>. >i3^ THE CALDWELL COLLECTION THE GIFT OF THE FAMILY OF GEORGE CHAPMAN CALDWELL TO THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY whose senior Professor he was from J 868 to J 903. Cornell University Library SB 191.W5P18 pun.1 [Wheat pamphlets] 3 1924 003 397 902 Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003397902 UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA. Agricultural Experiment Station^ BULLETIN NO. 62. DIVISION OF AGRICULTURE Fig. 238. Originating varieties of wheat. ■ rvIARCH, 1899. WHKAT. VARIETIES, BREEDING, CULTIVATION. ST. ANTHONY PARK, RAMSEY CO., MINNESOTA. McGill-Warner Co., Printers, St. Paul. •ttianri. joj uop^oiiddB ay[vui ot[M. ^:^B:^s ^q:^ jo s^-uapisaj ni3 o:^ saaj psiTBUi 3jt3 uol:).■B:^s SIn:^ }0 snicjaijnq ailX-.®! •spidB>j puBjQ '-jSy «; ■:^ssv raa-Bj jf^isaaAiufi ' j3y ui ■ti.ssv ■no:>S5{ooJ3 'u^y ni :^ssv ■jfapuBqsnjj i^viiay •jf jpuBqsnu •'f-iJ'Ba •:|.sraBjoa P^i' :^SISo^omo:^ug •:).sun:Hn3u2v •JO:j03JIQ 'HAA •¥ 'f '•aSy -a '■« -a 'KYWdVHD 'H 'H 'HS0XNi:5ID-¥H "S S 'ssoa MaaoNV ' -j^v a 'avxsaaAOH 'v "x 'MVHS 'SOHX "H "A "a w 'saaoNAHa 'h "w 'aa^coa^H 'T 'x '•s 'a 'aaoANS AHavH -a -Hd 'aaoom oxxo '•s 'a 'Niaaao "a aaawvs -jgy Fi 'SAVH -n xaaaiAA 'xxaoon 'n wia :NOIiVXS. HHX dO SJ.NVXSISSV QNV SHHOMjIO ■oxava osNOHdav noh ^hx ■SHYQv 'a aama "noh a^x •NaM.0 'W AaNQIS 'NOH aqx ■Aanasnid 's nhoF 'noh ^qx ■uBuijiBqo 'xxason 'h HYmiM. -noh sqx :aaxiiwwoD ncvanxanoiaov hhx t06t t06I S06t S061 806T S06T S06T T06T 1061 opUfO-^3 ■sajidxa ■"■■sx 'TOva -xs a -a 'hxihs 'O aaanvs 'Aaa s^x '^QV(^ -xs '-y -w 'xavao avaaNaaao "noh a^ix 's^^vJ saoaad: "v 'a 'swvav "a aama "noh ^qx 'avKTiiM 'aoia -a "v 'noh ^hx ':aavd anohxny -xg 'XXaflOIT 'W HVmiM. 'NOH aqx 'aaY ANDREW BOSS. Minnesota's large annual wheat sales; the superior quality of the wheat grown in the Northwest, early designated "No. i Hard ;" the wonderful flour milling industry which ha,s developed in the state ; the business of wheat and flour transportation ; and the growing of this cereal, — place this crop among our largest interests. Dair3ang and general stock farming should and will rapidly replace special wheat fanning. But since the rotation and fertilizing of the fields which come with the keeping of domestic animals provides the best soil conditions for wheat, that crop is destined to continue as an important factor on most of our farms, and our wheat interest will doubtless increase rather than decline. The yields of wheat under continuous wheat crop- ping, when the rich character of our soils is considered, are ridicu- lously low. The experiment station has under way extensive experiments in rotating, pasturing, manuring, and cultivating fields to learn how best to prepare them for crops of grain. Many of these tests have already been under way for five years. While most of these experiments are not yet completed, but will be reported in later bulletins, results already reached warrant the statement that the average yields per acre of wheat can be in- creased 25 to 50 per cent, by so rotating the crops and manuring and cultivating the fields best to prepare the soil for this grain. Next in importance to preparing the field for the crop of wheat is the choice of those varieties and strains which will yield the 322 COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. greatest value per acre to the farmer, and will best uphold and improve the value of the flour made by our mills, and will best serve as human food. This bulletin is devoted mainly to the work of securing better varieties ; the 'testing -oi varieties in the field and in the mill, in the bake-room and in the laboratory ; and the improvement of wheats by breeding. Plant breeding is in its infancy, and plans for extensively and scientifically breeding this crop had to be devised rather than copied. It is believed that varieties materially improved in yield are evidence that the plans in use are so designed that increased yields of wheat will result from the new wheats being evolved and disseminated in the vari- ous counties throughout the state. The evidence certainly is g{ood that better farming will add several bushels per acre to our yields of wheat, and that improved varieties will add in addition at least several pecks per acre. COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. In 1888, the first year after the Minnesota Experiment Station was established, eflorts were begun to find the varieties of wheat best adapted to this state. The chief points in mind were to se- cure kinds of wheat which would yield the largest profits per acre tor the farmer, would supply our flour mills with wheat of super- ior quality, and would be the most nourishing and valuable as hu- man food. In 1888 and 1.889 D. N. Harper and W. M. Hays collected from various sources about 200 varieties, or samples, of wheat. The best wheats grown in Minnesota were secured, and numerous va- rieties were obtained from other states. A large number were also secured through American consuls in Russia, Hungary and other Exiropean countries, experiment stations, grain merchants, and persons in Canada. Most of the varieties were spring wheats. Chemical analyses were made of many of these samples by Prof. D. N. Harper, then station chemist, "to determine whether any of COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. 323 the varieties were superior to our own." These analyses showed the Hungarian and many of the Russian wheats to be of great vakie^ but none were more valuable than our Fife and Blue Stem. Through the courtesy of Senator S. A. March, of Minneapolis, the larger number of these wheats were planted on the "March and Spalding Farm," in 1890, at Warren, in the Red River Valley, near the northwestern corner of the state. The small amounts available of most samples necessitated the use of plots so small that it was impracticable to make tests or even close estim- ates of the yields of the different wheats, though the planting and harvesting were carefully done, and notes were taken on each kind of wheat. Some proved to be winter wheats. A large number de- veloped inferior plants, or grain of such poor quality that they were at once discarded. The general results proved that our own native varieties are superior to any of the foreign ones. Some of the Russian seeds yielded grain of apparently as good quality as our own, and these varieties were tested further. The Russian samples were mostly of mixed varieties of bearded and beardless wheats. Sufficient seed was secured of 75 of the better varieties that a 1-40 acre plot of each was planted in 1891 in the southeastern part of the Red River Valley, at Glyndon. These wheats proved to be largely of the Fife type from Minnesota and Russian samples. At Glyndon, fair yields of grain of good quality were obtained of many of these wheats. The yields, however, were not fully com- parable, and have not since been used in the summaries of compar- ative yields. In 1892 part of these wheats were grown at Univer- sity Farm, St. Anthony Park, but the crop was so unsatisfactory that the yields were not recorded. In 1892 and 1893 a total of 1 10 varieties of wheat were grown at Fargo, N. D., the larger number of which were those originally collected by the Minnesota station. In the destruction by fire of the Minnesota station office building in the fall of 1890, the correspondence relating to these varieties of wheat and the laboratory book containing their source, names, analyses and other facts concerning them, were burned. The slakes marking each variety bore only the laboratory serial num- bers, together with the numbers of the respective plots, and thus 324 COLLECTING AND TESTING VAii^iETIES OF WHEAT. a lot of wheats without names or records of source, kind or quality were in hand. While this was a serious misfortune, it led to the more careful inquiry into the real merits of each variety. In 1891, records of each variety were kept by using the name of the town, Glyndon, and our original laboratory entry number, e. g., Glyndon 811, and these numbers finally became our names for these wheats. During the years 1892 to 1898, inclusive, various other varieties were collected from the states and countries above mentioned. Many new varieties were also secured from New South Wales, Australia, and a large number Were originated at this station by se- lection, and also by crossing and selection. The total number of wheats having been under trial up to the present time is 552. Many of the collected wheats were discarded after a single trial in the crop garden. Not in all cases have the seasons and the soils been such as to give yields which it has seemed wise to use in tab- ulating and summarizing. Discarding the results of such years and places as gave yields which were not fairly comparable, we yet have about a dozen which can fairly be averaged for compar- ison. The expense of all these trials has been large. It was not fore- seen that so many trials, covering such a long period of years, and such a variety of soils, localities and climatic conditions, would be necessary. Looking backward, it can be seen that simple milling tests would have assisted early in the trials in throwing out some varieties of average yield, and of a quality too poor to be desirable. But on the whole this patient deliberation seems to have been the only safe method. The immense financial considerations at stake certainly warrant that sufficient care and expense be incurred to enable the state to know which are its best varieties of wheat, and to find and dis- tribute them to the farmers of the state. WHERE THE TESTS FOR YIELD WERE MADE. At the North Dakota Experiment Station most satisfactory comparisons were made of these varieties in 1892 and 1893. A sufficient number of trials had then been made to warrant a comparison and many of those yielding poorly, and those of poor COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. 325 quality were discarded. In 1895, 1896, 1897 and 1898 these wheats were planted at University Farm and at North Dakota Experiment Station, and from year to year the poorer varieties were discarded at each station. In 1897 and 1898 the best vari- eties remaining were also grown at Northwest Experiment Farm, Crookston, Minn., and at Northeast Experiment Farm, Grand Kapids, Minn. The trials at these stations will be specially report- ed upon in another bulletin. In 1898 the South Dakota and Iowa stations also grew a few of the best varieties. METHOD OF MAKING THE FIELD TESTS. The methods used in testing the varieties have been improved Pig. 239. Plowing for Variety Tests of Wheat. upon from year to year. Originally it cost about three dollars per plot to plant, harvest and thresh carefully each plot containing 1-20 or I- 10 of an acre. With the addition of specially chosen seeding and harvesting machinery, with specially constructed threshing machines and other handy arrangements, including a portable gas- oline threshing engine at University Farm, the cost has been re- 326 'COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. 'dnced to one-half the former amount. An important factor in ■successfully carrying on these field trials has been the excellent character and the loyal interest of thfe workmen and students who liave performed the manual labor. THE PREPARATION OF THE LAND. The land of the Minnesota experiment farms is platted into ■series eight rods wide and as long as the field is wide, usually about forty rods. The plots run across the series, and 'are one or two rods wide, and contain 1-20 or i-io of an acre. The rotation of ■crops for a few years previous is so managed as to prepare the land for the wheat. Light applications of rotted barnyard manure are made to some crops, as corn, roots or millet, one or two years pre- vious to using the land for tests of small grains, but no concentrat- ed fertilizers are used. The frequency of the manuring is deter- mined by the needs of the land. The manure is not applied so fre- quently that when wheat is grown in a moist year it will lodge badly. The land is kept in that state of fertility which is practica- ble on all our better farms. In preparing for variety tests of wheat, grass land is fall-plowed, or if following a cultivated crop, as corn or potatoes, the seed bed is made mellow by means of the disk harrow. The common drag or "Tower's Pulverizer" is used in making the surface fine and even. THE SOIL. The soil and subsoil at University Farm are medium in texture, "with clay and sand mixed in such proportion that rainfall is ab- sorbed rather freely and to a good depth, and is conserved quite •well in seasons of drouth. At a depth of five to six feet the sub- soil is gravel and sand, giving excellent underdrainage, but in times of drouth making the land less able to supply water to crops than if there were clay or mixed subsoil to a greater depth. The soils used in the Red River Valley, at Glyndon, Euclid, Far- go and Crookston are the rich, peculiar clay soils characteristic of this noted wheat region. The soil used at Northeast Farm is a sandy loam, new, and sufficiently full of available fertility and COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. 327 moisture to produce fair crops of wheat. At these farms the soils are far more uniform than at many experiment stations where the unevenness of the land makes variety testing very unsatisfactory or even impracticable. THE METHOD OF PLANTING. Sufficient thoroughly cleaned seed of each variety is weighed out to plant somewhat more than the respective plots. A shoe cirill 8| ft. wide is used, thus sowing a rod in width each time the team passes twice over the plot. See Fig. 240. When the plot is sown the seeds remaining in the cups in the bottom of the drill are removed as cleanly as may be with the hands. The operator then blows out, by means of a rubber tube, every remaining seed. It is necessary to have sufficient seed in the drill box to prevent the force-feeding device from running so nearly empty that it will plant seeds thinly on the latter portion of the plot. An alley two teet wide is left between each two plots of grain. This places the varieties only two feet apart, but as wheat is nearly always close fertilized, — the pistil of a given flower being pollenized from an- thers of the same flower, — there is but little cross breeding of vari- eties. The weeds are hoed out of these alleys a few times in the earlier growing season. CARE OF GRAIN FROM SEED-TIME TO HARVEST. Nothing is done with these plots before they ripen unless some occasional rank-growing or dangerous weeds need removing. In case of a newly secured variety the plot is gone over between the time the grain is headed and before it is fully ripened, and all plants not of that variety are removed. Many of the Russian wheats, both of the earlier and of recent importations, are very badly mix- ed. These wheats are the best samples of the commercial wheats of the foreign markets. Many of them were made up of two to four kinds of wheat, distinct as to color of chaff, length of beards, color and form of berry, etc. In some cases no one wheat has been in the majority, and a small plot has been utiHzed from which to select one or more prominent types for further trial. Method of Harvesting Variety Test Plots. — ^Where the relative 328 COLLECTING AND TBSTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. carliness of the varieties has been learned by previous trials in the garden or field tests, the varieties are planted in order of earliness. This allows the self-binder to be started at one end of the series, and each plot is cut as it ripens. The cutting is all done in one di- rection. One or two men assist the driver and carefully clean the machine upon finishing each plot. They also carefully gather the bundles and any loose grain of each plot into shocks, beside which they place the labeled stake of the plot. Fig. 240. Seeding the Variety Plots with Shoe-chain Drill. The Method of Threshing Varieties of Wheat. — As soon as the grain has become well dried in the shock it is threshed. Much care is given to cleaning wagon racks between each load, handling the bundles at the threshing machine and caring for the threshed grain to prevent the mixture of the different varieties. A Victory separator, which cleans itself so thoroughly that stopping between plots to sweep out the machine has not been necessary, was secured from the Minneapolis Threshing Machine Co. See Fig. 242. This make of machine was selected as being the COLLECTmo AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. 329 easiest of the numerous kinds examined to make over into a sep- arator for this sort of work. The firm cheerfully made changes as suggested, so that the machine would shake out clean by running it two or three minutes after the last bundle was fed into the cyl- inder. After stopping the feeding of bundles, a pail is held under the discharge spout of the elevator which brings the tailings back to the cylinder, thus stopping the feeding of all grain into the ma- chine that it may be shaken out clean. A Trial of the Threshing Machine in Doing Clean Work. — In 1897 several beardless varieties known to be without admixture of bearded wheats were threshed, each one immediately after a bearded. variety- had been- run through the machine. In 1898 these beardless varieties were sown, and notes were made at harvest time of the percentage of bearded heads showing in each. There were practically no bearded heads in any of the three plots of beardless wheats, thus proving that this threshing machine, when properly managed, separates the varieties perfectly. Note: — Numbers Used for Names. The loss of Ihe names of many of the varie- ties, some of which were similar to one another in appearance, led lis to the adop- tion of numbers for all names. We were further led to this course by the fact that new Tarieties were constantly originating, miany of which were in appearance ex- act counterparts of the varieties from which they had sprung. We therefore adopted in lieu of all names the words "Minnesota Number" and our Variety his- tory Book number, commonly abbreviated and written "Minn. No. 149," "Minn. No. 66," etc. This plan contemplates using names of wheats only as names of classes or types. It is impossible to give a description of some of our new best yielding wheats by w^hich farmers or even experts can identify them. Some differ only in their ability to yield better, others only in the superiority of their flour. These characters of intrinsic value are the qualities we are seeking. The prbfits'of wheat raising do not depend upon the distinguishing botanical characters or the w^heat. If our w^heat crop can be increased one bushel per acre by seeking only for yield of crop and quality of flour, all names and peculiar botanical descriptions will appear relatively as exce' dingly small factors. Systematists in botany, and herd book promoters in animal breeding, divert the attention of breeders too much from intrinsic quality to mere distinguishing marks. This system of naming with mere numbers has been used for several years with most satisfactory results. With such a system of names the efl'ort is directed more to actually knowing that the seed came from the original stock w^hich pained a reputation for superiormerit in producing wealth, and it is believed there will be less temptation for dealers to substitute stocks and sell them under a popular name. This is especially true of varieties which have a published record of superior merit. The record and the number name mu«t go together to represent value. Formerly we used the word •'University" with the number of the variety, abbreviated thus: "Univ. No. 149." Hereafter we shall use the word Minnesota with the number, thus: "Minn. No. 149," "Minn. No. 169," etc. Whilethe abbreviation "Univ. No. "has been somewhat used in our publications, it has been extensively used in connection w^ith only one variety of field crop which has been distributed from this station, viz.: Univ. No. 13 corn. Since this corn with further improvement, from longer selection, will ere long be sent out under a new number, no serious inconvenience will come from the change. With the need for breeding field crops emphasized, and its importance more fully demonstrated, this matter of names will become an important subject. 330 COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. SAVING, TESTING AND TREATING SEED WHEAT IN VARIETY TESTS. To be doubly safe in thj-eshing the varieties of wheat, the work proceeds as follows : As the grain from each plot comes from the machine the first half bushel or so is put into a large sack. Then a half bushel of grain is caught and saved in a small sack for planting the neict year, thus avoiding the use for seed of that portion which comes from the separator immediately after the grain of the preceding plot, which might contain kernels of that variety.' The balance of the grain is then put into the large sack with that which first came through the machine. See Fig. 243. Constant care is used that the interior of the machine is always in good repair and that there are no places where the grain can lodge. Care is taken at all points to keep the seed grain dry and strong in germinating power, that all varieties in the variety tests may have an equal number of plants per acre on the start. That sufficient seed of each variety may be planted to insure a full stand, it is necessary to know the vitality of the seeds of each kind. This is of special importance when rains prior to threshing or sHght dampness at the time of storing the grain have resulted in injury to the seeds. A germinating chamber adapted to test- ing seed wheat at the low temperatures prevailing in^the soil at the season of sowing spring wheat is used for testing the vitality of wheats and other seeds. See Fig. 245. Where necessary to treat the seed grain for smut, the blue stone, the formaldehyde, the corrosive sublimate, the hot water, or other suitable method, is used. PROGRESS AND RESULTS OF TRIALS OF COLLECTED WHEATS. Ending with Dec. 31, 1898, 552 varieties or samples of wheat have been entered in the Variety History Book of the Minnesota Experiment Station. The larger part of these samples came from foreign coimtries and states, a number from Minnesota farmers, and 49 varieties have been originated, 6 of which are cross bred wheats. Prior to 1894 about 200 varieties of wheats had been collected by the Minnesota and North Dakota stations, and these have since been under co-operative experimentation. Only a portion of the COLLECTING AND TESTLNG VARIETIES OF WHEAT. 331 yields secured under the varying conditions can here be recorded, and only a portion of the data can be given room. Some of these data collected prior to 1897 may be found in bulletins 15, 31, 40, t'l;;. -Jrl. W^i^hing tlK' IJundlcs Irorn a ' j,, Acre I']<>L. Pig. 2+2. 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Wellman's Fife *McKendry's Fife Lost Nation c c > < i i C 334 COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. •868T 'BMOI : ^ ■«68I 'B^l^onoa W-iON : in CO : CO ■868I'B:^03lBa^t*nos : M i t-^ •868T -d :>SB3ll^JON : N : "^ ■86ST '•ji;^saJliq?.ION CO 1 2 •8681 '"jI AF-i-iSAinn 14.3 26.3 14.2 9.7 18.3 17.3 23.2 ■i6sT "d i^HSjaAjua 12.7 20 6 12.9 17.6 15.4 19.8 19.8 15.4 19.8 •968X "d jC^sjaAiun 18.0 27.0 19.7 •96SX'o3jBa • ! •S68X 'd i:nsj3Aiun 57.5 44.0 29.7 568 X 'tlBSJOO ■f'SSX '■d,A!SJ3A!an ■tesx 'puotiH •f'68X 'nua^oo •f.68X'oSjT!d ■l,6«T'oa.iBd : 1 : 5681 ■"Sjbj uoqiatiM ij:>os3umiim I^XOOCO^OOQO coy. yjciCiaaciO VARIETY. Staiiley , No. 1 Nicopol Girca No. 3 Nicopol Girca No, 4 Kocharka No. 6 Odessa M^ C rti4.^.^ca i : 5 i' & ) .a 5 Z . J M 3 6 ; z COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. 335 20.8 17.9 17.6 16.8 22.5 20.5 18.0 ai.3 12.6 12.8 18.3 19.8 20.2 16.6 21.6 22.6 25.0 31.3 15.9 20.4 16.5 14.7 14.3 18.3 19.8 20.3 14.8 20.7 19.9 15.7 14.4 18.0 17.3 29.3 33.0 33.0 19.7 27.7 28.1 22 29.0 - Hwco-^iocOQOn-^intoi^oo OOOt^t-r^t'WOOQOOOQOOO • i 6 p. o u « d Z No. 5 Nicopol Girca No. 5 Nicopol Girca si. 7 '7^ >. : 3 K< V Glyndon 818 McKendry's Fife Glyndon 761 GlTndon 811 i X £ Si "S 13'' .2 g M MS u 3 a 4 J i 336 COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. •868X 'OMOI ■868X 'E^OJiBa m.iON ■8681 'B^onBO Wnos — •868X "ol :^SB^q;JON 868X '.a 4.S3JB.IHJON 17.6 16.8 20.0 17.7 20.0 26.5 27.8 ■868X ''a i:nsj3Aina 26.0 27.6 27.0 32.0 21.3 24.8 26.6 •i68X ' -jl .£«sj3iian 20.4 15.5 19.3 17.9 18.0 21.3 22.0 11.0 12 13.3 •968X '■£ AiS-ia-iinQ 25.0 IS. 3 24.3 25.0 24.2 25.3 21.3 18.7 19.2 18.3 "968X 'o3a-Eji •9681 '-J iC:ns«A!aa ■968X 'iiB3:joo •t68T '"d: iCHSJSAran. •t68X 'Pipna ■*6S C 'ilBartoo •*68X 'oajBa •E68X 'oSjBd •S68X 'oSjBd: uaqninN Br^osannip^ OIOHMCOtJiOHMTO OOOOlCSOiOiOllOlOlO m 63 B S < > 'A E to <", Si -<» i X ; E : u : a; 5 W i a 00 (B 1 "" w : ! !«; H * 00 » B -' bl ■a B >& '-P ^ 5 'm i t^' M « DM M a B m en i2 i5' ^ CQ 5 a i a OJ 5 1 I B « a B o til •a K J COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. 337 16.8 23 8 24 F, 23.8 17.6 20.5 24. fi 26.6 23.8 27.5 27.5 24.7 17.3 16.3 14.7 14.3 17.8 20.4 20.9 18.2 18.7 22.0 20.5 16.3 19.2 17.4 17.4 17 4 17.3 23.0 19.0 : : 1 1 : : : I 1 I ; t>tCl00)(D(»t- HW««MNW« rt I0t*»0NO»^^ q 10 w 10 w w ic o 10 t^ M t^ 01 N N 10 t^ r^ 00 00 t- M 00 00 oioiqqtoiooio Ifi OO' 1^ 10* N CO ■*' N HH HHNMtH q o iq o o o o o iddcJcjcoiiCQO ■^ o o ■# to q 10 00 10 10 Tf 10 (d ■*' '*' w 10 10 10 iC 10 10 lO w q H q 0) T^ q ^_ q Tft^iooirHr-idx 00 t^ X 00 X 00 00 X O O to 00 rH 00 00 O COOlHtDNlOfD© H T-< lO O t» C i-( ■^ z iE ., «j li - H CO 3 "iSS-" iH O (3 C-o-o C B-P 342 COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. grades have a comparatively limited value in the tables because the gluten test and the baker's sponge test, described further on, tell in figures what the inspection attempts to estimate. These grades have been here expressed in percentages rather than in commercial grades. These percentages are not convertible into commercial grades. In grading each wheat the quality of flour, as previously determined by milling it and sub- jecting it to the color test, the gluten test and the baker's sponge test, is taken into consideration. Thus the outward appearance of the particular sample of wheat is not taken as the sole measure of the quality of that particular kind of wheat. In case one wheat is poor in quality and quantity of its gluten, and if the sample is also poor in appearance, its grade is placed very low; or if the appearance of the sample is indeed very good it is given only a poor grade. An effort is made to let the grade represent the milling value of the wheat. With our present facilities, we are able to satisfactorily deter- mine the quality and quantity of gluten in the wheats. The quantity of patent flour and the quantity of lower grade flours which the several grades of each variety of wheat will make should also be determined. For this purpose a four or six roll test mill is needed. With such an addition to our apparatus, we could determine more accurately the value of each variety of wheat, and its particular use as a mixer in combining it with other wheats to make flour of a given standard quality. Most of the factors which must be taken into consideration in grading wheat can be reduced to values expressed in figures. Among ■these factors are purity, weight, size of berry, color, plumpness, condition of bran; and where the wheat is of a known variety, and milling tests have been made, the percentage of gluten, the quality of gluten and the quantity of flour which a hundred pounds of the wheat will make may all be given their place in the estimate of value. By determining the relative importance of these several factors, grading wheat might be reduced to more nearly a mechanical basis, though the expense might be prohibitive in commercial dealings. In case of disputes simple COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. 343 Fig. 245. Standard seed germinating chamber, used by the U. S. Department of Agriculture and American experiment stations (front view with^ one door slide removed); a a, openingfs into water jacket; b, thermoregu- lator; cc, openinsfs into chamber; d. gas entrance tube; e, micro-bunsen burner; f, gas exit; h, ventilator; i. j, door slides; k, pan to hold porous saucers, etc.; 1, blotter test; m, porous saucers with sand test — [U.S. Dep. Ag. Circular No. 34..] milling tests also might be employed to determine the value of wheats. The subject is one of large importance, and experimenta- tion might lead to methods of inspection which are more accu- rate and yet inexpensive and practical. The Weights Per Bushel have usually been taken as the grain came from the threshing machine, or where further cleaning was necessary, as it was cleaned sufficiently for market. The or- dinary brass kettle used by official inspectors is used, dupli- cate weights being taken and averages made. These for the 344 COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. several years have been averaged and appear in the several tables. The Diseased or Rusted Condition, given in column 6, Table XXIIL, is best noted before the grain is quite ripe, preferably one to two weeks before the maturity of the grain, and while the middle and lower leaves are yet full of active green cells. In taking these notes on rust some standard variety, as Blue Stem or Fife, is used, and all others compared with it. Table XXIIL does not show a very wide variation in the relative liability to rust of the best eight varieties. But some of the foreign wheats col- lected since 1894 show a much less power of resistance to this disease, as is shown in Table XXVIII. As a rule, the better yielding varieties are comparatively rust resistant. Or, it may bt better to say that only varieties which have good rust-resisting power can yield well and have been able to hold a place in this list of eight best out of 200 kinds of wheat originally collected. Rust is always present and attacks all varieties, but some resist it with much greater power than others. The Liability to Lodge has been noted during those years where the rainfall has been sufficient to cause more or less of the wheat to fall down. While yield and quality of grain are the main factors to be definitely measured in variety tests, the ability to stand up well and other peculiarities should be recorded, farmers who have heavy, rich soils, especially need_ varieties of grain which have stiff straw. Here, also, one variety is used as a standard of comparison, and the proportion of the plants which have fallen down are expressed in percentages as in col- umn 7 in Table XXIIL TESTING THE QUALITY OF FLOUR FROM VARIETIES OF WHEAT. The quality of wheat of new or unknown varieties cannot be fully determined by mere inspection. As between various sam- ples of the same known variety, but grown under different condi- tions, the state inspectors and experienced grain dealers are able to judge closely the relative milling values. But there is no known empirical method of passing correct judgment upon varieties which are new to the inspector, nor of comparing their COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. 345 milling value with our commonly grown Red Fife and Blue Stem varieties. This has been abundantly shown in our grading, where we have had judges of large experience undertake to grade many varieties. If we should disseminate, and cause to be grown a new variety of wheat which would be different in appearance from our com- mon kinds, the inspectors would need to know of its relative milling value, and they might need to make for it an entirely new class. Our Minn. No. 292, a Risting Fife in-cross, will be a case in point if its record for good yield is continued and it enters the list chosen to be disseminated to the farmers of the state. It is a pure Fife wheat in that both of its parents were pure Red Fife plants, yet this cross is very much lighter in color of berry than its parent variety. Any new wheat would have an additional value if combined with high milling qualities were the color, hardness, smoothness of bran and general ap- pearance which would cause it to conform to the highest present . market standards. But if the wheat has superior intrinsic worth it must stand upon its merit, and the standards or fashions of the market will need to change to suit the wheat.- Fortu- nately, so far most of our best new wheats are Fife or Blue Stem in breeding, and in appearance and in quality are quite like their parents. In seeking a knowledge of the real milling and food qualities of the numerous varieties under trial, the baking experts of the large mills were consulted, and also Prof. Harry Snyder, Pro- fessor of Agricultural Chemistry. Tests were decided upon for each variety, and for that purpose each was ground into flour. Mr. C. E. Foster, baking expert of the Consolidated Mill- ing Company of Minneapolis, kindly offered assistance in milling and testing the wheats, and most; freely advised and aided in de- vising plans which would be uniform and satisfactory. We were thus enabled to test the flours of the collected wheats in Table XXIII. , in February, 1898, and also the other wheats that were then grown. In all, iifty-three varieties of wheat grown on Uni- versity Farm were thus milled and tested, and of these thirty- 346 COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OP WHEAT. three duplicates which had been grown at Northwest Farm at Crookston in 1897 were milled and tested, making a total of 86 samples. METHOD OF MILLING SAMPLES OF VARIETIES OF WHEAT. The Consolidated Milling Company of Minneapolis kindly placed at our disposal their two small test roller mills in which to grind fT3^^'?jr"'«' Fig. 246. Milling the Varieties of Wheat. the samples of wheat. See Fig. 246. These mills are suited to grinding small quantities of grain. Each of the two mills has rolls six inches in diameter and six inches long. The first mill has corrugated rolls and the second smooth rolls. These min- iature mills are very simple, consisting of little else than the COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. 