end of the box wiU. be lower than the other. An arrangement must therefore exist for balancing it ; besides these, there are many other little contrivances for facilitating its correct working. The introduction of so much artificial manure has caused a new arrangement of drill to be necessary, one that shall be able to sow both seed and manure ; in this case another box is required for manure, and a repetition of the apparatus for taking it up in the spoons and passing it down a separate line of cups ; an altered form of coulters and level bars is also necessary, so that the manure may be sown quite separately, never coming in contact with the seed, although both are deposited by the same machine. Pig. 59 shows the manner in which the coulters are arranged in this form of drill ; this is a late improvement in the construction of the drUl lever, which is so made that the coulter, through which the seed passes, is fixed on a small lever, working independently of that to which the manure coulter is attached, allowing both coulters to work independently of each oth^, and follow in the same track, and being pressed into the ground by separate sets of weights, no difficulty will be found in depositing both seeds and manure regularly any depth, one below the other, on all descriptions of land, however hUly or uneven. The rake shown between the two coulters adds greatly to the effective working of the drill, filling up the channels left by the large manure coulter, and permitting the seed coulter to make its work in the freshTstirred mould, directly above the manure. In order to obtain a regular supply of manure from the box a simple con- trivance is provided, by which the attendant is enabled, by pulling 544. MODERN HUSBANDUr, down an iron lever, at tte near side of tte drill, to disturb the manure in the box, and bring it down to the depositing- barrel ; this is especially necessary for manures, which, from their adhesive nature, are liable to hang up in the box. After this machine has passed over the ground, the seed will have been found to be deposited in a most perfect manner ; first, there will be deep in. the ground the manure, guano, superphosphate of lime, or any other, over that a little soil, then the seed, separated by it from the manure, and over all the upper soil. The most eminent of the drill-makers are Hornsby of Stamford, Garrett of Leiston in Suffolk, and Smyth of Peasenhall in the Same county. These makers have competed with each other in endeavouring to produce the best possible machine. The most recent improvements are in the manner in which the drill is supported on the frame, iron being now substituted for wood ; a swing steerage, which enables the person in charge to maintain a perfectly straight line in working ; improved means for regulating the supply of manure and seed from the seed box to the delivery box; a more efBcient arrangement for balancing the drill and keeping it horizontal when working on sideling ground ; and the substitution of India-rubber tubes for the lobster-jointed tins formerly in use. The Bedfordshire Drill is much Hked in some localities. It is differently constructed to those I have described before. In it the Fig. 60. carriage rests on the coulters, which are formed something in the shape of skaits. It is not, however, adapted to the variety of work that the other descriptions of drills are. With such plants as turnips and mangold, that are required to be sown at wide intervals apart, a diflferent description of machine will be required. Fig. 61 represents a two-row ridge drill of the best construction. GENEHAL-PtKPOSE DEILlS. SiS In front is a concave roller, and behind it are the coulters and spouts for manure and seed j a light roller follows, completing the work. Pig. 61. A TWO-ROW filDGE DRILL. This machine is fitted to deposit bones, compost, or any pulverised manure either on the ridge or flat. It has a stirrer in the manure part, which causes an even delivery. The manure and seed coulter act independently of each other. Kg. 62 is a one-row drill of the same description, for depositing both manure and seed. Fig. 62. ONE-EOW filDGE DRILL. Another description of drill has been lately introduced, in which the stream of seed running down the tubes is stopped off at fixed intervals-, valves being placed to effect it. These drills are constructed to economise manure, and are capable 34,6 MODEBN HUSBANDKY. of dropping dissolved bones or other pulverised manure, at any required distances, from 10 to 18 inches apart in the tows, in any given quantities from 10 to 15 bushels per acre ; the" seed can be deposited with the manure, or, if necessary, the manure covered up, and the seed delivered upon the drops immediately after. Fig. 63 represents one of these machines, for which Mr. Hornsby has received several prizes. Fig 63. HORNSBY S TWO-ROW DROP DRILL. Machines for dibbling, that is, depositing the seed in patches instead of a regular stream, have been constantly brought before the public, but have not come into use to any great extent. The drop drills just mentioned are intended to effect similar objects, and at present may be considered the most effective for the purpose. Hcmd-dibbling is done with an iron pointed bar; it is a simple operation, being merely making a hole into which the seed is put. A skilful workman will use one in each hand and make the holes with wonderful rapidity. Fig. 64 is a drill invented by Thomas Chandler, Esq., of Aldburn, and improved and manufactured by Thomas Eeeves, of Bratton, near Westbury, Wilts. The object of this machine is to deposit liquid manure along with the seed, in any quantity from 3 to 10 hogsheads per acre. The seed part is similar to an ordinary drill. The apparatus for delivering the liquid manure consists of three rows of buckets working on an endless chain, similar to a dredging machine; these take up LIQUID MANUEE DEILL. 817 the manure from the cistern, and, in turning over at the top, tip it into the shoot which conveys it to the ground. The chief merit in this implement is its ability to deliver liquid manure in a thick state. Straw, leaves, and matters which clog other machines, are carried over by this with great ease. Fig. 64. LIQUID MANDHK DEILL. Seeds, that is clover and grass seed, are also sown by a machine. This is a very simple aifair, and is not a drill. On a light barrow-frame is placed transversely a long triangular- shaped box, through the centre of this is placed a small jointed shaft, which is made to turn by the motion of the wheels of the carriage on which the box is placed ; upon the shaft, at frequent intervals, are placed small brushes, and opposite to each brush is an aperture in front of the box, covered with a copper plate full of small holes ; the brushes, in revolving, force the seed through these holes and spread it more evenly and with greater certainty than could be done by broadcast sowing ; outside the aperture through which the seed passes is another plate, which may be placed to cover some of the hole, so that a large or small amount of seed may be sown as may be thought necessary. Sometimes the long seed box, instead of being fixed on the barrow frame, is attached to Garrett's horse-hoe and sows broadcast efiectually when so arranged. 348 MODERN HUSBANDKY. HOEING AND CLEANING GROWING CROPS. Aa soon as the plants are well above ground and can be dis- tinguished from the weeds, hoeing should commence. This is one of the most important and most necessary operations in agriculture, yet one that is more neglected, perhaps, by the farmer than any other. The market-gardener., from whom the farmer may take many valuable lessons, has no idea of sparing the hoe, and from the time the plants show above ground until the ground is entirely covered with their leaves, never allows it to rest ; he knows that cleanliaess and the mechanical operation of opening the soil and aerating it, are points of paramount importance. The farmer, on the contrary, thinks once or twice hoeing a crop quite enough, and fancies that the golden charlick and ruby-coloured poppy are rather ornamental than otherwise, (that is, a great many of the old-fashioned sort do.) Hoeing, when done by hand, is let out in piecework ; it should be well looked after and done efiectually. One of the greatest advantages we get from the practice of drill husbandry, is the facility it aifords for using the horse-hoe, as hoeing' when done by machinery may be done at an exceedingly small cost and in a most efficient manner ; implements in great variety are now made for hoeing every description of crop ; the wide intervals of turnips, mangolds, or potatoes, or the narrowest spaces between the rows of wheat, barley, or oats ; and these implements are not only valuable as hoes for destroying the weeds, but become cultivators for stirring and pulverising the earth. Eig. 65 represents a simple form Fig. 65. BUSBY S ROWEL HOBSE-HOE. of horee-hoe for working between root crops ; the stalks that carry the HOEING AND CLEANING GROWING CROPS. 349 hoe parts are fixed into a frame, whlcli allows of their being adjusted to any particiilar width, and the form of the cutting or hoe part may he varied to suit any description of land or crop ; thus there may be a series of small coulters, if the object be to stir the soil deeply, or simply duck's-feet or curved blades, if to cut away and skim the roots and weeds, as shown in the cut. rig. 65 represents an arrangement of rowels attached to the after part of the machine. The use of these is to stir and pulverise the earth after the hoes have destroyed the weeds and opened it. In the case of crops sown closer together another description of implement is used. This is shown in fig. 66 ; it is considered by many to be one of the most valuable implements that has been introduced of late years ; difierent descriptions are made by a variety of makers, but the one here illustrated is considered the best. It is manufactured by Garrett of Leiston, and gives the greatest possible satisfaction. Pig. 66 represents a side view of the machine as at work. Fig. 66. GARRETT S HORSE-HOE. Side view. Kg. 67 is a back view, showing the arrangement of the hoes, steerage, levers, &c. It is adapted to aU the prevailing methods of drill culture, either for cleansing crops drilled on the level surface, or on ridges, the axletree being moveable at both ends, to suit the varied intervals between the rows of plants. Wheat, barley, beans, peas, oats, turnips, mangold, potatoes, carrots, and other grain and roots, may be hoed in a superior manner at an expense of from 6d. to Is. per acre. The work performed is much more perfect than that done by 350 MOBEEN HUSBANDEY. the hand-lioe, the depth penetrated is greater, and as much as ten acres per day may be done with a horse, a man, and a boy. Each hoe works on a separate lever, and is kept a uniform depth, by means of regulating keys, so that however uneven the surface of the ground, the weeds are sure to be effectually destroyed. The steerage affords a ready means of keeping the hoes between the rows of growing corn, as they may thereby be regulated with the greatest precision, perfectly scarifying the intervals, without the possibility of injuring the plants. Fig. er. GARRETT S HOKBE-HOE. Back Tiew. The hoes may be varied in distance as indicated in the following table at pleasure, to suit the implement for different crops. The cutting blades are made of steel, and attached by screw-bolts and nuts to the stalks which hold them' in the levers, and may readily be replaced, when worn, by any labour.* Fig. 68 shows the manner in which the parts of this hoe may be arranged to suit the variety of circumstances that it may be required for. Until it is rendered impossible by the plants having grown too * In ordering this implement, It is necessary that the width between the carriage wheels tff the drill (measuring on the gromid), which it ie intended to follow, should be stated ; and also the greatest number of rows of corn or roots, intended for horse-hoeing, that are deposited in one width of the drill ; as it is recommended that the horse hoe should cover the aaiaie space of ground, and clear at once as many i»ws of plants as the drill deposited each time. If tke hoe be reqxiired to follow drills of different sizes, the distance between the carriage wheels of ' the widest should be given, as the hoe may be made to suit the smaller drills, by taking out i. proportionate number of levers. ipread, ther, in clear of may be or one No. 8, en the plants become large, &c., as de- d No. 2, the 3 levers should be moved ■ together in the row, and the inverted eversed, as shown Fig. D., row i. 3i 1 Ifllll S, g .2 -^ .2 (3 is s-^ o § ■q.^ ^< « S rt ^ia „ d O « r^a fl 5 o S *3J E S >; -is "3 m .S3 . ^1 Ii II; tfa ffl t, -g . vo ja oj £: ® ,a S S ^ .d « o P- 5 -o to 01 a ijo ^1^5 E- J3 J3 " :S§:g3gS gs.g i§^ s ■ ID -s- s ■§§ .g a O (0 •a .d .s ® i d o t; fl «> fl o s^- = .3 o o of-^ »^ ^ ■a « > 1 II J 111 .g|-? i^^la o v p (Up© o 5> S cS ^ S fe §.a m fc > a ^ &H o Eh o E^ 5 in n id m 09 V IV CD j 1^ PH g o 5 § Eh t3 of (B^ o Go o K C5 O^ "S a o-^ i 1 1 5 u ^ .. o o 5" P3EH 1 <) Ah EHtl 1 rH (N ■CO ■^ U3 O d d o d M fe :z! fe fc IZi 352 MODERN HUSBANDRY. high, or having entirely covered the ground, the hoes, grubbers, and sefflers should be kept constantly at work, either eradicating weeds, pulverising the soil, or drawing earth up to the roots of the plants. In such crops as the potato, &c., it is necessary as a last operation to pass between the rows of the plants a plough, having two mould- boards ; this effectually banks up the earth to the roots of the plants. D In some cases, after the hoe has passed between the rows of corn in spring, it is usual to run the Croskill roller over it ; this has the effect of placing the earth round the roots of the young plants. The ordinary roller is sometimes employed for the same purpose, but it is not so good ; the action of the Croskill serrated-toothed roUer being aptly compared to the act of a gardener pressing the soil to the roots of the plants with his fingers, vfhile the common roller more resembles the act of his putting his foot upon it. Fig. 69 represents an excellent form of horse-hoe, manufactured Fig. 69. Fig. 70 smith's steerage horse-hoe. by Smith of Kettering. It is of an intermediate character between Garrett's large hoe and the smaller kinds ; it is called a swing BHILLS. 