347 rolls. The ground wheat falls into a box. It is then poured into a sieve or simple plan-sifter which is shaken by machinery. Silk or wire sieves of such sized mesh that only the finer par- ticles of flour will pass through are used, and the bran and coarser particles from the inside of the kernels are again passed through the rolls, further removing the floury particles from the bran, and making them sufficiently fine to pass through a fine silk cloth sieve. ' The operator's judgment is used as to the closeness of remov- ing the flour from the bran, since some varieties mill easier than Fig. 247. Making the Color Teat of the Flour from each Variety of Wheat. others. No attempt is made in these tests to closely separate from the flour the finely broken particles of bran which injure it.^ color. To do this effectually, it would be necessary to carry some of each variety through the complete process of the modern roller mill with its extensive system of "rolls" and reels or shaking sieves. 348 COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OP WHEAT. Since comparisons of flour of each new wheat with the flour of our common Fife and Blue Stem varieties were the objects sought, rather than making perfect flour from each, it was found that this could be done by milling small amounts and making the tests with comparatively small quantities of flour. Milling the Test Samples.- — A quart or more of each kind of wheat having been cleaned, it was run through the test mill. An ounce of this flour was weighed out for the gluten test, and ICO grams for the baker's sponge test. In the gluten test the Fig. 248 . Making the Gluten Test. essential facts sought were the amount of gluten and its strength, while incidentally its color and other qualities were noted. In the baker's sponge test the flour was subjected to a practical trial of its ability to rise in a dough when worked down and required to again rise in the loaf. Fhe Gluten Test was carried on as follows : An ounce of the flour was weighed out. Water was added and the flour kneaded into a stiff dough. This was worked considerably so as to bring COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OP WHEAT. 349 all the gluten into active contact. Then the mass of dough was held under a stream of water and gently pulled and kneaded. The dough was thus manipulated until all the parts had been turned out and exposed to the running water, and all the starch grains had been disentangled from the fibrous mass of gluten, and washed away, as shown by the wash water no longer contain- ing a sediment of starch. To avoid the loss of small portions of gluten, which might break loose, a hair sieve was kept under the stream of water, and any detached portions of gluten were gathered up and again placed with the general mass. When this gluten had been washed clean of starch it was dried to a standard dryness. This was done by continuously pulling and kneading it in the hands, frequently drying the hands on a towel, until the free portions of water had been removed. This mass of moist gluten was then weighed, that the difference might be found between the wet weight and the dry, water-free substance, weighed later on, thus finding the power of the gluten to hold water. Notes were made on this wet gluten as to its color, and especially as to the strength of the gluten. It was stretched out into threads, the better gluten stretching out into longer and finer threads than the poorer, which breaks ofif more squarely. It was then laid in a round mass upon a stiff card. The stiffer the gluten the higher it lies in a more nearly globular mass ; and the poorer the gluten, the more it "runs," or spreads out on the card. This method, while somewhat empirical, is reasonably ac- curate, and an expert operator can tell by it much regarding the quality of the gluten of a given variety of wheat. The va- rieties with stiffer, tougher gluten will rise high in the loaf, and as a rule will retain their power of rising after the dough has been worked down one or more times. And the varieties with gluten which runs freely, and easily breaks upon being stretched, make a loaf which will not rise high, rises poorly after it has been "worked down," and makes withal a "runny" dough that creeps out over the edges of the pan rather than rises into a well formed loaf. Tables XXIII. and XXIV. bear out these 350 COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. general statements, though the various tables giving gluten and baker's sponge tests do not in quite all cases show a uniformity of results from these two methods as to the quality of the gluten. The moist gluten was dried in a temperature of 212 deg. F. until its moisture had been all driven off. It was then weighed (col. 9 in Table XXIII. ), and the difference between the dry and tjie wet weights was taken as the amount of water held by the gluten (col. 10 in Table XXXIII.), and from this was figured the amount of water held by each gram of gluten. See Fig. 248. The Color Test is made as follows ; The samples, of flour are placed in adjacent masses on a rectangular plate of glass about three by ten inches in size. Each mass is smoothed down with a steel spatula so as to present a smooth surface. An ex- tensive series of colored glass slabs is used. The colors of these glasses are delicately graded from light to gray, and to brown, each color being marked with a certain percentage or scale. The flours are then matched with the glasses and the color of that glass recorded which corresponds with the color of the flour. See Fig. 247. The Baker's Sponge Test was performed as follows : One hundred grams of flour were weighied out in a wide porcelain dish or an earthenware bowl holding a pint or more. See Fig. 249. Part of the water needed to make the flour into a dough (usually about 65 cc.) was then measured out from a burette. Into this was dissolved five grams of sugar and five grams of compressed yeast. The flour was stirred into this water with a steel spatula, and more water was added until the whole was kneaded into a dough of standard consistency or "stiffness". The cubic centi- meters of water required by a given sample of flour were then expressed in percentages of water taken up by each one hundred grams of flour. (See column 8, Table XXIII.) The dough was then placed in tubes about four inches in diam- eter, which were graduated into cubic centimeters. These tubes were then set in water at 90 deg. F., and the dough allowed to rise. It was constantly watched until it reached its full height and fell, when the time required to rise and its volume expressed COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. 351 in cubic centimeters were recorded. The tube was left in the .water bath until the dough again rose to the full height its re- maining strength was capable of, when the time required and the volume were again recorded. These facts are noted in Table XXIIL, under columns 12-16 inclusive. By dividing the volume of loaf to which 100 grams of flour would rise by the percentage of gluten in the flour, the volume of loaf produced by each gram or percentage of gluten was found. Since 100 grams of flour were used and the specific grav- Fig. 249. Making the Baker's Sponge Test of Varieties of Wheat. ity of the gluten is not far from unity, it may be said that these figures represent the number of times a gram of gluten from each of the several kinds of wheat will expand. Thus, flour from Bolton's Blue Stem wheat contained only 16.4 per cent, of gluten, yet dough from a hundred grams of flour rose the first time to a volume of 1163 cc, and each gram of gluten produced sixty times its volume of loaf. During the second rise 352 COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. it rose to a volume of 800 cc, each gram of gluten producing forty-nine times its volume of loaf. Rio Grande wheat, on the other hand, had a larger percentage of gluten, 17.3 per cent. But this was of poorer quaHty. The loaf rose nearly as high the first time as that from flour of Bol- ton's Blue Stem wheat, but there being a larger amount of gluten present, each gram of gluten produced only fifty times its volume of loaf, while in the case of Blue Stem wheat each gram produced sixty times its volume. In the second rise, the gluten from the Rio Grande flour did not show good "staying" qualities, and pro- duced only thirty-five times its volume of risen loaf. The volume of rise produced by each gram of gluten is shown in columns 17 and 18 of Table XXIII. The gluten test and the baker's sponge test were each carried out in duplicate with each variety of our best wheats, one sample of which was grown at University Farm near St. Paul, and tl^e other at Northwest Farm at Crookston, nearly three hundred miles to the northwestward, and under very different conditions of soil and climate, givingi-four tests to each variety, the results of which have given satisfactory comparisons. The results of the gluten tests and the baker's sponge tests, taken in corlnection with the average of eight yields (col. 3, Table XXIII. ), give facts which were u"Bed in further reducing the list of the wheats re- tained from the two hundred varieties collected prior to 1894. ' RELIABILITY OF MILLING TESTS. The milling tests to which these varieties of wheats were sub- jected are not new nor experimental in their principal features. Expressing the amount of rise from each gram of gluten, as in columns 17 and 18, Table XXIII., is a new way of indicating the quality of the gluten present in a given sample of wheat. This method of expressing the strength of the gluten is especially use- ful for the second rise. It shows whether the gluten has the ability to endure and will repeatedly rise when the loaf is kneaded down. In Table XXIV. are grouped the principal -results from Table XXIII., giving the facts relative to the eight best' yielding varieties of two hundred wheats collected prior to 1894. It so COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. 353 happens that these varieties give considerable range in quantity of gluten present and in the quality of the gluten, thus giving op- portunity to compare the two methods of determining the strength of the gluten. In column 5 is given the quality of the gluten as determined by Mr. Foster in the gluten test described on pages 348-349, using a percentage comparison. The eight varieties are here arranged in the order in which Mr. Foster placed them, the range being from 87.5 per cent, for the best, down to 72.5 per cent, for the poorest, flour. In column 6 are given the co- efficients of expansion as determined "by the averages between the TABLE XXIV.— Comparingr the aiut^!ai.Tests and Baker's Sponge Test Varibty. On ^0 li ij (fi ON a ■Is "a M'a Oo < Average of Best foilr and Poorest . four wheats com- ' Stared. u V J3 S s i i ■p'O ■^1 ■fl 1 1 66 2 Power's Fife Bolton's Blue Stem ^... Haynes' Blue Stem Glyndon'711 3 20.8 24.2 20 6 20.8 4 16.5 16.4 15.7 17.0 5 87.5 85. 82.5 82 5 6 58.4 59.9 59.1 57.9 7 51.6 48.7 54.4 47.1 8 9 10 146 51 105 84.4 58. » 50.5 19.8 21.0 20.0 18.1 16.7 14.5 17.3 17.2 82.5 77.5 75.0 72.5 68.4 53.3 52.8 50.2 44.9 46.4 44.9 84.6 1 9 13 Blount's Hybrid, No. 15.... 72 76.9 53 7 42 7 volumes of rise the first and second times, divided by the amount of dry gluten as found present by Mr. Foster. It will be seen that, with the exception of the first and third, which are reversed, the flours stand in their power of rising, as shown in this test, in the same Order of superiority in which they were placed by Mr. Foster. Taking the second rise alone, there is nearly the same relation shown. In other words, these two methods correspond closely, and it is fair to presume that each, in a general way, is nearly accurate. These tests do not by any means make a complete test of the milling qualities of the wheats. Numerous, actual baking trials, .milling the wheats in 354 COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OP WHEAT. quantity, alone and in mixture, will be necessary before we have a full knowledge of the quality of any wheat. These simpler tests, however, seem practical in aiding to throw out the less desirable varieties of wheats, that our limited time and means may be spent on the comparatively few which are most promising. By means of the comparisons we were at once enabled to discard one-half of the best eight wheats of our earlier collections. (See Tables XXIII., XXIV. and XXV.) Minn. No. 72 Rio Grande, easily goes to the foot of the list, being the poorest of the eight in yield and poorest in quality of gluten, and especially poorest in the ability of its dough to rise a second time. Blount's Hybrid, No. 15, may rightfully be placed next to the lowest on account of the poor quality of its gluten, though it averaged slightly better in yield than Glyndon 763, and as much ■ as Haynes' Blue Stem, one of the four wheats chosen to remain in our preferred list of varieties. It will be observed that both Rio Grande and Blount's Hybrid No. 15 have an unusually large percentage of gluten, being the richest in these most valuable food substances of any of the eight varieties given in Tables XXIII. ^nd XXIV. But they are without that quality of gluten which enables the baker to make a light loaf; consequently the nutrients cannot be well utilized, and the miller cannot afford to pay a good price for the wheat. White Russian is excelled in yield only by Minn. No. 146, yet for two reasons it should have the place assigned to it by Mr. Foster's estimate. It lacks both in the quantity and quality of its gluten, being poorest in amount of gluten of any of the eight wheats ; i. e., 14.3 per cent. Glyndon 753 stands highest in the Hst of the four discarded wheats, and is nearly equal to Minn. No. 105 and Minn. No. 51. THE BEST FOUR WHEATS OF 200 COLLECTED PRIOR TO 1 894. Of the best four wheats, Minn. No. 146 easily stood at the head. It yielded for the several years an average of 3.4 to 3.6 bushels more than each of the other best four wheats ; the per cent, of gluten it contained was excelled in the two trials by Minn. No. 105 ; its quality of gluten, as shown by the gluten test COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OP WHEAT. 355 a (X) o n •a pq ■Bppii: It's pii's *spT3jA ox JO sS-BjaAy •aSupooji ■868T '■^^^o^'Ba q^-toN 8G8T 'iii-l^,;! ^^s^aq^JON 868T'"Li'Bd AlsJ3-a-T^n •i68X tna-Bii i:(is»AiuQ •* H 30.4 17.4 17.8 21.5 •968X 'niJl3dJC:j!sj3iiua 24.6 21.4 21.4 25.1 ■968X 'oSiBjl H 23.4 22.5 18.2 33.2 •S68X UJJ-BjI i£:^lSJ3ATnQ O H 21.6 26.3 31.8 35.3 ■968X 'tlBS^Joo 00 24.7 19.8 22.8 20 ■S68X 'oSjBjI CO 12.9 15.1 10.0 17.8 ■S68X 'oSjbj c^ 16.7 21.3 23.3 21.2 N « i-i *■ MNMM iqqoco ccNoiio coco CO CO in - t» !l "3 a jj-a o ^ 0.5* !Ua,eM aj 4J u y ■- S P P 3 i c a a a' .3 a a a a 356 COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. and by the second rise in the sponge test, was poorer than that of Minn. No. 66, while its strength of gluten in the first rise ex- celled that shown by any other wheat. Among the other three wheats there is not much choice, as shown by TableXXIV. While the gluten test placed Minn. No. 66, Power's Fife, highest in quality of gluten, Minn. No. 51, Haynes' Blue Stem, showed gluten of greater staying quality in the second rise of the dough. Minn. 105 had a higher percentage of gluten than either 51 or 66, but its gluten showed a lack of endurance in rising a second time. We have been surprised that from so many wheats collected as the best from countries which are our competitors in spring wheat sections of the world we have found nothing so good as our best samples of home-grown Blue Stem and Fife wheats. These experiments have greatly added to our respect for these two hardy classes of wheat, and to our faith in their continued use- fulness in Minnesota and surrounding states. That these wheats have so successfully met all newcomers under the varying con- ditions of these trials, is good proof that our hard wheats are not "running out," and that new seed need not be procured from somewhere sufficiently "far off" to mystify. We have thus secured a standard of yields with which to com- pare our best wheats on experiment station lands, not especially rich nor manured with special fertilizers, but simply well farmed. The four wheats thus used for standards of comparison averaged about 22.5 bushels per acre, as shown in Table XXV. It is the ambition of the experiment station to procure, or to create by breeding, varieties which will increase this yield on these soils to an average of 28 bushels per acre, other conditions remaining as now, and to disseminate such seed throughout the state, that the yields for farmers may be proportionately increased. That this can be done there seems no reason for doubt, though the time required to accomplish this important result may be long. Twenty-three bushels per acre is a larger average by several bushels than is secured by farm_ers of the state from seed sim- ilar to these best varieties. With a better system of field man- agement, providing for crops preceding the wheat which will COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. 357 prepare the soil for the wheat, with live stock to make more ma- nure, and with better methods of tillage, farmers can approach or even surpass on good farms the average yields secured on the experiment farms. No doubt a greater increase over our present average yields, of which no one is proud, can be secured by better tillage and a proper rotation of crops than will come from the introduction of new or improved varieties. Our farmers can bring average yields of common Fife and Blue Stem wheat up from 15 to 22 bushels by good farming just as well as the station has done. If the station can then furnish them with Fife or Blue Stem or cross-bred varieties so improved as to raise these average yields five bushels higher, profits will be very greatly increased. It is not expected that such results will come at once. But that patient experimenting, and patient, extensive educating will eventually win, seems possible. BEST BLUE STEM AND BEST FIFE VARIETY OF 200. The question yearly arises in our experiment work as to which varieties shall be retained for use and increased for dissemination. In connection with the breeding of wheat, it is necessary also to know which are the best kinds of wheat to use as foundation stocks in the attempt to make new varieties. Table XXV. gives the ten most fairly comparable yields of the four best yielding wheats yet collected. The average yields, grades, weights per bushel and milling tests of these four wheats to .date afford useful compari- sons. In yield, Minn. No. 146, Bolton's Blue Stem, is still in the lead, 1.7 bushels ; JVIinn. No. 51, Haynes' Blue Stem, stands sec- ond; and Minn. No. 66, Power's Fife, third; while Minn. No. 105, Glyndon 711, stands last in yield. Bolton's Blue Stem, Minn. No. 146, also ranks best in grade. Power's Fife, Minn. No. 66, ranks best in weight per bushel. Haynes' Blue Stem showed the greatest ability to resist rust and lodged least of all varieties. Minn. No. 105, Glyndon 711, showed a bad tendency to lodge. Minn. No. 66 and Minn. No. 105, Fife wheats, have half of i per cent, more of gluten than the two Blue Stem varieties. The quality of the 358 COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. gluten in Power's Fife, Minn. No. 66, was estimated as superior in the gluten test, but this was not sustained by the baker's sponge test, where it stood lowest of ' the four wheats in the amount of rise of dough from each gram of gluten. In total value per acre, Minn. No. 146, Bolton's Blue Stem, stands out as the best for use, and it is being extensively used for a founda- tion stock in the production of new varieties of wheats. RUSSIAN WHEATS COLLECTED IN 1893-4. In 1893 and 1894, a number of wheats were collected through cur American consuls and from seed dealers in Russia. These were grown in small plots in 1894. In all cases there was a mix- ture of varieties, and hand sorting was resorted to, the several TABLE XXVI.— Yields' of Kussian Wheats Collected in 1893-4. Russian Names ¥ u f S d 1 tn 1 (0 d Z oi 1 o Standard Wheats !0 m CO H 10 ' a H IS SI 01 H 00 01 H 01 01 H 01 to Yields at H UniTcraity Farm, 1897 University Farm, 1898 17.6 14.8 15.4 9.7 19.8 18.3 19.8 17.3 15.4 23.2 17.4 24.0 21.5 22.5 19.9 25.0 24.3 26,3 Average Yields 15.9 12.5 19.1 18.6 19.3 20.7 22.0 22.5 25.3] types being picked out of the bundles of harvested grain. Nine of the most promising of these wheats were selected for field variety tests. In 1898, four of these were discarded. In Table XXVI. are given the yields per acre of field trials of the remain- ing five varieties at University Farm in 1897 and 1898. Minn. Nos. 195 and 196 have since been discarded without further test, because of their inferior yield. In Table XXVII. are given the yields, grades, weights per bushel and the quality of the grain for milling purposes of the remaining three Russian varieties. Bolton's Blue Stem and Power's Fife are placed in the table, with their yields, etc., com- piled, to serve as standards for comparison. COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OP WHEAT. 359 It is plainly shown that no varieties of especial promise have been gained from these later importations, and again we have failed to find North European varieties of hard wheat which are equal to our commonly used varieties. WHEATS COLLECTED IN 1895 AND 1896. In Table XXVIII. are tabulated the results of trials of wheats collected in 1895 and 1896. In some instances they are original stocks of wheat from which we have bred new varieties, and they are again planted, that their newly originated progeny may be directly compared with the foundation stocks. Such parent varieties are Nos. 165, 168, 172, 294, 475, 476, 477, 479. Nos. 183, TABIiS XXVn— Bussian Wheats. Sesultsof Tests at UniT. Farm in 1898. Names of Russian Varieties. Baker's Sponge Test. Volume of Rise. From one Oram Gluten. 197 198 199 66 146 163 169 No. 4 Kocharka No. 6 Odessa No. 6 Odessa Standard Varieties Power's. Fife..i .^ Bolton's Blue Stem Glyndon 811 Haynes' Blue Stem 18.3 7.3 23.2 24.0 22.5 25.0 26.3 60.5 57.5 59.5 59.0 59.5 56.5 57.5 10.4 8.1 10.2 12.8 11.2 14.4 11.9 86 88 74 111 127 97 75 40 64 28 104 125 73 27 950 750 1000 950 1075 1050 1100 600 650 550 625 600 725 600 74.5 86.4 73.5 60.8 79.5 61.1 68.9 57.7 R0.2 49 O 47.5 53.6 50.3 53.8 184, 274, 27s, 497, 457 and 458 are varieties which have been brought to our attention by parties interested in them. SAUNDERS' CROSS-BRED WHEATS, RECEIVED IN 1895. In 1895, Dr. Wm. Saunders, Director of the Dominion Experi- ment Farms, Ottawa, Can., sent the station five of his new cross- bred wheats. These were tried in comparison with our standard wheats. The results of these trials are collected in Table XXIX., and all but Minn. Nos. 185 and 188 are discarded from further trial. Minn. No. 188, Preston, gives promise of large yield with fair quality, exceeding in yields most of our best collected varie- ties. Minn. No. 185, Advance, also yielded well, and proved to 360 COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. ■paqjosqv a3:}.'eA\ a asjH PS £■5-5 astapspn^ 2°* ^sxjo -AV 3sta pnooas asja ^sjijI CO :m«cjio^wcohw :w b- : t- 1* (0 1* t* t* t- 1- 1- :t« 10 : eowoiOiOOtOH :0 10 : 10 1* ■* 00 CD CO to t^ CO :d IQ toto-^iQcpiototQiQ :tP ■^ :ioo3iowMOicorjoc :o jio oi : oi oi to 10 10 ci -^ 0) 10 ioo id (C : t^ t- to t* (" tg to to CD :;g :t> lO :ooooooooo b> :ioioiooioioiooLO (0 :(DCDlOCCt-l>t-t^b' 10 rooooooooo N :c OOlOtOOIOlOlO H IXtOir-CiGlOOiOCi lOO MO CD to OiO 10 (> oo dx 1010 IOO NO t*CD OO lOO o* 3SIH: pU033S -* : CO 10 1- 01 10 CO t> 00 10 0) IHHNlOXI^OOCDCD 1*10 ON asjH ^sjiji 10 :H-^Wt-l0Ni-ll0U3 H IrHHr-HrHWHHH CO •Ot^'^CONOlMO'^ N iooiNdrHCOCOeOM ^t^irenO 10 :ooioiooioioioio 0> lOOWNCDXSiOlOOO OON rift i68T :OWW : rOlMOOWOONONH „«0> HHHHrti-tHHHH H HOO ^0° ooooooooooooooooo Iteijic i68T oooooNOioiaoeowiocooiA o>C>MN-*rt«>-CHHH HHHN OO OOO §1 P. P n i68T toieoHM-** : : : : : :«^-* loiQioinioinin : : : : : ■lomio U510 IQU3 aptsjlO 868t 01 :a>c20inooimoio .to :«•: o> :oooo t" CD Oigi woi 00 :oo :m : 03^ zesT aS^jSAY :«e»ffl!Oomiot-o :t- ;o :oooeococO'Qq ;in :in n !DiMHr"«(NO«e)N :o) :« t-O ON coe'*^^H«oo (».«.sici),Q*i' '' r-i-rHr-HWMNMHH NH IM WH on into d>4 So o I'S oi • °^ c ■ s ^■<-* w c; ft^ I' O.S d w-rj rt ^^ SSmSobo to u £S mi" u a jU o o o •ON 'UUXINI lO»CO'#itlO'*lOlOCDt^»O)N00t-W CDC0«a)t-t*i31O>»-c*l-t>t^01CJlOlO COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHB.4T. 361 10 a CO CA U Eh n 1 'u P13TI J3;-Bis4 •:>aao jaj xoooox 10 dno NOOOO t •3SIH Pg 50.5 60. 50.U 54.0 US'* 10 •9sia PB puB :>s [ JO -AV 83.7 73.3 72.1 71.8 NOON oiNtd <010!D •3SIH PS 650 1000 675 725 10«O t*«10 asia :jsi 1175 1225 1225 1150 ClOlO 10«!0 ooo THrIrt 6 S ■IB^Oi -■*0>10 oeia OfflH •asia PB CSUNO 10101010 toooo l-OCOl •asja :^SX 10 00 t- 10 HHHtH Hrtn HHt-i 1 1 s 2.07 2.11 2.1 2.35 10 ct-m NNCi ■Sisa -rjuao jaj 13.1 14.4 13 4 13.1 ■*C001 ■*■ lo' CO •An^nO O(-001O lo-jm 00O)Q0 •^nao «U30 J3J ':jsna niot-M l-IHrHN OOtHO •isitsna Md imSi3j^ t^t-lOlO 10101010 101010 •apujo 1010 IN 10 00»MQD OOCO 20.6 18.4 13.5 23-3 0)t-O T-ioN Names of Saunders' Varieties. i 1 1 D. <0 h. 1 ^ IS 4 E ■d » •jnoT.j £.Q cor-«MNri ^o^ PPH -is^JBAiV ■inso jaa: OiOOOlOiXff OOOIX E . a -c mo ox t-ow •3sia p3 OlNOHDNie oor ■* •^iOIOtJ'CO'^ -}l'*10 i o go ■asfa PS puB q.si; JO "AY (DQOOJJDHC intoioiOTiiir ■»ioo6 101010 oooooo ooo > •3S;a PS inooooo OiOO t-OO Jlt-fflOC »M01 rn ooocoo OOO 09 ■asja »sc inioooioir 0)OW5)0J •- OOIO OHO 13 HrH r- y- ■*")•*•* 10 ■* 10 10 10 IT miow . lOlOlO •IBUi T "apBJO OOQOCDXK 01CO« 00 00 00 ootoiNOia: HItHO •IB Hi T '3-wV .I3 CO .3- '+» s si 1 >• 1 S fa 1 ■d III Is. fl Jj d £ J K5 P i! 1"^ Oi-ia,q M n •K68T "! p^:^J^t^S MM ■*to MM M_ M M (0 M •E68 I UI P3TD3PS "ttS uopuX[o !0 ^10 •* m' N zest "! psiosps 5 -IM M M M « X ■n > a . '9,681 00 01 ■* 1010 MM O M M M 1681 JO dOJO ',S3UiEH •* OlO MM 00 ■*■ M ■paAojdmi S.UOSSlOBf 10 01 m' CI CO 00 MM H CO M •s.uo^toa s 10.10 «"m q m' M •168X JO doj3 '.saajCBH 10 o'm' MM H M 1 .2 ■3JM -BSSV s.ijpnaxow NOC «M* MM O M o M M •ajijl B.Snpsia <0 •* O'CD MM 00 ■sjijl s.JtaissjxDHi 10 MM 10 M M •ajij S.UBIUI13M 10 oi H M H M ' ■ajia s.uBuiiiSM. 10 to ■*' M ■ajiH s.JSMOd (0 (C ■*o rHM 6 M •3UIBM ^/ c g is No6 0101 WOO ri 1-1 ■§"i < '' a' i t" ields of very poor wheat, and this variety was discarded with- out even a milling test. WinterWheat has been grown but little in Minnesota. During recent years several counties in the southeastern part of the state have produced considerable winter wheat of a variety which has generally proven hardy and has yielded about fifty per ceilt. more than the standard varieties of spring wheat. Minnesota is cred- ited with producing larger yields of winter rye per acre than any other state. If winter wheats could be secured or produced suffi- ciently hardy to endure the winter and extend the winter wheat belt one or two hundred miles ^urlher to tte-mOTthward, we could expect our average yields of wheat to be materially in- creased. We have already collected a few varieties, and have commenced breeding some of the most promising ones with- a view of obtaining still greater hardiness, as wdl as the increased yields. Dr. Otto Lugger, entomologist of this station, and Dr. L. O. Howard, chief entomologist of the National Department of Agriculture, question the wisdom of bringing winter wheat northward. They express the belief that the Hessian fly will follow the winter wheat and spread to the fields of spring wheat, and will there cause enough damage to more than offset the value of the increased yields of the winter wheat. This COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. 367 phase of the question will be watched with great interest, and the facts may warrant the restriction of winter wheat from cer- tain districts where spring varieties mainly are grown. NEWLY ORIGINATED VARIETIES OF WHEAT. In 1892, the breeding of eight of the best varieties of wheat which had been collected by the Minnesota experiment station was begun by W. M. Hays, then at the North Dakota experiment station. Four hundred selected kernels of each of the eight va- rieties, which had been grown at Glyndon, Clay county, the previous year, were planted at Fargo, N. Dak., and a like num- ber on the farm belonging to J. B. Power & Son, Power, Rich- land Co., N. Dak. The conditions being better at Power, and the plants more uniform in size, the selection of plants for "moth- ers" of varieties was made from the plots at that place. Besides choosing plants from which to originate varieties by selection, numerous crosses were made both at Fargo and at Power. , ■■'i THIRTY-ONE NEW WHEATS FROM SELECTED MOTHER PLANTS. \ The method of planting and selecting wheat in the field crop nursery, when first begun in 1892, was crude in many ways. The important feature of dealing with the individual plant in selection was, however, fully recognized, and not only the yield, but the quality, of the grain, and other characteristics, were taken into account in selecting plants to become the mothers of varieties. Four hundred plants of each of eight kinds were placed on very tmiform soil, with the surface nicely pulverized. The seeds were carefully chosen from bulk grain, — heavy, "hard" kernels of rather large size being selected. The seeds were planted in hills twelve by eighteen inches apart, making the plots twelve by fifty feet in size. One kernel was placed in a hill. This distance apart of hills has since been found too great for the best results in wheat breeding, — four by four inches being preferred. The plants were all cultivated until in flower, when strong plants were chosen for male and female parents of crosses be- tween several of the varieties. When the grain was ripe the plants used in crosses were harvested, so as to obtain the yields 368 COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. of the parents of the various cross-bred kernels which had re- sulted from the cross-pollenated flowers. After the removal of the plants which had been used for parents of crosses, each plot was carefully inspected, and the best ten plants chosen and the spikes from each plant harvested separately. The seeds of each plant were shelled out, and the net weight of the clean grain was determined for each plant. From the eighty plants thus secured, the thirty-one having the largest yields, and of superior quality, were chosen to plant the next season. In 1893, one hun- dred to four hundred kernels from each of these thirty-one plants were planted at Fargo in a manner similar to the method of plant- ing in 1892. When this wheat was ripe the best ten plants were chosen from each plot, and from these the best plant was selected, after weighing the clean grain as in 1892. Thus the best plant was secured for the mother of a plot in 1894, each plot of which traced back through a single plant to one of the thirty-one plants chosen in 1892. The breeding of these thirty-one stocks of wheat was started, and in case of each of those proving most promising has been annually continued to this .date. The best plant of one generation thus becomes the mother of all of the one or more hundred plants of the next generation. Since wheat is practically self-fertilized, the "blood" of one plant is kept pure for several generations, and the best one of the progeny of each generation is chosen to become the double parent of the succeed- ing generation. This more than incestuous breeding seems natu- ral to wheat plants. In a manner similar to that described under the next heading new varieties are produced by increasing the wheat from the mother plant chosen every fifth generation in this line of continuous annual selection. BEST EIGHT VARIETIES FROM MOTHER PLANTS OF 1892. In 1893, the best plant was first chosen from each of the thirty- one stocks as above mentioned. Then the poorest one-fourth of " the remaining plants was discarded, and the seed from the re- maining plants of each stock was saved in bulk. This sample of seed was given a variety name, as Minn. No. 163, Minn. No. 169, COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. 369 o El o S s.uo^ioa— 9f I TTi s.jsiftod — 99 lua^s 3n[a 3JJd S.Ajp 3JIJ loais ania 194 uopuixo T18 uopuXxo 8SA uopu^XO STR uopu^XO s.J^A^O(^ ■c X8T ON tlX ON 691 ON •uuipst 191 "ON £91 O^J iSX -ON SSI -ON :«eo C0>*MC0«t^O CO ^ -^^ o 00 1* q (0 H N -^ 00 d C4 (OtO'^co :oiq H ^ O CO : MCO 10 : iq 10 o CO tn ■<* :x(DiHb.*io CO :i-iw«i- Vh h tt t- E £ 6 fc £tl n R c a o POPPZ £1 370 COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. ta H n < jnoia GuiBJO 001 VB^ £q paqjosqy j3:^pm.'JJ § t- a .2 S3 •3s}a P3 2? T -SAV •asiH puooag in q 00 ^ -^ f^ o> q 10 1- ^ 10 10 10 10 (0 00 r< 01 CD to 10 00 n 00 CO 00 03 CO « CO o 0!(0«i-iH«MIO t- least- 1- let- 1- •asja ;.sji J •3STa pnooas ■asia :^sJl!il mom ^ OJ CO V u . s (■ g •^^:^nlO vavxo qoBg Xq ppq ■iia ■^nas J3d •i:(;i-EnO slEu:^ jnojjo aS-BJSAV '^sna •SIBU:). 9Ag JO SS-BJSAV S[Bij^ xis JO 3SBJ3AY 'ap^JO JO ^St3Z3AY *3dD-B jaci ppjA ■E68X Bi jaqnxtiN JCJU^nao •SUIBJO ^BBld JO piSIA ■B681 nj s:jn-Ei 101010 HIOO cooo t-t-t- lOXCO 01 CO CD a>ao C4d)C0 xieo •*qcj CO'*' CO NMlO, CONffl 00 ISO t^xod ooo t-^dd qqiq ■^cdcD ■p :,SJ to :M JXCOHH gi „ 5; X t- X t- n Bl !>. M a a a a- ."■o V, O 00 o 2 MB fi,c/o3owmS a i* a COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. 371 etc., and a pint, more or less, of seed of each variety was planted at University Farm in 1894, in a small plot, to increase the quantity of seed to a sufficient amount for field variety tests. In 1895 and 1896, the thirty-one new varieties were tested at University Farm in twentieth acre plots. Averages of these two yields were made, and only the best yielding variety from each original kind was retained. In 1897 and 1898, these eight varieties thus chosen as the best were again tested at University Farm, and in 1898 all of them were tested at the Northeast Station, the North- west Station and at the North Dakota Station, and a few of them were grown by the South Dakota and Iowa Experiment Stations. " The yields of these varieties for all years and stations are shown in Table XXI. under Minn. Nos. 149, 155, 157, 163, 167, 169, 171 and 181, and in Table XXXIV. all the yields which are compar- able are collected. Table XXXV. gives the average yields per acre, grades, weights per bushel, ability to resist rust, amount and quality of gluten, results of baker's sponge test of flour, and other facts concerning these eight new wheats. Beside these figures similar facts for comparison are given, concerning the btest three wheats the sta- tion has collected from the spring wheat growing countries of the world. It is Mforthy of mention that the North Dakota Experiment Station has continued the work started there in 1892 and 1893, in making new varieties from the selected and the cross-bred stocks above mentioned. That station has about fifty of the best selected and cross-bred stocks, each of which has been selected to the best mother plant since 1892, 1893 or 1894. A number of the choicest stocks were harvested in bulk in 1898, with a view of increasing the seed in 1899 and making varieties which are to be tested in comparison with the standard wheats found to have yielded best at that station. Those found superior are to be distributed to the farmers of North Dakota. These stocks of wheat appeared very promising when nearly ripe in 1898, and since several valuable varieties have been branched off from the same stocks, there is good reason to hope that valuable 372 COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. a in o O u o 7 H > m 0 t- ■89T "ON -nniFI Nooiq t- cjcoffiio' N "iSX 'ON •nniFI ON-ffi lo' COMMM M V •591 'ON •nmjst coecoooo ac MCOdtD 10 COMNM N •6'^X "ON •irajpif NCOOllO to lecijojaj to •ma^^S snia s.uotHoa (0 ■* H rtHlOlO H 10'l0'-« 0! •XTi tiopuijo in o H «-*ooeo CO ■3JId s.jsivioa to'HI-'-* IN •ui3:>S ania .Saui^H 10 ©(D-^eo 10 H-*6eo M / * / £ 03 Z d 1 u S Q i 10 to 0)0) xoo T-irH as ^00 : »0) : 1000 : ss £ as COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. 373 wheats for the Red River Valley will result. It will be of in- terest also to compare stocks of wheat from the same mother plant of 1892 selected for several years at the widely separated stations of Minnesota and North Dakota. BEST EIGHT VARIETIES OF NEW WHEATS AT UNIVERSITY FARM. In Table XXXVI. are summarized the yields at University Farm only of these best eight new wheats in comparison with the best four out of 200 collected varieties. It will be observed that some of the new wheats are superior in yield to all of the old wheats, as shown by the averages in Tables XXXIV., XXXV. and XXXVI. In grades, weights per bushel and in ability to resist rust and other charac- teristics, the new varieties compare favorably with the best old kinds. Some of them are comparatively low in the quan- tity anci the quality of gluten. As a rule, they rank high in mill- ing quality, as shown by the results of the baker's sponge test given in Table XXXV. Some of these wheats give especial prom- ise, and all of them are good varieties. While Minn. No. I63, Minn. No. 169, and Minn. No. 149 show especial promise, others of these eight wheats may prove valuable for at least some por- tion of the state or of surrounding states'. The fact that each of these wheats yields more than Power's Fife and Haynes' Blue Stem, and that only four of them, and they Fife varieties, are exceeded by our best yielding old variety, — Bolton's Blue Stem, — is most encouraging. Here is Certainly positive evidence that superior varieties have resulted from this effort at the systematic breeding of wheat by selection. SEVEN VARIETIES FROM MOTHER PLANTS OF 1892-3-4. In Table XXXVII. are tabulated the yields of seven wheats which were selected in the nursery during 1892, 1893 and 1894. The best Fife and the best Blue Stem collected prior to 1894, and the best new Fife and the best new Blue Stem variety men- tioned in Table XXXIV., are also placed in this table as stand- ards with which to compare these new wheats. None of these 374 COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. ■O) 00 iH d d m Q 00 Hi n s cans a. DCOCOIO 10 Is ;o to ■* CD W" •* snia ,S3U^^H ^ MWMW N "Ctl « O 01 C OT O XI8 UOpuXlO CD CO 0) 10 O M T-l NHMN M 2 ma^S CD cooiiom o 5 " •t cooitDW CO •OS snra s no:noa ^ M H C^ 01 ,M s.asMoa: S ^_ Tfi o » -^ 3J!d hV^oo d 119 «H«H M — I-I 9 if' 18Z q t-; O O P< oiio'io'oo d •ON -nniW MH(MH CT 891 98S OOICDIO 00 XX8 oofflMO ej uopn^tO •ON •urniM «HN« M xst 982 t-t-tsta iH X9i b-' d rt 0» CO nopu^IO ■ON •nnimi OMMCT « ii* ^82 N -JC CD •/: o -DIM •ON -nniiv d -i- Co' CD t^ tH H H H H TS ESS O CO C^ CO 00 raatjg ante CO d d t-' ci .SSUiBH •ON -Tiuiro COMWH C^ 08'^ 8iE O 00_ « ffi CD 8XS coddb-' c:^ uopnjCio •ON -unips; COHHH CM 99 9i5 coco CO 00 t— ajljl d 00 x d H S,J[3M.OcJ •ON -umrti N H r-l n IM- \ 4J ■c u ■" cdVoo' : ; 4-> GiCiCi ' : cd •f 4jOO»oo : : > Id csHHHori ; •p c Si d 0. > own arm, arm. arm. 189 z ^fcctg- s v< Vl ^^^1 ^ U U V • '^ E s .&.£.&& ^ e B . 2" ; Z 1 D s p Z 1 1 COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. 375 seven wheats as yet give promise of especially good yields, though most of them are worthy of further trial. In Table XXXVIII. are given the summarized facts regarding the yields, grades, milling tests, etc., of these seven new wheats in comparison with several of the stocks of wheat from which they came. OUT-CROSSED AND IN-CROSSED VARIETIES. In 1892, many of the strongest plants in the field crop nursery were artificially cross-pollenated. Out-crosses were thus made between plants of different varieties and in-crosses between plants of the same variety. Each of the loi seeds thus produced in 1892 wasplantedby itself in the field crop nursery in 1893, and a number given the resulting plant. Through an accident, about two-thirds of the resulting plants were destroyed. Those remaining were harvested separately, and full notes were recorded of each. Only a part of the out-crosses proved to be true crosses. A Blue Stem va- riety with hairy chaff had been used for the male parents in all the out-crosses, and all the female parents were smooth-chaffed varie- ties. Where the resulting plants were marked by the hairy chaff of the male parent, the proof of a true cross has been regarded as certain. Where the chaff remained smooth, not show- ing the character of hairy chaff from the male parent within two years fecundation has been regarded as having result- ed from self-pollenation, and the varieties have been discarded from further trial, or if especially promising have been classed with the new varieties by selection alone. From each cross-bred plant grown in 1893, one hundred or more seeds were planted in 1894. The best plant was chosen in each of a number of cases, and from these one or more hundreds of seeds were planted in 1895. After selecting the best plants with which to continue the breeding, and discarding the poorer ones, the re- mainder of the plants of each stock were harvested in bulk and planted in a small field plot in 1896. From these plots sufficient seed was produced so that in 1897 a twentieth acre plot of each was grown at University Farm. In 1898, these varieties were again 376 COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. > a ^ n 'J.U-^qPSVSqv ^3%T3/A .2*3 •asia PS •3Bia isx •ssja pg •asia *st •3sia pe •asia ^sx BrBUX o-»iX '-^MrEoO •sjBpi aajqx JO -Ay ■siBiJX O.VIXJO "AV 'apBJO ■si^ux Jnoji '3JDV -lad pi^JA 'S6SX TIT Jsqains ^Jia:^ii33 ■rjOTJia ^^uaJ'Bd ;o ppjA •'J'SSX n; in^Id; inajBd •^"•Blcl :^u^iBd JO piaji ■S68X ni ^K^M ^nsJBd •:>u-Eid cuiaisa JO PP!A ■E68X «! ^"^Id ^U3iva n •Sz 2 10 ■^ w CO o 10 ir: •ff t~ GJ 0) 01 Oi * 10 ■^Ji ■^ji -^Ji iJiiC -tji tOOM NiO(D - 0> « O H I) b^ O i-1 10 5 10 10 1^ lO_ lOOOO Nor-io coco X'^io' ooo o»o»o ooo OOiO 010)01 OlOlOO I0t-«l0 COXCIO) OiO I0« ON OOO OIO 10 00)01 ■* 10 O CO CO O N t^ t- 1> 1> 00 ■* to OJMOIC^CJMN N « O CO 10 0) t>- ■^ ■*' tJ CO -* c4 to lOCOtDNOl '*' 10* CD CO m' !> CD CO q Ti X M ■H M W t^' CO M* 6 COOCOIOO Oi d CD M iH OOO cocot^ oooo HtOCO W r-i 01 O CO 0) O) l> C0H-*01 cocoes H '^' N CO-^XM © c^' d T}i CD X lO CO O W C* OHOO^IOCDX XOOICDCDCDCD CO CDCDCOCD COCDrHCOH-^H O t- 10 10 CO l^ O) H-*lOO)t-Ht- MS (I. » « pt- 00 J< K a - -a a B -a •;.oSaooSS j:ag,j wa B.Suosia ij die ■ MN : 0> comio "^ 0. lli3:jS atiia .saui-EH ® en OlOCO t^ ■0 TX8 nopTii:io io aioc H 0> fflinm ^ i « ■a a IS sJFjI s.jaAiod T* ■*OI» ~H s o -4J 3J!J S.MJMOa So i h — H i ajfjl '^sia S6B ON CCOO 00 -'c 00 0) 3J!d -^sja •unij^ n«« 1-1 CD CO o h o m OlOt* 10 ■p d S -"yja '^sia 56S ON t^cii>^ ci o V c 3j!a ^sia •unijM rHCOr- ioT«i 88S 'OM ■*tHW ci A pnas^W •uu;pv[ HMM d DO O BQ ID 1 O I u D eooo r* TX9f) T65 'ON OJb-O* C» o sa H •uuijv ««« :^ DO 2 m © .■ P a; m ineex o 1 ITS O 062 ON in N© o H y -p s -a -H •unipi nNi-l w ■^O© CO S T9i-0 68Z 'ON D (0 h- y\ s a H ■nmm C4 74H « pq < H ■I NOO ; oj 0101 •■ CCOO : (4 4> Hth : > 'C +j . .» u CO rrt sasi u > - s c« J2 ^ C rt «H o Z S 1 1h g "*" a .S.S&' -C ri s fl fl ■ ?; z OPZ 378 COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OP WHEAT. tested at University Farm and at Northwest Farm. In Table XXXIX. the yields of three out-crosses and three in-crosses are tabulated. With them are placed the best parent Fife variety, Minn. No. 66, and the best two new Fife varieties, Nos. 149 and 163, also the best new Blue Stem variety. No. 169. It will be observed that some of the in-crosses and also some of the out-crosses have made very creditable yields in comparison with our best varieties. These results indicate that useful varieties of wheat may be originated from single carefully selected mother plants one generation from the cross. It by no means follows that it is the wiser course to start at once new varieties, rather than to continue the selection of newly crossed stocks to a single best plant out of one or more hundreds for each of several generations before using a single plant as a mother of a new variety, or to first grow the cross-bred wheats in the field for a few years, and then sub- ject them to extensive nursery selection before increasing into a variety. It must be said, however, that while these new out- crossed wheats are known to be true crosses, they have shown very little tendency to vary or revert to types other than the type of the 1894 mother plant, of the second generation after the cross, from which they originated. In only one of the in-crossed wheats have we evidence of there being a true cross. Minn. No. 292, Risting's Fife X Risting's Fife, (Minn. No. 476 X Minn. No. 476), is a much lighter col- ored, wheat than the parent variety, and presumably the changed color is a variation resulting from the cross between two plants of the same variety. It is not to be expected that even under a most rigid selection of plants in the nursery that all resulting cross-bred varieties will prove valuable when subjected to field trials. That a majority of the six thus far tried give promise of being among our best wheats gives a basis for the hope that by systematic cross-breeding fol- lowed by rigid selection varieties may be originated which will prove superior not only to the best parent wheats collected, but su- perior also to the best wheats originated by selection alone. Ex- periments mentioned elsewhere demonstrate that greater varia- COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. 379 380 COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. tion is produced by crossing than occurs in wheat permitted to self-fertilize. Rigid selection of these cross-bred stocks through a series of years- will doubtless result in finding those plants which are adapted to becoming the progenitors of heavy yielding varieties of good quality. This selection includes (i) the choice of the best yielding plants bearing good grain in the nursery, (2) the varieties yielding best in the variety field trials, and (3) those proving to have high quality in the milling tests. In Table XL. are given the summarized facts relative to yield, grade, milling, and baking qualities, etc., of these six cross-bred wheats. NEW WHEATS COMPARED WITH PARENT VARIETIES. In Tables XLI. to L., inclusive, the yields of several new wheats are tabulated beside the yields of the varieties from which they came. Some of the new varieties do not appear here be- cause the parent variety has been discarded from the variety tests. In Table XLI., Minn. No. 161 is shown to yield slightly less than its parent variety. This new variety was originated from a TABLE XLI.— Minn. No. 161 Compared with its Parent "Variety. Hayuea' Blue Stem. > Grown at University Farm, 1895 University Farm, 1896 University Farm, 1897 University Farm, 1898 Average Loss 21.6 24.6 20,4 23.3 22.5 27.2 25.0 18.9 18.2 22.3 0.2 single plant of Haynes' Blue Stem grown in 1892, in a similar manner as the eight varieties given in Table XXXIV. were origin- COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. 381 ated. It has been discarded from further trial because of its poor yielding qualities. In Table XLIL, another variety, Minn. No. 169, originated at the same time and from the same parent variety as Minn. No. 161, mentioned above, but from a diflferent mother plant, is compared with the parent variety. In columns two and three are given yields at University Farm, Northeast Farm, South Dakota Ex- periment Station and at the Iowa Experiment Station, with the TABLE XLII— Minn. No. 169 Compared withitsFarent, Hayues'Blue Stem. Grown at ^^^-^^^^ '^ |3 S Id S H 1- So a32 216 a*. 6 20.4 23.3 23.0 20.2 33.5 ».8 37.8 25.0 24.3 26.3 19.3 14.1 38.4 12.5 21.6 24.6 20.4 23 3 University Farm, 1896 25 UniTersity Farm, 1898 N. E. Farm. 1898 26.3 Nor. Dakota, 1898 Iowa, 1898 Averages U1.9 24.7 22.5 28.3 Gain ; 2.8 5 8 TABLE XLIII.— Minn. No. 149, Compared with Its Parent Variety, Power's Fife. Grown at ^^^^.^ Power's Fife No. 66. Minnesota No. 149. Power's Fife No. 66. Minnesota No. 149. University Farm, 1895 University Farm, 1896 North Dakota. 1896 26.3 21.4 22.5 17.4 2+.0 18.8 20.7 17.4 32.0 7.0 36 2 23.3 22 7 19.9 26.5 22.3 14.0 15.4 33,8 7.5 26.3 21.4 36.2 23.3 University Farm, 1897 Universitv Farm, 1898 N. W. Fai-m, 1898 17.4 24.0 19.9 26.5 N E. Farm, 1898 South Dakota, 1898 Iowa, 1898 Averages 20.7 22.1 22 :^ 1 26.5 1.4 4.. 2 average for eight yields. Here the increased yield of the new wheat over its parent is 2.8 bushels per. acre. In columns four and 382 COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. five, four yields are given at University Farm only. Here the average shows an increased yield in the new wheat of 5 . 8 bushels per acre over its parent. This is the most promising of all the newly originated wheats. Being a Blue Stem variety, it will doubtless become popular in the southern two-thirds of the state. In Table XLIII., in Uke manner Minn. No. 149 is compared with No. 66, Power's Fife, the variety from which it was origin- ated. Averaging the eight yields, at the several farms, the in- creased productiveness of the new variety over the parent is shown to be 1 .4 bushels per acre, and averaging the four yields at Univer- sity Farm, the increased yield is 4.2 bushels. In Table XLIV., Minn. No. 477, McKendry's Fife, is com- pared with three of its progeny. Only the two yields for 1897 and 1898 at University Farm are available for the comparison. TABLE XLIV.— Minn. Nos. 181, 284 and 288 Compared with their Parent Variety, McKendry's Fife. \v tA McKendry's Fife. Grown at N. Foundation Stock. Minn. No. 477 Parent Plant, Selected 1892. Minn. No. 181 Parent Plant, Selected 1892-1894. Minn. No. 284 Parent Plant, In-cross Selected 1892-1894. Minn. No. 288 University Farm, 1897... UniTcrsity Farm, 1898... 18.2 23.8 19.5 ' 26.5 14.8 16.6 14.4 31.3 Averages 21.0 23.0 15.7 22.8 -f-2.0 —5.3 +1.8 Minn. No. i8i was originated from a mother plant grown in the nursery in 1892. It shows an increased yield of two bushels per acre. Minn. No. 284 was selected in the nursery in 1892, 1893 and 1894, being multiplied from the single mother plant grown in 1894. Here we have the remarkable decrease in yield of 5.3 bushels per acre. Minn. No. 288 is from a flower pollenated with pollen from a plant of the same variety in 1892. The cross-bred plant was COLLECTING ANJJ TESTING VARIETIES OP WHEAT. 383 gtown in 1893, and from it in 1894, 100 plants were grown. From among these the best plant was chosen as the mother plant of this variety. The average increased yield here is shown to be 1.8 bushels per acre. TABLE XLV.— Minn. No. 276 Compared Witli Its Parent Variety, Power's Fife. Variety Minnesota Number Gro-wn at University Farm, 1897 UniTCrsity Farm, 1898 Northwest Farm, 1898 Averages Loss Power's Fife 17.4 2*.0 18.8 Sel. Mother Plant 1894 18.3 18.3 20.8 1.0 In Table XLV., Minn. No. 66, Power's Fife, is compared with Minn. No. 276, which was originated from the Power's Fife in the nursery. It was selected in 1892, 1893 and 1894, the best plant being retained in 1894 for a mother plant. A decrease in yield of one bushel per acre is shown. TABIiS XIjTI. — Minn. No. 283 Compared with its Parent Variety, Haynes' Blue Stem. Variety Haynes* Bine Stem. Selected from 1894 Plant, 51 283 Grown at 20.4 20.3 20.3 University Farm, 1898 20.2 Averages 20.4 20.3 Loss 0.1 In Table XLVL, Minn. No. 283 is compared with its parent variety, Minn. No. 51, Haynes' Blue Stem. This new variety was subjected to nursery selection in 1892-4, inclusive, originating from a best plant grown in 1894. The decreased yield here shown is . I bushel per acre. 384 COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. In Table XLVIL, Minn. No. 476, Risting's Fife, is compared with three varieties which have sprung from it. Minn. No. 171 was originated by selecting the best plant of Risting's Fife in the TABLE XL Vn— Minn. Nos. 17 i, 292 and 293 Compared with the Parent Variety, Risting's Fife. ^\ h Risting's Fife. \ 1 Grown at ^\ Fonndation Stock. • Selected from 1892 Mother Plant. In-cross of 1892. 1894 Mother Plant. In-cross of 1892, 1894 Mother Plant. Minn. No. 476 Minn.No.l71 Minn. No. 292 Minn. No. 293 20.9 26 6 19.8 26.3 17.9 32.0 18.0 Univ. Farm, 1898 21.3 Averages 23 8 23.1 25.0 19.7 —.7 +1.2 —4.1 nursery in 1892 for a mother plant. A decreased average yield of seven-tenths of a bushel per acre is here shown. Minn. No. 292 is the result of an in-cross made in 1892 be- tween two plants of Risting's Fife. The plant resulting from this cross was grown in 1893, and from it 100 plants were grown in TABLE XL VIII.— Minn. No. 287 Compared With Its Parent Variety McKissiok's jPifo. ^--..^^^ McKissick's Fife 1/ p / / Variety Foundation Stock Minn. No. 475 Selected from 1892-1894 Mother Plant Minn. No. 287 20.4 24.6 15.7 25.0 University Farm, 1898 Averages t. 22.5 20.4 Loss 2.1 1894. From the best plant of this loo, some 900 plants were grown in 1895, and of these the best 300 were selected and the grain from them planted as a variety in 1896. This variety is . COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. 385 doubtless the result of a true in-cross, since the berry is of a much lighter color than the parent wheat. The averages show an in- creased yield of 1.2 bushels per acre. Minn. No. 293 had its origin in the same manner as 292, e*- cepting that its 1893 cross-bred parent plant originated from crossing two other Risting's Fife plants than those used in pro- ducing the parent plant of No. 292. A marked decrease in yield of 4.T bushels per acre, as compared with the parent variety, is shown in the averages. In this case there is no satisfactory evi- dence that this variety is the result of a true cross. In Table XLVIIL, Minn. No. 475, McKissick's Fife, is com- pared with Minn. No. 287, which was originated from a single plant of McKissick's Fife in 1894. This mother plant was from a nursery stock which had been selected to the best plant in 1892 and 1893. A decreased yield of 2.1 bushels per acre is here shown. TABLE XLIX.— Minn. No. 163 Compared with the Parent Variety, Glyndon 811. Variety Grown at University Farm, 1895 University Farm, 1896 University Farm, 1897 Averages Gain Glyndon 811. Minn. No. 168. Minn. No. J63. 42.2 19.0 16.3 42.7 23.0 19.9 28.5 -\-2.1 In Table XLIX., the promising new wheat, Minn. No. 163, is compared with its parent variety, Minn. No. 168, Glyndon 811. This parent variety was one of the wheats grown at Glyndon, Minn., in 1891. It has every appearance of a Fife wheat, and probably was originally collected in this country, though its name was lost by fire. The average of three yields shows an increase of 2.7 bushels per acre. Arrangements were made with numer- ous farmers and seedsmen to grow this wheat in 1899 and sell it for seed to the farmers of the state. 386 COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. o hi + P4 d .1 'A \ 883 -ON « : : » ■ : H i i + 'J'SS -ON ■umiM M : 1 ". : : id i ; 1 TSI 'ON « ■ : O ■ : pi 1 i + S9T 'ON •unipi « i t' : ■ oi ■ i + = A8e -ON ■HOT Hi n 7 j 1 E6K -ON ■nujl!^ « : T^ i : : 1 1 M 1 S6!! OM ■uuip^ « ! « : : : : H : ■ : ■ + : : ; \l\ ON ■uuiiJM N it-::: i 1 i i ; 9ir ON ■uuire m o 6»T 'ON ■uuipi o H ■* + + S8Z -ON ■uuipn N H I o : J I 691 "ON ■uni[i\[ 00 » 1 + i id + X9t ON ■nnip« ■* « : f i A\3.v JO ■SON ■e:}.0S3uui[y ■d < vt "a X, d •A 1. A t E ^ » .' E c ■, p: ■j: X. '- K McKissiek's Fife Glyndon 811 McKendry's Fife b : V : C : O Minn. Nos. of Par- r to t- ■* w « N 1- !0 t~ ■* 11 ■* COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. 387 In Table L., is given a summary of the increase or de- crease of the new varieties over the parent kinds as shown in Tables XLI. to XLIX. Out of the thirteen wheats thus compared six give promise of increased yield, while with seven a decrease of yields has resulted. The average increased yield of the six improved wheats is 1.98. bushels per acre. The average decreased yield of the pooreir new wheats is 1.92 bushels. Minn. No. 293 shows the most marked variation in yield, and that a ret- rograde variation. Minn. No. 169 shows the most pronounced increase in yield. This table gives the most positive evidence that marked variation occurs, both towards better and to- wards poorer yields. Where variation occurs improvements may be effected. A comprehensive detailed plan of operations dili- gently and accurately carried out for a long series of years can- not fail to very materially increase the productiveness and the quality of wheat or any other crop. METHODS OF DISSEMINATING NEW VARIETIES. The work of originating new varieties of seeds after plans men- tioned above brings out a new element in seed distribution. There is needed a method of retaining the identity of varieties which re- semble their parent varieties in appearance, differing only in yield and quality of grain. Since their identity cannot be retained by botanical description, it must be done historically. The seller or purchaser of the seeds of a given variety needs a means of tracing the seed back to its source. In sending out kinds of plants which have not been broken up into varieties or sub-varieties similar in appearance, as timothy or orchard grass, the seeds may quite properly be sent out under their specific names. With our new Fife and Blue Stem wheats, or with most of our newly-originated varieties of bromus or timothy, this would lead to a confusion of names and stocks of the seed. The original variety might easily be passed off for the new and better yielding kinds. In case of open fertilized plants like corn, timothy, brome grass or millet, small samples sent from the station would often be 388 COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. planted beside fields of common stocks of the same kind of plants. This would result in cross-breeding, and the improved characters of the new varieties would be modified by the more prepotent race characters of the common kinds, and the improved characters would thus be nearly destroyed. The plan we have devised for the distribution of our promising varieties is outlined as follows: Several men in each county, preferably graduates of the School of Agriculture, are encouraged to become growers of certified seeds of field crops. Men are chosen who have good land, and who rotate their crops in a man- ner to give the best possible conditions for seed growing. Those who keep live stock that they may grow a goodly proportion of crops which enrich the farm and clean the land of weeds, who are business-like in their dealings, and who have the confidence of their neighbors, are desirable seed growers. Arrangements are made with these farmers to grow seeds of varieties which the state experiment station has tested until it is assured that they will succeed in the counties to which they are sent. It seems wise to send out comparatively few varieties, and to do all the preliminary testing at University Farm and at the sub- station farms. The seeds are to be sold in some quantity, usually in bushel or bag lots, that each seed grower or farmer may grow them in fields rather than in small patches, and the station desires that modest but remunerative prices be asked and given for these certified seeds. It is believed that under this plan each new variety will be more rapidly multiplied, if it proves valuable, than if the station were to break the first lot of seeds up into small packages and send them out free of cost. Paying a reasonable price for a new variety of grain, thus well vouched for, would cause the new owner to take an interest in it. A small profit, say twenty-five cents per bushel on seed wheat, would repay the seed grower for his extra work in growing, caring for and cleaning seeds for sale to the other farm- ers in the coun,ty. The farmers securing these new varieties from our seed growers could make a small margin of profit by selling these certified seeds to still other neighbors. . It seems practicable COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. 389 for the station to supply blank certificates with descriptions which growers could sign and give with each quantity of seed sold, thus "certifying" it to be the variety described on the certificate. To avoid errors, seed growers could occasionally submit specimens of the plants and seeds to the experiment station for comparison with the original sample. Those purchasing direct from the experi- ment station might be required to send samples to the station to be filed as a record of the fact of their having received the variety in- tended for them. Seed firms within the state should be aided to secure stocks of the new varieties that they might also propagate them for sale. We have no other agency so efficiently organized for distributing useful seeds, and their full co-operation is desir- able. Their facilities for advertising a new stock of seeds are super- ior to any other medium, and the financial interest of the seed com- panies would cause them to procure these well-tested varieties and advertise them for sale. Seedsmen and nurserymen properly argue that each firm cannot afford to test all the new varieties. Instead of so many experimental grounds, the experiment station, with its better equipment, can do the larger part of the work. Likewise the station can best originate or secure and thoroughly test, and, finally certify to the value of seeds of field crops, and thus insure good stocks for the farmers and a more satisfactory business to the seed merchant. TABLE LI.— Minn. No. 163 Compared with Best Fife and Blue Stem Wheats. 10 01 01 CO 00 00 00 ■00 00 ■H T-* H tH 0> o> » 00 CO I g g I H H 00 % cj CS ?f tH Name of Variety. di h b h ■S \ >^ K >t >, i* Ji 01 00 'I •s S 2 Q Q h rH a V £ .6 > X +j n 01 S a a s > & & & t> Z M z B < 66 26.3 21.4 35.3125.1 42.7I23.O 17.4 21.5 19.9 24.0 22.5 25.0 32.0 35.3 37.2 17.4 17.3 15.4 20.7 19.3 14.7 7.0 6.3 8.0 166.2 182.6 185.9 20 R 146 Bolton's Blue Stem 22 8 163 A New Variety 23.2 66 Power's Fife 26.3 21.4 35.3 25.1 17.4 21.5 24 22.5 f Yields at \ University 89.1 104.4 22.3 146 26.1 163 A New Variety 42.7 28.0 19.9 25.0 Farm onlv. 110.6 27.7 390 COLLECTING AND TESTING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. A blank certificate is used by the station in selling seeds to its list of recommended farmers who have been chosen to assist in the introduction of new varieties. It is designed to supply these men with a number of these blank certificates, which they in like manner may fill out to go with the wheat to farmers to whom they in turn sell the seed of varieties supplied to them by the station. The circular briefly states whatever is known of the origin, the method of breeding, the general character of the plant, the com- parative yield, the grade, the milling qualities and other facts which may be known about the variety. A circular prepared to accompany Minn. No. 163 wheat, a few hundred bushels of which is being distributed for planting in 1899, contains the Table LI., comparing the yields of that wheat with our best collected Fife and best, collected Blue Stem wheats. The following form of blank certificate is also attached to this circular, and is properly filled out for those purchasing this wheat : CERTIFICATE OF MINNESOTA NO. 163 WHEAT. / hereby certify that the seed wheat sold by me and marked or- der No on this day of the month of in the year to , County, Minnesota, was originated and raised by the State Experiment Station, and is be- ing disseminated under the name of Minnesota No. 163, as de- scribed in the circular attached hereto; and that this sample has been kept free from admixture with other varieties of wheat. Agriculturist. St. Anthony Park, Minn. , 1899. SOME BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WHEAT. 391 SOME BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WHEAT. There are some features of the botany of wheat in relation to farming which are worthy of attention. The farmer needs a knowledge of the roots, the leaves and the kernel of the wheat, that he may understand preparing the land for this cereal, and better know how to sow, harvest and preserve the crop. The wheat breeder also needs to know the general anatomy and physiology of the wheat, and he especially needs a knowledge of the structure and functions of the floral organs. BOTANICAL RELATIONS OF WHEAT. The relation of wheat to other classes of plants will not be en- tered upon extensively here. Mr. Warren W. Pendergast, when a student, adapted from Haeckel's "The True Grasses" Table LII, showing the thirteen tribes of the great grass family. From the same book he also adapted Table LIII, showing (i) the six sub- tribes of the tribe Hordese; (2) the five genera of the sub-tribe Triticeas; (3) the two sections of the genus, Triticum; (4) the three species of the section, Sitopyrus; (5) the three races of Tr. Sativum and (6) the four principal sub-races of the race, Tr. sativum tenax. This elaborate classification of the genus Triticum is necessi- tated by the numerous forms into which wheat has become differ- entiated, in part, since coming under the influence of man. The species first mentioned, Triticum monococcum, is, as the name implies, one seeded, and is so different from the common species of wheat, Tr. sativum, that the two have not been success- fully cross-fertilized. The third species, Tr. Polonicum, is evidently not so distant in its relationship, and an occasional fertile flower may be secured 392 SOME BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WHEAT. o a o- -c fc o ft* ■< B^ll Hi Cfi a? ^H •— • ;j H H b V3 a MM s o .»i g cs §?u s f a Sua g. ^« 5 •< CO w H « a '— ' aj C £"-' W SOME BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WHEAT. 393 by cross-pollenating it with Tr. sativum, our common species. Our energies so far have been directed to making crosses between the less widely differing varieties, and even there the variation is con- siderable and seems to be more often backward or downward than toward useful forms. Since the Polish wheats have not shown an adaptability to our climate and soils the chance of securing useful crosses between them and our best wheats is very remote. The races of spelt wheat, Tr. sat. spelta, have not shown an abil- ity to yield well either at University Farm or at Northeast Farm, where Mr. Pendergast tried one of them, thinking it might prove useful on light soils, such as these wheats are grown on in north- ern Spain. At University Farm it has been much worse affected by rust than our common Blue Stem and Fife varieties. The sub-races of the sub-species or race, Tr. sat. tenax, are not all equally well adapted to our conditions. Our common bearded and smooth wheats, both winter and spring varieties, belong to the race first named in the last column of the chart, Tr. sat. vulgare. Haeckel remarks that the charac- ters of these four sub-races overlap. Each of these sub-races is broken up into many varieties, some of which are probably the re- sult of crosses between the sub-races. Common wheat, Tr. sat. vulgare, has been known since ancient times, grains having been discovered in the Egyptian Pyramids, and the assumption is safe that this sub-race has been very much modified by man. . Tr. sat. compactum, "Dwarf wheat," or "Hedgehog wheat," Haeckel says, was found in the ruins of the 'old lake dwellings of Robenhausen. Neither of the sub-races, Tr. sat. turgidum, English wheat, nor Tr. sat. durum, Flint wheat, have made any progress toward gen- eral cultivation in the middle Northwest. Mr. M. A. Carlton, spe- cial agent of the Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, has expressed the hope that durum wheats might be a good source of rust-resistant blood to use in crosses with the common wheats of some sections of this country. Our experiments have demonstrated the superiority for our con- ditions of the Blue Stem and Fife wheats, which are varieties of 394 SOME BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OP WHEAT. Tr. sat vulgare. These varieties yield the most wheat of the best quality, and are the most rust resistent of all which we have tried. Doubtless this power of rust resistance is the main reason why these wheats have proven themselves best on our experiment farms, and among our farmers. The rust is an ever-present dis- ease, and varieties which have rusted badly have always given poor yields and wheat of poor quality. Blue Stem is more rust resistant at University Farm than is Fife wheat, and no doubt its better yields here and among the farmers of Minnesota are in large part due to this characteristic. While other varieties are being used in the effort to find or make better kinds, our variety testing and breeding is centering more closely in these two wheats. In many respects these wheats are similar, yet in their relationships they are quite distant, as is clearly shown by the great variation of their cross-bred progeny, and also by the fact that Blue Stem has hairy chaff, while the chaff of the Fife is smooth. An era of producing new varieties of wheat by crossing has evidently set in, one man, Mr. Wm. Farrar, having sent us fifty new cross-bred wheats at one time from Australia. The selec- tion or "roguing" to which we subject newly received varieties, to reduce them to type changes them somewhat, and a description we might publish would not apply to the stock of wheat in the hands of other parties. No attempt can be made in this bulletin to pub- lish descriptions of our many wheats, and their value if pub- lished would not be great. The nomenclature of wheat in our grain markets is compara- tively easy when we have little else than Fife and Blue Stem, but with the multiplication of varieties the confusion of names will be great. Botanists and teachers often give an undue proportion of their attention to the botanical characters, and too little to the in- trinsic value or money-earning power of varieties. Some of our new varieties have no botanical distinguishing marks by which they can be separated from the class of wheat to which they be- long, but they yield more wheat per acre, and are much more val- uable to the farmer. With records, we must keep them true to the SOME BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WHEAT. 