353 steerage horse toe, and is specially adapted for small farmers as it is so complete in itself as to be fully suited to all sorts of drilled crops, either flat or ridged, and is adapted for hoeing wheat, barley, peas, beans, mangold wnrzel, or turnips, at any given width that may be required. Its particular advantages are as follows : — It may be increased or diminished in width, to suit all lands or methods of planting : the axle-trees being moveable at both ends,- either wheel may be expanded or contracted, so as always to be kept between the rows of plants. The steerage of this implement is quite independent of the horse, so that the man may guide it with the greatest nicety ; doing every execution to the weeds, without injury to the crops. The hoes are placed on a wrought iron bar, and can be set to any width from seven inches upwards, by loosening the screws of the clip which fastens them on the bar. The blades of the hoes are made of steel, and may be replaced by new ones as required. In order to set the hoes to the necessary depth, the levers may be put in a more or less oblique position, .by merely moving the pin which goes through the shaft iron into different holes, which causes the edges of the hoes to be more or less inclined downwards, so as to be suited for cutting either hard or soft "ground. The two outside hoes may be placed parallel with the wheels, so as to cut the ground which they run upon. A seed drill can be attached, for sovidng small seeds, which is driven by a pulley on the wheel. The hoes are set upon two wrought bars, so that they can be set one before the other, thereby preventing choking. Pig. 70 shows the manner in which the stalks that carry the hoes are secured to the bars. This is truly a useful implement, cheap in its first cost and always efficient. It may be adapted to a great variety of work, as the shares may be varied to suit any circumstances. The grain and root crops must now be left to grow on to sufficient ripeness for harvesting, for the farmer can do nothing more. The plants having covered the ground with taU stalks or leaves, any further meddling with them would do more harm than good. " The work is done — no more to man is given ; TUe grateful farmer trusts the rest to Heaven."^-BLOOMriELD, SUMMER TIME. CHAPTER IX. GRASS LANDS, HAYMAKING, AND HARVESTING. We must, therefore, retrace our steps to the lands intended either for pasture soiling or making into hay. The produce of meadow lands is usually made into hay, but the clover and artificial grass crops are sometimes cut green and carried to the stock in the stalls and byres ; when this is the case it is merely cut with a scythe, and carried off in carts, as required. If the clover, as is generally the case with the first crop, be made into hay, it will be allowed to remain growing until the flowers, are in fuU bloom. Before the seeds are at aU ripe it must be mown, or the juices of the plant will go to form the seed, and the hay will be inferior. By the action of the scythe the swathes are laid pretty evenly in one direction. After lying so for a short time they are gently turned over, not shaken about ; or, iu the case of making meadow hay, twenty-four hours afterwards, if the weather be favourable, they are placed in small cocks and the ground carefully raked. Many prefer the hay being put green into these first cocks, to promote incipient GEASS LANDS, HAYMAKINGj AND HARVESTING. 355 fermentation, which is not hurtful to it in this stage. "When the hay is sufficiently dry, it is made up into large cocks, or rather small ricks, of .a conical shape, and temporarily thatched over to secure them from the weather ; they are allowed to remain in this state until sufficiently dry to be put together in a large rick, in which only a very moderate heat is necessary. In the southern counties of England, clover hay is often carried straight from the field to the great rick, being made much like ordiuary meadow hay, but not so much tedded or so long exposed to the weather ; bat in Ireland, Scotland, and the northern parts of England, it is buUt ioto field-ricks, and allowed to heat there first before going to the great rick. When the hay is aU carried, and the great rick complete, it is carefully thatched over with straw similar to other stacks, and after- wards cut out with a hay knife and tied up into trusses. After the first crop of clover has been reri^oved a few weeks, another crop will appear, which in many cases is also made into hay and carried ; but this is by no means a practice to be recommended. Only the first crop should be made into hay ; the rest should be fed off on the ground, unless dressings of liquid or other manure be applied to compensate for the matter extracted from the soil. With some of the forage plants, as rye-grass and others, this is now an approved practice, the land being mowed and dressed alternately many times in the year ; this will be found more fuUy described under the head of liquid manure. g. 71. bkoazx;asi< manure distkibutor. Figure 71 represents an apparatus for delivering dressings broad- cast, and is specially adapted for top dressings ; it is manufactured by Garrett. The manure is delivered from the box by means of a barrel fitted with prongs, which carry over the material as they revolve. A A 2 356 MODEUN HTJSBANDEY. being cleaned by a series of scrapers placed so as to ensure the delivery of the material, be it what it may ; as the manure falls-, it Fig. 72. LIQUID MANURE DISTRIBUTOR. spreads out upon a wire apron, and arrives it the ground in an even stream. Figure 72 is a liquid manure distributor, well adapted for delivering an even dressing of any thick material ; as its simplicity of arrange- ment prevents the chance of its clogging, many manure mixtures that would choke the ordinary liquid manure carts, can be spread by this with certainty. It contains three sets of buckets attached to an endless chain, similar in every respect to the buckets in an ordinary dredging engine ; the manure is scooped up from the bottom of the tank in which the buckets work, and carried up to the top, where it is tipped over on to an apron or spreader, from which it falls in an even sheet upon the ground. Motion is communicated to the endless chains, and the buckets attached, by means of a cog-wheel placed 'on the axle of the carriage-wheel, and working a pinion at the end of the shaft upon which the pulleys that carry the endless chain are placed. MEADOWS. The meadow-land intended for hay-erops should be well looked to in winter, the water-courses kept open, and drainage effected wherever necessary, and when the ground is hard, the manure should be brought out and spread over it. In the early part of March, after being bush-harrowed and rolled, they should be closed from the stock,, and let up for hay, the fences and gates repaired where necessary, all droppings from the stock evenly spread out, mole-hills levelled, and the land left in a clean husband- like condition, free from all stones, pieces of wood, or rubbish of any GRASS LANDS, HAYMAKING, AND HARVESTING. 357 kind which may interfere with the action of the scythe when the mowers commence work. The time at which the grass will be ready for the scythe will depend upon the weather, locality, and state of the land : if the meadow be poor and wet, the hay harvest wiU be late ; if it be rich and dry, in the southern counties of England, it will be ready for mowing about the first of June, but in the north of England, on a poor, wet soil, it is often as late as the beginning of August. The grass should on no account be too ripe, or the seeds will contain the nutritious juices that ought to be in the stalks of the grass ; over-ripening is a common fault. The best meadow-hay is made in the neighbourhood of London, and is sold at the London market. The greatest pains are taken by the Middlesex farmers in producing it of a fine colour and in the most fragrant and perfect state. Hay as ordinarily made is very inferior to theirs ; the mowing is let at per acre, according to the crop and condition, and a number of extra hands are taken on for the purpose of expeditiug the hay harvest. ^ HAYlttAKING. The mowers usually begin their work at three, four, or five o'clock in the morning, and continue to labour till seven or eight at night, resting an hour or two in the middle of the day. Each mower wOl mow about an acre per day, and continue to do so the whole season through ; the price paid, is from four to five shillings per acre, according to the crop. IMPROVED ADJUSTING SCYTHE. : First day. All the grass mown before nine o'clock in the morning, is tedded, in which operation great care is taken thoroughly to loosen every lump, and to strew it evenly over aU the ground. By this regular method of tedding grass for hay, the hay will be of a more valuable quality, heat more equally in the stack, and consequently be l«ss liable to damage, or fire. It will be of greater quantity when cut into trusses, and will sell at a better price ; for when the grass is suffered to lay a day or two before it is tedded out of the swath, the upper surface is 358 MODERN HUSBANDRY. dried by tlie sun and wiflds, aud the interior part is not dried, but withered, so that the herbs lose much both as to quality and quantity, ■which are very material circumstances, at the price hay fetches at market. Soon after tedding it is turned with the same degree of care and attention ; and if, from the number of hands, the hay-makers are able to turn the whole again, they do so, or at least- as much of it as they can, till twelve or one o'clock, at which time they dine. The first thing to be done after dinner is to rake the hay into what are called single windrows ; that is, they all rake in such a manner, that each person makes a row, which rows are three or four feet apart, and the' last operation of this day is to put it into grass-cocks. Second day. — The business of this day commences with tedding all the grass that was mown the first day after nine o'clock, and all that was mown this day before nine o'clock. Next, the grass-cocks are to be well shaken out into staddles (or separate plats) of five or six yards diameter. If the crop should be so thin and light as to leave the spaces between these staddles rather large, such spaces must be immediately raked clean, and the rakings mixed with the other hay, in order to its all drying of an uniform colour. The next business is to turn the staddles, and after that, to turn the grass that was tedded in the first part of the morning, once or twice, in the manner described for the first day. This should all be done before twelve or one o'clock, so that the whole may lie to dry while the work-people are at dinner. After dinner, the first thing to be done, is to rake the staddles into double windrows ; next, to rake the grass into single windrows ; then the double windrows are put into bastard cocks, and lastly the single windrows are put into grass-cocks. This completes the work of the second day. Third day. — The grass mown and not spread on the second day, and also that mown on the early part of this day, is first to be tedded in the morning ; and then the grass-cocks are to be spread into staddles as before, and the bastard cocks into staddles of less extent. These lesser staddles, though last spread, are first turned, then those which were in grass-cocks ; and next the grass is turned once or twice before twelve or one o'clock, when the people go to dinner as usual. If the weather has proved sunny and fine, the hay which was last night in bastard cocks wiU this afternoon be in a proper state to be carried; but if the weather should, on the contrary, have been cool and cloudy, no part of it probably will, be fit to carry. In that case the first thing to set about after dinner, is to rake that which was in grass-cocks last night into double windrows ; then the graSs which was this morning spread from the swathes into GRASS LANDSj HAYMAKING^ AND HARVESTING. 359 single windrows. After this the hay which'was last night in bastard cocks, is made up i-nto full-sized cocks, and care taken to rake the hay up clean, and also to put the rakinga upon the top of each cock, and the single windrows into grass-cocks, as on the preceding days. Fig. 74. HOKSE-£)IU.a RiKE. Fourth Day. — On this day the great cocks, just mentioned, are usually carried before dinner. The other operations of the day are such, and in the same order, as before described, and are continued daily until the hay harvest is completed. In the course of haymaking the grass should as much as possible be protected both day and night against rain and dew, by cocking. Care should be also taken to proportion the number of haymakers to that of the mowers, so that there may not be more grass in hand at any one time than can be managed according to the foregoing process. This proportion is about twenty haymakers (of which number about twelve may be women) to four mowers ; the latter are sometimes taken half a day to assist the former ; but in hot, windy, or very drying weather, a greater proportion of haymakers will be required than when the weather is cloudy and cool. It is particularly necessary to guard against spreading more hay than the number of hands can get into cock the same day or before rain. In showery and uncertain weather the grass may sometimes be suffered to be three, four, or even five days in swath. But before it has lain long enough for the under side of the swath to become yellow (which if suffered to lie long would be the case) particular care should be taken to turn the swathes with the head of the rake. In this state it wiU cure so much in about two days as only to require being tedded a few hours, when the weather is fine, previous 360 MODEBN HUSBANDllY. to its being put together and carried. In this manner hay may be made and put into the stack at a small expense and of a moderately good colour ; but the tops and bottoms of the grass are insufficiently separated by it. There are no haystacks more neatly formed or better secured than those in Middlesex. At every vacant time while the stack is carrying up, the men are employed in pulling it with their hands into a proper shape ; and, about a week after it is finished, the whole roof is properly thatched and then secured from receiving any damage from the wind by means of a straw rope extended along the eaves, up the ends and on each side of the ridge. The ends of the thatch are afterwards cut evenly below the eaves of the stack just of sufficient length for the rain-water to drip quite clear of the hay. When the stack happens to be placed in a situation which may be suspected of being too damp in the winter, a trench of about six or eight inches deep is dug round, and nearly close to it, which serves to convey aU the water from the spot, and renders it perfectly dry and secure. It is of great advantage to the farmer to give constant personal attendance on every party, directing each operation during the whole hay-harvest. The man who would cure his hay in the best manner and at a moderate expense must not only urge the persons who make the hay, the men who load the waggons and those who make the stack, but he should be on the alert to contrive and point out the manner in which every person may do his part with most advantage. Unless he does this, one moiety in his hay-field will be no material use to him ; and if he should be absent for an hour or more, during that time little or nothing will be done. The farmers of Middlesex engage many haymakers ; some of them have been known to employ two or three hundred. Suchmenfindit necessary to superintend on horseback, and the work-people wiU find them sufficient employment. A man of energy will make the most of every hour, and secure his hay while the sun shines ; one of an opposite descrip- tion lounges his time away, and suffers his hay to be caught in the rain, by which it is frequently half spoiled ; or if the latter should have the good fortune to obtain a continuance of fine weather, his hay will be a week longer in the field than his neighbour's, and the sap of it dried up by the sun. It is supposed that 400 lbs. of grass, after being dried into hay, wastes to 100 lbs. by the time it is laid on the stack. It is further reduced by heat and evaporation in about a month to perhaps, 95, or between that and 90 ; and from the middle of GRASS LANDS, HAYMAKING, AND HARVESTING. 