395 original, as live stock breeders must record their animals, and in selling them give certificates of genuineness. While the experiment station is disposed to investigate all new varieties and races of wheat, and to give garden or even field trials to new wheats of promise, we have learned by wide experience that our work should mainly be directed to making better wheats of the best varieties already in hand, and to devote considerable at- tention to a new wheat only as it is shown to be very promising of usefulness. There is ample opportunity among the wheats which are successfully grown to make crosses, some of which are even too radical for practical breeding. The attempt has not been made to produce botanical wonders, but to add to the yield of the acre of wheat. Now that a fairly good method of improving practical va- i-ieties has been devised and successfully used, it seems wise to put more time on those theoretical questions the solution of which will enable us to still further perfect the methods of breeding this grain from which is made the "staff of life." Many questions of interest from the standpoint of systematic botany are constantly arising where so many notes are yearly ac- cumulating on numerous selected and cross-bred stocks of wheat. But of greatest interest are the questions which yearly arise re- garding heredity, variation, and the practical theories of plant and animal breeding. WHEAT IS USEFUL IN STUDYING PLANT AND ANIMAL BREEDING. Hugo de Vries, of the University of Amsterdam, has recently stated that most of the theories for correct practice in breeding animals, as well as plants, can best be worked out with plants, in part because they may be used in such large numbers. With ani- mals, the small numbers produced at a birth and the great expense of keeping all under similar conditions and of making records, makes their use unsatisfactory and so costly as to be almost pro- hibitive. The wheat plant is one of the very best of all plants for the so- lution of many of these problems. We have been able to devise a 396 SOME BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WHEAT. thoroughly feasible plan of dealing with the individual whereby each plant has practically an equal chance with each other plant. The notes of yield of seeds per plant, of quality of grain, of strength of straw, of rust resistance, of height, of character of spikes, etc., are easily and accurately recorded. If need be, the seeds may be kept for a number of years, and from seeds thus preserved plants may be grown in comparison with progeny which have been modified by breeding or environment. Of great importance in this connection is the fact that wheat is nearly close fertilized. Another important consideration is the fact that cross- bred stocks of this close-fertilized plant may be selected to a uni- form type in a few years, the time required depending upon the variable nature of the particular cross. We now have in store seeds of unselected stocks, of stocks selected for shorter and longer periods to single mother plants, of cross-bred wheats from mat- ing plants of different degrees of relationship, and of different types of cross-bred wheats not as yet selected to uniform types, and those selected until they are partially uniform, others where uniformity has been secured by being longer subjected to selection to a type. These, with new wheats the station is constantly ac- quiring, are highly valued for use in many experiments, under way or soon to be started, in studying numerous questions in breeding. THE WHEAT PLANT. In Minnesota the plants of those varieties of spring wheat com- monly sown reach a height of from thirty-five to forty inches.' In some cases on moist rich land, the height mentioned is exceeded ; while in dry seasons on poor land, the wheat sometimes ripens at a height of two feet or even less. The modern self-binder can suc- cessfully cut and bind into bundles straw which does not stand two feet high, but for best results it .is desirable to have the wheat stand thirty to forty inches high. Wheat much higher than forty inches is likely to lodge in wet seasons and on rich, moist soils, and in breed- ing wheat only moderate height with great stiffness of straw, is sought. A goodly proportion of leaves is necessary, that th» wheat may be well supplied with these organs, which serve both as SOME BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WHEAT. 397 lungs and stomach to the plant. But a disposition to produce an unnecessary proportion of leaves is undesirable. The plant should center its food material in its seeds, and not lay it aside in other organs of less value. Fig. 250. Washing out Wheat Roots and Making Drawings. A well developed system of roots is a necessity to the plant. There is no direct way by which the breeder can select for this quality. But by choosing vigorous yielders, the law of correlation of parts aids to select individuals with all the essential organs well 398 SOME BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WHEAT. developed. While the breeder may pay no attention to the roots, the farmer in preparing the soil for this crop needs to know the Labits of the plant in sending its roots throughout the soil. The method of stooling, also, is of interest in connection with the soil, with the time and thickness of sowing the seed, and especially in ■connection with the harrowing or otherwise cultivating the soil after the grain has germinated. THE ROOTS AND STEMS OF WHEAT. In 1 898, a dozen wheat plants were grown in a plat of land where water from a hvdrant could be used to wash out the roots that 'Fig. 251. The entire wheat plant five days old. natural size. Thtt toots are more than twice as long as the stem. No matter in what position the germ of the seed lies, the stem end at once seeks an upward direction, and the roots go outward and downward. drawings might be made showing the root development at differ- ent stages of growth. Individual plants were grown several feet apart, and at stated intervals a plant was washed out and a draw- ing made of its root system. Messrs. Carl S. Scofield and Coates P. Bull, students, did the work on these plants, the latter doing most of the drawing. Each root springing from the culms was carefully followed out and measured, records being taken of its depth, the distance of the point from the plant and the general di- rection or curvature of the root. The various stem-roots were thus faithfully grouped on the charts so as to represent a view of them as tliough one were looking at them in a horizontal direction SOME BOTANICAL CHARACTKRISTICS OP WHEAT. 399 with the soil removed and the roots left in position where they grew. These drawings are shown in Figs. 251-9. A diagram showing the character of the soil in which these plants were grown for washing out is given at E in Fig. 252. Figure 251 shows the young plantlet of spring wheat at five days old. The direction of the three roots is more nearly down- ward than usual, as the seed was planted somewhat late. In cool weather they take a more nearly horizontal position. Close in- Fig. 252. A — The kernel of wheat. B — Diasram of the soil in which wheat plants were grown for washing out roots. C — Wheat plant at 23 days old, longest roots four or five times as long as the plant is tall. The squares represent feet, the longest root is 19.5 inches long and about 16 inches deep, c — The joint of the stem dissected out" from c at a-b; b — the mina- ture spike. spection of a germinating kernel of wheat will show that the stem and the first whorl of roots, usually three in number, have their origin in the chit or germ. See C, 15, and C, s and r, 16, Plate XXV., page 412. Until somewhat further developed than the plant shown in Fig. 251, the kernel is the sole source of food for the young plant. Not until it has green leaves in the sunlight does the young plant have green chlorophyll cells with which to digest the plant food from the soil and by combining it with water and carbonic acid of the air elaborate substances which the plant lis- 400 SOME BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WHEAT. sues can use. The reason for using well matured, plump, heavy seeds, is that such a kernel has more food for the young plant, and the food is of good quality. As shown in Fig. i6, Plate XXV, the chit or minute plantlet is but a small portion of the seed. The main body of the kernel is the starchy and glutenous contents. During germination these substances are changed into soluble forms and passing through the juices of the plant are used in de- veloping the cell walls and' the protoplasmic cell contents of the small roots and leaves and the tiny axis or stem. THE ROOTS GROW RAPIDLY. The wheat plant passes rapidly from the germinating stage, and . Fig. 253. A diagramatic section through the stem of wheat about 25 days after planting, magnified 7% times, as from a to 6 in C, Fig. 252. The first bud designed to form a tiller is just starting. One blade starts from each joint. with favorable conditions soon has green leaves absorbing the sun's rays and a spreading mat of roots absorbing water and plant food from the soil. In Fig. 252 a plant twenty-three days after planting is shown. The blades are only five inches high, while the earliest roots which sprang from the chit are twenty inches long. The roots are long and numerous, and in comparison with the area the leaves expose to the sun they present a large area of root surface to the soil. Upon dissecting out the stem from among the mass of leaf sheaths, a very small point is found extending from the lower joint at a to b, in C. This miniature primary culm SOME BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WHEAT. 401 is shown enlarged several diameters at C. Even at this stage the spike is discernable, as at h in C. Fig- 253 showrs the branching culm still more elaborately figured in ^diagram. The attachment of the leaves at the nodes will be observed, also the fact that the internodes are as yet short, having the nodes or joints very close together. The first secondary culm or tiller at x indicates that "stooling" has already begun. Fig. 254. Wheat plant 43 days old. Blades eight inches high and roots two feet, Branching roots are not shown. B — the kernel with its three or four roots; culms and roots branching out half way from the kernel to the surface of the soil, where roots and leaves spring from the stem or rhizome. C — The branching culm, b, b — huas which will become tillers, b — minature spike. In Fig. 254 a plant 43 days old is shown. Here three or four whorls of roots have developed, and the culm has produced several stools or tillers. . No attempt is made to show the many branching roots, only the roots originating from joints of the culm being drawn. 402 SOME BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WHEAT. In Fig. 255 is shown a plant 63 days old ; the roots emanating from the culms and seed, in all enumerating about fifty ; also, one of the dozen or more culms. At this stage the wheat was about Fig. 255. A— "Crown" and stem-roots of a plant 63 days old, branchine roots 52ifS''°A"w (^'e""^ 'i^a-^ tli^ bottom of the plate show spreld and a;^?ar°fro'm^ra7sh1a;"°°*"^ ^-"^'"^ ''^'^''^ "^^^ ^°- ^^^ ''-•'to two feet high and ready to head out, and some of the roots had penetrated to the depth of more than four feet. SOME BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WHEAT. 403 In Fig. 256, the roots are shown from, a plant which was near- ing maturity. Here there were sixteen culms and nearly one hun- Fig. 256. Crown and stem roots of a mature wheat plant, from one seed. There are about 100 stem roots, each of which had for some distance on an average about eight branch roots to the inch, making a wonderful mat of roots in the soil. dred roots springing from the culms. Where crowded in the field each seed gives rise to only a few culms. The roots had not gone much deeper than those shown in Fig. 255, owing in part to the 404 SOME BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WHEAT. coarse character of the soil, though many of them went deeper than the three feet eight inches shown by the drawing. THE PLAN OF THE ROOT SYSTEM. There is order in the attachment of the roots to the seed and culms and in the manner of branching. Three roots start from the chit at the same time that the stem starts upward. These are Pig. 257. Point of the wheat root, c— the root cap; e — periderm; a — apical area; p — corticle. a temporary set of roots which usually die before the plant is fully grown ; in case of winter .wheat they were all found dead in the spring in several varieties .which were examined. As the culms develop they send out roots fi-om the bases of their leaves. Pre- sumably thfe root buds spring out in whorls from around the nodes under the bases of the leaives, as is the case in Indian corn. See bulletin 5, page 10. Those roots which spring out first when the plants are as yet young are small in diameter and much SOMB BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WHEAT. 405 branched. In the cool autumn or in cool weather early in spring these first roots go out more nearly in a horizontal direction than in warm weather, as in early autumn or late spring planting. When these roots are several inches long, branches begin to show, and they soon have many branches. Each culm sends out from the few joints at its lower end a number of roots for its separate support, and each culm soon depends largely upon its own roots. Those first coming out reach the greatest length, while some of the uppermost roots start out so late as to not have time to grow long, though these later roots springing from higher up on the stem usually have a greater diameter than the threadlike roots which first started. The roots throw out many branches in the upper eighteen inches of earth, and these branches again branch. Those roots which penetrate deeper go nearly straight downward and have few or no branches below eighteen or twenty-four inches. Since the branches, as well as the stem roots, radiate out- ward from the plant, there are few roots immediately beneath a plant which stands alone, while in the field this space is occupied by the roots of neighboring plants. Since there are about eight branch roots to the inch for eighteen to twenty inches down each stem root and each of these branches is from one-tenth of an inch to twenty-four inches in length, it can be seen what an immense number of roots each plant has. THE ROOT HAIRS AND THE ROOT CAP. Mere branching into innumerable thread-like branch roots does not give the roots sufficient contact with the soil, and each root and branch root is covered with hairs which extend among the fine particles of soil. These root hairs have been appropriately called "feeding cells" or "sucking sells," and through their thin walls the plant gets the larger part of its water and plant food. Beginning near the tip of the root, these hairs are very short. Proceeding up- ward toward the stem, they are longer. Within a few inches the hairs which are observed are shriveled, showingthatthere is a short zone near the end of the root on which active hairs are born, but that each hair has a short period of activity. Back of this the 406 SOME BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WHEAT. outer covering of the root has become hard and the root serves merely as an avenue for the passage of water and plant food taken in by the active zones bearing fresh hairs. Here branching roots, in case of the stem roots, take the place of the hairs, and they in turn bear hairs on zones near their freshly developed points. n-s. Fig. 258. A small section of a wheat root showing the root hairs, enlarged two diameters. In Fig. 259 is a cross-section of a root showing three root hairs. These hairs are not distributed evenly along the root, they being thin in places, and at other points very thick, the density of the hairs doubtless depending much upon the local conditions of moist- ure and plant food. Roughly stated, there are about fifty hairs to the millimeter in length of root. Pig:. 239. Cross-section of a wheat root near the tip showing three root hairs and the manner of their development. The power roots have of pentrating hard earth is surprising. Fig. 257 shows a cross-section through the point of a root. The wedge-shaped cap, C, is pushed in between the soil particles, and by the subdivision and growth of the cells in the middle of the root at a the diameter of the root is enlarged and the point is pressed still farther forward. Many of the roots were found distorted in pass- SOME BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WHEAT. 407 ing through the subsoil just below the furrow-slice where repeated treading of the plow team and the pressure of the plow had made the earth compact. These drawings shou^ what a power this crop has of spreading into the soil far and deep for its food. It was not practical to show the immense number of branch roots on Figs. 255 and 256, since they were so numerous that the paper would have been black throughout the center of the drawing. THE BRANCHING OF THE CULM. The culm or stem of the wheat plant is made up of a series of liollow cylindrical internodes joined together by means of solid joints or nodes. In starting from the seed the stem soon begins to branch. The first leaves which are sent up seem to be a temporary set of organs ■designed to quickly reach above the soil, that the plant may be sup- plied with green cells in the sunlight. These leaves form what appears to be the primary shoot of the plant, and spring from the stem near the seed. They are found to be dead in the spring, along with the germ whorl of roots, in case of several varieties •of winter wheat. At the same point where these first leaves arise another stem, apparently a rhizome, branches off from the primary stem. This rhizome has an internode quite unlike all the other lower internodes, not even covered by the sheath of a leaf, and extending about half way to the surface of the soil. In ■case the seed is planted two inches deep this rhizome is about one inch long. See B in Fig. 254. At the top of this internode a joint bears a leaf, and a few other joints follow at very short intervals, ■each having a bud in the axil of its leaf. At C, Fig. 254, is shown a longitudinal section of one of these buds after it has grown into ■a tiller or stool. The minute spike is shown at h, and two branches appeal at b, b. Roots also have made their appearance. Each branch may subdivide, and plants from single kernels of wheat have been known to develop several dozens of culms. These iforanches only occur from the few lower nodes, but the branches 408 SOME BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WHEAT. may again produce branches from their lower nodes. When the wheat is in the stooHng stage, at several inches high, the base of the stems appears compact and bulbous, especially if cool, moist weather and a rich soil have favored the development of numer- ous strong tillers. Fig, 260. Cross-section of internode — the stem between the joints. By observing Fig. 254, it will be seen that the bulbous crown of the wheat is near the surface. The roots branch off from the several culms, not at the point where the seed was placed, but much nearer the surface. When planted deeply the wheat plant lifts the bottoms of its stems nearly orquite to the surface by means Fig. 261. A portion of a cross-section of the stem of wheat, in detail. of the long internode of its rhizome, which develops shorter or longer according to the depth to which the seed has tifeeh planted. See Fig. 254 B. It will be seen that whe^t plants thus set in the surface of the soil, with their roots extending outward at an an- gle of less than forty-five degrees from horizontal, can easily be in- jured by harrowing the wheat field after the plants are up, and es- SOME BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WHEAT. 409 pecially after they have "stooled out." This certainly is what has occurred in a number of experiments where dragging the growing wheat has lessened the yield of grain. A partially developed culm is shown in 255 at B. Fig. 260 shoAvs a cross-section of an internode, and Fig. 261 a much magni- fied portion of the same. When the tiny shoot is sent out of the germinating seed it is mostly a mass of leaves. It rises above the soil, where the leaves expand into the air to receive a large number of the rays of the sun. These rays, by the aid of the green chlorophyll cells, are changed from rays of light to active force, and then again changed by the plant into latent energy and stored up in such chemical compounds as sugar, starch, fat, cellulose and gluten. During the first few weeks the stems are very short, branching organs, whose chief functions at this time seem to be to produce leaves and roots. Not until the field is. covered with a thick mat of blades nearly a foot high do the stems change their habit and extend up- ward. The plant up to this time has been expanding its energies in the production of a wide expanse of leaf and in sending innum- erable roots far and wide into the soil. The working parts of the plant having been developed, it sends up its shoots very rapidly, and when the culms have reached their full height the work of growing the fruit for the harvest is begun in earnest. In the crowded field, however, the branches from branches rarely develop, as the field becomes crowded so that the leaves of these stools have no room in which to develop. The plant is par- tial to those branches which start earliest, and is loath to start new tillers. If a tiller cannot quickly send out its own leaves for air and sunshine, and soon reach into the soil and there compete with other roots for food, it must give up the race and leave the field to those that started early. If the conditions are favorable, many buds, will succeed in getting enough roots started to enable them to compete in the effort to run up culms, and the stand of wheat will be good ; while if the conditions are unfavorable, few culms will result and the wheat will stand thinly on the field. When the plant has an abundance of blades and roots, the culms 410 SOME BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WHEAT. begin to lengthen. This is accomplished by the lengthening first of the joints near the ground, as shown at B in Fig. 255. The upper culms, b and a, soon follow, however, and the ear of wheat rises above the leaves. As the culm lengthens, the blades from the upper joints also develop and become active leaves' of the plant; while those which rose from near the roots and did service ear- lier, pass their period of activity and wither, leaving the work to the upper leaves, which are better situated to gather sunlight and food from the air. The leaf sheath completely surrounds the stem, and the edges overlap each other. The development of the spike from the first tiny rudiments of an ear, as shown at h in C, Fig. 252, to the mature head of wheat, may be followed with interest. All that is needed is a sharp point- ed knife and patient work in dissecting away the leaves at the vari- ous stages of growth of the plant. A small magnifying glass for ordinary work and a dissecting and compound microscope for reaching the greater minutia, are very useful for successful studies in these processes. THE SPIKE AND THE FLOWER. The spike of common wheat is made up of a central crooked stem called a "rachis." This rachis is jointed, and at every joint it bears a group of flowers called a "spikelet." See 2, Plate XXV. The rachis bends in the opposite direction at each joint, and thus the spikelets are arranged alternately in two rows on op- posite sides of the rachis. This gives a nearly rounded appear- ance to the spike. The spikes are usually slightly smaller at the ends because there the spikelets are not so well developed or are farther apart. In some wheats, however, as in the club va- rieties, the internodes of the rachis are much shorter towards the top of the spike, resulting in the spikelets being much closer to- gether and in the spike being broad at the top, or "club" shaped. This characteristic is sometimes shown by cross-bred wheats where' neither parent had this' characteristic, and may be the re- sult of atavism or striking back to remote ancestors. In Fig. 262 are shown the spikes of three varieties of wheats. SOME BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WHEAT. 411 At i8 is a spike of Blue Stem, 19 a spike of Red Fife wheat, and 20 is a spike of Preston, one of the best new wheats we have yet 18 20 19 Fig. 262. 18 Bine Stem, 19 Red Fife, 20 Preston. received. It is a strongly bearded wheat which originated from a cross made by Dr. Wm. Saunders, of the Canadian experimental farm, Ottawa, Can. The Blue Stem is awnless, but its white chaff is covered with a coat of fine velvety hairs. Red Fife, also^ is awnless, and its white chafif is free from hairs. Thespikeletbranchesofif at the angle of the central stem or rachis- 412 SOME BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WHfiAT. of the spike. Its short stem, called rachilla, bears two or more florets. A spikelet is shown at 2, Plate XXV. If the conditions are favorable, each spikelet may produce several mature seeds, but very frequently only two or three reach maturity, thus materially reducing the yield of grain. Below the lower floret the rachilla ■ bears two flowerless glumes, f and g, 2, also 7, Plate XXV, which closely resemble the flowering glumes. Above .these the several flowering glumes are arranged alternately on the rachilla. In Plate XXV, 2, k, k, k, k, represent flowers bearing seeds and r, r, represent rudimentary flowers. The Floret is by far the most interesting part of the wheat plant. The flowering glume is the outer and larger of the two portions of the chaff which, enclose the floral organs, and later the seed, while the smaller or inner portion of-chaff is called the palea. The palea is on the ventral, or creasec^ side .of tile kernel and its two sides are folded inside the keel-shaped flowering glume, and are shorter and thinner than' the latter. The floret is shown at 3, Plate XXV, ■ the flowering glume at 6 and the palea at 8. A third portion of the floral envelope is shown at 9, four times its natural size. This small organ is called the lodicule. It is at the base of the flower- : ing glume and palea, and is so placed between them that by swell- ' ing it pushes them apart. It is belieyed that this little organ ab- sorbs water and swells up when the flower is ready to be fertilized ■ Plate XXV. slio ws the spikes, fio-wrers and seed of wheat. The smaller spike is Fife and at its left is shown a Blue Stem spike. In the lower right hand coimer is a spike from which small late flowers halve been removed pre- paratory to crossing. At 2, spikelet, natural size, with a few joints of the rachis; / and g- are flowerless glumes; k, florets bearing seeds; r, rudimentary florets. 3, a single flower closed just after flowering, X4. 4A, longitudinal diagram before flowering, X3; anthers marked a; ovarv, o; stigma, s; filament, f. 4B, diagram of floret just after flowering, X4, showing how anthers are held within the envelope. 5, transverse diagramatic section, or floral plan, as is made by cutting across 4AatX, X7; /g", flx)wering glume; p, palea; a, anthers; 3, stigma. 6, flowerless glume; 7, flowering glume; 8. palea; all natural size. 9, lodicule, X4, shown also at L in 4B, 10, cross-section of , anther, X.SO; showing the pollen sacs and the central mass of tissue to which they are attached. 11, pollen grains, round and smooth, 5S micro millimeters in diameter. 12, ovary and stigma just prior to flowering; 1'3, at the time of flowering; and 14, shortly after flowering. 15,16 and 17. the mature seed; a, the ventral side; b, the dorsal side; c, the germ or chit; s, the stem end of the germs; r, the root end; e, outer layers or bran; d, the incurved surface of bran on the ventral side of the seed. The white portions of 16 and 17 are the floury interior consisting of cells containing the gluten and starch from which white flour is made. SOME BOTANICAL CHARACTBRISTlCS OP WHEAT. 413 Plate XXV. The Reproductive Organs of Wheat. 414 SOME BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WHEAT. and thus assists in opening the chaff, as will be seen later in con- nection with the flowers shown in Plate XXVI. Its position is- shown at 1 in 4B, Plate XXV. When not filled with water it is- a flat, almost leaf-shaped organ, but when full of water it is lounded out like a minute sack. Being so near the point of attach- ment of the two parts of the chaff, it needs to swell only slightly to press their outer points some distance apart. The male and female organs of the immature flower are closely packed within the lower part of the compartment enclosed by the chaff, as shown in the diagram 4A, Plate XXV. The three sta- mens are shown at a ; the filaments which bear the stamens at f ;. the stigma at s, and the ovary at o. The floral plan is shown by the cross-section at 5, where the flowering glume, f, g, and the pa- lea p, are folded about the three anthers, a, and the stigma .j. 4B shows a longitudinal section of the floret at the time of flowering. The anthers, a, have been pushed upward by the rapid elongation of the filaments at /; and because the glume and palea did not fully open, the anthers were caught and the filaments were bent upon themselves in their endeavor to lift the anthers out of the floret. The stigma remains folded up as shown in 12, Plate XXV, while the flower is yet immature, and it expands, as in 13, when the floret is in the fertilizing stage, as in 4B. When the anthers are being pushed upward by the filaments, they break open, as in 2, 3, 4, 12, 13 arid 14, in Plate XXVI, and al- low pollen grains to fall on the stigma of the same floret, and often scatter other pollen grains outside the floret. A cross-section of the anthers is shown at 10, Plate XXV. It is- made up of four roimd sacs, the two pairs being supported by a central mass of tissue, as shown in the engraving. The inner wall of each sack is lined with a single layer of the minute globular pollen grains. The pollen grains are shown at 11, Plate XXV. At the flowering time the stigma is spread out, as in 13, Plate XXV, is moist and in a condition to receive the pollen grain, and cause it to germinate. In 18, Plate XXV., a pollen grain is shown germinating and sending its pollen tube into a branch of SOME BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WHEAT. 415 the Stigma. The protoplasmic contents of the pollen grain in this manner grows downward through the stigma and style, and passes into the ovary, o, 13. In the center of the ovary is the minute fe- male cell, called the "ovule." The pollen tube reaches this, when the two coalesce, completing the fertilization of the seed. The stig- ma, having done its duty, soon becomes shriveled, as shown in 14, Plate XXV. ; while the ovary begins a rapid development and soon reaches the full size of the mature berry. HOW THE FLOWERS AND ANTHERS OPEN. There is a general belief that since wheat does not often cross in nature its floral covering does not open. Having observed that some of the anthers escape, and that their filaments are caught between the glume and palea at a point below their center, it was decided to make observations through the day, and if nec- essary at night, to see when and how much the floral envelop spreads. It was found that the flowers open very early in the morning, just as day is dawning. A flower was sketched at in- tervals during its opening and closing, and these sketches, to- gether with the exact time of making each, are presented in Plate XXVI, at I to 8 inclusive. The flower began opening at forty minutes past four, and closed at eighteen minutes past five. Other flowers observed required from thirty-five to fifty-five min- utes to open and close again, or, generally speaking, three-fourths •of an hour for the entire operation. By observing the progressive stages in figures i to 8, it will be seen that the anthers move upward as the flower opens, and before it has closed many of them have been pushed upward and have fallen out, the upper end now hanging downward.- Not all, how- ever, are raised sufficiently high to escape. In 9, Plate XXVI,- the diagramatic section shows the flower as closed, only one an- ther having escaped ; and in 10 none of the anthers succeeded in passing out of the enveloping chaff. The figures in the lower column, 11 to 16, inclusive, show the opening of the pollen sacs. When the flower begins to open, as in 416 SOME BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WHEAT. I, the anther is not open, as in ii, as a rule. But as the opening of the flower proceeds, as in 2, the anther splits open, as in 12 and 13. The anthers in a flower nearly open, as in 4, are ready to pass out of the floral envelope, and at this time they are freely shedding their pollen into the floret on the stigma. When the anther drops over and hangs downward, as in 4 to 8, inclusive ; or when it is re- inclosed in the envelope, as in 9 and 10, it soon splits open through- Plate XXVI. The Opening of Wheat Flowers and Anthers. Note.— The opening of the wheat flower at early dawn is shown in 1 to S in- clusive; anditsclosinginetoS, inclusiTe; the time of making each sketch be'ine given on the plate. In 9 only one anther passes out of the envelope and in 10 none escaped before the flower closed In 11 is shown the anther wittf its attachmeSt to the filament, in 12 to 16, inclusive, are shown the progressive changes in the opening ofthe pollen sacs and m 15 and 16 they are showri as having fallen out fromtheflower, thus inverting their position and allowing the remaining pollen SOME BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OP WHEAT. 417 out its entire length, and becomes sliriveled and brown, as in 15 and 16. A large amount of the pollen is lost by anthers which pass out of the envelope after they drop over and hang downward. The fact that the glumes and palea spread so widely, and that much pollen is scattered outside the florets, makes it probable that there is more crossing in wheat than has been generally sup- posed. An experiment is in progress to test this question. Plants of some of the varieties which have been successfuly crossed were grown side by side in rows three inches apart last season. Seeds of these are to be planted and the proportion of cross-bred plants which result will be determined. General obser- vation in the field indicates that these varieties, though mixed, very rarely cross. Blue Stem and Fife wheats, for example, of which we have made numerous crosses, are often found mixed in fields, but none of the variable forms produced by artificial cross- ing have been observed. THE KERNEL OF WHEAT. ij^^iT* i '■ Wheat has the first place among the farinaceous grains as food for man, because of that quality of its gluten which allows the yeast to expand the dough into a beautiful sponge, soft, palata- ble, and snowy white. Having that proportion of nitrogenous to carbonaceous food elements best suited to man's needs, its use balances food rations too poor in nitrogen and too bulky. And when used freely by persons who eat too much meat it makes their ration less rich and more healthful. The more abundant and the cheaper this cereal can be grown the better for all classes of consumers. The work of raising wheat, of breeding better varieties, and of storing the ripened grain all centers around the berry, which should be brought to the complex processes of milling in a perfect form that good flour may finally be the result. The kernel of wheat, though small and apparently simple, has a wonderful his- tory, and its structure is of interest. Several of the parts of the grain are shown in Plate XXV at 15, 16 and 17. See notes ac- 418 SOME BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WHEAT. companying description. Fig. 264 shows a highly magnified sec- tion of a grain of wheat through the bran and including a few lay- ers of the farinaceous cells inside the covering of bran. The bran is composed of several layers. Two layers, a, b, are made up of strong cells overlapping in such a way as to make a tough integument covering the berry of wheat. A third fairly strong layer, c, lies inside these outer ones and against the in- ner, colored layer of the bran. This latter is called the "aleurone," layer, since its nearly cubical cells are partly filled with aleurone grains. These cells lie against the floury interior of the kernel. Pig. 264. Highly maguified seciion of portion ot grain of wheat, as at X in Fig. 263; a, b,and c, outer coats or bran, of the grain; d, aleurone layer; e and f, floury interior starch cells of the grain. .4 X4 Pig. 263. Transverse section of a grain of wheat. They contain fermenting substances which during the germina- tion of the seed act on the floury cells making their contents solu- ble and ready for the use of the germinating plantlet. Though this layer of cells is rich in materials suitable for hu- man food, the effort in the roller mill is to crumble the floury cells off the inside of the bran, leaving the aleurone cells attached to the tough part of the bran. These aleurone cells have masses of colored materials in them which give to the flour a darker color than is desired by present market fashions, and it is believed that these aleurone cells contain ferments which increase the dan- gers of spoiling in flour exported to foreign markets. SOME BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WHEAT. 419 The floury cells, / and e in Fig. 264, fill up the mass of the kernel of wheat. Each floury cell has a thin wall, and its contents are principally starch granules — very small, nearly globular mass- es of definite composition (C6, Hio, O5) — and masses of gluten- ous compounds, together with small amounts of fats and ash. The proportion of gluten is slightly larger in those cells which lie nearest the aleurone layer, while those farthest from the bran in the middle of the kernel are somewhat more starchy, as is shown by the whiter appearance. The Amount and Quality of Gluten Important. — The percent- ages of gluten in wheats have much to do with the food and market values of flour made from the different varieties. But the quality of the gluten has even a greater influence on the prices of wheat than does the quantity. In quantity the gluten in the varieties of wheat tested by this station ranged from 17.9 per cent, to 8 per cent. The quality of this gluten, expressed in a scale of 100 points, ranged from 35 to 87-|. In a general way wheats are grouped by millers into two classes. Those with weak gluten are called "soft" wheats, and those with strong gluten are called hard wheats. These terms are used in a somewhat confusing manner. Some classes of wheats which are hard when crushed, as between the teeth, have gluten of very poor quality, though they may have a high percentage in quantity, and will not make flour which will rise into a light loaf. This wheat is not wanted by millers at any price, since even a small percentage of it in a milling mixture will seriously injure the quality of the flour. The gluten of wheat is composed of several nitrogenous com- pounds, mainly gliadin and glutenin. When these are present in the right proportions to each other they form a tough, elastic mesh within the dough or sponge, which is stretched by the gas developed in the interstices by the yeast germs. Prof. Harry Snyder, Minnesota Bulletin 54, pp. 37-38, says : "An excessive amount of gliadin and a small amount of glutenin make a soft, sticky dottgh. An excessive amount of glutenin and a small amount of gliadin prevent the gas from being retained and the bread from becoming light. * * * -pj^g gliadin, by binding 420 SOME BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WHEAT. together the particles of flour, enables the dough to retain the gas. * * * The glutenin 'serves as a nucleus to which the gliadin adheres,' and it prevents the dough from becoming soft and sticky." Prof. Snyder found that a good sample of Red Fife wheat contained about 14 per cent, of protein compounds, 11.3 per cent, of which were gliadin and glutenin; the proportion of the two latter being about six of the ghadin to four of the glutenin. This wheat has very good gluten. Dough from Fife wheat flour rises high, is not' "runny," and the gluten has the enduring power tu rise again and again with successive "working down" of the dough. Prof. Sn5rder found a slightly greater proportion of ghadin to glutenin in Blue Stem wheat than in Fife wheat. Blue Stem proves in baking tests to be nearly or quite equal to Red Fife wheat if neither have ever been wet or otherwise injured. Since good quality of gluten, together with at least fair quan- tity, is of so much importance, most careful attention must be paid to selecting and breeding varieties from which good flour may be made and to so harvesting and storing the grain that the gluten is perfectly preserved. THE MODERN PROCESS OF MILLING WHEAT. The making of wheat flour has been wonderfully revolutionized during the last quarter of a century. The burr mill has given way to the complex roller mill, with its graded product of flour, bran, shorts, and screenings. The great Pillsbury A mill has a capacity of 10,000 barrels of flour daily, requiring several trains to bring the wheat and remove the flour. The process in one of these mills is bewildering in its complexity. The grain is cleaned to remove the weed seeds and other foreign substances. It is scoured to remove the hairs from the outer end and even the chit is rubbed off. It is washed in water if infested with stinking smut. And if the bran is dry and brittle, the grain is moistened with steam or water to toughen the bran before the grain passes between the rolls so that the bran will not be crumbled up with the flour. The miller seeks only the interior of the kernel without SOME BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WHEAT. 421 any foreign matter whatever, and his machinery and processes are all arranged for that purpose. If it were possible for the farmers to produce only plump kernels, well fatted up, full of starch, and with bran tough, smooth, and uninjured by exposure to the weather, the miller would have a less difficult task and could produce a still better flour. The farmers do not use the care nor develop the skill in raising the wheat that the millers do in manu- facturing it into flour and there are some lessons farmers need to learn from the mills. They need to realize that the miller must have a good bran. He views the outside of the kernel. In pur- chasing he rarely even bites it in two that he may see the character of the inside. In purchasing a given variety of wheat he makes the price according to the plumpness and' the color and gen- eral appearance of the bran. He wants the bran bright in color. If wheat has been alternately exposed to rain and sun in uncapped shocks, or has lain wet in the bin, the bran will have lost its tough texture and will crumble, small particles going with the flour through the finest silk sieves. This discolors the flour and injures its keeping qualities. Besides, the rising power of the gluten is injtired by becoming wet or by heating in stack or bin. METHODS OF BREEDING WHEAT. Securing foundation stocks is the first requisite in preparing to improve wheat, since more depends upon the parent variety than upon the breeding. While much may be accomplished ,by scien- tific efi^ort, it is too much to expect or hope that more can be thus accomplished in a few decades than has been done in many centu- lies of care by past generations of wheat growers. In previous pages are given the plans employed in collecting and testing in the field, in the mill, and in the bake-room varieties of wheat secured from many parts of the world. Since no one variety of wheat is adapted to giving the best results in all parts of the state, the best wheats are being tested on the several experiment farms,that the best old and best new wheats for each portion of the state may be known and distributed in the respective districts. With the increase of good varieties there is an adaptation of kinds to special conditions. Sandy soils will probably be best suited to certain wheats bred to resist drouth and a less liberal supply of plant food. Those farmers who have rich or moist lands and who keep much live stock to enrich their fields, will be especially partial to those varieties which have good ability for standing erect. With University Farm, Northwest Farm, and Northeast Farm, the Experiment Station is equipped to compare varieties of wheats for various conditions of soil and climate. Seyeral tests at each farm are necessary, that reliable averages may be made for comparing the wheats. The varieties now in hand are an excellent basis for improvement by breeding. Practical experience with nearly fifty newly originated varieties, as well as with some hundreds of collected wheats, clearly demon- strates that it is economy to give all wheats a thorough trial at METHODS OF BREEDING WHEAT. 423 the experiment farms before distributing any to the farmers. Tri- als by the farmers with small samples, sent free, are in the aggre- gate expensive to the farmers and not very satisfactory. Our new wheats are sent out only after thorough trial as to yield and mill- ing quality, and the chances are that each new kind distributed will prove valuable, in at least portions of the state. The station is originating many varieties, but only a few of the very best are being distributed. So far about three per cent, of the new wheats are especially promising, and these are being increased for sale. Since some of the new wheats are proving better than any of the old wheats, only new kinds are now being multiplied for distribu- tion. That a superior new wheat introduced into the state may prove of great value, we have only to realize the importance to the northwest of the introduction of Red Fife pr of Blue Stem wheat. Little is known as to the history of how they came to be introduced, but what was done by individuals or by chance may be duplicated through systematic effort with still other superior varieties. NOTB. — A new variety can be rapidly multiplied. In 1890 this station dis- tributed, mostly in bag lots, a carload of superior Fife wheat, donated for tbat purpose by Mr. C. A. Pillsbury, of the Pillsbury- Washburn MilHng^ Company of Minneapolis. In some townships this wheat had been so multiplied in several years that little else was grown. A farmer at Park River, Walsh county, N. Dak., secured a small package of White Russian oats. In a decade these oats had been so multiplied that nearly the entire crop of the county vpas from this stock of seed. Prof. W. A. Henry, director of the Wisconsin Experiment Station, in the first Annual Report of that station, pp. 3 7-21, gives the history of the introduction of Manshury barley into America. In a recent letter to the writers, Prof. Henry briefly states the facts thus : "This barley was carried from the mountains of Mantchooria to the King's Garden, Germany, and from there by a German-Ameri- can visiting Germany to Iowa county, Wisconsin, and thence to the station. By this station it was dissemiAated all overthe northwest, proving worth hundreds of thousands if not millions of dollars." Our new wheat, Minn. No. 163, came from a single kernal planted in 1892. In 1893, seventy-five plants grown a foot apart each way were harvested; in 1894 a small field plot was grown; in 1895 a one-twentieth of an acre; in 1896 several plots; in 1897 a small field; in 1898 several small fields, resulting in about three hundred bushels of seed wheat, which was sold to about fifty farmers and planted in two-acre lots in the various counties of the state. At an annual increase of tenfold this wheat could be so increased as to make the entire crop of the state in seven more years, or in fifteen years from the planting of the single parent seed. Mr. S. A. Bedford, superintendent of the Dominion Experiment Farm at Bran- don, Manitoba, expressed the belief that the yield of oats in Manitoba had been increased on an average of two bushels per acre by the distribution of a few- superior varieties during the several years since the establishment of the experi- ment farm at Brandon. 424 METHODS OP BREEUISG WHEAT. GREAT VARIATION AMONG WHEAT PLANTS. Variability of individual plants of wheat is the basis for breed- ing. That this variation is considerable is demonstrated in many ways in our records of breeding wheat in the field-crop nursery, where each plant has the same space of ground as each other plant. In 1892 ten best plants, chosen by inspection out of 400 plants from seeds selected out of the bulk grain of each of three varieties, showed great variation in the several characteristics of time of ripening, length of spike, and height of plant. Especially was there great variation in the date of ripening. The plants each had a space 12 by 18 inches in area in which to grow and develop their individualities. Among the four hundred plants of McKen- dry's Fife, for example, plants were found which matured in ninety-seven days, others requiring one hundred and twenty- seven days. Arnong Power's Fife the range was from ninety-eight to one hundred and twenty-two days; and among Haynes' Blue Stem plants the range was from ninety-nine to one hundred and twenty-eight days. The ten plants which appeared to the eye as the best yielding plants out of the four hundred of each variety were harvested and notes taken as to height of plant, number of spikes, length of spikes, and yield of shelled grain. The following table shows the extremes of the variation in each case : TABLE LIV.— Variation Anions Best ID Out of 400 Wheat Plants. Height of Plant Length of Spikes Number of Spikes Yield Grams- Haynes' Blue Stem Pcwer's Fife 31-39 27-33 30-33 4-43/4 SVi-4, 3y2-4 19-31 18-33 22-33 15.4-19.4 3.4-13.8 6.8-16.7 Mckendry's Fife Note.— In Chart I are fifty wheat plant.s arranged from left to right in the order of their yield. Vertical lines represent the plants. Horizontal lines repre- sent, in the lower section, yields in grams; in the middle section, grades expressed in percentages; in the upper section, heights expressed in inches. The figures at the left of each section show the value of each line. These fifty plants are from a new variety springing from a single seed produced by crossing in 1892, and each year thereafter until ] 897, selected to the best plant in one hundred, these plants being a part of the fifth generation of th'e cross and all from seeds from one plant .of 1897. ^ METHODS OF BREEDING WHEAT. CHART I.— "Variation Among' Fifty Wheat Plants. 6201—1897. 425 - -4- H^^^jT -p i i ^-tCI5?3t IE *"""" ' T t -/ - -- - u _u it ^ T " t" ti J4 t - ._ ni 1 ^ ± - _ ._!,-._ _ ._ al-i- f i ; i I- - -\X - - . . J . [ ._ . S ' \ > it Qt 1 - - - - - , (^1 M-JJ ^-^4 L -J^t-f - . .is i ' \ -.-+7]Z^. - - . "1 V ' " ^T \ .^ .4_ . . .| _^t-. J ■ ! 1. ill - -^^ J I ~L -f-4 1 4- _. .114-^1 -j^?r| ;-r-4- - 47 i T? 1 ' i <' 1 _4r 1 f ■ ! [ ! . 1 1 1 / \ 1 1 ' 4: .. . __i 4 i 1 1 -r--'- -4-1 " 1 r - - f - \f' '--Vii -'--ta ' 1 [ 1 -1 1 - _ti„ n T ^ GJ^L XjC ''"1i'^ Jl jT XJ Z t alt" ""3 It ^^^7 t " f ± ^"^ '7'' \ / \ t 7 f^ ± r^ « ' \yx/ /\ I Jt ^ --■if --M-r4 -^--- :±:::::::::::±::::-:i--:: 1 i p — '"' " s — ■= 1 - — 1 — r^ ■ I "T' 1 liJ-LI .er. : iii..---^ 14 1 1 1 f+-V -?*/?* r<"-r. 1 v_ '^ 1 Tp" -!--■ -1 1 1 ZtJ J r-^ j_^ ^ -I LL4i4- _ 4 . - yC-! — J --~-j----|- — -p-p- 1 1 1 1 ^- — 1- ^ ,-;r^4ltH H ^— s- - ' --T^^ /i ^J^ ^3* J-r4 J_ i ' 1 ; •liL -i : = = — iffelllT -:-: -^-4H- 1-7?] qi"»i-*4^ -"^ ^ ^' 3;ii5o,.ciSM- c jar r V P3 («5 -o:t w4~H< ■4-+^ *^^ *~4 ■=■=1 vS ill :^i§?-?- ^ : -ytt-- 'jV/ : ■1 -\ \ =;-i - : 1 .- ! - ^ J .-_;_-. : : fIT -^-R-il i TTl 14 - --}; 1 ri -J- L 1-4 ~-TTT-"T- 426 METHODS OF BREEDING WHEAT. This variation is still more forcibly illustrated in Charts I., II., and III. In the lower section of Chart I. fifty plants are arranged in the order of their yield. Each vertical line represents a plant, the number of the plant being placed at the lower end of the line ; and each horizontal line represents one-half of a gram in yield. The yield curve is drawn between points on the vertical lines 1 epresenting the respective plants, where they cross the horizontal lines representing their yields. It will be observed that a few very large yielding plants cause the yield curve to rise very sharply at the right. Yield curves drawn of sixteen lots, of fifty plants each, all have this same feature showing that Quetelet's law is oper- ative in the variation of yields of individual wheat plants, all from seeds of the same mother plant, and each allotted the same area of soil to grow upon as every other plant. Tiiis was true in case of stocks selected to a single mother plant for each of several years, of stocks selected for a few years, and of hybrid stocks se- lected for several years and others selected for only a few years. The fifty plants plotted here grew consecutively in the field crop nursery, i.e., the plants were taken as they came, without selection. The yield curve shows that the plants ranged in yield from a fraction of one gram to six grams per plant. In the middle section the curve is platted to show the quality or grades, expressed in percentages, of the grain of the respective plots as arranged in the lower section. Here is shown not only the widest variation, but also a wide variation froih the yield curve in the lower section, though in general the grade curve rises with the yield curve. In like manner the heights of the respective plants are graphic- ally compared in the upper section. Here, also, there is marked variation and the height in a gen- Qaetelet's Law, whicll seems to be operative in the yields, grades and heights of individual vpheat plants, and in the yields of varieties of wheat, may be briefly illustrated by taking the heights of 1,000 men of mature age, all from the same race and brought up in the same county. If placed in a row in the order of their heights, a line drawn over their heads is almost level throughout nearly its entire length. At the lower end it drops down sharply and at the upper end it rises sharply,/, e., owing to the law of variation from the usual type, which by the force of heredity, is in general maintained, there is an occasional marked variation in either direction. METHODS OF BREEDING WHEAT. 427 eral way corresponds to both the yield of the individual plants and the grade or quality of their grain. And much experience has shown the general rule that heavy yielding plants are tall and have grain of good grade. Height is not an important factor, except that in breeding, plants of great height are avoided, as such plants produce varieties which lodge. But grade is important, and care is needed to select plants which both yield well and pro- duce grain of good quality. The great variation in the grades of the best yielding plants observed in comparing the lower and middle sections of Chart I is shown in all of a dozen similar charts. These charts represent several stocks which have been rigidly selected to a type for two to five years', by selecting each year to a single best mother plant, and also several cross-bred wheats which have been selected to a type for from one to four J ears, respectively. Some of the variation among plants in the field crop nursery is due to inequalities in the soil and in other conditions. Insects and accidents may result in injury to some plants, and in rare cases some plants may have unusually rich spots of earth. As a rule, however, the unequal conditions are from causes which in- jure certain plants, and the selection of the best plant of plants practically is made from among those which have not been in- jured but have had the general good conditions of the field. Great care is taken to have the land in uniform condition. The field is prepared the previous year. Where fertilizing is needed it is done very carefully, usually by a bare or a'green manure fal- low. Commercial fertilizers could be evenly distributed, but since this form of fertility is not depended upon in Minnesota it is not desirable to use it. Great variation among wheat plants which are the results of recent crossing between varieties has been observed in many cases. There is variation in all characters. Fig. LX. and the related text illustrate this variation. Two hybrid stocks arising from two kernels produced by pollen- ating two flowers on the same plant of one variety with pollen from one plant of another variety of wheat are found to differ in 428 METHODS OP BREEDING WHEAT. CHART II.— Variation of Wheat Plants in Grade of Grain. 1- 1 "~ U-4-^ L_.L_ _±_ 44. d- [_ 1 1 , _ _ ^ _ L_ _ L- _ L _ - e-+ i- ■ 1 : 1 r- fl—i -^ —\ -H~ .^ iLi. d - - - - -i - - _ ■" ~ V- ~ !i4; ^: 1 ! 1 ' " -^7~ ■ ^^ r-:-*t . 1 '~ ~ ~~ -1 h " ■n ^ 1— - :~^ ^ V-\ ■! "+ j ■ / ' 1 / 1 i 1 / 1 i 1 1 t '] f I'll / 1^1 1 i / S-" i J _ j 1 1 u " ! 1 — Sut. ^^ ^ n ^ 1 1 1 1 1 / '"3? -ri-' 1 / [ .... ; , - ' , ; ; 1 / ' ' ' ' i ^ / • -yt !-';.,;■ _ 1 1 ' ' ■ 1 1 ' ■ 1 1 1 / 1 Vi ■ ^ n>> r <3 - ^ ■* « ^ Vl > < * ? J fl r d^ o'oq' ■ :fj>0 ^h Ovjrun 'i Wn >V •4 J « c « c * ^ c t :i V I :t Q «C! ff>4 "f|, .s* oi>- n nio 1 \ 1 N -. ■« - H -1 .- : 1 : - i •■ 1 : .] ; ; S ■ • ^ - . ■ r - . . . , . . _ , J ^ tI N i i.- 3:i^- W^ .1151 = ^!- be. — : - - - - -. - - ^ A- i 1 __ Note.— In Chart III. the same plants shown in Chart I. are arranged in the order of their heights. In this and in most of a dozen other similar charts made of ■wheat plants growing consecntiTCly in nursery centgeners from single mother plants the height curve follows Quetelet's law, turning up sharply at the upper end and downward sharply at the lower end. ^ METHODS OP BREEDING WHEAT. 429 the number of forms they will break up into, and in the time re- quired to select them to a true type. In other words, hybrids vary in their tendency to greater or lesser variation from type, even when the parents of two cross-bred stocks are the same two plants. In each one thousand plants of wheat there are a few phenom- enal yielders, and the method of single-seed planting makes it practicable to secure these exceptional plants, and from these new varieties can be made. By no means all the varieties made from single mother plants, or those made by mechanically mixing together the seeds from several single mother plants, will prove large yielding varieties. Some plants grow vigorously when in the nursery where room and plant food are abundant, but when crowded in the field their progeny do not do well, and the variety is not a large yielder. It is found necessary to make ten new varieties, more or less, to se- cure one which is a marked improvement. Quetelet's law is operative among varieties produced from single mother plants as is shown by the yields of thirty varieties produced from single mother plants grown in the nursery in 1892. When applied to the choicest varieties there is one or a few ex- ceptional kinds. In Chart IV are plotted the averages of six yields each of the eight varieties which were the best of their re- spective classes among the thirty wheats originated from single mother plants in 1892. Here No. 169 stands out prominently as the best yielding wheat. Out of these thirty wheats three varieties are giving strong proof of promise, and one variety, Minnesota No. 169, is especially promising. The EngHshman who explained his success in breeding hounds by the terse statement that he "bred many and hung many," and the Scotchman who put philosophy in the single word "tops" when refusing long prices for the few very best of his herd or tlock, recognized the essence of Quetelet's law. This law should be more fully and broadly recognized in animal breeding and especially in plant breeding. Put into practical form this law may be exemplified as follows ; There are occasional plants of wheat, which upon being multi- 430 METHODS OF BREEDING WHEAT. plied into varieties yield larger crops than the parent kind, adding one or more dollars per acre to the value of the crop. (a) These best plants may be sought out in the nursery, where the seeds are planted singly in hills, by choosing the few best yielding plants of good grade from among each thousand plants. (b) When hundreds of varieties are originated from single mother plants, or from mixed seed from several superior mother plants, and these varieties are tested in the field, a few out of each hundred will prove to be valuable new varieties. (c) These foundation stocks will serve as better foundation stocks for further improvement by continued breeding, whether by selection alone, or by crossing followed by selection. When applied to plant breeding, and animal breeding also, the most important point in connection with Quetelet's law ,is that the selection of foundation breeding stocks should be made most carefully from among very large numbers. The larger number we plot in the chart the greater the chance there is for securing phe- nomenal plants at the upper end of .the line. Science in Selecting and in Mating. — In animal breeding, men have become expert in that artistic ability which enables the live- stock expert to so select and mate his animals as to rapidly im- prove a herd or to establish a new breed. In the breeding of swine, some of the beef breeds of cattle, and meat producing breeds of fowls, the individual appearances as 'form, color, hand- ling quality, etc., have been mainly depended upon in selecting the superior individuals, and in determining which individuals would blend in mating so as to best unite the desirable qualities and avoid the weak points of each. In breeding trotting horses and dairy cows, on the other hand, many of the most successful breeders have paid comparatively little attention to the form and other appearances, but have selected on the basis of actual perfor- mance records, as in the mile trotting race, or in pounds of milk and butter produced. Where actual performance can be recorded or where other principal characteristics, as amount of food requir- ed for a pound of grain, or the strength of fecundity, as determin- M"ETHODS OP BREEDING WHEAT. 431 ed by the number of yonng reared, can be reduced to figures, such facts are, as a rule, of greater weight in selecting among individ- uals than mere form or color or other outward appearances. In the breeding of wheat, yield per acre and the grade of the grain have been used as the most important characteristics to be considered, and in making a choice among plants attention has been paid to little else. Other qualities, as rust resistance and quality of the gluten in the grain, have also come up for careful consideration both in the selection of the best varieties and of the best plants to increase yields and also to make crosses, the two parents of which if combined would make the greatest improve- ment. It was found desirable to express all these" qualities in some sim- pler form than is a mere tabulation of percentages. The curved hne method of graphically displaying the yield and other charac- teristics have been found very helpful. Chart IV containing graphic expressions of the various qualities of our three best old and eight best new wheats is introduced here for this purpose. (See the notes under the chart.) 1st. It serves as a method of comparing the value of the more intrinsic qualities with those of less value or with the mere fancy points in each variety or individual. 2d. This is a graphic way of expressing the many qualities of several complex individuals. It is a means of gaining a more comprehensive knowledge of the relative merits for specific pur- poses of the several varieties or individuals. 3d. The characteristics of various individuals or varieties thus graphically shown aids in selecting the two parent individuals in crossing so as to best combine the desired qualities and eliminate the undesirable characteristics of the two parent stocks. Intrinsic Qualities vs. Fancy Points. — In Chart IV yield stands as the most important characteristic in the graphic score card. If the six sections were each represented on a percentage score card by its relative value, yield would properly be given the largest space and grade might take second place, grade meaning appearance of the grain — its ability to stand on appearances before the market. 432 METHODS OF BREEDING WHEAT. The following named values, for purposes of illustration, are an aid in properly interpreting the chart : PERCENTAGR SCORE CARD FOR COMPARING VARIETIES OF WHEAT. 1 Yields per acre 45 2 Grade of grain 20 3 Rust resistance 10 4 Quality of gluten 10 5 Amount of gluten 5 6 Coefficient of rise of ghiten 10 100 Giving yield such a prominent place as compared with other qualities might appear wrong. But the total weight per acre is the main factor in giving profits to the wheat grower. Several .sections relate to the quality of the wheat, viz., 2, 4, 5, and 6, making a total of 45 per cent, almost too much in proportion to what is given for yield. It will be observed that the rust-resistance curve in section 4 corresponds closeh' to the yield curve in section i ;i. e., those plants Note. — In Clhart IV.areshown graphically several of the lea dingcharacteristics of eight newly-originated wheats, and on the right sine of the chart thr-e old standard wheats are shown. Of these latter, Minn No. 51. Haynes' Blue Stem, is the parent of the best new wheat, iviinn. No. 169 ; and Minn. Nc. 66, Power's Fife, is the parent of Minn. No. 149. The vertical lines represent the respective varieties which are given by number or name at the bottom of the line. In each of the six sections there are horizontal lines representing units of the various qualities. These run only through the range of figures, as given at the left ends of the lines, which include only the variations in yield in grade or in other qualities respectively, in their respective sections, and not the entire yield, etc. This graphic language is new^ to the common reader, but if once mastered it often conveys the ideas in a much more clear and comprehensive manner than would mere words and figures. The various setTtions have been given the same proportion of the whole height of the chart as each quality is given in the percentage score card in the text. In section 1 the yields per acre are expressed in bushels of 60 pounds each, and since the yield is the quality to which the most value is attached the new and also the old varieties are arranged throuyhout the chart in the order of their yields. In section 2 the grades are expressed in percentages, thus making the compari- son of yield and grade comparatively easy in the two sections. In section 3 the relative rust resistance is shown in percentages. In section 4 is given the quality of the gluten as determined by the gluten test of the flour from each variety. In section 5 is given the percentage of gluten in the flour from each variety. In section 6 is given the quality of the flour as determined by the baker's sponge test, expressed in the volume of loaf produced by e^ch. percentage unit of gluten. This is obtained by dividing the grams of dry gluten in a hundred grams of flour into the volume of loaf of dough produced from the hundred gt ams of flour. These figures represent the averages between the volumes of the first and second rise of each kind of flour. This graphic score card has been drawn so as to give the same relative space on the card to each quality as is given in the percentage score card above. METHODS OF BREEDIMG WHEAT. CHART. IV.