361 March till September the operations of trussing and marketing expose it so much to the sun and wind as to render it considerably lighter, probably 80 ; that is, hay which would weigh 90 the iastant it is separated from the stack would waste to 80 (in trussing, exposure on the road, and at market for about twenty-four hours) by the time it is usually delivered to a purchaser. The operation of haymaking is considerably expedited by the use of a hay-tedding machine, and the horse-rake. The tedding machine was originally invented by Salmon, of "Wobum; it consists of a skeleton cyliuder, with a series of rakes placed upon it, which revolve as the wheels turn, and cast the hay about. It has two motions, one for tedding the hay or grass, and the other for Ughtly turning the hay when nearly made. The accomplishment of the reversing or forward action, is obtained by a simple short lever, on the end of which are fixed the two pinion wheels which impart the rotary motion to the flyers. The lever is set for the different motions by means of a thumbscrew fitting into three recesses on the side of the wheel-box, and when an alteration in the action is required, this screw has merely to be loosened and the lever brought to the proper recess, where it is securely held by the thumbscrew ; by "which arrangement it is impossible for the machine when once set, to work out of gear, without the lever being purposely shifted. The fake barrels are raised from or lowered towards the ground , by means of a lever spanner acting upon two pairs of mitre wheels, placed at the side of the shaft. The horse-drag raTce, fig. 74, is a valuable implement. It is rutended for raking corn stubbles as weU. as hay, the shaft irons are furnished with a joint and quadrant, by which the teeth may be readily altered so as to rake upon their points or set more or less off the ground. The frame and teeth are made entirely of wrought iron, and the teeth work independently ot each other, to aaapt themselves to the irregularity of the surface of the ground. By means of the simple pull- down lever, the rake can be emptied of its load without stopping the horse. It is moimted on high wheels that are capped, to prevent the hay attaching itself to the axles. This rake may be used for a variety of piu-poses, as preparing fallows, for dragging meadows after a flood, or raking in clover seeds in the spring. The hand implements used in haymaking are prongs and wooden rakes, too well known to require more than naming. CHAPTER X. HARVESTING CORN CROPS. THRASHING. THE DAIRY, &o. The commencement of harvest is regulated, of necessity, by the state of the weather and a variety of other circumstances. As the time approaches every preparation should be made for the hiost economically and rapidly performing all the operations of cutting, drying, and carrying the corn crops in the most perfect state. The com wiU be ready for the sickle or the scythe when the straw exhibits a bright golden colour from the bottom of the stem nearly to the ear. If the farmer on walking through the crop aiid selecting a handful of the greenest ears, finds that the kernels wUl rub easily out from the chaff, and that they feel firm and plump, he may certainly consider the crop ready to cut ; over-ripening grain crops, more especially oats, is a common fault. Oats ripen very unequally, and consequently they are often suffered to stand, too long in the field. As soon as any portion is ripe the whole field may be cut, for if any should suffer from being cut too green the loss wUl be amply made up in the superior feeding value of the straw. Barley requires the greatest care in harvesting, as it is generally reaped before the grain is sufficiently hardened to put in stack without long exposure in the fields; if put up too soon it wUl heat, and if it be intended for malting, it must be got bright by being got early. The operatign of reaping is done either by reaping machine, the sickle, or the scythe. REAPING MACHINES. Eeaping machines have occupied the attention of agricultural machinists and ingenious agriculturists for many years past, but none of them have come into general use. nil I '» air ] % -•^«^ -S-rf 'I I HEAPING MACHINES. 363 The earliest machine iuvented for reaping corn in England, seems to have heen the invention of a person named Boyce. The next was bj a millwright named Phinkett ; he had a horizontal circular plate, jagged on the edge liJee a sickle. This cut tolerably well, but was in- eificient in other respects. It is important to observe that in this machine the cutting plate was sickle-edged. The next reaper was by a Scotchman named Gladstone ; he added an apparatus for collecting the corn after it had been cut, and laying it in patches on the ground. He also added an apparatus for sharpening the cutter while in operation. Salmon of "Woburn, whose ingenuity has been exhibited upon many agricultural imple- ments, made a reaping machine, and upon the shears-principle of cutting. The justly celebrated Smith of Deanston, bestowed great pains to bring this implement to perfection, but was unsuccessful. His machine consisted of a circular drum, upon the lower edge of which projected a horizontal continuous blade : the com as it was cut was carried to the rear of the machine and deposited in a regular row of sheaves. It cut an English acre in about an hour, during which time the cutter required constantly sharpening. In the year 1828 a machine was tried at Powie, in the county of Eorfar, in the presence of a large number of persons. It was the invention of the Eev. Patrick Bell, and was considered eminently successful. About fifty gentlemen and farmers who witnessed its performance signed a declaration, stating that the machine cut down a breadth of five feet at once, was moved by a single horse, and was attended by from six to eight persons to tie up the com, and that the field was reaped with this force, at the rate of an imperial acre per hour. It was afterwards tried in other pjaces, and on other crops, with equal success, and the general opinion was that it would come into ordinary use. These anticipations were,however,not realised, for nothing more was heard of it, except in the immediate locality where it was first intro- duced, until machines for reaping corn were exhibited at the Great Exhibition of 1851, in Hyde Park. These three machines were American ; two were exhibited by Americans in their department, and the other, similar to one of them, was exhibited by Garrett of Leiaton. The American reaping machines were said to be invented by M'Cormack and Hussey, makers of agricultural implements in the 864. MODER^r HUSBANDRY. United States. The one exhibited by Garrett was a modification of Hussey's. M'COEMACK'S KEAPING MACHINE. The annexed wood-cuts are from the patent drawing : * Kg. 75 is a plan; Mg. 76, a side elevation ; and Pig. 77, details of the cutting action of this machiae. Fiff. 75. PLAN. m'coemack's heaping machine. It is thus described in the specification : — " This invention has special relation to th^t class of machines which are worked by horses in cutting or reapiug wheat, corn, or other grain, and has for its object the better holding of the stalks . of the grain iu ~ a favourable position, whUe being cut, and the more conveniently arranging, eollectiag and disposing of the same when cut. '' Kg. 76, is side elevation, and fig. 77, a plan of a reaping machine constructed according to the said invention ; a a is a frame of wood of a triangular form, to the front of which there are fixed the pole b, and whipple-trees c o. The back rail d, of the frame is prolonged on one side of the machine, so as to project about sis feet feet beyond the frame, and the projecting portion forms the basis of a platform e j * Publialied in the Meohanics' Magazine. m'coumack's keamng machine. 365 r and g are two wheels upon which the machine is mounted. The wheel T (from its position) bears the greater portion of the weight of the machine, and is employed for communicating motion to the moving parts, as afterwards described, hhh. are a set of fingers somewhat of a spearhead shape, which are affixed to the front edge of the platform, and Fig. 76. SIDE ELEVATION, placed at regular intervals apart from each other. Immediately underneath, these fingers is placed a cutting blade i, which is formed Fig. 77. PLAN. of a thin plate of steel, tooihed upon its front edge and fitted into a groove, or into bearings attached to the front of the platform. Kg. 3 is a cross section of the rail d, and the cutting-blade i, showing the method of attaching the fingers h H to the front of the platform, and their' relation to the cutting-blade. This blade has perfect freedom to slide from one side of the machine to the other, but the amount of 366 MODJEEN HUSBANDEY. range given to it is limited by the crank k, to -whicli it is attached by means of a connecting rod l ; m 1, is a bevel wheel which is keyed to the shaft of the wheel f, so that both may revolve together and give motion to a bevel pinion, m 2 and wheel m 3, which are fized to an intermediate shaft n. The wheel m 3, gears into a pinion o placed on the crank shaft and consequently gives motion to the crank k, the connecting rod ii, and the cutting-blade i. The number of teeth of the intermediate gearing which has just been described are so pro- portioned and adjusted that the cutting-blade may reciprocate and do its work very rapidly ; p P is a large reel or gatherer, which is of very light construction, and carries at its extremities four blades e E e e, made of thin deal. At the near side of the machine this reel is sup- ported by an upright s, and at the off-side by a brace oc, which is raised upon the back of the platform. When - the machine is going forward, the reel is made to revolve in the direction indicated by the arrow, by means of a band or belt r, which takes on to the hem of the bevel wheel m and the rigger T, the latter of which is keyed to the reel shaft. The distance of the reel from the platform is capable of being adjusted by means of the sliding bearing (upon the near side of the machine) which is acted upon by the screwed rod b. At the further side the brace t is fixed to the spur T 2 by means of a movable bolt, so that the brace may be raised or lowered at pleasure, by passiug the movable bolt into any one of the holes (V V) further up or down in the spur, w is a seat for the driver, and x a seat for the person gathering the reaped grain from the platform. " When the machine just described is applied to the cutting of wheat or other grain, it is brought to the edge of the field (with either two or four horses yoked to it) and with the platform placed in front, and the horses alongside of the crop to be cut down. As the horses advance, the wheel gearing is put in motion, which causes the reel slowly to revolve, and so prevent the straws or stalks from being pressed forward when they come in contact with the cutting-blade, which has at the same time a rapid reciprocating motion imparted to it by the action of the crank k, and connecting rod l, the straws or stalks are thus speedily cut through, and fall backwards on the plat- form. The fingers H h h greatly facilitate this part of the operation, as they hold the straws or stalks from yielding along with the lateral action of the cutting-blade ; and it is for the more efiectually accom- plishing this object that they are formed of a shape like to a spear-- head, which causes the straws or stalks to slide into the spaces between them when in that position, and as the inclined edges at the roots of the fingers (that is, immediately over the cutting-blade) form HUSSBY^S KEAPING MACHINE. 367 an acute angle with tie edge of the knife, the cutting through of the straws or stalks is sure to be effected by the reciprocating movement of the knife-blade." Two separate views of parts of the fingers and cutting-blade are given in fig. 77, in one the blade is straight in the cutting edge, while in the other it is zig-zag, or of an indented form. HUSSEY'S REAPING MACHINE. Kg. 78 represents a general view of Hussey's reaping machine, as manufactured by Grarrett, copied from one on his circular.* This reaper was taken to the show of the E. A. S. at Exeter, in 1850, but through some informality was not exhibited ; it was then. Fig. 7S. HUSSEY'S EEAPING MACHINE. in 1851, placed at Garrett's stand in the Great Exhibition, but did not get any attention until the " Times " newspaper took up American improvements, and wrote of the American yacht and M'Cormack's reaper. Trials were soon made of them, and reaping by machinery was pronounced a' fait accompli. M'Cormack for a time had it all his own way, but the proprietor of Hussey's appearing upon the scene, a challenge was soon put forth, and a trial fixed to test the merit? of the. rival American machines. The first trislil took place at Cleveland, during a terrible storm of wind and rain, the result of that' trial was the defeat of M'Cormack. ,4 « * The ges^L- lias been since modified, but the general arrfxngement is the same. 368 MODERN HUSBAND HY. A jury being appointed to examine into the merits of each, and report upon them, their recorded opinion was : — That Hussey's cut the "corn in the best manner, especially across ridge and furrow." Mr. Robinson, a mechanic, reported in favoiu; of Hussey's, in regard to mechanical construction. This trial gave a great advantage to Hussey, and many of his machines were manufactured by Dray, Grarrett, Crosskill, and others ; nevertheless, I am not prepared to recommend them as at present constructed, nor do I think that those persons who have purchased them are satisfied with the results they have obtained with them. ^ The success of these rival American reapers caused the proprietors of Bell's reaper to appear on the field with this machine, invented and successfully used more than twenty years before. Mr. Crosskill had gained considerable experience in the working of these machines ; he adopted this in preference to any other, and a trial of all came oif in Scotland ; the following extract from the North British Agricultti/rist will show with what results. Extracts from the North British Aqriculturist, Sept, 7th, 1853. " This exhibition of reaping machines, which has been looked forward to with much interest, came off yesterday, upon the farm of King's Park, near Stirling, the property of the Crown, and in the occupation of Mr. Peter Dewar. The day was beautifully fine, though the sun was rather hot for comfort during the middle of the day. The numbers collected could not be less than from five to six thousand. The public were admitted upon the payment of 2s. 6d. and Is. Considerable numbers lined the public road, alongside the fields and the surrounding heights, which had a very imposing effect when viewed from the field. Prom lOOZ. to 2001. were realised in fees for admission. Lots being drawn, the machines were numbered as foUowa : — No. 1 Mr. Coclirane's, Bell's Improved. „ 2. — Mr. Hope's (Stirlingshire), Bell's Improved. „ 3. — Mr. M'Cormaok's, managed by Mr. M'Kenzie. „ 4. — Mr. M'Larren's, Dray's 3ussey's. „ 5. — Mr. Robertson's (Bowhouse), Bell's Crosskill. „ 6. — Mr. Hussey's own ; one horse, managed by Hussey. „ 7. — Mr. Bell's own, Crosskill, managed by Mr. Love. The judges were : Mr. John "Wilson, Eddington Mains ; Mr. G-eorge Hope, Penton Barns ; Mr. James Stirling, C. E., Edinburgh ; Mr. Toung,jun., Burntisland; Mr. John Loch art, Pactor, Dunmore; Mr. Peter M'Ewen, Blackdub ; Mr. William Henderson, Parmer, REAPING MACHINES. 