— Graphic Score Cari ofVarieties of Wheat. 433 :^'~j^ -TT^ r. dj '^ - ^^^ ■s. 10 ■'^ ' \ / ^ X ^--^ / 45- V ^ / to ^ ;,■; CJ ^4 H \, ^^^^ \ ^^— s ^~~^-. /3 2 \ _ \ "I"'^ -J c i — o a '^ \ 1 1 1 y^a.1 . — r^ ^^^ ^ \ IV 1 \ — 1^ i \ \ ■ —. i \ l~ > h-O' i Y o , .n ^ 1 -,-.^U- 1 \ ii"^ 1 1 / \ ^-^ 1 1 1 / i 1 / \ Ito/ r 1 1 / j / =1 S^ ^^.-^ ' ^~'^~^^J ' 1/ P:fr^ \ ^ L^^ 1 1 / s X %'^ "^ CD -TZI O s_ i 74 \ ' I ^ \ / r"T"^^ s: i i .4 \ \ / 1 1 \ / ^ \ / 1C s- < a. -o CD / 27 IT) fi - 25- 9 5._ / / / , -- ' / - / / 434 METHODS OF BREEDING WHEAT. which strongly resist rust are as a rule, able to yield well. It will be observed that in this percentage score card and also in the ghaphic score card no place is given for uniformity to type, length of spike, height of plant, and other points which are not relevant to the yields and quality which give value per acre to the farmer. Score cards sometimes used, as by poultry judges, have ninety- five per cent, of their values placed on the mere fancy points, as the form of comb, and wattles, color of wing feathers, character of markings of the body feathers, the poise of the "stocking" feathers and even the color of the scaly skin on the lower portion of the leg. Weight is given a place and in some cases is given a relation to value, but quite as often a bird is scored down because it weighs above as below the standard, and it may thus come to be used as a mere fancy point. The actual amount of percentage of lean meat on the breast and legs of the fowls of a meS-t breed is overlooked, though it could be determined with fair accuracy by handling the fowl. "Fuss and feathers" have but little place in breeding plants and animals which are used for the production of foods and other useful products, though they may properly be taken into careful account in breeding pigeons, pet dogs, pansies, chrysanthemums and other animals and plants produced for pleasure. Graphic Score Cards Used in Crossing. — Choosing animals tcv mate that the most nearly ideal young may be produced, and deter- mining which varieties or individual plants of wheat to cross-pol- linate to produce the most useful new varieties, are very difficult problems. Mere art may ofttimes suffice ; and extensive mating followed by intelligent and careful selection will often result in the production of some good individuals. But to make the most rapid progress — to use a given amount of time and means to the best advantage — the many qualities of each parent should be con- sidered, and the selections should be such as to unite the greatest number of strong points with the fewest weak ohcs. Chart IV would aid in the selection of varieties between which crosses are to be made. Minn. No. 169 stands out prominently as one parent to choose for crossing. Minn. No. 163 being the METHODS OF BREEDING WHEAT. 435 next best yielder of good grade, fair in rust resistance — a point in which Minn. No. 169 is very strong, — good in quahty of gluten, very good in the amount of gluten, and fair in amount of loaf a given amount of gluten will make, would well mate the large yield- ing Minn. No. 169. Minn. No. 66 would not seem so promising to use for crossing with Minn. No. 169 as would Minn. No. 163. Its smaller yield is not sufficient to overcome the advantage of its superior weight per bushel and its slightly greater per cent, of dry gluten; and, besides, it is below Minn. No. 169 in rust resistance and in the co- efficient of its ability to rise in the loaf. A score card at best can represent only part of the factors which the breeder must take into consideration. One quality not placed in the graphic score card, because common only to the Blue Stem varieties, is the weakness of the chaff in holding tight about the berry. In case of Minn. No. 169 there is some loss from shelHng and from the spreading chaff allowing the bran of the berry to be exposed to rains, dews, and sun and thus rendered brittle and hght colored. Nos. 163 and 66, being Red Fife varieties, have tightly clinging chaff, and would be equally well adapted to cross- ing with this new Blue Stem variety to increase the strength with which the chaff holds to the grain. Since Minn. No. 169 is the better wheat, the best progeny would probably be the few selected from the cross-bred stocks which resembled that parent. And by producing the progeny in very large numbers and seeking the best, those plants most nearly com- bining all the good qualities of both parents could be found and used in making new varieties. Experiments might prove that it would be advantageous to use Blue Stem wheat a second time, rhaking the cross-bred wheats three-fourths of the blood of Minn. No. 169 and only one-fourth the blood of Minn. No. 163. The many questions which arise as to how best to proceed in making crosses are somewhat difficult of solution because of the large number of plants which must be used and the long series of years through which the resulting varieties must be tested in the field and in the mill before final results are reached and the varie- 436 METHODS OF BREEPIXG WHEAT. ties have won a place among the wheats which are chosen for general distribution throughout the state. now NEW VARIETIES OF WHEAT ARE ORIGINATED. The breeding of field crops was begun by the Minnesota Ex- periment Station in 1889. In case of wheat, corn, oats, and bar- ley, of which many varieties exist, the effort was to first secure the best obtainable kinds, that the work of breeding might be cen- tered on making the best varieties still more useful. In case of timothy, clover, and other species which had not been broken up into agricultural varieties, systematic breeding was at once begun, using the common kinds of those crops for the foundation stocks. Encouraging progress was made from the start with timothy, though the process is of necessity long, because of the perennial habit of this grass, necessitating two or three years for the growth and selection of each generation. Severe winters have destroyed stocks of common red clover, and very little has been accomplished with that crop, excepting that something has been learned as to methods of breeding it. While most effort has been expended on wheat, and most accomplished, numerous other crops have been dealt with in the field crop nursery. Since each species needs a somewhat different method of breeding, the work with oats, bar- ley, millet, flax, field peas, beans, and brome grass has given a larger knowledge of the subject, aside from the production of new varieties of these crops. WHEAT BREEDING BEGUN IN 1889. In 1889 Red'Fife and Blue Stem wheats were crossed as found growing on several farms in the Red River Valley. All the re- sulting kernels were accidentally destroyed. In 1890 a large number of wheat flowers were cross-pollinated at Warfen, Mar- shall county, Minn., and fourteen grains were harvested. These seeds were planted near Fargo in 1891, and the resulting plants were shipped by express' and lost, thus again destroying the start in the breeding of these two famous hard wheats. Valuable METHODS OF BREEDING WHEAT. 437 facts, however, were secured. Eight out of thirteen of the result- ing plants, inspected when in blossom, proved to be true crosses, showing that these two wheats will cross fertilize. Field Crop Nursery Begun in 1890. — The growth of individual plants of timothy and wheat in T890 and 1891, planted in hills one seed in a place, had demonstrated that it was practicable and desirable to deal with individual plants in breeding these field crops. At Fargo and Power, N. Dak., 400 kernels of each of eight wheats were planted singly in hills 12 by 18 inches apart, in 1892. The following named varieties were used : Power's Fife, Minn. No; 66; Glyndon 818, Almn. No. 480; Glyndon 753, ]\Iinn. No. 116; Haynes' Blue Stem, Minn. No. 51; Risting's Fife, Minn. 476; Glyndon 811, Alinn No. 168; and Glyndon 761, Minn. No. 481. Besides selecting the best plants from each variety, and making many crosses among the best plants, the variation of each variety grown in this nursery way was critically studied, as men- tioned in a previous paragraph. IMPROVING A GOOD VARIETY OF WHEAT. Besides the numerous varieties of wheat which have been in the field crop nursery for some years, the station has recently placed in nurser}' plots, under present plans of breeding, stocks of a dozen varieties which have proven to be the best out of the several hundreds, tried for a series of years in field trials, and several promising varieties originated by crossing which having been for some years in field trials have been returned to the field crop nursery to be used as foundation stocks from which to produce still other new varieties. One of the collected wheats, Bolton's Blue Stem, Minn. No. 146, received from Thomas Bolton, Park River, N. Dak., stands out prominently as the best variety among 200 collected prior to 1894. In ten yields it averaged nearly two bushels more than the other best yielding kinds, and is among the best in percentage and quality of gluten. The methods em- ployed with this wheat will illustrate the plan of selecting wheat in use at present. 438 METHODS OF BREEDING WHEAT. Breeding Bolton's Blue Stem Wheat, Minn. No, 146. — In the spring of 1898 there were selected from bulk grain, grown in Fig. 265. Planting wheat in the field crop nursery. The planting frame consists of two 2x10 planks 42 feet long, held together by movable cruss-ties. On the inner edge of each plank a nail is driven eve y four inches. A cross-board 52 inches long is placed with its ends gainst these nails. Notches every four inches along the edge of this cross-board indicate the position of hills of wheat. When one row is planted the board is pushed forward four inches against the next two nails. the field trials the previous yeai, 1200 kernels of Minn. No. 146. The hardest large kernels were chosen, and these were planted singly, in hills four inches apart each way. These kernels were • •000 • 000 000 000 000 000 000 o o o o • o o o o • OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO* oopooooooooooooooooo* ooooooo6oooooooooooo» o o o o • • •0000000000 • •oooooooooo* • •oooooooooo* • •oooooooooo^ • •oooooooooo* ooooooooooooooooooo«»oo dooooooo-oooooooo"ooo«»oo • 000000 '0 0000 O. OOOOOOOO* •■0 00000000000000000000« #00 0000000000000000000. 0» #00 oooooooooooooooooooo« •00 oooooooooooooooooooo^ •00 00000000' 00 • 0000000000 ■000000000 o^ Fig. 266. Plan of planting nursery wheat. The circles represent plants within the *centgener, the dots the border plants. The 18-inch alley is widened to 34> inches by the removal of the border rows either side. planted by using the planting frame shown in Fig. 265. This frame is forty-two feet long, and fifty-two inches wide between the planks, giving room for fourteen plants crosswise and one ^Asterisk Refers to the plot or group of plants grown from seeds of a single mother plant. METHODS OF BREEDING WHEAT. 439 hundred twenty-four lengthwise. The plots, or "frames," of plants are placed eighteen inches apart so that there may be al- leys in which the workmen may stand when cultivating and har- vesting. The alleys necessitate throwing out the border plants, since these have more soil and sunlight than do those in the center of the plot. The outer two rows are in all cases discarded, leaving \ht plot ten plants wide and one hundred twenty long, twelve hundred plants in the full frame. The plan of planting is shown in Fig. 266. Where the supply of seed is small, as in case of some newly-crossed plants, the two border rows are planted with another variety of wheat, a bearded kind being used around a beardless wheat, and vice versa. And when a limited number of seeds of several varieties or stocks are planted in the frame, they are separated by two rows of "border" wheat, as shown in the diagram. The system of numbering in use has proved very simple and Fig. 267. In the foreground is the field crop nursery when the plants are several inches high. In the background are shown newly-originated varieties of Bromas inermis and of timothy. 440 METHODS OF BREEDING WHEAT. convenient, and is adapted to an extensive system of records. The first plant of the first plot or stock of wheat is nurnbered loi, and if there are not more than lOO plants in the plots the first plants of the next plots are 201, 301, etc. If some century, as the eighty-fifth, for example, contained a full frame of twelve hundred plants, they would be numbered from 8501 to 9700, inclusive; and the first plant of the next plot 9701. In case there are only a few plants in the centgener, as in the first generation of a cross-bred stock, the last numbers of the hundred will be blank, since it is best to begifi the numbers for the succeeding stock on the even hun- dred and one. This is a great help in running back the history of any given stock through the various year books in which are kept the planting notes, the harvesting notes and other data gathered annually, and aids in compiling a history of any stock to which an especial interest may have become attached. In har- vesting, each plant is given its actual nursery number, as 1161, and this number together with the year always makes it possible to find in the storage boxes, where the seeds from all choice plants are preserved, the envelope containing seeds of any plant which may be desired ; and it also facilitates reference to the notes wher- ever they may have been recorded. Wheat Crop Nursery History Book. — After the notes of sev- eral years had accumulated the station had books of printed blanks made in which were recorded the histories of all nursery stocks of each kind of crop, as wheat, oats, barley, and field peas. Table LV. shows the notes for one year. This extends over a double page, and a similar page is used for the notes of each year. The margins of succeeding leaves are trimmed off showing the three left-hand columns of the first page, that the one set of names and numbers may be used for the blanks for each of ten years. Note:— Table LV. is a pace from the Crop Nursery History Book, into which are earned the notes of the best plants which are selected from which to plant nursery plots the next year These notes are copied from the Nursery Year Book (see Table LVII.) and from the envelopes on which are placed data gathered at harvest time and in the seed laboratory where the seeds are weiched and inspei'ted Twenty pages, with printed blanks as in th-s table, are set apart for each group of stocRs twp paues being; required for the notes of each year. The numbers in the third column are written with red ink and are used much as names for the respective nursery stocks. Succeeding pages have their margins clipped off, showing the names of the varieties, and the red numbers on the first of the ten pairs of page« METHODS OF BREEDlSCG WHEAT. 441 •A 'N 'D "! pa^-Binqui P13!A ^^N -to ;sna 10 • ^' lOO" ■*ffl 10 >c to to •ttc SSOJQ 3n-ix I P3:^S3AJT3H SUIT3J9 'O^ | p3[pni3H sjaAvoiajo ok spiaaH psssojjjo o;ij | -Q O ^ So*- >:< n coi c u apuao ssducliunu oCun UBjg JO u,:iipuoo aziS I •io[OD I •jaao J3d 'spioH i . 0-* g-00 ss3iu.\\v -lo papjB«a I <: <3 >>c2 S °> O !» .<:« a ■f o So. o i2 o .!4 d n © -* n (0 CO l' t 10 y. a; n PI3IA *3N (0 L-: ■* 01 Ti- CO 10 CO apeJO r- CO N 10 r^ ■ON ^Jasjtvx M N 0; CI 01 01 « 0» 10 O 10 u" to c fH X « • ■H ^ 01 01 1-( ,^ PR!A ;3N If O CO (0 N 01 CO X Ol LO apBJO 0- 'J 00 X X X X 10 Cj ii, c oo m X iiS a a X 01 O M H;Su3j:^S 10 X 00 X X C£ ri ■^ 1-1 X CO ri X ■OM ^j;}Sjn\ a ^ r- ■H 10 .■0 01 c 10 •t •^ >0 uo 01 01 I- r- r* 01 « 10 c PI3IA 13N y to 1-1 01 (^ tc Tf Ol sp-Eag c OC 10 to cc ^ "*• 3DUB:^sisaM 3sn>j cc c - 01 X ss 60 a X O) ~' xi;.^a3j:jS c 0- c z ci ^ CO ■^ to ^ 01 lO y; ■ON ^assjllN 1" ct 01 ■* LO CO 0- CO •^ •^ l- I- t- 'J •- '-' -^ -• — -- ^ -^ Ol in CO CO It-: CO 01 ct ri TH (0 PP!A ?3N tc ID X to OJ 01 01 r* t- i-( H H apBJO m CJ 01 10 CI 00 0) X SS ^^a'B:^S!S^a isn^ QC CO CO 01 q^SnjjriS o O X X c 0) X ■ X c^ a. Ol ■31 Ci- t^ 10 (D 10 Tf- X 10 10 -H tc iH ■ON .^jasjujij c c CI t^ 10 n c 10 01 01 in CO m ^ c* ■H to X t^ N 1^ N 10 10 fO ' r- '-' — — — t-i -- 01 P13IA ^a.V t^ , to CO tH «!|-: X |« XlTf. ^11- t- 10 01 -* nI« -M Icsf 0) lio' ^In apBJO O rH 01 X OS ■P t |«UBq.sis3y: isnji IT t^ rH CO X O bo ii;3aaa:^S to CO 01 . 01 01 to 01 01 r- ,N Th to y- X( X X X COlOt ■on: ■iJ3Sj:n>^ tt 10 rf- 10 01 01 01 01 CO to 1- X or x X X Tf 01 i-i -^ -^ ■^ — l-' '-' •- ^ H If CO ,, 01 ■OK ^lossnnipv OC 00 X X m fH n a h' id M m CC K m X n t^ fc .?^ .!H S 3 <2i c IX S »<» u. ca ffl fe X >< 'A -r s i. l-r t t» (W m l! q It n s « 2 is (S k, >% ^ fU ffi CO c rt d C14 ffl td c tl s tr ! METHODS OF BREEDING WHEAT. 443 In Table LVI. are collected the most important items of sev- eral stocks for a number of years illustrating how they can be brought together from the history book that the best nursery stocks may be chosen for multiplication and the poorer ones dis- carded. Two small fields of one to two acres each are used for the ce- real crop nursery, and two of' similar size for the leguminous crop nursery. Only one of the two fields is used each year, the other being subjected to a preparatory process, that the land may be in uniform condition and free from weeds. The field which is not in use is sown to a green crop, as peas or oats, which is plow- ed under or mowed for hay or silage as the needs of the soil may demand. Care is used to keep the soil in good heart, but not so rich as to cause the plants to fall down, and to have the surface soil uniform in fertility and in mechanical condition. These small fields are admirably adapted to the purpose. Surface drainage is especially attended to, that no injury may result from the soil being washed about dviring heavy showers. The land is fall plowed and no horse's are allowed on the field in the spring, but it is pulverized and made into a fine seed-bed by using the hand hoe and garden rake. Planting the Seed. — These seeds are planted by hand as shown in Fig. 265. A pointed dibble is used and each seed is placed one and a half inches deep and carefully covered. The plots are cultivated by means of small hand-weeding claws as soon as the plants have appeared, and as often afterwards as the con- dition of the soil or the presence of weeds may require. The hills are all carefully inspected before the plants have formed tillers, and whenever two plants are found in a hill one is re- moved. The Harvesting is mainly a matter of elimination. The two border rows are first clipped off with sheep shears, care being used to reriiove all the heads and not to injure the remaining plants. Recording the Notes. — The presence of numerous stocks ne- cessitates the use of system in recording the notes. The planting 444 METHODS OF BREEDING WHEAT. notes are entered each year in a Crop Nursery Year Book, referred to in the notes as C. N. Y. B. 1899, C. N. Y. B. 1900, etc. Into this book are entered the planting records, inchiding the nursery Fig. 268. Removintr the border rove's. number of the mother plant of the previous year ; the century num- ber of the present 3'ear, thus, loi, 201, etc. ; the Minnesota variety number ; the variety or class name ; the date and the number of seeds planted. At harvest time general notes are made in this ■4- iffWfffBI' "• ■'* ■ ■ i ti A Fig. 269. The men at the left are clipping ont all the plants except the best, while those in the center are takinff notes on the best plants and harvesting tbem, saving the hf ads in envelopes. The field-house where the note books are kept at harvest time is shown in the background book, on the strength and other characteristics and facts regard- ing the entire plot, leaving all notes on the individual plants to be made on the envelopes mentioned in a future paragraph. METHODS OP BREEDING WHEAT. 445 In the left-han^l column are Roman numerals and capital letters. All stocks classed under "I." are being improved by selection alone, whileallmarked.II., are results of crosses which are being selected to large yield and uniformity of type. The character, IV., is used to designate other stocks which are in experiments where a study of methods of breeding, radier than the making of varieties,, is the object sought. Columns are also placed in this book for the inser- tion of the pages in the Wheat Crop Nursery History Book (W. C. N. H. B.) and in the Crop Nursery Year Book (C. N. Y. B.) of the previous year. On the following page is a copy of the blank form used in the year book, in which the planting notes only have as yet been entered. In making the selection, careful men clip out all but the best ■plants. In going over the plot the first time about half the plants are removed. A second time half or more of the remaining plants are removed, and a third or fourth time through the plants are reduced to five to ten per cent of the whole number. Thus among twelve hundred plants of Miim. No. 146 only about seventy- five are left standing. In other cases where only one hundred seeds were planted, ten of the best are left for harvesting. The preference is usually given to plants which have several culms of nearly the same height, bearing large well filled heads. See Fig. 270. Harvesting Choice Plants. — Each of these ten, or seventy- five plants, as the case may be, is given a nur.sery number. Large paper envelopes are given numbers corresponding to the numbers of the choice plants. On these envelopes is a mimeographed blank form into which are written all the notes regarding the plant, the heads of vihich are placed within. The spikes are cut off without anv straw, and placed in the envelopes and these en- velopes in turn are placed in paste-board boxes 7x10^x121 inches in size. In case spikes are not dry it is necessary to pack the storage boxes loosely and to leave the flaps of the envelopes open that the grain may dry out and retain strong germinating power. Seed Selection in Winter. — In the winter season the unthreshed heads of the selected plants are weighed. These gross weights 446 METHODS OF BRKEDING WHEAT. u u 1 a o u +j E (S681) ■a-A-N-0 j- (TBE> a THrHrHrtNNN NNt^ :: "*■* 00001^ MM 10 10 10 »HrHCo psnto :: loio oico Nt^ oi o> ci H :>oSja ^nius ,-: ^sna q:;8a3a^S V P. . a; a cooooo o o o o oo oo o oo O O -^ M H COOwOO o- O O O OOX OO O OO o o ■a EL 4-18 4-18 4-18 4-18 4-18 4-19 4-19 4-19 4-19 4-19 4-21 4-22 4-24 4-24 4-34 4-24 4-25 4-25 4-25 4-25 4-25 4-25 NAME OP VARIETIES, AND OF VARIETIES USED IN MAK- ING CROSSES. IE ■.m £3 be 0^ '££ u u f 2S5 oc oc c 1 s s 5 t \ J : a 4 1 1 i 1 « > P < i i 4 P 3 5 i 1 C i < i CQ -^ a t j <^ " 3 » II a E a a \ c B 3 m. Ni i o~ !>. -.2 u H tn a •>i % oi w ~ £ = a. ir K in \ : 05 B, : \ ; ] m i s > 13 3 03 « Pi 5 ^ 00 < a U 2« 5 - B, a ^ -P ^ a (0 a i 8 -1 " m n bh n a . a 2^ IDtHtHM^IO ffl r< ■* » OlM TflO -99. Fig. 277. A inrge steam threshing outfit in operatk,nm_ sljock thre»YnS.^|elf- i=„1i"efgra?n?o^^^s^?faS^"^oTt\":"waron'sfcoir.hant. on wheels where the crew is "boarded." 454 METHODS OF BREEDING WHEAT. luctantly discarded. But the introduction of many varieties would lead to a confusion of names, and with the aid of the several sub- stations it seems wise to reduce the number to be distributed to the minimum. If several are disseminated within a decade, each will find that portion of the state where it is adapted to produce the best crops of wheat. CROSSING FOLLOWED BY SELECTION. Bolton's Blue Stem and Minnesota No. 163 have been chosen as two wheats to use as foundation stocks in producing cross- bred wheats. Crossing followed by selection as a means of pro- ducing improved varieties of wheat has some features not neces- sary in the improvement by the method previously described by selection alone. To secure stocks for crossing the varieties are first introduced into the field crop nursery in full frames of bulk seed, and are subjected to rigid selection for two or more years, as in improvement by selection. From among these stocks strong yielding plants are taken for the parents of crosses. Thus the best plants from the best varieties are used for foundation stocks in making out-crosses and in-crosses, and tirhe is not wasted on weak varieties nor on weak plants of good varieties. How Wheat is Cross-Pollinated. — The stocks of wheat to be used for crossing are grown in the nursery, where each plant has an area 4x4 inches square. When approaching the flower- ing period superior plants are chosen and marked with a card placed in a tin label, which is borne by a tall stake. From some of the largest spikelets all the florets are removed except a dozen, more or less, of the strongest ones. This is done just before these florets are ready to blossom^ thaj: the anthers may be removed be- fore they break open and cause self-fertilization. This work must be done with much care. If handled roughly the florets are often so injured that fertilization is not effected. If the anthers are permitted to become too nearly ripethey usually burst open while being removed, and cause self-fertilization., Since the florets open very early in the morning it would seem wise to remove the an- METHODS OF BREEDING WHEAT. 455 Fig. 278. Crossing wheat. 3. 1. 3. Fig.'279 No. 1 — Blue Stem spike chosen for female iiowers; 2 — same after re- moral of all florets except 14 of the strongest; 3 — Fife spike from which pollen is used. 456 METHODS OP BREEDING WBE AT. thers in the afternoon and apply the pollen early the next day; or, in case the florets are not yet ripe, to add fresh pollen the second day. General experience is the guide so far, since exact experi- ments to determine the best time and manner of removing the anthers has tiot been completed. Fig. 280 shows the operator removing the smaller spikelets at the base of the spike. The upper spikelets are also removed as shown in Fig. 279. WJien all the',;.spTke,lets excepting the six or Pig. 280. Removing the flowers of the smaller later spikelets at the base of the spike, leaving only the strongest florets to be supplied with pollen from another plant. In front of the operator's left hand is a spike which has been cross-puUinated, then covered by wrapping about it a piece of tissue paper, which is tied on. eight in the center of the spike are -removed, the small florets in the center of these are also clipped off with sharp pointed dissect- ing scissors, leaving only the twelve to sixteen strong lower florets of the several spikelets, all being at nearly the same stage of ma- turity. Care is used to remove all the anthers from every one of these flowers and to so withdraw them by means of sharp pointed tweezers that no pollen is left within the floral envelope. The anthers gradually turn yellow when nfearing ripeness. The eye soon becomes experienced in determining, from the partially METHODS OF BREEDING WHEAT. 457 changed color, when the floret is nearing the period of fertilization. Florets found so far advanced that there is danger of self-pollina- tion are discarded and removed. The anthers having been re- moved from all the flowers, the spike is covered with tissue paper. This is wrapped loosely about the spike and tied above and below to prevent the entrance of foreign pollen. In case of flowers which are nearly ripe, pollen is at once applied before covering the flowers. Careful experimentation inight show that 'it would be economy of time in producing a given nurnber of cross-bred grains to apply pollen at the time of emasculating the flowers and again the next morning, and even a third time early the second morning. However, since each cross-bred kernel is capable of varying so as to make a number of types, it is not difficult to pro- duce more new varieties than the station has time to develop and test.' Pollen from the plant used as the male parent is secured by selecting anthers which are ripe, as shown by their yellow color, and by the ease with which the pollen grains roll out when the pollen sacks are broken. The operation of removing the anthers and of inserting pollen cannot be shown in detail by means of photographs. The fine points of the tweezers are inserted between the flowering glume Fig. 281. Opening the floret to-remove the anthers. 458 METHODS OF BREEDING WHEAT. and the palea, as shown in Fig. 281, and as they are allowed to spring apart the floret is opened, and the anthers removed. Care must be taken to avoid injury to the stigma and to the ovary by opening the floret too wide, or by otherwise using the parts of the floret in a rough manner. The difficulties of removing the an- thers are shown in 5 and 4 A in Plate XXV., page 413. To insert pollen the tweezers are again used to open the floret, as in Fig. 282. The pollen is carried into the floret by grasping a ripe anther in the tweezers and inserting it between the two portions of the chaff, care being used that the pollen sacks are open and Fig. 283. Inserting a ripe anther from the plant used as the male parent into the floret of the plant used as the female parent. that pollen falls thickly upon the stigma. When ripe the pollen grains no longer adhere to the walls of the pollen sacks but roll about as particles of flour. These ripe anthers are taken from florets on a spike of wheat plucked from the plant used as the male parent. Other plans may be used, as employing a small steel spatula to carry the pollen to the stigma. Of the flowers handled, the percentage producing seeds has been larger and more of these have proven true crosses when the labor in crossing has been executed with great care. From METHODS OF BREEDING WHEAT. 45& five to twenty-five per cent, of the flowers handled produced seeds^ and part of these are not true crosses, as shown by their resem- blance to the mother plant only, self-pollination having occurred. Those plants resulting from out-crossing which do not show any of the characteristics of the variety used for the male parent are discarded as not being true crosses, though it is recognized that an occasional true cross may so completely resemble the female parent as to not show the male type, at least not in the first twa generations. In making in-crosses it is very important that the emasculating and pollinating be done with care, that all resulting plants may be true crosses, since the parents are similar and there are na means of determining whether there is a true cross or the seed ha& resulted from self-fecundation. The nursery number of the plant' used as the male parent, a& well as the number of the plant to which the pollen is applied, also the date of handling, are placed on a card which is attached to the culm below the crossed head. When ripe both parent plants- are harvested and a record made of their yield, so that the history of the "performance record" of the parent plants may be complete. The handled spike is placed in a small envelope, which is placed with the remaining heads of the mother plant in a large envelope. Each kernel of wheat found in the handled spike becomes a mother plant. The first year it is placed in the nursery with an individual number. The second year a hundred, more or less, of the seeds of each plant of the first generation are planted. Any stocks which dg not appear reasonably strong are at once dis- carded. Here the method of procedure is as yet an unsettled problem. So far it has been our custom to save only the one best plant from the centgener. It now seems logical to save several, or to save- all the strong plants in bulk, grow them in field plots for a few years that they may have time to vary, and then to introduce them into the nursery selection again, using one or two thousand seeds and saving only several of the best resulting plants. Henceforth the selection of the best plants in the nursery arid 460 METHODS OF BREEDING WHEAT. the multiplication of their seeds take the same course as where varieties are origniated by selection alone, as described in a former section. ' Crossing Produces Greater Variation among individual plants than is observed where selection alone is followed. The present indications are that the average yield of plants resulting from a cross between distinct varieties is less, at least during the first few generations, than the average yields of the two parents. But there being more variation among the cross-bred stocks, there is greater opportunity for the selection of the occasional good plant which will produce plants yielding better than either parental kind. We have abundant proofs of the greater variation of cross- bred stocks. In Fig. 283 is an illustration of unusual variation resulting from crossing two varieties of wheat. Of the three spikes in the upper row the one at the left is the Fife parent, the one at the right is the Blue Stem parent, and the one in the middle represents the average of the spikes produced in 1894 on plant No. 1874, though there was considerable variation in the several spikes. One hun- dred seeds were planted in 1895 from this mother plant, and all the variations represented in the middle and lower rows were found. In the progeny of no other cross-bred seed have we seen such a marked tendency to vary. The two varieties of wheat which were crossed never have more than very short awns, while among the progeny are several types with awns of various lengths. The chaff on some of the plants was hairy like the Blue Stem parent, on others smooth like the Fife parent, thus giving proof that a true cross had been made. In form of spike, some resembled one parent and some the other, while numerous spikes were quite dif- ferent from either in this particular. Thus the second head from the left- in the middle row had a square form like the so-called "square-headed" wheats. The second from the left in the lowdr row has its rachis shortened at the upper end, producing a broader top to the spike, as with the so-called "club wheats." Several of the plants had dark brown chaff, others chaff with a light metallic tinge, each of which are like types of wheat quite distinct from METHODS OF BREEDING WHEAT. 461 J '1 r 1 ■1 1 1 ( I-: ■; j 1. ,W «• w\ / '?y m ^"- r / 1 1 j . i 199 282 115 476 FIELD MANAGEMENT FOR WHEAT. he has collected the average mortgage foreclosure sales showing^ that wheat farming has not been so profitable as diversified farm- ing. In Table LX. are given his summaries showing the relative mortgage foreclosure sales in the two classes of counties. The summaries are given for biennial periods and ex- tend through eighteen years. The left-hand column of figures- shows that in the entire state there was sold under mortgage fore- closures one acre to every hundred fifty-one acres of asses,sed lands, the range being from one acre in one hundred and thirty to one in two hundred acres. In the right-hand column, showing the proportion of mortgage foreclosure sales in the wheat-raising counties of the western and northwestern parts of the state, the average rises to one acre sold under mortgage to every one hundred and fifteen acres as- sessed; tjie" range for the biennial periods being from one in eighty-one to one in one hundred and eighty-three. The latter is for the biennial period of 1880-1, at which time comparatively few of the many mortgages, then newly made, had fallen due. During the last fifteen years the condition of the farming busi- ness in this "wheat belt" had not become better nor particularly worse. The mortgage foreclosure sales of farm lands averaged about one-fourth more than for the entire state. In the next to the right-hand column are figures representing the proportion of mortgage foreclosure sales in the southeastern corner of the state. Here, at the beginning of the period covered by the statistics, wheat was sti41 grown in large quantities, and the proportion of land sold under mortgage to the total on the assessment rolls was one to one hundred and eight. Very soon after this the farmers began to increase their herds, to raise tim- othy and clover seed instead of wheat, to grow corn for stock and to develop co-operative dairying. The effect on their prosperity was immediate and lasting. The figures in the table show that the mortgage foreclosure sales soon ran down to about one- fourth the former proportion, and the local bankers testify that the farmers became lenders rather than borrowers of money. It is not too much to say that still better systems of field and farm FIELD MANAGEMENT FOJ{ WHEAT. 477 management could be practiced which would add as much more to the prosperity as has the change from grain farming to gen- eral farming. Better farming has already been entered upon, and really good farming is sure to come at an early date. In marked contrast to the prosperity of the farmers in the dis- trict where general farming has gotten a fair foothold is the condition of land speculators near the large centers of popula- tion. Mr. Powers has tabulated the averages for the Fifth Con- gressional district, which is composed of Hennepin county, in which are located the city of Minneapolis and the summer re- sorts about Lake Minnetonka. The figures are given in the center of the table. The mortgage foreclosure sales here in- creased about as they had decreased in the southeastern counties- Doubtless in the Fifth district the mortgage foreclosures were largely due to the payment of speculative prices for lands near the city or near the lake. When the hard times came the large debts could not be carried, and the speculators lost the lands. In conclusion Mr. Powers says substantially as follows : The agricultural department of the State University and its various experiment stations have rendered the farmers of the state great assistance in ascertaining by experiments and investiga- tions what lines of farming can profitably be pursued in the va- rious sections of the state, and the conditions under which such profit can most fully be attained. In this way the school-house and its students prove potent agencies in ameliorating bad finan- cial conditions. Causes of Poor Profits in Wheat Fanning. — The several causes which lead to poor profits from raising little else than wheat are not as yet well understood. Some factors may be enumer- ated as follows : ( i ) In raising wheat after wheat the land is left in poor mechanical condition for wheat; (2) the store of available plant food is gradually reduced; (3) the humus of the soil is reduced to a low point; (4) weeds become numerous r (5) chinch bugs and some other insects thrive on land kept continuous in a crop on which they feed; (6) rust is present 478 FIELD MANAGfeVIEXT FOR WHEAT. in quantities to overwhelm the plants of wheat; (7) poor meth- ods of managing the soil and crop too often are faults of the wheat farmer; (8) wheat raising provides profitable employ- ment for farm labor for only a part of the year; (9) planting a large acreage to small grains requires much labor at given seasons of the year, and crowds out other crops and enterprises which, if started, would give profitable employment at seasons when the wheat, oats, barley, and flax require no labor; (10) wheat farming leads to the wasteful expenditure of money in poorly preserved farm machinery ; (11) raising small grains, as practiced, calls into action less intelligence and gives less individ- ual employment to the farmer, his wife and his children, than comes from carrying on the more complex, yet more etijoyable, occupation of general farming with live stock, wheat, and other specialties; (12) grain iarming does not build up the wealth of the community so rapidly as general farming; (a) there is less permanent farm investments, as fertility, buildings, fences, etc.; (b) there is less development of villages and towns in mer- chandising, manufacturing and financial establishments; (13) the community of interests is far less in the grain farming community than among people who raise stock, vegetables, fruits, etc., along with grain. WHEAT IN ROTATION PAYS WELL. Wheat, if properly grown, is by all means our most profitable grain crop, and easily stands at the head of all Minnesota prod- ucts in the amount of money it brings. In' 1898 the income to the state from the wheat produced approximated fifty million dollars, while the dairy products brought about twenty million dollars. While we have been promoting other lines of farming that the large acreage of wheat might in part give way to other crops, we have given too little attention to methods of making the wheat we should raise pay us better profits per acre. This has been in part due to the great difficulties met, and the long time FIELD MANAGEMENT FOR WHEAT. 479 required in determining questions of iield practice. Manufactur- ers of machinery have done very much to improve the methods of planting and harvesting wheat, but methods of farming cal- culated to prepare fields for wheat are wrought out but slowly. The North Dakota Experiment Station has shown that where wheat after wheat in the Red River Valley yields only moderate crops, M'heat after corn or other cultivated crops, or wheat after grass, yields very good crops. In the older sections of the state many farmers who for a time left off raising wheat have again placed this among the crops raised in the rotation. Ohio, Penn- sylvania, New Jersey, and other eastern states, where the sur- plus of fertility has been exhausted and commercial fertilizers must be purchased, are raising considerable wheat even with present low prices. The strong reasons for continuing this crop in the rotation are there appreciated. As our southeastern coun- ties swing from the extreme of all grain to no wheat, a medium point is found and a limited acreage of wheat is grown. The advantage of using previous crops to prepare the land for good wheat crops has been most clearly demonstrated by the North Dakota Experiment Station. From a report made by Prof. John H. Shepperd, in the Eighth Annual Report of that sta- tion, the six following tables have been compiled: TABLE LXI.— Wheat Continuously. PLOT 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1 :, 21.5 19.3 21.1 20.0 1&.4 17.3 8.2 10.0 8.1 11.8 8.6 9.5 20.0 21.8 20.3 22.6 15.5 24.0 23.0 22.5 24.5 23.5 23.0 16.1 17.9 15.8 16.4 19.5 11.4 13 1 2 14 17.8 19 24 3,8.2 14 5 25. .. 10 3 Average of 6 plots 19.8 9.4 19.7 23.4 16.2 14.8 17.2 In Table LXI. are given the yields of wheat for 1892 to 1897, inclusive, of six plots on which wheat had been grown con- tinuously for several previous years. 480 FIELD MANAGEMENT FOR WHEAT. TABLE LXII.— Wheat after Fallow. Plot 1892 189S 1894 4, Bare fallow. Bare follow. Bare fallow. Bare fallow. 11.8 16.0 19.6 14.1 23.8 25.8 20 25.6 26 : 21.0 Average 4, plots 15 4 24.0 fif^■nf■ra^ A-o-prflffe 19.7 In Table LXII. the record is given of the yields of wheat in 1893 and 1894 on plots on which the continuous wheat cropping was avoided by a bare fallow in 1892. T&BLE liXIII.— Wheat After Cultivated Crop. PI.OT 1892 1893 1894 5 Com 33 bu. Com 37 bu. Rape 5V4 T. Mangels' 71,2 T. 14.4 17 2 19.6 18.5 25 6 , 24 8 12 26 3 13 26 3 Average of 4 Plots 17.4 25.6 21 .5 In Table LXIII. are given the yields of wheat for 1893 and 1894 on plots on which corn, rape or potatoes were cultivated in 1892. TABLE LXIV.— Wheat After Barley, Oats, Spring' Eye. Plot 1892 1893 1804 21 Spring Rye ia2 Barley 29 bu. Oats 75 bu. 10.6 6.4 10.1 18.5 18.5 18.0 22 23 Average of 3 Plots 9.0 18.3 General Avera,ge i: 1.7 In Table LXIV. are found the yields of wheat in 1893 and 1894 on plots which grew crops of barleyi, oats, or spring rye in 1892. FIELD MANAGEMENT FOR WHEAT. 481 Table LiXT. 7ield of Wheat in Rotations. Bushels per Acre. 1892. 1893. Aver- age for 3 years, 1893 and 1894. At. Gain or Loss 1893. Av. Gain or Loss 1894. Av. Gain or Lo^ for Two Years. Wheat continuously Wheat after Fallow Wheat after Cultivated Crops Wheat after Oats, Barlev and Spring Rye 19.8 fallow fcult.1 \crps / Ioatsf Bar- ley ] and I rye. J 9.4 15.4 17.4 19.7 24.0 14.S 19.7 -21.5 -t-6.0 -t-8.0 —0.4 +4.3 +S.9 +5.3 +7.0 —0.9 In Table LXV. are collected the averages of all the four tables mentioned. Here we are able to compare the yields of wheat under continuous cropping ; following the bare fallow, twice plowed; following crops of corn, potatoes or rape kept clean of weeds by thorough tillage; and following the other spring grains, barley, oats, and spring rye. The difference in average yield for the first year after the alternating crop is shown in the seventh column. There is an increased yield on the fallow land of six bushels per acre ; and of eight bushels on the land on which crops were culti- vated. On the land on which oats were grown the previous year, there was raised four-tenths of a bushel less of wheat in 1893 than on the land which had been in wheat continuously. The sec- ond year following the fallow, column eight shows the increased yield to have been four and three-tenths bushels ; and following cultivated crops there was an increase of five and nine-tenths bushels; while following oats, barley and spring rye there was again a decreased yield. In column 9 the average increased or lessened yields for the two years are given. It should be here noted that the third year there was but little increased yield on the plots which had been fallowed or had borne a different crop in 1892. The good effect lasted only to the first and second years. 482 FIELD MANAGEMENT FOR WHEAT. Table LXTI. Tield ofWheat after Rotation Ueadow. Bushels per Acre. OJ ? ?! ^. !i n^ >. +>* 10 to w Plot. 01 « 01 00 H '3 « m ■* 10 t£> Kin ■§ Qi 01 <» J 01 00 00 00 00 « s Si t- H H Tl T-l tH phate or ammonium sulphate, but not by saturation with sodium chloride. Partly pre- •.cipitated by boiling but not coagulated at temperatures below 100°. "IV. Leucosin, 3.TX albumin coagulating at 52°; unlike animal albumin in being Ijprecipitated on saturating its solution with sodium chloride or magnesium sulphate. It is not precipitated on completely removing salts by dyalysis in distilled water. "V. A proteose, precipitated (after removing the globulin by dyalysis and the •.albumin by coagulation) by saturating the solution with sodium chloride, or by adding .20 per cent of sodium chloride and acidifying with acetic acid. "VI. The solution filtered from the solution just described (V.) still contained a proteose-like-body which was not obtainable in a pure state. "The results obtained by us and described at length in our paper*, lead to the con- clusion that no ferment action is involved in the formation of gluten ; that but two pro- teid substances are contained in the gluten, the gliadin and the glutenin, and that these «xist in the wheat kernel in the same form as in the gluten, except that in the latter they are combined with water in an amount equal to about twice the weight of the water-free iproteids." *Am. Chem, Jour., is, 392, 471. CONCERNING WHEAT AND ITS MILL PRODUCTS. 83 An examination of the characteristics of these proteids as described above, and more fully in the publication cited, led to the belief that all nongluten nitrogen will be dissolved from wheat meal by thoroughly ex- tracting with 10 per cent salt solution, and that the gluten nitrogen will remain undissolved. The first method attempted for the separation of these two classes of proteids was to place two grams of the material in a 500 c. c. Kjeldahl flask, mix thoroughly by shaking with a small quantity of 10 per cent salt solution, then adding the remainder of 100 c. c. of the liquid. The con- tents of the flask were shaken at intervals for three hours and then filtered on a 10 c. m. filter of good quality, washing four times with 25 c. c. of salt solution each time. The filter and contents were then carefully re- turned to the flask and the nitrogen in them determined by the usual Gunning modification of the Kjeldahl method. Duplicates agreed closely. The results were, however, unsatisfactory as appears from the following : Different strengths of salt solution were used on a sample of straight flour containing 1.82 per cent of total nitrogen, with results as indicated below. Per cent in sal solution 15 10 5 2.y^ 2 l^ i ^ Per cent nitrogen 1.56 1.50 1.43 1.33 1.30 1.29 1.29 1.30 Similar results were obtained on another sample of flour. Comparison was made on a complete series of mill products by using a 10 per cent and a i per cent salt solution. The per cent nitrogen in each residue, based on the original 2 g. of substance is shown. Patent Flour. Straight Flour. Low Grade. Dust Room. Ship Stuff. Bran. Wheat. 10% salt solution 1.28 1.07 1.45 1.25 1.92 1.77 1.49 1-43 I.9I 1.78 1.63 1.60 1.5: 1-34 .21 .20 ■15 .06 •13 •03 •17 A further trial was made in which each of another series of mill products was washed fifteen times with a i per cent salt solution. The comparison with the results from washing four times, using the same strength of salt solution is shown in the next table. Figures show per cent nitrogen in undissolved residue based on weight taken for analysis. 84 ARKANSAS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. Patent Flour. Straight t-lour. Low Grade. Dust Room. Ship Stuff Bran. Wheat. Washed four times Wasi ed fifteen times.. .91 1.28 .98 1.52 1.19 1.42 .87 156 ■94 1. 61 •94 1-39 •95 .24 •30 •33 •55 .62 .67 1 •44 The filtrate at the end of the fifteenth washing still showed the presence of proteids. This last trial seems to indicate that a considerable quantity of the gluten of flour is removed by continued washing and that the same will occur to a considerable extent in the mechanical washing out of crude gluten. The long time required for this washing may have brought about some change in the form of proteids such as would tend to make the insol- uble more soluble. Perfectly concordant though not so marked results were obtained by less protracted washing. The foregoing method of separating the gluten from the nongluten having been found subject to such serious objections, the following method, which it was believed would obviate the difficulty to a considerable extent, was substituted for it. Two grams of the material to be examined are put into a 200 c. c. graduated flask and after mixing thoroughly with a 10 per cent salt solution the flask is filled to the neck with the same liquid. The contents of each flask are then shaken at intervals of ten minutes for one hour. At the end of this time the flask is filled to the mark, the contents well mixed and the whole is allowed to remain quiet for two hours. At the end of this time the supernatent liquid in the flask is filtered through a dry filter into a dry flask. If the filtrate is not perfectly clear the first portion is refiltered through the same filter. When sufficient clear filtrate has been collected exactly 100 c. c, measured in a pipette, are run into a 500 c. c. Kjeldahl digestion flask of the usual pear shaped form with long neck. To this solution 20 c. c. of the usual sulphuric acid used for Kjeldahl work are added. The contents of the flask are brought to a gentle boil and when the water has been driven off and the acid has quit foaming, the sulphate of potash is added and the digestion completed. Results obtained by this method agree quite closely with those of the preceding method when using the same strengh of salt solution and washing four times. The amount of nitrogen obtained in the above process is computed to per cent on one gram of substance. If our hypothesis be true that the CONCERNING WHEAT AND ITS MILL PRODUCTS. 85 salt soluble nitrogen compounds correspond to those not gluten, and those only, the difference between the per cent of nitrogen in the salt extract and the per cent of total nitrogen in the sample will give the per cent of nitrogen which is present in those proteids which together form gluten, and this per cent of nitrogen multiplied by 5.7 will give the theoretical amount of gluten in the material examined. Numerous estimates of gluten in different grades of flours and wheat meal have been made by the above described chemical method, and on corresponding samples by determining the amount of nitrogen in crude gluten washed out by the usual mechanical process. The mechanical washing out of the gluten has been done entirely by Mr. Moore with great care. The amount of gluten found by the above described chemical method is higher, and in the lower grades of flour much higher than by the usual mechanical method followed by a nitrogen determination. That is, by computing the true gluten from the nitrogen contents of the crude gluten obtained. The proportion of impurities in the crude gluten, especially that from low grade flours is also large, so that decidedly erro- neous results would be obtained by the mechanical method unless the crude gluten be submitted to analysis and the impurities determined. When considering the large amount of time and labor involved this is de- cidedly objectionable. Furthermore, the question still remains, does this give the true gluten in the sample examined? It will be shown later that the chemical method proposed above gives results which are decidedly too low, making the error for the gluten obtained by the mechanical method still greater than appeared from the above comparison. The cause of the error can be better explained and more readily understood after a con- sideration of the next topic. DETERMINATION OF THE GLIADIN. An attempt has been made to separate the gliadin of wheat by a quantitative method which can be readily applied to various samples. After some more or less unsatisfactory attempts the following* has been found a more or less ready means of this separation or at least a ready means by which all proteids soluble in hot 75 per cent alcohol can be extracted. One gram of the material to be examined is put into a 500 c. c. Kjeldahl digestion flask. 100 c. c. of 75 per cent alcohol, free from *Since the method here described has been in use, the second edition of Chtmistry and Analysis of Wheat, Flour, etc., by William Jago, has been received. In it (p. 789) he describes a method for determin- ing proteids soluble in alcohol, which perhaps requires a Utile less labor than the one proposed in the text, but it is quite certain from comparisons made that results tor gliadin obtained in that way will be much too low. 86 ARKANSAS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. nitrogen compounds, are added and after shaking thoroughly the flask is placed upright upon a suitable sized ring of an ordinary water bath. The one used here contains holes for eight flasks. The water bath is heated so as to keep the temperature of the alcohol just below its boiling point. The contents of the flasks are shaken at intervals during the first hour. They are then allowed to remain quiet for one hour, after which the hot, clear liquid can be decanted onto a lo c. m. filter of good quality. 25 c. c. of hot alcohol are then added to the residue and it is again placed upon the flask for ten minutes before filtering. This is repeated six times. It has been thought best in some instances to completely remove all alcohol from the flask after the last washing and the adding of the well drained filter. This may be readily done by placing the flask on or within the water bath and driving out the vapor by the assistance of a syringe bulb connected with a glass tube or by connecting the glass tube with an ordinary Rich- ards' air blast. The presence of the alcohol has sometimes given trouble during the subsequent digestion in removing a large part of the acid by volatilization of the resulting compound. After the alcohol has been removed the nitrogen is determined in the usual way, care being taken that all particles adhering to the neck of the flask are washed down by the acid and digested. It is necessary in this instance to determine the nitrogen in the filters used and deduct it from the results. The difference between the total nitrogen and the nitrogen thus obtained gives the per cent of nitrogen in the alcohol extract. This also includes amides as will be shown later. A more ready method of obtaining the nitrogen contents of the alco- hol, extract is to collect the filtrate directly into a Kjeldahl flask. Place the flask on a sand bath and properly adjust it to a Leibig condenser. The greater part of the alcohol can thus be distilled off in a short time without fear of accident. The last portion of the liquid may be readily removed by placing the flask on a boiling water bath and inserting into the neck a glass tube connected with a filter pump or air blast. By using one of these for each of two flasks a single water jet is made to do double duty. The neck of the flask connected with the blast should be allowed to drop nearly to the horizontal. After evaporating to dryness the nitrogen is determined in the usual way. Osborne and Voorhees suggest, as already noted, that it is possible that glutenin is slightly soluble in hot water and alcohol. There is always a greater or less cloudiness to the liquid when the alcohol extract, obtained as described above, becomes cold. Among mill products this increases CONCERNING WHEAT AND ITS MILL PRODUCTS. 87 gradually from the finest flours to the bran. Pure germ, when extracted with hot alcohol, gave an extract which was very clouded, though the amount of proteid in solution by no means equaled the amount of gliadin which has been found in an equal amount of cold, perfectly clear, alcohol' solution. It is possible that a proteid having this characteristic may exist in the germ. The general characteristics of this portion of the grair> differ so greatly from the remainder that it seems quite possible that the proteids of the two portions should differ. A sample of the pure handpicked germ when submitted to the methods for separation of proteids which have been described above gave the following results: The total proteids (Nxs.7) were 37.55 percent. Those soluble in salt solution were 15.33 per cent and those soluble in hot 75 per cent alcohol were 2.85 per cent. Another sample of germ contained 36.02 per cent of total proteids. The ether extracts in the two samples were 13.85 and 14.38 per cent respectively. THE PROTEOSE. On comparing the use of a 10 per cent and the use of a i per cent salt in the methods described for the determination of the salt extract it was. found that, as indicated by the first method, there was a notably larger extract by the i per cent than by the 10 per cent salt solution, and a much greater decrease was found when a 20 per cent solution of salt was used. Thus a sample of low grade flour gave the following results : One per cent salt extract contained .66 per cent nitrogen, 10 per cent salt extract contained .48 per cent nitrogen, 20 per cent salt extract contained .20 per cent nitrogen to each gram of material extracted. With the hope of finding the true cause of this feature of the ques- tion a considerable quantity of perfectly clear i per cent salt extract of wheat meal was obtained. To this a sufficient quantity of dry salt was added to make a 10 per cent solution. A considerable precipitate was produced and this was found to be largely soluble in 75 per cent alcohol in a clear solution of which proteids were readily detected. If the proteids, or a portion of them, which are soluble in salt solu- tion are insoluble in alcohol they should be precipitated by the addidon of alcohol. When 50 c. c. of the clear, filtered i per cent salt extract were mixed with sufficient strong alcohol to make the resulting mixture contain about 75 per cent, a considerable white flocculent precipitate was produced, which soon settled, giving a supernatent clear liquid. This filtered rapidly and gave a perfectly clear filtrate. The rapidity of flocculation of »a ARKANSAS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. the precipitate was increased somewhat on healing. The concentrated filtrate gave strong biuret reaction. In like manner a marked biuret re- action for proteids was obtained by concentrating loo c. c. of alcohol filtrate when the added alcohol was such as to make 90 per cent of alcohol in the mixture. In following out this line of investigation, a solution was made by mixing 100 grams of wheat meal with 500 c. c. of i per cent salt solution, shaking at intervals for one hour and filtering at the end of three hours. The proteids insoluble in 75 per cent alcohol were precipitated from 40 c. c. of this perfectly clear filtrate by adding alcohol to make a mixture of the desired strength. An aliquot portion of the resulting clear alcoholic fil- trate, corresponding to 20 c. c. of the original salt solution, was evapo- rated to dryness in a Kjeldahl flask and a determination made of the amount of nitrogen. Similar nitrogen determinations were made when a 10 per cent, and later a 15 per cent salt solution was used for extracting like quantities of the same wheat. In this manner is found the number of milligrams of nitrogen in the nitrogen compounds soluble in alcohol from 20 c. c. of the salt solutions of the various strengths. Determinations of the total nitrogen contents of each of these salt solutions was also made and computed to milligrams in each 20 c. c. of solution. The results of both of these series of determinations are shown below. Alcohol Soluble Total Nitrogen. Nitrogen, m. g. m. g. I per cent salt solution 19.48 9.7 10 per cent salt solution 18.6 8.8 15 per cent salt solution 16.2 7.6 It was found later that a part of this alcohol soluble nitrogen is from amides, but the amount of amides in the wheat was by no means sufficient to account for the whole of the nitrogen thus obtained, and furthermore, abundant indications of proteids were found in each case by suitably con- centrating the alcoholic filtrate and applying the biuret test. A further comparison of the extracts made by i per cent and by 10 per cent salt solutions was made as follows : Salt extracts were made in 200 c. c. measuring flasks as already described, except that four grams of the material were used so that 50 c. c. of the extract would correspond to one gram of the sample. This quantity of extract was mixed with 250 c. c. of strong alcohol and allowed to stand over night. Nitrogen was then determined in both the filtrates and the precipitates with the following results : CONCERNING WHEAT AND ITS MILL PRODUCTS. 89 Precipitated by Alcohol. Per Cent Nitrogen. I per cent salt solution 21 10 per cent salt solution 23 Soluble in Alcohol. I percent salt solution 42 10 per cent salt solution 27 A similar trial on a sample of ship stuff gave results as follows : Precipitated by Alcohol. Per Cent Nitrogen. I per cent salt solution 31 10 per cent salt solution 31 It seems clear that the difference in amounts of nitrogen compounds removed from wheat by i per cent and by lo per cent salt solutions is due to such as are soluble in 75 per cent alcohol. Filtering hot did not ma- terially affect the results. A strong alcoholic solution of wheat proteids was made by mixing the meal with cold 75 per cent alcohol. On pouring this clear extract into I per cent salt solution a precipitate was produced which, when filtered off, gave a perfectly clear filtrate. Proteid in considerable quantity was detected in this liquid by various reactions. Furthermore, the liquid was found to give the reactions characteristic of proteoses : Not coagu- lated by heat ; a precipitate with nitric acid which disappears on warm- ing ; a like reaction with potassium ferrocyanide and acetic acid ; precipi- tation by 20 per cent sodium chloride and acetic acid. Authorities* also state that proteoses are precipitated by alcohol. Either this proteid is somewhat soluble in alcohol or it is the result of the decomposition of a proteid which is soluble in that liquid brought about by mixing with the I per cent salt solution. If it be the latter, what is the explanation of the alcohol soluble portion of the salt extract ? When the a'cohol solution of this proteid is concentrated it also exhibits the properties of proteoses mentioned. When this alcohol solution of the salt extract is concentrated somewhat it exhibits the character of gliadin solutions in alcohol in that it is precipitated either by the addition of water or of strong alcohol. A sample of fresh gluten was treated with hot 75 per cent alcohol and 10 c. c. of a resulting concentrated extract were poured into 90 c. c. of I per cent salt solution and a precipitate formed. This on the following morning was filtered off and, by sprinkling a little pure, fine animal charcoal on the wet filter, a perfectly clear filtrate was obtained. This filtrate con- tained a proteid exhibiting the same proteose reactions mentioned above. *Chittenden, Digestive Proteolysis, p. 62; Hammarsten, Physiological Chemistry, p. 26. 90 ARKANSAS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. Some months previous a sample of gliadin had been prepared, at least nearly pure, by precipitating the concentrated 75 per cent alcohol solution with absolute alcohol, and washing well with alcohol and ether, after which it was dried in vacuum over sulphuric acid. A 75 per cent alcohol solution of this was prepared, yvhich, when poured into a con- siderable quantity of i per cent salt «**•««* gave the usual precipitate. A clear filtrate, obtained without the use of animal charcoal again exhibited the proteose reactions. On a succeeding page (p. 95) is given a series of results obtained on about twenty samples of different wheats and parts of wheat in which it is shown that when like amounts of wheat or its mill products are treated under the same conditions with equal amounts of i per cent salt solution, the amount of alcohol soluble proteid removed from the wheat in the i per cent salt solution is practically identical. Many results, which it is thought unnecessary to give, show that the same would have been true if 10 per cent salt solution had been used, except that the quantity thus extracted would have been less. There is a great variation in the amounts of the other nitrogen compounds contained in these various samples. The only reasonable explanation of these facts seems to be that an alcohol soluble proteid which is slightly soluble in i per cent and less in 10 per cent salt solution exists in considerable quantities in the wheat. It seems evident that this proteid is gliadin and it appears from the behavior described that gliadin is not changed when it is dissolved in salt solution but that it remains gliadin. With the exception of being readily soluble in 75 per cent alcohol and but slightly soluble in weak salt solutions, it possesses what have been set aside as the characteristic reactions of proteoses. Apparently it was this body which was found by Osborne and Voorhees in their salt extracts and was designated by them as a proteose and a proteose-like body under captions V. and VI. In its alcohol solution (75 per cent) gliadin has not been found to exhibit the reactions of proteoses with common salt. The addition of large quantities of salt in bulk to such a solution was found not to cloud it in the least either with or without acetic acid. When salt in solution is added a precipitate will be produced but in such cases it seems to be attributable, in part at least, to the dilution of the alcohol with water. It has been pointed out by the authors named above that gliadin is soluble in considerable quantities in pure water but is precipitated from such solution by the addition of a very small quantity of salt. The ex- periments recorded above show that the precipitation is not complete. CONCERNING WHEAT AND ITS MILL PRODUCTS. 