369 Craigaornhill ; and Mr. Alex. Toung, Pactor, Keir. After full consideration, they made the following award : — The subscribers having dispassionately examined the several reaping machines this day exhibited, are of opinion that the first prize of 40Z. should be awarded to Bell's, Wo. 7." Again from the 'Farmer's Magazine, for November, 1853, where a full report of the above trial is given, the following remarks conclude the report : — " Jt is truly pleasing to find that the judgment of the farmers throughout Great Britain is the same, (even under the varied circumstances of soil and climate), with regard to the merits of Bell's reaping machine. Further that it is the general opinion of the agricultural public that reaping by machinery is thoroughly inaugurated into our land, and fairly within the grasp of every farmer ; this was clearly exemplified by the efficient way in which Messrs. Hope and Robertson managed their BeU's machines in the trial field, although they had only had a few days' practice." p. 410. Bell's original reaping machine having thus vanquished its American rivals upon the soil where it was originally invented, quickly gained favour, and Mr. Crosskill made such improvements in it as experience suggested : such as the substituting a new cutting apparatus, composed of one long blade or knife, with a serrated edge, working backwards and forwards between guards, very similar to M'Cormack's machine. BeU's cutters were in every respect similar to shears. To determine the value of these alterations, a trial took place on the 5th inst., in a field of spring corn at Cherry Burton, near Beverley. The prize machine and the improved machine were worked successively, and, after carefully examining the action of both, the judges present agreed upon the following, to be added to the reports of the reaper trials of this season : — "Beverley, October 5, 1853. — We, the undersigned, having this day witnessed the trial of a Bell's reaper, in which Mr. CrosskiU has substituted a serrated knife in place of shears, as recommended by the judges at the trial of reapers at Pusey, are decidedly of opinion that, besides reducing the prime cost, this has considerably lightened the draught, rendered it less liable to get out of repair, and made it generally more easily managed, and that altogether it is a much better machine than the Bell's reaper which gained the prizes at the Pusey, Stirling, and York trials. Signed — Henry Hannam, judge at the Pusey trial ; George Hope, judge at the Stirling trial ; Peter Stephenson, John Almack, judges at the Tork trial." Prior to this trial, Mr. Bell had witnessed the working of the improved machine, and expressed his approval in the 370 MODERN HUSBANDKT. following terms, in a letter to Mr. Crosskill :— " After very carefully examining the work done by my reaper with your improved cutters, I give you my most unqualified consent for your adopting the improvements.' ' Bell's reaping machine, as manufactured now by Crosskill, consists of the original form of frame, the horses pushing it before them instead of pulling it after them, as is done by Hussey's and M'Cormack's, the endless travelling apron which carries the cut corn off to the side and lays it on the land in an even swathe, and the reel for bringing the standing corn up to the knife to be cut — but most certainly it is without Bell's cutting action. I consider it a combination of Hussey's, Bell's, and M'Cormack's plans, the serrated edge belonging especially to the latter gentleman's invention. I see most reaping-machine makers are adopting a serrated, or sickle edge, to the cutters, and I have no doubt but that considerable advantage is gained by its use. I am informed that Mr. M'Cormack intends to oppose this being done without licence from him. Whether he can do so effectually or not I am not able to say ; but it must be observed that Plunkett's machine had a jagged, or sickle edge, which settles the question as to whether the application of a sickle edge to reaping machines is new in M'Cormack's. ATKINSON'S AUTOMATON REAPER. This is also an American reaper, and was exhibited at the Smith- field-club show, Christmas 1853 ; it is thus described in The Marh- Icme ^Express. " This important and valuable machine, though at first sight it may appear somewhat complicated, is in operation exceedingly simple and easy of management. As its name implies, it is self-raking, thus dispensing with the man required to rake off, as in most reaping machines. It cuts in the same manner as others ; it is fitted with a reel for the purpose both of inclining the grain towards the platform preparatory to being cut, and bringing it when cut on to the platform. The knife-bar is on the upper side, and instead of being placed, as usual, flush with the back edges, it is in the middle of the blade, and as far forward as the angles of the cutting will allow. The back part, instead of being left straight, is cut zig-zag, and each alternate edg« is bevilled the' other way and serrated. By this arrangement it is scarcely possible to choke, as the knife-blade resting on the fingers, and the edges front and rear being in close contact with them, any matter accumulating upon the fingers will be picked off by the sharp REAPING MACHINES. 371 points of either the front or rear edge -of the knife. Sufficient com for a sheaf having fallen on the board, round comes the long arm carrying the rake, and pulling across the entire bed of the machine, collects the grain into a compact bundle against a sheet-iron plate, and then, with a sheaf in the 'grasp, the rake and iron plate imme- diately- make a quarter turn round to the back of the machine, the rake-arm is caused to stretch out behind, relaxing its grasp, and the sheaf falls in the line of the horse walk, out of the way of the horses the next round, and the rake-arm takes a sweep round back to its work. With reference to the motion of the rake, it is the quickest at those points where a quick motion is most needed, viz., in sweeping the platform, and whUe opening in. the rear of the machiae for delivering the bundle. The main driving wheel is large, being four feet in diameter, with ,a four-inch felloe, giving steadiness of move- ment in passing over rough ground, and good support in soft. The ffrain wheel is two feet in diameter, and may be increased if desired. The frame-work is well braced ;and stiff, supported and strengthened with iron wherever necessary. The gearing is compact and symme- trical, well boxed in, and protected from dirt. The team is relieved of weight and of the side draught, by resting the hounds upon a pair of front wheels, making it also very convenient to turn a square ^ corner, as wiU be learned by a little practice. The driver's seat ia elevated and easy, giving him good command of his team, while, at the same time, he can watch the operation of the kaife, xeel, and raker ; and, if necessary, instantly throw the machine out of gear by the lever at his right side. The careful handling of the grain by the rake saves a small per cent, over raking by hand. The height, of cutting is regulated by a very simple arrangement,-and the knife may be set close to the ground. ' The draught is comparatively easy for a pair of horses, and is not perceptibly increased by the raker. The team, however, ought to be changed every two or three hours. Since the Grloucester Eoyal Agricultural Society's meeting, this machine has been subjected to a variety of experiments, and a few improve- ments, the result of those experiments, have been introduced." Several persons have constructed other ingenious corn-reaping machines, but not on such plans as seem likely to come into use. The machines, as they now stand before the public, are as follows : — M'OormacFs, with a continuous serrated blade working between guards, with reel above, the horses drawing it after them when the reaper is working. Hussey's, a series of triangular blades fixed upon a moveable bar, B B 2 372 MODERN HUSBANDRY. the blades working between guards, which form an abutment, against which the grain is cut. It is drawn by horses, and requires no reel. Bray's reaper, a modification of Hussey's. Crossbill's, Hussey's do. do. Garrett's, Hussey's do. do. Bell's original. In this the com is cut between two blades, which act exactly in the manner of shears, one blade being fixed and the other working against it ; it has the reel above, and is pushed for- ward in front of the horses ; it also has a travelling apron to deliver the corn at the side. CrossTcilV s, Bell's principle. A similar machine, but with M'Cormack's and Hussey's plan of cutting ; a serrated blade working between guards. Athinsoris. A combination of M'Gormack's and Hussey's, with an automaton arm for delivering the corn at the side. Against the whole of these some objections are urged ; and I do not think that they are by any means in a satisfactory state. Of the whole, I think, I should prefer a machine on the Hussey principle with the knives serrated or sickled-edged. THE SICKLE AND THE SCYTHE. The sickle is a light tool with a semicircular blade and a short handle ; it generally has a notched or serrated edge, called a sickle- edge, but sometimes it is made with a thicker back and broader blade, and with a smooth edge. In using either tool, the reaper takes a handfuU of corn in his left hand and cuts through the straw with the instrument in his right ; he then lays it carefully upon a straw-band, placed upon the ground, and proceeds to cut more, untU a sufilcient quantity has been cut to form a sheaf : it is then bound up, either by the reaper himself or a person called a bandster, who follows for the purpose, and will bind up for several reapers; the latter is by far the most expeditious method of proceeding. The reapers are usually placed in gangs of six each, many being women, though always headed by an experienced man^ The sheaves, being cut and tied up, are placed upright in stooks or shocks of twelve each, upon the middle of each alternate ridge ; the sheaves should be firmly bound together, but not so tightly as to exclude the air, for the more freely they are exposed to the air the sooner will they be ready to cany. HAEVESTING. 373 The sheaves, when placed on the stooks, should rest upon their butts with their ears leaning against each other, but the bodies of the sheaves should be sufficiently separated for the wind to blow through them. Wheat dries quickly, and may be carried in two or three days, if the weather be favourable ; but barley and oats require to remain longer on the ground ; only ten sheaves therefore are placed on a stook of these latter crops, and two others are placed lengthways upon them, their butts touching, and the ears spread out and bent down so as to form a shelter to those placed upright. The manner of stooking, as generally performed, is as jnst described, but many other plans are adopted. Sometimes the sheaves are placed in a circular form with and without hooding, and at other the sheaves are set up singly, or, as it is called, gaited. In many cases the corn is made up into small ricks and remains in the field for a length of time, being temporarily thatched. G-rain should not be cut when it is wet, as such practice may cause it to sprout, especially if the weather be warm. The oat dries more rapidly than other species, and loses less weight. It does not suiFer so much from being cut damp. Eeaping should not commence before the sun has exhaled the dew. Corn should always be cut as low as possible, that no straggling ears be lost, nor the most succulent part of the straw. The scythe has of late years been much introduced for the purpose of cutting corn, and is getting general. It requires considerable ei- pertness on the part of the mower, and is very hard work. The common scythe is the one ordinarily used, but made rather more strongly than usual, and the handle is not made with quite so much curvature as for grass scythes. If the crops be light the corn will not faU evenly over the scythe ; a cradle is therefore fitted to it for the purpose of gathering the stems and laying the. swathe down evenly. The cradle is made of three light ash rods fastened to two upright iron rods which are attached to the outer end of the scythe by an upright stem, the whole strengthened by a backstay of iron. The Sayncmlt Scythe. — This instrument has come a good deal into use of late years. In Manders it is the common implement of the country. In 1825 two young farmers were brought over from that country by the Highland Society, for the purpose of instructing the labourers in its use. They exhibited the mode of using it in many of the Northern counties, and great benefits were said to be derived 3.74 MODEHN HUSBANDRY. from it, ae mucli aa- 3«. Qd, per acre being saved. It is a useful implement both in point of economy and expedition, particularly in Gutting down heavy crops. Although continually used by the women in. rianders, it is, however, much heavier than the sickle, and cannot be eniployed to advantage where stones or rugged substances abound upon the surface of the ground ; a kind of hook is used along with this scythe. The operation takes place by pressing the back of the crook against the standing corn in the direction of the wind, and by cutting close to the ground with a free swing, less by force than by the impetus of the scythe, until in three or more strokes, according to the thickness of the crop, a sufficiency is secured to form a sheaf, which is caught by the inverted hook and placed ready for bind- ing. The work is performed with great neatness, and the stubble cut close to the ground. The sheaves having been allowed to stand in the field until suflB.- ciently dry, they are then carried to the stack-yard either upon carts or waggons. The stacks or ricks for grain are generally circular \ for hay they are not so, as they would not cut into trusses so. well. Corn-rieks must always be placed upon S'taddles, that is, a frame-work of wood,, stone or iron, tO' prevent the ricks being reached by vermin. Staddles are generally wooden frames upon which the stack is placed, laid on the top of a seriea of short stone piUars, each piUar having a cap of stone which projects considerably from the surface of the upper part of the pillar ; the vermin are enabled to ascend up the sides of the stone piUar, but cannot pass along the sofBt. Corn ricks are also benefited by the passage of air under them. Kg. 79 represents a neat and good form of staddle, manufactured by most implement makers. They are made of various sizes, and vary in price from £7 to £12. A brick waU is sometimes substituted for staddles, but it is not so good because there is no circulation of air underneath. When a brick waU is used arches ought to be turned in it, but that will bring it up to the price of stone piRars. In building round stacks a sheaf is first placed upright on its butt end, as nearly as possible in the centre, around which other sheaves are placed circularly, likewise upright, but with a small inclination of the tops inward, until the bottom of the rick is nearly filled. The man who forms the rick then places an outside layer of sheaves on their sides, with the ear ends inwards, but leaning obliquely upwards against the upright sheaves ; and pressing them together with considerable STADDLES AND EICK CLOTHS. 375 force, he tlius continues to lay on rows, with their butts all -outwards, till he has raised the outside of the rick to nearly the height of the standing sheaves; He then fills up the whole of the stack, in nearly the same manner — the com ends of the sheaves inwards, with a Kg. 79. WBOUGHT IBON EICK STAND. regular slope downwards, and outwards to their butts ; the centre of the rick being always kept somewhat higher and less compressed than the outer layers : attention should be paid to the proper sloping of the sheaves which is necessary from the foundation, but particularly so at the inner layer. After forming the eaves he gradually forms the circle of the roof by placing every row of sheaves more inwards until he arrives at the apex, when two or three sheaves are placed upright in the centre which thus becomes filled up ; he then firmly bends the crown sheaves with a straw rope which is secured at each side ; the whole is then thatched over and remains safely secured from wind, rain, and vermin, until wanted for market; it is then unstacked, and either carried to the barn or a portable thrashing-machine brought to it. Bick Cloths and supports should always be ready when ricks of corn or hay are being built, to protect the corn or hay from the weather. They are formed in the following manner : two larch poles are trimmed into shape, and an iron bond put round the thin ends to keep them from splitting. A sheave is let into the pole near the top end, and three iron dogs or hooks fitted to the bond iron. "When the rick cloth is required to be spread the two poles are set up one at each end or side of the rick; the feet of the poles are either 376 MODEB.N HUSBANDEY. let into the ground or placed into the centre of two. cart wheels laid flat on the ground. The rick cloth is a large canvas or waterproof cloth suspended across a pole which is hoisted by tackles up and down the two poleS placed erect at each side of the rick. Eopes fastened^to the top of the poles are extended out to act as guys, and keep them steady i the tackle for hoisting generally consists of one rope rove through the sheave in the top of the pole, one end of which is made fast to the, ridge pole, and the other end to a purchase which, being hauled upon, of course draws up the ridge-pole and cloth to the desired height ; or a sample luif-tackle purchase is attached to the pole at once, and no sheave placed in the pole. These cloths are of great value in rainy weather. , PREPARATION OF THE CORN FOR MARKET. The flail, which has been the thrashing implement in this country for so many years, is now almost a thing of the past, and is only used where it is necessary to keep the straw unbroken, as for thatching. All large farmers have machines for thrashing, and those who (have not, hire one of persons who go about vfith the machine and horse power packed up together, and work at so much per day, or per quarter, the farmer finding labourers and horses. "When horses are used to drive the machine, the horse work has to be prepared at a short distance from the thrashing machine. The horses are attached to the radiating bars, and driven round by a boy who sits on a small stool placed in the middle of the machine. The power is conveyed from the horse gear to the machioe by an iron tumbler shaft, having universal joints at each end, one is attached to the machine and the other to the horse gear. At the point where the horses pass over the lay shaft, it is necessary to put a quantity of long dung, and make as good a road as possible, or accidents wiU. happen. When a steam-engine is used, the machine is driven by a strap running on the large wheel of the engine, and on the driving pulley of the thrashing m'achine. PLsed machines will be found described at page 119. Steam-engines for thrashing, and other agricultural purposes, wUl be found at page 104 ; they are fast making way, and are now con- structed upon such good plans, and made to work so economically, that any moderate-sized farm may give full employment to one. Corn may be thrashed by steam for one third less than what it PEBPAEATION 01' THE COUN FOR MAEKET, 377 •would cost if done by horse power, and the horses can be much more profitably employed elsewhere on the farm. The cost of moving, thrashing, and dressing a stack of wheat by the aid of a steam-engine, is about lO^d. per quarter, whUe by horse power it would be as much as 2s. 6d. per quarter. The expense of moving in, and thrashing and dressing a stack of mown wheat, containing 90 coombs by the stationary engine is S^d. per coomb of 4 bushels, as may be seen by the following statement.* THRASHING BY STEAM-POWER. COST 01' MOVING A STACK OF MOWN WHEAT, THRASHING AND DRESSING NINETY COOMBS : £ s. d. Two men one day at stack 3 4 Two men one day loading 3 4: One man one day raking loads, binding, &g. . .018 One man to feed machine 2 6 One man attending to com 18 One man unloading wlieat 18 Two men putting sheaves to feeder . . . .034 One woman pulling out straw 10 Two women after straw . . . . . .034 One man and three women dressing . . ..042 One man driving engine 3 6 Half ton of coals 10 £1 19 4 The cost of thrashing by steam, being fivepence farthing per coomb. THRASHING BY HORSE-POWER. Five men at stack Four men in barn One man one and a half day feeding .... One man one and a half day driving horses . . . Two men one and a half day m bam One lad one and a half day untying sheaves . . Five women to shake straw Two men one and half day after straw ■ . . Three men one and a half day to riddle and clear away corn ........ Six men and four women one day dressing . . . Six horses five hours thrashing, at 3s. , . . Ditto ditto ditto . . . . Ditto ditto ditto .... The cost of thrashing by horse power, being at the rate of one shilling and threepence per coomb. * W. Hudson, H.A.S. Journal, £ s. d. 8 4 6 8 3 9 2 6 5 1 6 6 3 5 7 6 13 4 18 18 fl 18 £5 13 10 378 MODERK HUSBANDRY. Since ttat part of this book which treats of thrashing machines went to press, a new implement has been introduced, the invention of Mr. E. Moffitt, of Piqua, Ohio. This machine was taken to Mr. Mechi's farm at Tiptree Hall, and tried there upon every description of grain, and the results were altogether so remarkable, that a great amount of interest was immediately excited about it in the agricultural world. - The implement is in external appearance unlike an ordinary English one, being much longer, and at one end a great deal higher, but its most remarkable peculiarity is its extreme lightness, and consequent cheapness, weighing only fourteen hundred weight. The mechanical arrangements of the working parts are as follows : — 1. The ihrasliing 'portion. This consists of a skeleton cylinder armed with iron projections or pegs, which work between other pegs pro- jecting from the concave or breasting ; the peg-drum is not new, but it has been modified by Mr. Moffitt, the pegs being curved back- wards in a contrary direction to that in which the machine revolves ; this causes the straw to be less broken than was formerly the case. 2. The straw carrier and shaher. This consists of an endless apron formed of circular spars of wood, the ends of which fit into the sides of the links of an endless chain, which passes over a series of pulleys. The undersides of thSse links have small projections upon them, which cause a trembling or shaking motion to be given to the straw carrier as it passes along, which jerking motion is especially favour- able to the thorough extraction of the corn from the straw. 3. An improved riddle, which is formed of slats of wood in the manner of a Venetian blind laid horizontally ; the wind in passing through the slats efiectually cleans ofi" the chaff", while allowing the grain to fall through. Unthrashed chobs, Ac, are carried back to the thrashing part by means of an Archimedian screw. There are, of course, many other matters of detail which we have not space here to describe. This machine will thrash at the rate of a bushel a minute when in full work without over pushing it, if the yield of corn be good, and the feeder be able to supply it with sheaves. At Tiptree Hall, 64 bushels per hour was the ordinary run of work performed on wheat, thrashed clean, and ready for market ; 9^ per hour was the average on barley, thrashed clean and hammeled at one operation. I saw this barley on the thrashing barn floor at Mr. Mechi's farm, and have no hesitation in saying that it was every- thing that could be desired. It was unbroken or damaged in any way, and was sold at a high price for malting purposes ; 448 bushels were thrashed and cleaned ready for market in six hours. PREPARING CORN FOE THE MAKKLT. 379 This machine has not been taken up as yet, I believe, by any of the leading makers of similar engines, the reason of which I am at a loss to account for. The terms I have heard required by the patentee and inventor seem to me to be very reasonable, considering the success that it has met with in England, for without exception, all the practical farmers who have seen it, express themselves quite satisfied with it ; the machine makers give it a bad name, it is true, but I have not heard from one (and I have discussed it with many) any sound objection they can urge against it. It certainly could be made at an immense reduction in price, and its parts are so cheap, that they can be made and renewed by any village workman. The slat riddle can be made by any ordinary carpenter, and the parts of the straw carrier are so simple that the farmer may keep a few spare links of the chain and a bundle of the transverse rods by him, and with the aid of his pocket-knife, can repair it in a few moments. I think it would be well for the great makers to look to their monopoly in the manufacture of thrashing machines ; for it happens that little men, in a small way of business, cannot manufacture theirs ; but the parts of this American patent are so simple that any village ploughwright can construct them with ease, having once made himself acquainted with its peculiarities ; these small men will be soon competing with the great ones, and handing' over to the farmer a thrashing and cleaning machine as efficient, while only half the cost of those turned out by the great makers. I have examined the details of this American corn separator with great care, and I am of opinion that, taken as a whole, it is a great im- provement on those commonly used in England ; * not in workmanship, or the manner in which it is got up, but in the principles and arrange- ment of the parts used in performing the operations for which it was built. The straw-shaker is the most efficient apparatus for effecting that object that I ever saw, and I am sure both it and the slat riddle will come into general use in England in a very short time in spite of aU the endeavours of interested parties to decry it. The peg drum, as made by Moffitt, I think a better thrashing apparatus than any other for all those persons who do not sell their straw for the London market or the potteries. It is of no small advantage, in using machinery for thrashing, that the corn is quickly cleaned and removed to a place of safety. "When it is allowed to remain about for months, as is the case when the flail * The Mark Lane Mspress, iu its report on the machines and implements of Agriculture at Baker-street, last Christmas, has a very carefully vs-ritten criticism on this machine, and highly favourable to it. S80 MODERN HUSBANDRY. is employed, much loss takes place, for continual peculation becomes an important item of loss. After the straw has been removed- from the machine, it is stowed away in the bays of the barn, or restacked in the rickyard. The corn will require passing through the winnowing-machine once or twice before it is ready for market ; and, if a smut-machine exists on the farm, it will much improve its appearance if it be passed through it. Com is sold at market by the bushel, quarter, coomb, or load ; the bushel is a standard measure, and is the same aU over England. The corn, when ready for stacking, is lightly fiUed into the measure till overflowing ; it is then struck, as it is called, that is, a round spar of wood made perfectly true from end to end, and considerably longer than the diameter of the bushel measure, is passed across it, being pressed down upon the edges of it, and aU the grain above that level is thus swept off; the bushel measure, so treated, is called a strike bushel. Sacks are usually employed for holdiag corn ; they should be carefully kept in repair, and, when not in use, stowed away in places inaccessible to vermin. A variety of sieves, riddles and baskets are employed in preparing corn for market when the flail is used ; but most of them are dispensed with when the operation is effected by machinery. A railway should, if possible, exist for bringing the straw up to be thrashed, so as to do everything with the greatest rapidity. ^The farmer, or his bailiff, should always personally superintend the whole of the people, and the process when preparing grain for market. CARTS AND WAGGONS. Carts or waggons, or both, will be required by the farmer for the purposes of conveying the produce of his farm to market, to carry his manure to the land, and bring his crops from the land to the homestead, as well as a variety of other operations. The construction of carts for agricultural purposes is now so well understood that but little need be said upon that head: the old lumbering cart of the village wheelwright has nearly passed away, and well-proportioned, light, properly-constructed vehicles supply the place. Some farmers, although they may have given up the old clumsy cart, still stick to the large waggons ; not the huge unwieldy things of former times it is true, but a modernised imitation of them, having CAETS ANB WAGGONS. 381 many of their remarkable peculiarities, for which no good reason can be assigned. Por all the purposes required by the agriculturist the cart is superior to the waggon in every respect, both in point of convenience draught, and cost. Por convenience, the facility with which carts can be moved, turned, and emptied of their load, is much superior to that of waggons ; for drawing out manure, marl, lime, ashes, &c., there can be no comparison ; and, in the operation of harvesting crops, carts, if pro- perly fitted out, will be found superior even for this purpose. Kg. 80 represents a cart of this description, made by Mr. Busby, of Newton le Willows, in Yorkshire ; several prizes have been awarded to the maker for this cart, and it may be considered one of the best specimens made. In proof of the superiority of lightness of draught of carts over waggons, I would point to the fact, that iu all cases where a very krge amount of weight has to be conveyed between two points, as is the case by contractors for large public works, and between some towns, as formerly between Manchester and Liverpool, and in Prance, where the produce of the manufactures of Mulhouse and other towns had to be conveyed on the road, there being neither canal or railroad, horse carts have been used, and never waggons. The cost of carts and waggons, where both are used on a farm, will stand thus : — £ s. d. Two waggons, at £30 60 Two harvest waggons, at £15 30 Four carts, at £12 48 £138 Four carts, fitted up as Kg. 80, 5GI., being a saving of 82Z. ; for all the work that could be done by the carts and waggons can be done by these carts ; and one horse will draw more in a single-horse cart than it can in a waggon ; the following table shows the amount of agricultural produce that may be conveyed in carts and waggons ofthe ordinary construction : — ONE HOESE CARTS. 150 sheaves of wheat. 25 cwts. of corn, thrashed. 60 bushels of bones. TWO HORSE WAGGOKS. 200 sheaves of wheat. 45 cwts. of corn, thrashed. 100 bushels of bones. Those who bave used carts and waggons, as against each other, are always advocates for the substitution of the former for the 382 MODERN HUSBANDRY. latter ; estimating all the advantages, the greater number, fro and con, the balance is always in favour of carts. Great improvements have taken place in the manufacture of cart and waggon wheels and Kg. 80. MR. BUSBY S PRIZE ONE HORSE CART. axles ; these are now manufactured on a large scale by Mr. Croaskill and others, entirely by machinery, jnuch increasing their efficiency while reducing the cost, HARNESS. The harness employed for attaching animals to the vehicle that contains their load is very simple and well understood. The saddle is made of leather, and stuffed on the underside ; it has on the top a wooden groove through which a chain passes, either end of which is attached to the shafts of the cart, the hook or fastening being moveable, in a long iron staple. To this staple are attached two other hooks ; to the forward one of these is attached a chain, the end of which fastens to the coUar ; by means of this the horse exerts his force in pulling, by the one over the saddle the weight is supported. To the hinder of the hooks is attached another chain, called the Ireech chain, which is fastened to a broad leather band which passes round the lower part of the horse's rump. By this he resists the downward pressure of the load when descending steep acclivities, or backs the cart when required. The bridle of the cart-horse is a single snaffle, to the side rings of which are affixed the reins by which the horse is guided. Beneath the horse's belly is placed another broad strap, which is FAKM RAILWATS. 383 secured to the shafts of the cart ; this prevents the shafts rising when the weight in the cart is thrown far aft. The saddle is kept in its place hy a strap called the crupper, which passes round and under the taU, and another passing under the belly. Trace-horse harness is similar, but it has no saddle or breech- chain ; the traces, by which he draws his load, are attached near the ends of the shaft, and kept asunder by a bar of wood, the ends of which are fixed into them. FARM RAILWAYS. The introduction of railways into farms will be of the greatest possible benefit, as it is the carrying out and bringing home the manure, crops, &c., that eats up half the profit. On lands farmed high this labour becomes very great, and a great relief will be felt by the adoption of any plan which lessens the cost of this heavy item. It is to Mr. Crosskill, of Beverley, that we are indebted for the introduction of farm railways ; he has constructed them in such a manner that they become quite portable, and may be laid down and taken up with the greatest ease. The following are his charges for the portable farm railway for carrying 15 cwt. loads. £ s. d. 100 yards, or 20 lengths of rail, at is. per yard . 20 1 No. 2. Truck, with end tipper . . . .5100 1 No. 5. Truck, to tip on either side . . . 5 10 1 Turntable 6 10 £36 10 Extras. — 2 sets of points, With double rails, each 15 feet long 7 10 2 sets of double rails to join the double lines, each 15 feet long . . . . 4 10 2 turning curves, to join a double line, each 10 feet long 2 4 turning curves, to branch off the straight line 4 £54 10 Landowners and others wishing to use their own wood, may be supplied with the rails only. Angle railway iron, drilled and straightened, la. 6d. per yard. Sockets, 6d. each. Catches, Id. each. Pebmanent and Portable Farm Railway, to carry 40 cwt. loads. W. C. will undertake to lay permanent rails, with wood sleepers, fitted 3 feet in gauge, including all materials and labour, except carriage and one man's travelling expenses, at per yard . 384 MODEEN HUSBANDRY. Portable rails, ■with wood sleepers, in 12 feet lengths, fitted 3 feet in gauge, for two men to carry and lay down from the permanent rail aoroaa any part of a field, at per yard . . . . ... N.B.— All extra levellinga, embankments, or eaithwork, where necessary, to be done at the expense of the parties. This railway is very serviceable for taking up turnips, and is much better and cheaper than carts going upon the wet land, and doing so much damage. With a hundred yards of rail, a quarter of an acre may soon be cleared, the turnips being gathered up six yards on each side of the rail. Two boys will move a hundred yards and replace it in a quarter of an hour. THE DAIRY AND ITS PRODUCE. The business of the dairy chiefly consists in assisting or retarding the natural stages in which milk wiU run when left to itself, and which form the preparation of the valuable articles of human food, butter and cheese. Milk is a liquid secreted by mammiferous animals for the benefit of their young, for which end its elementary constituent specially adapts it. Fig. SI. SAIIKEL OHUKV. In the manufacture of butter the milk is agitated to produce two parts, a fluid and a solid. The solid part is called butter, which has the properties of an expressed oil, the fluid is merely the imilk without its butyraceous elements, and in that state called butter- milk. When milk that has been taken from the cow has stood for a few hours in flat dishes, there appears a whitish yellow substance thicker than the milk, forming a coating over the whole ; this is called cream, and when examined with the microscope wiU be found to consist of an accumulation of minute globules of an oily or fatty nature. THE DAIEY AND ITS PRODUCE. 385 The quality of cream depends somewbat upon the management of the dairy operations, but chiefly upon the food of the animals, and also upon the difference in the habits of different breeds. The quantity of butter obtained from a, given quantity of mUk drawn from one cow wiU. be no criterion as to the amount to be obtained from the same quantity of milk extracted from an animal of different breed, or one fed upon a different soil. The ordinary plan of BuUer-mahing is, to place the mUk as soon as it comes from the cows into large shallow dishes to cool ; these vessels are made of a variety of materials, china, glass, glazed red earthenware, stone, zinc, lead, or wood ; lead is j)referred to all other materials in the most extensive dairy establishments. The milk is placed in these vessels about four or five inches deep, and should remain undisturbed for at least twenty-four hours, but not a longer time than forty hours. The cream is now separated from the milk either by skimming with a flat dish or skimmer, or, as is generally the case in large dairies, the milk is drawn off with a syphon, or a stopcock placed in the bottom of the cooler. "When a sufficient quantity is collected by successive skimmings, it is placed in the churn to be made into butter. This wiU. occupy from a quarter of an hour to three hours, when churned in lai-ge quantities, from an hour to an hour and a half is the average time. The temperature of the cream when being churned is important. About 56° seems to be the most favourable for effecting a complete separation; in cold weather it is necessary to raise it to this temperature by the addition of hot water, or if a small churn, placing it in hot water. The motion of the churn should be even and steady, not in jerks, the lid should be occasionaEy removed to allow of the escape of air, or it win froth too much. The great art of butter-making lies in keeping the dairy and the churn at exactly that temperature best fitted for thoroughly sepa- rating the butter from the mUk without giving it too great an inclination to become sour, which it wiU if the temperature be too high, and if it be too low it will separate badly, and be long in churning. Chums are made in a great variety of forms, but the objects are the same in all, that is to facilitate a rapid, steady, shaking action of its contents. The oldest forms are those known as the barrel-churn, and the dash-churn. 386 MODERN HUSBANDUY. The harrel-churn is simply a barrel studded with perforated beaters, it revolves on two axles or gudgeons, and in so doing subjects tlie cream to such agitating motion as is necessary to produce the butter. The dash-churn consists of a cj'linder, in which is worked a piston perforated with holes, this piston being attached to the- bottom of the piston-rod, is worked upwards and downwards, and effects the same kind of agitation of the cream as is done by the barrel-chum, both forms of churns are sometimes made on a large scale, and worked by machinery. Dray^s doulle-action churn is of this latter class. The superiority of this churn consists in its having a double perpendicular action, by which the plunger of the downward strokes forces the cream through the middle partition of the vessel, foUovring the upward plunger ; so that at the reversion of the cranks, the cream is met by the plungers- and forced backward and forward in rapid succession, " erasing " and agitating it in a few minutes into small particles of butter ; after which, by slowly turning the crank, the small particles adhering to each other, quickly become in a condition to be- taken out. Dolphin's American chwrn is a recent improvement, and one that has found great favour. This is constructed on a self-adjusting rotary principle, churning in the most effectual manner, and afterwards gathering the butter, and working it so as to expBl the'butter-milk. When turning the dasher the cream is agitated by meeting with slats, which are set at such angles as to force the cream towards the centre : it is then met by movable floats, which when revolving stand open, and cause the cream to move outwards ; which various and contrary motions so agitate it, that the butter is soon produced. Anthony's American churn is similar to this last, but of a simpler character ; in Dalphin's the slats are movable, in the latter they are fixed ; both these churns are modifications of the box-churn. The hox-chtcrn. This consists of a box in which four dashers work upon a spindle which passes through the centre, the dasher is com- posed of slats of wood placed at intervals on two pieces which radiate from the spindle, as these revolve they agitate the cream. The improvements attained in the American churns is in the form of the slats of the dasher ; instead of their being simple pieces of wood, they are made celltilar, which causes a larger amount of air to be carried down amongst the cream in the process of churning, and thereby expedites the separation of the butter. The objection urged against these chums is, that they are difficult to keep quite clean, but I do not think any such difficulty exists. THE DAIRY AND ITS PRODUCE. 387 A great variety of other chums are made, but a]l more or less like those I have described, the greatest difference being, that in some the dashers are placed upright upon a perpendicular spindle, and driven with bevil gear. Glass and metal have been introduced of late years as a material for making the boxes or barrels for chums, but wood is much preferred by the dairymen, although more difficult to keep clean. The manufacture of butter is a very simple process, but requiring great care and cleanliness in its execution. Butter is sometimes made from the whole of the milk as taken from" the cow. "When this plan is adopted (which is very rarely), the milk is put into barrels, and remains for a day or two, it is then placed ia the churn and raised up to a temperature of from 70° to 75° by. the addition of hot water. The churning occupies a much longer time. "When the butter has been thoroughly extracted from the milk, it is removed and laid upon tables of wood or marble,- and is worked iii water either by the hand or a spatula (which is much better) until the whole of the milk thait remained ia it is forced out, which will be seen by the water leaving it quite clean. The butter is now fit for use, if intended to be consumed imme- diately, it is generally made up into rolls or small pats cast in moulds, with ornamental patterns carved on or in them. But if it be intended for future consumption, it must be salted, to preserve it from becoming rancid or rank. It is then packed up into small casks well mixed with salt, and a solution of salt laid upon the sides of the cask, or it wiU be rancid on the outside, salt must also be laid on the top before headening. Butter so preserved wiH keep for a considerable time, and be sweet tasted ; as it is required for use the salt may be washed out in cold water very easily, by merely working it about with the hand, and beating it with a piece of wood if hard, afterwards it may be again made up into lumps for use. "When once butter has become tainted or rancid, it is spoiled for the table, as no means that can be adopted will rid it of the rancid flavour without rendering it insipid and unpleasant ; it may, however, by being placed in clean spring water, and kept over a fire till the water boil, and then when cold skimmed off, be good enough for pastry purposes, as the disagreeable acids are to some extent soluble in water, and they may be thus evaporated, volatilised, or washed out. oc 2 388 MODERN HUSBANDRY. CHEESE-MAKING. Another preparation of milk is cheese ; this consists of the caseous matter of the milk combined with a great portion of the oily or creamy part ; that is, if it be good and rich, which it wiU. not be if the milk be subjected to any skimming process to rob it of the cream, as is the case in Suffolk and some other localities, where it is said a cheese, by having a hole made in the centre, becomes a very good grindstone. Bloomfield ridicules a Suffolk cheese, as he says, made of milk " Three times skimmed sky blue." It is only on pastures that are naturally rich and fertile that good cheeses can be made. The rich valleys of the mountain limestone, as in Derbyshire ; at Cheddar in Somersetshire, and other calcareous formations, as in Grloucestershire ; also some pastures of the new and old red sandstones produce cheeses of the finest quality. A great variety of cheese is made, caused chiefly by the difference of management in the making, and the quality of the feed of the cows. In England the process is similar in its general characteristics, though varying slightly in its details ; as I have not room in this work to describe more than one, I have chosen that of Cheshire as best illustrating the process, and the cheeses of that county being the most highly esteemed not only in England, but aU over the world, wherever it can be carried in a sound state. MANUFACTURE OF CHESHIRE CHfeESE. The milk is placed in a large tub, or metal kettle, and warmed either by putting the whole on the fire, or heating a portion of it, so as to bring the whole up to about 90°. The rennet is then added, being placed in a small muslin bag, and the milk evenly stirred about with it ; in about two hours the curd will be formed throughout. The dairywoman then commences getting the curd together with her hands and separating it from the whey until the whole mass is in one lump ; this is then put into a cloth, placed on a wicker basket, and is put under the machine and pressed, or it is worked with the hands and knees, the lump being frequently cut with a knife into pieces and then laid together again, and re-pressed and cut again, until the whole of the whey is squeezed entirely out. Sometimes a deep vat is used to press the curd in, instead of the cloth ; .but, whatever plan be adopted, the end to be obtained is the same, that is, the thorough extraction of the whey from the curd ; for, if this be not done, the MANUFACTUEE OF CHESHIRE CHEESE. 389 cheese will cut wet, be full of holes, heave, and be altogether of inferior quality. The curd, being pressed into a hard and comparatively dry lump, is now placed in a pan, and the process of breakiiig down hag to be executed ; this consists in breaking up the masa of curd into small pieces, and working it with the hands until it i^ quite of one even consistency : this is the hardest work in the process, and must not be carelessly done, or inferior cheese will be the result : machines called curd-breakers Lave been introduced, and are geiierally used in some localities ; but with the Cheshire dairymaids they are not in favour ; they consider that the breaking by hand is in every way superior. The curd being broken down, and the salt added to the satisfaction of the operator, is now placed in a wooden mould called a cKeese- vat. The mould is made of the site of the intended cheese, the curd is placed in it, and a tin hoop, called a girth, placed round the top ; just jrithin it, the curd is piled up above the height of the cheese-vat, so as to fill the tin hoop, and even be piled up conically above that, or a cloth is sometimes used to pack the upper part of the curd in above the cheese-vat. The mould is now placed in the cheese-press and subjected to the action of its weight. Cheese-presses are made in a variety of ways : the most common are arrangements of levers which may be, so regulated as to cause ever so much or ever so little pressure on the cheeses ; they are now made of iron, and of convenient form. The vat full of curd being pressed runs off all the remainder of the whey that had not previously been extracted ; this liquid is called thrutchings, and is very different to the first whey : it is eaten by the members of the farmer's establishment, and is considered a whole- some and agreeable food (that is, by those who are used to it). The cheeses remain a day or two in the presses, and the curd in the tin hoop is with the hoop pressed down into the cheese-vat, and a cheese thus formed the size of the vat or mould. It is now carried to the cheese-room, where it is placed carefully either in the racks, or on the floor : many persons think that cheese is better laid out on the floor than it is if put on shelves in a rack. As the Cheshire cheeses are generally large, and when they leave the presses they have not become sufficiently solid to keep their shape, it is necessary to wrap linen bands round them ; this prevents their bulging out at the sides and cracking, which, if it took place, would very much injure them both in quality and appearance. The cheeses now require constantly turning and examining, once every day at least, until the bandages are removed ; they are then, with a 390 . MODERN HUSBANDEY, dull-edged knife, rid of any roughness that may appear upon their surfaces, and little damages or cracks stopped up, and afterwards they are well rubbed occasionally with coarse cloths to give them a, polish ; a grey-blue mould, or bloom, will appear upon' them after- wards, all over alike, and give that particidar look which it is impos- sible to describe, but which is well understood by those who have had experience in th^ manufacture of them. Cheshire is celebrated for its excellent cheeses, due not only to the nature of the soil, but also to the careful manner in which the process of cheese-making is carried on. The farmer's wife generally makes all the cheese herself;, and, as the profit or loss upon the farm will chiefly depend upon the manner in which this is performed, there ^ can be no doubt but that the greatest possible care will be exercised in doing it ; for although the manufacture of Cheshire cheese, as I have described it, appears the simplest operation possible, yet, in its practical execution, there are many points of detail that require great experience to properly carry them out ; and, in the same locality, many women make much better cheeses than their neighbours, all other circumstances being the same. Cheshire cheese is much finer in quality when the cheeses are made large,- it is therefore necessary that a cheese dairy-farm should be of sufficient size to carry at least twenty cows giving milk. It is of great importance to get the cheese dry as quickly as possi- ble, and sent to market, as it loses considerably in weight. In "Wiltshire, cheeses are made much smaller than in Cheshire, and not inferior in consequence. .■/::v;:%v<. FELLITUG TIMBER, CHAPTER XI. ORCHAEDS, PLANTATIONS, FENCES, AND MISCELLANEOUS MATTER. ORCHARDS. In the counties of Kent, Herefordshire, "Worcestershire, and Devonshire, a considerable breadth of land is planted with the apple, pear, chestnut, walnut, filbert ; and in the county of Kent cherry- trees. The cultivation of the apple and pear, on an extensive scale, is for the purpose of making those most excellent beverages — cyder and perry. The lands on which the apple and pear are usually grown is gen- erally used as pasture-land, the trees not being large, and standing at a considerable distance apart, not interfering with the growth of a moderately good pasture. Arable culture is not to be recommended. The trees require care in selection and management, the great fault being planting too close together, and not keeping them sufficiently 392 MODERN HUSBANDRY. open in tHe branctes, too mucli dead wood being allowed to accu- mulate. In orchards, a fuU crop once in four or five years, and an average crop once in three years, is as much as can be expected. In Devonshire the average produce of an orchard is reckoned at from three to four hogsheads per acre per annum. In Herefordshire from twenty-five to thirty bushels of apples will make a hogshead of cyder, or a hundred and ten gallons. Twenty hogsheads have been made from one acre. The other tree crops mentioned are peculiar to certain situa,tions, as gardens, and do not, (with the exception of the cherries grown in Kent,) come into the list of farmer's crops. WOODLANDS. These are of four kinds, severally called coppices or copses, which contain underwood merely; mixed wood consisting both of timber and underwood ; plantatiqns, and groves which contain nothing but trees ; — ajid forests, or extensive tracts of country, covered with timber. This latter class does not of course exist, except on a very small scale in England. Coppices. — These are cut in early stages of their growth, varying according to the description of wood for which there is a demand in the neighbourhood, as for baskets, hop-poles, hurdles, stakes, laths, bavins, &c. The principal points to be attended to in the managing of coppices are : — Ist. The Fencing. — This must always be preserved in good order, for it is better to allow cattle to run loose in the ripe wheat-field than in a young plantation, the bite of their teeth injures the plants more than anything else. 2nd. The Drainage. — Oak always flourishes best in lands mode- rately moist, but by no means wet. All coppices should be well drained with open drains, the roots of the trees would choke any other. 3rd. Shelter. — Underwood requires shelter, and it is customary to plant timber trees for that purpose, either amongst it or surrounding, or on the pxposed sides of it. 4th. The period of cutting this varies according to the nature of the demand, whether for very young or large grown wood. Coppices are in some situations cut at ten years growth, and in others they are allowed to stand twenty-five years. A covenant should always MIXED WOODS AND PLANTATIONS. 393 exist in a lease restraining the tenant from cutting earlier than the custom of the country. 5th. Season for Cuttmg. — There are many opinions respecting the proper season of the year for cutting underwood, but there is one rule which, for the advantage of the seller, should be steadily adhered to, namely, that the older the wood is, the later in the spring it should be cut. When old wood is cut early in the winter, and a severe season follows, the damage done to the old stock and to the standards is very great. On the other hand, it is supposed to be for the interest of the buyer that aU wood should be cut in the most stagnant 'state of sap, as being in that case more durable ; and in all cases where bending is required, such as hurdles, hoops, and even dead hedges, the wood cannot be cut too early in the winter, for if cut when the sap is rising it becomes brittle, and unfit for those purposes. 6th. The application and itses.-, — In the oak coppice, the principal profit is derived from the bark. Copse-wood is also used for making charcoal, pyroligneous acid, ash-poles for sheep-cribs, rind-hoops for barrels, hanks for ships' rigging, hazel sheep-hurdles, spars for thatching, pea and bean sticks ; dead hedges, alder, willows, birch, &c., are used for fencing, rails, rafters, clogs, and coal-pit uses. ' MIXED WOODS AND PLANTATIONS. It is only in a few localities in England that any extensive tracts are now kept in woodlands, but there are situations where such is by far the most profitable manner of tresttipg such places. The management of woods, where there are both small and large trees and underwoods, though not requiring the skill and attention that an arable farm does, nevertheless requires considerable care. It is principally necessary that the woods be properly fenced, and that the fences be ever after kept in thorough repair, that the trees shall not be damaged by the inroads of stock, that drainage, and other prac- tical modes of improvement should not be neglected : — that the wood should be divided into regular falls or portions, so as to furnish a clear annual income, with as much certainty as arable land, and that, vrhen sold, every pains be taken to procure their fuU value. By these means, and the reservation of an adequate share of large timber, the proprietor wiU generally have a safe and improving invest- ment of his capital. The timber trees usually planted in England are oak, elm, limes, ash, mountain ash, beech, birch, chestnut,, sycamore, pines, pinaster,- 394 MODERN HTJSBANDEY. larch, Scotch fir, willow, alder, and a variety of others, all being specially adapted for peculiarities of climate, soU, situation, aspect, and every other cireumstance that may arise ; so bountiful has Provi- dence been, that there is scarcely any situation but that something may be found adapted to it. FENCES. The hawthorn is the best plant with which to form hedges, and it is now generally used in preference to any other. With moderate care and good treatment it will grow in almost any description of soil, and in almost any situation, provided it be not at too great an elevation above the sea. The hawthorn prefers a good dry loamy or sandy gravel, and will not flourish in marshy, wet, or boggy situa- tions. The plants are generally raised, from seed, at two years old being removed from the seed-bed to the nursery-bed, where they remain two years, more before they are fit to be planted for hedge- rows. Before the plants are set the ground must receive proper culti- vation. If the soil be of medium or inferior quality, the first step towards the establishment of a good fence should be to set out a width of about six feet along the course of its intended site. This width should then be dug over, turning up the top soil only (some persons recommend the cutting up of the sod into small pieces with the spade) from the side on which the ditch is to be made, then remove the top soil to the depth of about six inches, and place it where the fence is to stand. On naturally dry soils there is no need whatever for ditches ; the practice of the best farmers is now to construct the fences without them. In cases where the subsoil is of a worthless characl;er, and it is necessary to form a ditch for drainage, the materials from the exca- vation must not be heaped up to form a bank, as the plant will not grow in that ; but such materials must be buried in the slope at the back of the bank, and the upper soil placed over it again. A dead fence must be made to protect the young plant from stock during their growth, which will take six or seven years. The hawthorn being naturally destined to become a tree, the planting the young quick in rows would not prevent its becoming so if some means were not taken to prevent it, as it would shed its lower shoots, and be wide, ragged, and full. of openings. To prevent this it is necessary, after the plants have attained some ten or fifteen years growth, to cut it down wholly or in part, and FENCES. 393 it is usual to clean out and re-form the ditch at the same time; this operation being generally called hedging and ditching. In cutting, the hedge is either laid, breasted, or cropped. Laying consists in first clearing away all briars, weeds, and rough grass from the bank in which the fence is growing, and cutting off aU the branches and stems which overhang, leaving straight stems standing upright in the middle ; the most perfect of these are selected for stems, or live stakes, their heads being cut off at about three and a half or four feet high. The live stakes should be chosen as nearly as possible about two feet apart, but should they not occur sufficiently near, then dead stakes must be placed in their stead. The most irregular of the thorn-shoots having be^n cut out, the rest ~are bent in and out between the upright stakes in a manner similar to basket maker's work. In doing this, the first thing is to prepare a ledge 'on the top of the bank, and on this are deposited the sods that have been taken from the ditch, all irregularities in the surface of the bank being at the same time carefully stopped up. The best sods having been placed along the ledge, at the stem of the fence, the loose mould and rubbish is placed within it, and all made smooth and neat. The formation of the fence then commences, and this is done by the workman laying hold of the thom;Stems that were left standing, and, while bending them down with his left hand, he cuts them with his bill-hook close to the ground, just sufficiently to remove the spring or power they would otherwise have to return back again to their upright position. The whole are bent iu one direction, and woven in and out of the upright stems, the terminal twigs being left projecting on the ditch side to be afterwards trimmed off; As the upper part of the fence, when thus formed, is still in a ragged and unformed state, another operation is necessary, called heathering. This is performed by taking some of the straightest of the stems, and others prepared for the purpose, of clean straight ash or hazel, and wattling them in between the stakes at about an inch from the top ; two heathers are taken, and, after pushing their ends a little among the thorns to obtain a holding, they are twisted in and out iu opposite directions, crossing each other two or three times between the stakes of course, changing sides each time, others following as those before are used up, those that follow overleaping those that preceded them, until the whole fence is complete, without break or joint, or one place being weaker than another. S96 MODERN HUSBANDRY. It is customary to cut or cripple the upright stems close to the ground, to prevent the hedge getting thin at the bottom, which it would by the stems sending out shoots only at the top, in consequence of the lower part of the stem being surrounded by the fence. After the fejice has been laid about two or three years, the shoots should be trimmed off to form a sort of pyramid, the fence at the stem being about two feet wide, and tapering up at the top evenly on both sides ; this is called criypfing, and is so done that the fence is never allowed to increase in size ; if the fence is to be kept perfect it must be annually performed ; and, as it may be done with a bean-hook for about threepence per chain, it is never worth while to neglect it. Sreqsting is but little practised ; it consists in cutting off all the stems about three feet from the ground and trimming up the side next the field to which the fence belongs. The bottom twigs being left, a gradual slope is formed from the bottom of the ditch to the top of the fence. DISEASES OF CATTLE. As the limited size of this book would not allow of this important part of the subject being treated at proper length, I have thought that it was better not to attempt any short description of the diseases and methods of curing them, as any such limited descriptions would be more likely to mislead, and to do harm instead of good. I think it better that in all cases of disease a veterinary surgeon should be immediately called in, and if after some practical experience and observation, the farmer should attempt to deal with disorders himself, Ije should consult such books as are devoted exclusively to the subject 6f the diseases of cattle, and of which there are several in existence,- specially adapted to his practice. Kg. 82. ransome's hoe plough. PBOPOETIOKS OF AN OX. ■WEIGHT AND MEASUREMENT OF STOCK. The veiglit of animals is influenced by a variety of circumstances ; as condition, or the amount of fatness, age, breed, quality, &c. &c. The following rules are given to guide the farmer in his judgment : — 1st. Rule.* — Multiply the square of tlie girth in inches, by the length in inches, and divide the product by 7344, and the quotient will be the weight in imperial stones. 2nd. Eule. — Square the girth in feet, and multiply it by the length in feet ; multiply again by the decimal '238, and the sum is the weight in imperial stones. By the length is always meant ~a line from the top of the shoulder to the setting on of the tail. The girth is the circumference of the body behind the shoulder. Mr. Stevens says that for beasts between-forty and seventy stones, these rules may apply, but below and above that cannot be de- pended on. Mr. Ewart of Newcastle has constructed a slide-rule and cattle- gauge which is highly approved. The girth is simply set to the length on two lines marked on the wood, and the weight is * Stevens. 398 MODERN HtrSBANDEY. , shown above, according to tlie class of animal, and requires no calculation. The four quarters are a little over half the weight of the living animal. The skin weighs about the eighteenth part, and the tallow about one twelfth of the whole. LIQUID MEASURE. 8,665 inches 1 gill. 4 gills . , 1 pint. 2 pints 1 quart. 4 quarts, or 277,274 cubic inches . . . . 1 gallon. DRY MEASURE. 2 gallons ' . 1 peck. 4 pecks 1 bushel. 4 bushels, weight variable . . 1 sack of corn. 6 bushels of 66 lb. always, 61b. is ■) allowed for the bag beyond that / 1 sack of flour weight. ) 8 bushels I quarter of corn. 4 ditto 1. coomb of ditto. 10 sacks 1 load of wheat. 2150'4 cubic inches 1 bushel. 2197-3 ^ ditto. 1 Scotch wheat firlot AGRICULTURAL PRODUCK 1 truss of old hay weighs, by law . , , . 56 lb. 1 truss of new hay 60 lb. 1 load of hay . 36 trusses. 1 truss of straw . , 36 lb. 1 sack of potatoes 224 lb. 1 bushel of flour 66 lb. 1 bushel of wheat will average .... 60 lb.* Ditto oats ditto . . - . . : . . . 40 lb. Ditto barley ditto 501b. 1 bushel of rock salt 65 lb. * Govfimment contracts are made at 621b. as miniinuxa. WEIGHTS AND MEASCEES. 399 CHEESE AND BUTTER. S It I elove. 32 cloves 1 -v^ey in Essex. 42 ditto 1 wey in Suffolk. 56 lb 1 firkin of butter. WOOL. KilogKimmes. 71b. . . 1 clove . . 3-1748. 2 cloves . . . 1 stoue . 6-3496. 2 stones . Itod . . 12-6992. ejtods . . . 1 wey . 82-543. 2 weys , 1 sack . . 165-087. 12 sacks . . llaat A pack of wool is 240 lb. . 1981-044. LAND MEASURE. Land is usually measured with a chain of 100 links 7'9 inches 1 link 100 links 1 chain. 22 yards 1 chain. 66 feet 1 chain. 16^ feet 1 rod, pole, or perch. 80 chains . . . . -. . . 1 mile 10 square chains ; 1 acre. 4 roods ; 1 acre. 160 rods ; 1 acre. 4840 yards 1 acre. 9 square feet 1 square yard. 30 J square yards 1 square rod or pole 40 square poles 1 rood. LONG MEASURE. Fr. Mdlre. 3 barleycorns 1 inch . 0-0254. 12 inches 1 foot . . 0-3048. 3 feet 1 yard . 0-9144. 6 feet . 1 fathom. 6J yards 1 pole, rod, or perch . 5-0911. ' 40 poles . 1 furlong . 201-1632. 8 furlongs . 1 mile . . 1609-3059 3 miles . 1 league . ,4827-9179. 400 MODERN HTJSBANDUY. CUBIC MEASURE. 1728 cubic inches 1 cubic foot. 27 cubic feet 1 cubic yard. A cubic foot is equal to 2'200 cylindrical inches, or 3'300 spherical inches, or 6600 conical inches. A Table showing the cost per acre of Draining on hard subsoUs, with Tiles and Soles, extracted from Mr. Smith of Deanston'a Pamphlet on Drainage. Substances to which the Distances are applicable. Distance between the Drains. Number of Bods per Acre. Cost per Acre of Tiles at 14s. and Soles at r«. Cost of cutting and filling at Total Cost per Acre. per Thousand. 3ii2. Feet. £ s. d. £ s. d. £. S. d. Clay . . . . 15 176 3 114 2 11 4 5 12 3 Sandy Clay . . . 18 147 2 10 9f 2 2 lOi 4 13 84 Ditto . . . . 21 126 2 3 64 1^6 9 4 34 Free Stony Subsoil . . 24 110 1 18 li 1 12 1 ' 3 10 2i Ditto . . . . 27 98 1 13 101 18 7 3 2 5^ Porous . . . . 30 88 1 10 6 16 8 ,2 16 2 Ditto . 33 80 1 7 8J 13 4 2 if 05 Sand or Gravel . '. . 36 , 74 1, 5 4 1 1 7 2 6 ir^ drainers' TOOLa. INDEX. A. Page Buildings {continued). Page Analysis of oil-cake . 171 Stores . . 86 Excrements of animals . 206 Engine-house . . ib. Ditto burnt . a. CattleTinfirmary . 87 Urine of co-we . . 207 Dairy . . 88 Solid excrement of horses . 208 Poultry-house . 89 Excrement of the pig . . 209 Farmer's residence . . 91 Ditto of the sheep . Ji. Lab'Ourer's cottages . 94 Guano . . . . . 213 Building materials . . 95 Night-soil . 215 Barley . . 265 Ashes of ditto . . a. Barley aveller . . . 127 Human urine . . - . . ib. Bean . . 260 Bones . 233 ■ Buck wheat . . 263 Superphosphate of lime . . 235 Butter making . 385 Hop ashes . 300 C. B. Chafi'-oftter . . . 132 BuiLniijas of the Farm . . 60 Oomes's . 133 Situation of . 61 Richmond's . . 134 Arrangement of . 63 Gillett's . ib. Ditto for large fai-m . 65 Uley engine . . 135 Ditto for lesser . . 67 Calves, rearing of . . 164 Details of . . 69 Crops . . 244 Plan of at Mr. Littledale's . 70 Cabbage . 268 Plan of by Mr. Ewart . 71 Carrots . . . 272 Bams .... . 72 Oultiyation . . 308 Stables . . 75 Crosskill's roller . . 337 Boxes and stalls . 76 Com, preparation of, for market . 376 Ditto ditto. . 167 Carts and waggons . 380 Loose boxes . . 78 Chums . . . 386 Calf-pens . . . 79 Cheese making . 388 Cattle-courts . . 80 Cheshire cheese . . 390 Piggery . . . 81 Cattle, diseases of . . 396 Sheep-sheds . . 89. Tiambing-house . 83 D. Hanunels . . . *. Chaff-hoiise . . ib. Drainiito . . 43 Implement-house . . ib. History of . 44 Cart-house . 84 Practice of . . 46 Dung-house . . iJ. In Lincolnshire . 47 40:3 INBEX. Page Page Draining (amtimied). Hogs (contimued). In Holland 48 Norfolk breed . . . ib. By Elkington 51 Irish hogs ... .194 Thorough drainage 5-2 Kearing and fattening of . . 196 Courses of drains . ib. Hemp . 297 Width and depth of dra,inR . 54 Hops .... . . 298 Formation of duets . 56 Horse hoes .... . 348 Deanstonising . 56 Busby's . . . *. Draining witi tiles 57 Garrett's . 349 Form of tiles ib. Smith's . . 352 Form of Drains 68 Hay-making . 357 Drills, description of ; Grarrett's Hay-maldng machines . . 361 Homsley's, Smyth's 341 Harvesting com . . 362 For ridge 345 Harness ' . . . 382 Dairy produce . , . , 384 I. Irkisation F. 243 Pood for stock 171 Fowls, domestic . . , . 199 L. Breeds of . . . Fallowing .... 200 242 IjEGAI — transfers, tenures, and nants oove- , 22 Flax .... Fences 293 394 The fee simple . Tenants from year to year . . 24 . 30 Corn rents . . ib. a Covenants in leases , 31 Covenants to cultivate . , 34 QOBSB-MAOHIHE . 136 Agricultm-al iixtui-es . 36 Ghiano 210 Lessors' covenants . . 36 Grasses .... . 285 Taxes .... . ib. Gorse 287 Poor rates . . 37 Grass lauds .... . 355 Church rates . . 88 Sewers rates . . 39 Tithes .... . ib. H. Emblements . . ib. Crops on the land . . 40 Home gear .... Over head motion . . 116 117 Payment for tillage . Epitome of covenants . . ib. . 42 Ground-work . . ib. Liquid manure tanks . . 84 Barrett's horse gear 118 Liquid manure . 220 History of 141 Value of . . . ib. Hunters 144 Huxtable's practice with . . 224 Cart-horses ib. Application of . . . 231 Old English black horse . ib. Lucerne . . . . . 280 Cleveland bays ib. Clydesdale breed . . 145 M. The Suffolk punch . ib. The Galloway ib. Motive powers . . 99 Ponies .... ib. Mills for grinding . . 128 Breeding of horses . ib. Stone miUs . . ib. Food of horses . . 147 Garrett's and Clayton's . . 129 Hogs, history of . 187 For kibbling beans, &c. . . 129 In a wild state . 191 Crosskill's universal . 131 Chinese breeds . 192 Manures. and their application . . 201 Hampshire do. . 193 Excrement of horse . 207 Essex do. . . . ib. Ditto of the pig . . . 209 Sussex do. ... ib. Ditto of the sheep , . ib. Lincolnshire do. ib. Ditto of poultry . . 210 INDEX. 403 Manures (contimied.) Night BoU Gjiano Superphosphate of lime . . "Woollen rags, burnt clay, fish, coprolites, gypsum, lime, sea- weed, &o. . . . . Maize, or Indian corn . . . Mangold Wurzel . . . . Mustard, white . . . . Madder . . . , , Manure distributors . . . . Meadows ...... 0. On-OAKB crushers . Oxen, description of Chillingham stoiik Scotch stock . Zetland breeds . Galloway breed Polled Angus Ayrshire breed Falkland breed . Kyloe ., English stock . DcTon breeds Sussex breeds . Gloucester stooTs Leicesters Cheshire breed Suffolk dun Page . 214 . 210 . 233 234 Yorkshire breed Herefords Durhams . Alderneys Longhoms Welsh stock . Irish stoclc Polled Irish . Breeding of Feeding of Oat Orchards P, PoTATOB sepaxatca: . Pea . Parsnep . Potatoe Advice relative to Plough, history of .. Ploughing, operation of Plough, parts of . Subsoil Kentish tumwrest &c. , 238 259 269 286 300 355 356 138 ISO ib. 162 152 U>. ib. ib. 153 154 155 ib. ib. 156 1.67 ib. 158 169 ib. MO 160 166 266 391 . 137 262 . 274 . 275 . 278 . 310 . 312 . 317 . 320 . 323 Ploughs (corUinved.) Howard's Oharlbury subsoil Keed's subsoiler Busby'Sj &c. Plantations . R. Root washers . E^bbits Uye Rye grass Botafion of crops EoUers, Crosskill's Heaping machines History of M'Connick's Hussey's Atkinson's Railways for farms Sons and subsoils Example of distribution Alluvial ' Bogs, peats, and mosses London clay Chalk Green-sand formation Gault The Wealden Hastings beds . Calcareous grit coral ray Oxford clay The Oolite . The Lias . TsEew red Sandstone Magnesian limestone . Goal measures Mountain limestone . Old red sandstone . "Grreywacke and clay slate Grranite Basalt Sheep, account of . Different breeds of Southdowns . . Romney marSh . Lincolns Norfolks . Ryelands Dorset and Somerset . Leicesters Penistone breed Cheiviots Cotswolds "Welsh sheep . Irish sheep Page . 326 . 321 . 323 . 328 . 393 136 201 253 282 303 337 362 363 364 367 379 383 1 5 10 U ib. 12 13 13 14 ib. 15 16 ib. 17 ib. ib. 18 19 ib. 20 a. 21 174 176 177 178 179 ib. ib. ib. 180 ib. 181 ib. 182 a. 401 INDEX. Page Sheep {cantimied.) rearing and management of . 183 Sowing macMnes . . . . 340 Steam-engines 102 CrosBkiU'e . . . .103 The different parts of . . 104. Horizontal engine . . . 105 Trnnk engine . . . . 106 Kotatory ditto . . . ih. Portable engine . . . 107 Details of trials of . . .109 Weight of ditto . . . 110 Steam toilers . . . . ib. Waggon cylindrical and flued . Ill Fire box boiler , . . . 112 Steam engine adjustments . . .113 Water gange . , . . 114 Safety valye 116 Smut machines .... 127 Steaming apparatus . . . . 137 Saw bench 139 Sack hoist . . . . ib. Swedish turnips .... 268 Sainfoin- . - 282 Succory, wild .... 287 Scythe, Hainauli . . . . 373 Sickle 372 Stacks of com 374 Staddles for do 376 Stock weight and measurement of . 397 Page Thkashino machines , . . 119 History of . 120 Andrew Mickle's . . 121 Fixed machine . . 122 Lee's improTenfents . 123 Modem EngUsh machine . 124 Garrett, Homsby, Clayton's . ib. Barrett, Exall, and Andrews . ib. Portable machines . . 125 Turnip cutter, Gardner's . . 135 Burgess and Key's . . ib. Turnips . 264 Tares and vetches . 284 Teazles . 301 Thrashing by steam . 377 Ditto by horses . ib. Thrashing machines, American . 378 w. Water-wheels Wheat Woade Welde Waggons . Winnowing machine Gooch's Weights and measures 101 244 300 ib. 380 125 126 298- THE END. EEADBCRT AND EVANS, PEINTEKS, WHITEFBIABS.