91 This solubility of gliadin in salt solutions accounts for the fact that when flour is treated directly with large quantities of salt solution no gluten is formed. It also has an important bearing upon the determination of gluten in wheat or flour by the usual mechanical method of washing away the starch and weighing the residue. Twelve grams of Porter's "standard" fiour, from spring wheat, was made into a dough with lo c. c. of i per cent salt solution and allowed to stand for one hour. It was then tied in a linen cloth and worked between the fingers in one liter of the same salt solution for one hour. It having been found impossible to obtain a clear filtrate from the solution direct it was heated nearly to the boiling point. One hundred and seventy-five c. c. of a nearly clear filtrate from this were evaporated to about 30 c. c. and enough strong alcohol added to make the mixture contain 75 per cent. Ten c. c. of perfectly clear filtrate from this showed much cloudiness on adding a few drops of a solution of phospho-wolframic acid which cloudiness precipitated on standing. The remainder of the alcoholic solution when concentrated gave in repeated trials distinct biuret reaction for proteids,* the same rose color being exhibited as when gliadin is treated. It has been already pointed out that the so-called true gluten ob- tained by mechanical washing away of the starch and computing the re- maining proteids from the nitrogen contents of the crude gluten obtained gives results which are much too low when compared with the sum of the gliadin and glutenin in the sample examined. The explanation is here apparent. An indefinite amount of gliadin is dissolved and washed away. In view of this fact the mechanical method of determining gluten in wheat and flour is even more unsatisfactory than has formerly been thought. EDESTIN AND LEUCOSIN. If a perfectly clear i per cent salt solution extract of wheat be heated slowly to about 50 c. a cloudiness will begin to appear and if the liquid be kept at about 60 for some time a considerable quantity of flocculent pre- cipitate separates out. If this be filtered off and to the perfectly clear filtrate alcohol be added a still further precipitate occuis, which is less than when alcohol is added to the unfiltered solution. According to the descriptions of edestin and leucosin given by Osborne and Voorhees this is what would be expected if these two proteids are in the alcohol precipitate *The delicacy of the biuret reaction for this proteid may be increased by using a very small quantity (2 c. c.) of the concentrated solution, an equal amount of the strongest caustic potash solution, and, after adding the few drops of copper sulphate, adding aiso about one cubic centimeter of strong alcohol. After shaking the mixture gently the color will be concentrated in the clear alcohol which rises to the top. 92 ARKANSAS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. of the salt extract. It is difificult to determine what strength of alco- hol will produce complete precipitation of these proteids. From a con- siderable number of trials, the details of which it seems unnecessary to give here, it is believed that a strength of 75 per cent alcohol produces at least nearly complete precipitation, but it does not appear safe to stop short of that strength. It is not safe to increase the strength to 90 per cent for fear of precipitating the gliadin. The readiness with which these proteids can be separated from the liquid in which they are precipitated, suggests that they might be collected in a Gooch crucible, washed, dried and weighed in bulk. The precipita- tion from so large a bulk of liquid would seem to leave them quite pure. At least part of the precipitate caused by alcohol will not be redissolved when the alcohol is decanted and an excess of i per cent salt solution added. This change in solubility may be accompanied by a slight change in composition. AMIDES. To ascertain concerning the solubility of amides in 75 per cent alcohol 200 m. g. of asparagm (pure. E. Merck) were dissolved in 50 c. c. of i per cent salt solution. This solution was mixed with the usual amount of strong alcohol used for precipitating proteids from a like quantity of solution. A slight precipitate occurred which seemed to become more crys- taline on boiling. The liquid was allowed to cool thoroughly before filter- ing. The filtrate was collected in a Kjeldahl flask and the alcohol removed by boiling and evaporation on a water bath. A considerable quantity of asparagin crystals remained. On determining the nitrogen in the usual manner, a quantity was found equal to that contained in 25.7 c. c. of f-^ ammonium hydrate. This is much in excess of the total nitrogen ob- tained from any sample of wheat examined. Allantoin,* another amide of wheat, is also soluble in alcohol. The amides, then, may be assigned to the alcohol solution, whether from the salt solution or from the original sample. In attempting to make a complete separation of the proteids of wheat based upon the amount of nitrogen found, a determination and location of the amides present is important. To that end it is assumed that in the sound, mature wheat all nonproteid nitrogen exists in the form of amides. The "ofificial method" for the determination of the albuminoid nitro- gen has been found deficient for wheat in this respect: It directs, "If the * Watts' Dictionary of Chemistry, Vol. i. 1893. CONCERNING WHEAT AND ITS MILL PRODUCTS. 93 substance examined consists of seed of any kind, add a few cubic centi- meters of a solution of (potash) alum just before adding the cupric hydrate and mix well by stirring." The following results with and without alum were obtained on a sample of wheat meal. Per Cent Albuminoid Nitrogen. Copper hydrate and o c. c. alum solution 1.53 Copper hydrate and 5 c. c. alum solution 1.37 Copper hydrate and 10 c. c. alum solution 1.35 Copper hydrate and 15 c. c. alum solution 1.35 Copper hydrate and 20 c. c. alum solution 1,32 The depth of blue color in the filtrate increased directly with the amount of alum used. That with no alum was almost colorless and that with 20 c. c. of alum had a strong blue tint. When no alum was used the filtrate showed but slight turbidity with a solution of phospho-wolframic acid while the others showed abundant precipitates. As suggested by P. P. Deherain,* phospho-wolframic acid was tried as a precipitant for the proteids, conducting the remainder of the experi- ment as when copper hydrate is used. In a few instances results were obtained which are fairly concordant with those given by the copper hydrate method. Generally, however, in wheat meals and flours the liquid filters badly and it was found almost impossible to obtain a clear filtrate. In later work it was found that when a solution of phospho- wolframic acid is added to a salt extract made as has been described, a precipitate occurs, which, when left over night, gives a clear supernatent fluid which filters readily and leaves a perfectly clear filtrate. On collect- ing this (50 or 100 c. c. with a few cubic centimeters of washings) in a Kjeldahl flask and adding 20 c. c. of concentrated sulphuric acid the water can be readily boiled off, especially if the flask be protected from the naked flame with a thin sheet of asbestos. When the acid ceases to foam it is cooled slightly, sulphate of potash added and the nitrogen determina- tion completed in the usual way. After adding the sulphate the time re- quired for the digestion is but a few minutes. The readiness with which the water may be driven off and the di- gestion completed in this way makes it preferable to determine the nitro- gen in the filtrate when the albuminoid nitrogen is precipitated by copper hydrate as in the official method. The difference between the nitrogen found and the total nitrogen of the sample gives the amount of albuminoid nitrogen with equal accuracy, while the time of digestion is much shortened, *Traite de Chimie Agricole, p. 267. 94 ARKANSAS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. the danger of breakage is lessened and the necessity for making a correc- tion for the nitrogen in the filters is prevented. The only requirements are that the water and reagents shall be free from an appreciable quantity of ammonia or other nitrogen compounds, and this is equally essential in all Kjeldahl work. AMOUNT OF GLIADIN IN SALT EXTRACTS OF WHEATS AND FLOURS. The results of a separation of the nitrogen compounds in the i per cent extract of a considerable number of samples of wheat, flour, etc., are given below. The separation has been made by the above methods. Precipitation of edestin and leucosin in alcohol of 75-80 per cent strength; determination of the amide or nonproteid nitrogen in the filtrate after precipitating with phospho-wolframic acid ; estimating the soluble gliadin nitrogen by difference. A systematic arrangement of details of procedure are given on a subsequent page. CONCERNING WHEAT AND ITS MILL PRODUCTS. 95 TABLE SHOWING NITROGEN OF COMPOUNDS SOLUBLE IN ONE PER CENT SODIUM CHLORIDE SOLUTION. Figures show mtrogfen in each compound in per cent of one gram of substance examined. ARKANSAS MILL PRODUCTS. Kind of Material. Patent Flour Straight Flour Low Grade Flour Ship Stuff Bran Sifted Dust (outer bran). d II g 5l •5§g ■f. s (u ■SjjS 4 H < •41 .11 ■03 ■43 ■13 •03 ■54 .21 ■OS ■7t ■31 .10 1. 00 .48 •23 .50 .16 .20 porter's flours. o .27 .27 .28 •30 .29 .14 Souvenir (extra patent) 0000 Boss Flour (patent) .. Standard Flour (straight) . Strong Bakers' Flour Red Dog (low grade) .46 .11 •OS - .46 .11 •05 •5° •IS .06 .68 •30 .09 ■97 •45 •25 •30 •30 .29 .29 .27 WINTER WHEATS. Red, Arkansas Red, Arkansas (harvest '94). Currell, Kansas Zimmerman, Kansas White Wheat, Canada Oregon White .72 •31 .12 .52 •19 .10 •71 •30 •09 .68 .26 .12 •50 .22 .07 •49 .20 .07 SPRING WHEATS. .29 •23 .29 •30 .21 .22 Red Wheat, South Dakota- Red Fife, North Dakota Red Fife, Minnesota .81 •35 •17 .60 •25 .09 .64 .28 .11 .29 .26 ■2S An examination of the table will show that when the sum of the ni- trogen of the amides and of the alcohol precipitate is subtracted from the total nitrogen of the salt solution the difference is practically a constant for sixteen different samples of wheat and mill products. The average for these sixteen samples is .28 per cent of nitrogen for one gram of material. This nitrogen is from the gliadin soluble in i per cent salt solution under the 96 ARKANSAS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. conditions of the experiment. Four results vary to a considerable extent from the average of the other sixteen. Of these, one is the sifted dust room contents which consists of the outermost portion 'of the bran. The nitrogen here obtained is .14 per cent. The nitrogen in the direct alcohol extract of this sample was .36 per cent. Of this, .20 per cent should be credited to amides. The difference, or .16 per cent, represents that from the total gliadin in the material, and shows why a greater amount was not extracted by the salt solution. That gliadin is contained in the alcohol extract from this sample was verified by suitable reactions. Two other samples showing an unusually low difference are white wheats, each of which contains a very low per cent of gliadin. The remaining irregular sample is an Arkansas red wheat of the harvest of 1894. These include all samples which have been examined in this way. The mean difference for all samples, excluding dust, is .27 percent. The foregoing results seem to justify the proposing of a method for the determination of the gluten in wheat and fiour based upon the sub- traction of a constant factor from the nitrogen found in a i per cent salt solution, which otherwise represents the nongluten nitrogen contained in the material. One per cent salt solution is preferable to a 10 per cent solution, in that it is more satisfactory in certain points of manipulation. Based upon the work done, the provisional factor of .27 per cent is pro- posed. The results indicate that another might be more applicable to a certain class of wheat. The work done is not sufficient to give definite conclusions on that point. The results of the foregoing work may be summed up in the following : METHODS FOR QUANTITATIVE DETERMINATION OF WHEAT PROTEIDS. Total Nitrogen. The Gunning modification of the Kjeldahl method has been used throughout this work. More concordant results have been obtained with one gram of material than with two grams. Nongluten Nitrogen. Put five grams of the material to be examined into a 250 c. c. measuring flask. Add about 15 c. c. of a i per cent so- lution of sodium chloride and shake thoroughly. To the resulting homo- geneous mass add enough of the same solution to fill the flask nearly to the neck. Shake the contents of the flask at intervals of ten minutes during one hour. Fill to the mark with salt solution, mix thoroughly and let stand for two hours. Decant the liquid onto a 12 J^ c. m. dry filter of good quality, leaving the greater bulk of the solid material in the flask. The filtrate will be clouded, but if refiltered through the same filter into a CONCERNING WHEAT AND ITS MILL PRODUCTS. 97- clean flask it will generally be perfectly clear. Determine the nitrogen in 50 c. c. of this extract, noting precautions on page 93. From the per cent of nitrogen thus ob'tained subtract .27 per cent as corresponding to the ni- trogen obtained from the gliadin soluble in i per cent salt solution un- der the conditions prescribed above. The remaining per cent of nitrogen is that corresponding to the nongluten nitrogen in the sample examined. Gluten Nitrogen. This is the difference between total nitrogen and the nongluten nitrogen as obtained above. The gluten nitrogen may also be found by subtracting the sum of the edestin, leucosin and amide nitrogen from the per cent of total nitrogen. Edestin and Leucosin Nitrogen. To 50 c. c. of the clear salt extract, obtained as described above, add, in a Kjeldahl digestion flask of 500 c. c. capacity, 250 c. c. of pure 94 per cent alcohol (188 per cent proof, redistilled). Mix thoroughly and allow to stand over night. Collect the precipitate on a filter (10 c. m.) of good quality, return to the flask and d,etermine the nitrogen, making proper correction for the nitrogen in the filter. If desired, these two proteids may be separated by coagulating the leucosin at 60 c. and precipitating the edestin by adding alcohol to 50 c. c. of the clear filtrate as before. The nitrogen in each precipitate may then be determined. Amide Nitrogen. Precipitate all proteids from 100 c. c. of the clear salt extract obtained as above by adding 10 c. c. of a 10 per cent solu- tion of phospho-wolframic acid, made by dissolving the pure solid in distilled water. Allow to settle before filtering and determine the nitro- gen in the clear filtrate. (See page 93.) In case of bran, and per- haps immature or sprouted wheat, it may be necessary to add a somewhat larger quantity of the acid solution to produce complete precipitation of the proteids. In such cases the filtrate should be tested by the addition< of a few cubic centimeters of the acid. Gliadin Nitrogen. • Extract one gram of the material with hot 75 per cent alcohol as described on page 85. From the per cent of nitrogen dissolved by the alcohol subtract the per cent of amide nitrogen. The difference will be the gliadin nitrogen. Glutenin Nitrogen. The difference between the gluten nitrogen and the gliadin nitrogen gives the glutenin nitrogen. Proteids. The amount of the various proteids may be found by mul- tiplying the per cent of the corresponding nitrogen obtained by 5.7. This factor is deduced from the average nitrogen contents of the proteids 98 ARKANSAS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. of wheat as found in a large number of analyses made by Osborne and Voorhees. It undoubtedly approximates much nearer the truth than the factor 6.25. Wheat for the above work should be ground so that the endosperm shall pass through a sieve having circular holes of J^ millimeter in diameter. The bran of the grain, being in thin flakes will be sufficiently fine if made to pass through a sieve with circular holes one railiraeter in diameter and the work of pulverizing will be greatly lessened. The resulting parts must be thoroughly mixed. The error due to the presence of the undissolved meal in the measuring flask used for the determination of the salt extract is so small that it may generally be neglected. If desired, the flask may be readily remarked for the work by adding to the usual weight of meal in the flask exactly 250 c. c. of the salt extract. In this case care must be taken to wet the meal thoroughly with not more than 25 c. c. of the liquid, after which the remainder of the meal may be added. SEPARATION OF THE PROTEIDS OF CERTAIN WHEATS AND FLOURS. Following the plan of separation outlined above a proximate analysis has been made of the nitrogen compounds of certain flours and other mill products and of a few samples of wheat grown in different sections of the country. They are given mainly to illustrate the variations in the relative amounts of the different proteids. That this variation may be more clearly seen, one of the tables shows the nitrogen of the proteids in per cent of the total nitrogen of the sample. The extension of such anylitical •work to a large number of samples of wheats and flours of different ■characters is necessary before definite conclusions can be drawn as to the ^relation which the different proteids have to those characteristics, and inas- imuch as it is a new field of labor;, the outcome of such work cannot be tforetold. It has been frequently stated that bran contains no gluten. In the analysis of the sample of bran shown in the table both gluten proteids are shown to be present in considerable quantity. A portion of this gliadin is from adhering endosperm. However, the pure sifted dust, which con- sists of the outermost portion of the grain, contains a small amount of gliadin. The explanation of the formation of gluten by Dr. Osborne in- dicates that the presence of the gluten proteids in bran and the nonforma- tion of gluten in the usual mechanical method of separation are perfectly CONCERNING WHEAT AND ITS MILL PRODUCTS. 99 consistent. The true explanation seems to be that the woody fiber of the bran prevents the uniting of the gluten particles into the gluten mass characteristic of flour and wheat meal. The variation of the nitrogen compounds among different mill products from the same mill are interesting. Among these the gradual in- crease of amides, of edestin and leucosin and of glutenin from the finest flour to the bran and the corresponding gradual decrease of gliadin are Worthy of note. In the series of mill products of which the analyses of the ashes were made, all were from the same wheat. It is pretty certain that those in this series of analyses are not all from the same wheat, which accounts for certain minor variations. All were taken from the mill at the same time and were of recent grinding. As between the patent flours from winter and from spring wheat the equal amounts of gliadin and the great difference in the amounts of glutenin are suggestive. There may also be a hidden meaning in the very low proportion of gliadin found in the two samples of white wheat examined. A knowledge concerning this and other matters relating to this subject may give information which will be useful in the blending of wheats and flours to improve the quality of the latter. This is now prac- ticed to some extent by bakers and millers upon their knowledge of the general physical characters of the material and it is believed by many to be attended with good results. 100 ARKANSAS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. TABLE SHOWING NITROGEN OP NITROGEN COMPOUNDS OF WHEAT IN PER CENT OF TOTAL NITROGEN PRESENT. ARKANSAS MILL PRODUCTS. Kind of Substance. Patent Flour Straight Flour Low Grade Flour Ship Stuff Bran Sifted Dust ts . 12 a 2 a S .ss 'c S .egg oft m M m a 8.1 91.9 64.2 27.7 6.4 8.6 91.4 540 47-4 7.0 II.8 88.2 50-5 37-7 9-5 17.2 82.8 46.2 36.6 13.0 26.3 73-7 23-7 50.0 17.8 26.5 73-5 11.8 61.7 11.8 1-7 1.6 2-3 4.2 8-5 14-7 porter's flours. Souvenir 0000 Boss Flour Standard Flour Strong Bakers' Flour Red Dog 7.8 92,2 50-7 41.5 S'4 7-4 92.6 S1.8 40.8 S-i . 9-3 90.7 51-3 39-4 6.6 14.7 8s-3 45-5 39-8 "•3 26,3 73.7 27-5 46.2 16.9 . 2.4 2-3 2.7 34 9.4 WINTER WHEATS. Red, Arkansas Red, Arkansas (1894) Currell, Kansas Zimmerman, Kansas ... White Wheat, Canada Oregon White Wheat .. 17-3 82,7 48.4 34-3 12.5 13.2 86.8 45-7 41. 1 8.7 16.7 83.3 43-2 40.1 11.4 16.S 83-5 42.4 41. 1 "•3 20.6 79-4 34-0 45-4 15-6 18.7 81.3 34-7 46.5 13-9 4-S 3-4 S-2 S-0 4-9 SPRING WHEATS. Red Wheat, South Dakota . Red Fife, Minnesota Red Fife, North Dakota 15s 84-5 42.6 42.0 10.4 18. 1 81.9 37-9 440 13.0 17-4 82.6 364 46.8 12.8 5'0 4.6 CONCERNING WHEAT AND ITS MILL PRODUCTS. 101 TABLE SHOWING PER CENTS OF PROTEIDS IN WHEATS AND FLOURS. ARKANSAS MILL PRODUCTS. Kind of Material. Patent Flour Straight Flour Low Grade Flour.. Ship Stuff Bran Sifted Dust ids. e »s C •Sa s ID s* 3 5 s o 9.86 9.06 6.33 2-73 10.66 9-75 5-76 3-99 12.54 11.06 6.33 4-73 13-57 11.23 6.27 4.96 15-39 n-34 3-65 7.69 7-75 5-70 -91 4-79 .5 u •63 ■74 1.20 1.77 2-74 .91 PORTER'S FLOURS. Souvenir 0000 Boss Flour Standard Flour Strong Bakers' Flour.. Red Dog 11.69 10.77 5-93 4.84 12.43 11.51 6.44 5-07 12.86 11.69 6.16 5.08 15.16 12.94 6.90 6.04 15.16 11.17 4.16 7.01 WINTER WHEATS. •63 •63 .86 1. 71 2-57 Red Wheat, Arkansas Red Wheat, Arkansas (1894). Currell, Kansas .Zimmerman, Kansas White Wheat, Canada Oregon White Wheat 14.14 11.69 6.84 4.85 12.48 10.83 5-70 5-13 15.05 12.54 6.50 6.04 13-17 11.00 S-59 5-41 8.04 6.38 2.74 3-64 8.21 6.67 2.85 3.82 1-77 1.08 1. 71 1.48 1.25 1. 14 SPRING WHEATS. Red Wheat, South Dakota.. Red Fife, Minnesota Red Fife, North Dakota 19.15 16.19 8.15 8.04 12.31 10.09 4.67 5-42 II. 12 9.18 4.05 5-13 2.00 1.60 1-43 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. Thanks are due the following for samples of wheat and flour for this work: The L. C. Porter Milling Company, Winona, Minn.; Prof. E. A. Burnett, Brookings, S. D. ; Prof. C. B. Waldron, Fargo, N. D. ; Mr. Robert Dawson, Pans, Ont. ; Prof. C. C. Georgeson, Manhattan, Kas. ; Prof. H. T. French, Corvalhs, Ore., and Mr. Andrew Boss, St. Anthony 102 ARKANSAS AGRICULTURAI- EXPERIMENT STATION. Park, Minn. Through the kindness of the late Fayetteville Milling Com- pany and of Mr. B. F. Johnson and his son, the data of the various test runs recorded in this bulletin and the various samples of mill products used for analysis, have been procured. The large amount of analytical and other routine labor which have resulted in that portion of the bulletin relating to the separation of the proteids of wheat, and the making of certain analyses recorded in Part I., have been greatly facilitated by the earnest cooperation of Mr. J. F. Moore, who has faithfully performed all duties assigned to him. G. L. Teller. Chemical LiABORatory, Arkansas Experiment Station. CONCERNING WHEAT AND ITS MILL PRODUCTS. 103 APPENDIX. Since the foregoing pages were sent to press an effort has been made to determine whether or not the proteose bodies found by Dr. Osborne^ in the water or salt solution extracts of oats, rye and barley, and by Drs. Chittenden and Osborne^ in similar extracts of maize, may be attributable to characteristics of the alcohol soluble proleids of those grains, such as have been pointed out as belonging to the gliadin of wheat. To that end extracts of each were made with 75 per cent alcohol and with a i per cent salt solution. Of each clear filtered salt solution extract 25 c. c. were mixed with 125 c. c. of 94 per cent alcohol. The resulting precipitates were filtered off and the clear filtrates were each found to possess the following reac- tions in common with solutions prepared from wheat in like manner : A precipitate upon dilution either with water or with absolute alcohol. A precipitate or cloud with phospho-wolframic acid, which precipitate dis- solves on warming and reappears on cooling. Nitric acid does not pro- duce a precipitate in such dilute solutions. Of each alcohol extract 25 c. c. were mixed with 125 c. c. of i per cent salt solution. A clear filtrate from the resulting mixture gave in each case reactions for proteids. The resulting precipitates dissolved more or less completely on warming and reappeared on cooling. With nitric acid this solution from wheat gave a cloud which quickly disappeared on warm- ing. With the rye solution no change was seen until the liquid was cooled with ice. A dense cloud then appeared while a similar tube of the liquid without the acid remained perfectly clear. The cloud disappeared on adding strong alcohol as well as on warming. In the solution from barley a similar but less marked cloud was obtained on cooling with ice. No pre- cipitate with nitric acid was obtained in these dilute solutions from either corn or oats. Certain other reagents gave, in each case, precipitates which dissolved on warming and reappeared on cooling. A nearly clear water solution obtained by mixing the 75 per cent alcohol extract of corn with a large 1. Conn. Exp, Sta. Reports, 1890 and 1804. 2. Amer. Chem. Jour. Vols. Xfll and XIV. 104 ARKANSAS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. excess of water, gave a precipitate with nitric acid which did not dissolve, but increased on warming. When, however, a quantity of strong alcohol was added to the liquid the precipitate immediately dissolved. With each grain, including wheat, the clear alcohol extract of the meal gave precipitates in the cold with phospho-wolframic acid and with tannic acid, each being in solution in 75 per cent alcohol. In each instance the precipitate dissolved on warming and reappeared on cooling. A similar precipitate was given with nitric acid and the liquid became more or less yellow on boiling. As shown above, the compounds of these prbteids with nitric acid are very soluble in dilute alcohol. With phospho-wolframic acid the cloud which at first dissolved reappeared when the liquid was kept near its boiling point for a short time. In the alcohol extract of corn the precipitate with tannic acid is slight, even with much reagent. It is very readily seen if the strong solution of proteid be diluted with an equal bulk of 75 per cent alcohol, sufficient reagent added and the whole cooled with ice. These facts, in connection with certain others pointed out on previous pages of this bulletin, support the belief that the proteose bodies which have been found in the water or dilute salt extracts of these various grains are really the alcohol soluble proteids, small quantities of which have been carried into solution and exhibit their characteristics unchanged. Further- more, these alcohol soluble proteids are seen to possess certain properties which have been thought to be characteristic of proteoses.^ G. L. Teller. Fayetteville, Ark., October 3, 1896. .' 3. Physiological Chemistry, Charles, (1884) p. 117. Physiological Chemistry, Hammarsten, Mandel, (1893) p. 25. Digestive Proteolysis, Chittenden, (1894) p. 62. Watts' Dictionary of Chemistry, (1894) Vol. IV, p. 331- UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA. Agricultural Experiment Station. BULLETIN No. 54. CHEHICAL DIVISION. SEIPTEl^.^BEie, ISST. HUMAN FOOD INVESTIGATIONS. The Gluten of Wheat,,_ The Digestibility and Com- posirroN OF JBreadT The Loss of Food Value by Prolonged Fermentation IN Bread Making. The Digestibility of Potatoes, and the Loss of Food Value when Potatoes, Carrots, and Cabbages ARE Boiled in Different Ways. THE RATIONAL FEEDING OF MEN. ST. ANTHONY PARK, RAMSEY COUNTY, MINNESOTA. Eagle Printing Co., Pbintebs, Delano. University of JVIinnesota. BOARD OF REGENTS. The HON. JOEDSr S. PILLSBURY, Minneapolis, The HON. DAVID M. CLOUGH, Minneapolis, The Governor of the State. CYRUS NORTHROP, LL. D., Minneapolis, The President of the University. The HON. W. W. PENDER6AST, M. A., HUTCHINSON, The State Superintendent of Public Instruction. The HON. GREENLEAP CLARK, M. A., St. Paul, The HON. CUSHMAN K. DAVIS, M. A., St. Paul, The HON. STEPHEN MAHONEY, B. A., Minneapolis, The HON. S. M. OWEN, Minneapolis, The HON. ALPHONSO BARTO, St. Cloud, The HON. M. R. TODD, Peeston, The HON. WM. M. LIGGETT, St. Anthony Paeik, The HON. A. E. RICE, Willmar, The HON. ELMER C. ADAMS, B. A., Pekgus Falls^ - Term Expires. Begent for Life Ex-Offim Hx-Offieio JEx-Officio 1898 1898 1901 1901 1902 1902 1903 1903 - 1903 THE AGRICULTURAL COMMITTEE.- The HON. WILLIAM M. LIGGETT, Chairman. The HON. J. S. PILLSBURY. The HON. S. M. OWEN. The HON. W. W. PENDERGAST. The HON. ALPHONSO BARTO. OPEIOERS OF THE WM. M. LIGGETT WILLET M. HAYS, M. Agr., SAMUEL B. GREEN. B. S. OTTO LUGGER, Ph. D., HARRY SNYDER, B. S., T. L. HACKER, M. H. REYNOLDS, M. D., V. M., THOS. SHAW, - - " T. A. HOVERSTAD, B. Agr., ANDREW BOSS, R. S. MACKINTOSH, J. A. VYE, STATION : Director. Agriculturist. - Horticulturist. Entomologist and Botanist. Chemist. Dairy Husbandry. Veterinarian. Animal Husbandry. Asst. in Agr., Crookston. -Asst. in Agr., Univ. Farm. Asst. in Hort., Univ. Ifarm. - Secretary. l^The Bulletins of this Station are mailed free to all residents of the State who make application for them. HUMAN FOOD INVESTIGATIONS. THE GLUTEN OF WHEAT. HARRY SNYDER. Nature of the Work. — As is well known, there is a great diiference in both the food value and the bread making quali- ties of flour made from different grades of wheat. With the object of determining, as far as possible, the cause of this difference in food value and bread making qualities, samples were obtained of wheat grown in Russia, India, Chili, and Argentine Republic, as well as of spring and winter wheat grown in different parts of the United States. It was found that the main difference, in the various samples, was in the gluten. There was a difference, not only in the amount of gluten present, but also in the character of the gluten. Two samples of flour containing the same amounts of gluten frequently have entirely different bread making qualities, due to the peculiar composition of the gluten. The gluten of wheat is usually understood to be that part which remains after removing the starch by wash- ing the flour or meal, after it has been made into a dough, with cold water. In the work reported in this bulletin the gluten was obtained by chemical methods. Composition of Wheat Gluten. — The gluten of wheat is composed of two parts. One of the substances resembles gelatine, and is called gliadin. It is the gliadin which binds together the flour particles to form a dough. Gliadin has been called plant gelatine. The gliadin, by binding together the particles of flour, enables the dough to retain the gas ' and to become light when the bread is raised. A certain amount of gliadin, or binding material, in a flour is essential; 38 HUMAN FOOD INVESTIGATIONS. an excessive amount may cause a flour to form a soft sticky- dough and produce a poor quality of bread. In addition to the gliadin, or binding material, gluten also contains a substance called glutenin, which can be ob- tained in the form of a fine white powder. The glutenin "serves as a nucleus to which the gliadin adheres," and it prevents the dough from becoming soft and sticky; that is, the glutenin is the material to which the gliadin attaches it- self. It is to be observed that the two bodies w^hich com- pose the gluten of wheat when present in the right propor- tions aid each other in forming a good gluten for bread making purposes. As previously stated two samples of w^heat may contain the same amount of gluten; the flour from one of the wheats may produce good bread, while the flour from the other wheat may produce bread of very poor quality. In the first wheat sample, the gliadin and glutenin are present in the right proportions to form a good gluten, w^hile in the second w^heat the gliadin and glutenin are not present in the right proportions, — there is an excessive amount of either gliadin or glutenin. An excessive amount of gliadin and a small amount of glutenin make a soft, sticky dough. An excessive amount of glutenin and a small amount of gliadin prevent the gas from being retained, and the bread from becoming light. The gluten of w^heat constitutes from 80 to 85 per cent of the total wheat proteids, which are the important muscle forming and vital nutrients. For food purposes, wheat should, contain a high per cent of protein. For bread mak- ing purposes the gluten should be well balanced, that is, con- tain the right proportion of gliadin (binding material) to glutenin. The most valuable wheats for both food and bread making purposes are those rich in protein, of which 80 to 85 per cent is gluten, and the gluten is composed of about 60 per cent gliadin and about 40 per cent glutenin. ' A wheat may produce a good quality of bread and at the same time the bread may possess a relatively low^ value as food on, account of not containing a sufficient amount of protein. On the other hand a wheat may possess poor GLUTEN FROM DIFFERENT WHEATS. 39 bread making qualities and still contain a high per cent of protein. That is, good bread making qualities in a wheat are not always indicative of high food value. The Gluten from Different Types of Wheat. — In the table, the names of the samples and the sources from which they were obtained are first given. The protein includes the gluten and about 20 per cent of other proteid bodies which do not form a part of the gluten. Gluten represents the sum of the gliadin and glutenin as obtained by chemical analysis. The gliadin was obtained by extracting the fine wheat meal with 70 per cent alcohol. The glutenin was obtained by ex- tracting the meal with potash lye after first removing all other proteids. Samples Nos. 1, 2 and 6 were grown on the Univer- sity farm. The other samples were obtained through the State Railroad and Warehouse Commission from the places indicated. All of the samples were selected as being the best types which could be obtained. Comparisons from a limited number of analyses are not so satisfactory as comparisons from a large number, but the qualities of the various wheat samples bear out so well the properties of the gliadin and glutenin bodies that it is very evident that the qualities of the flour are materially in- fluenced by the amount of gliadin and glutenin present in the gluten. This work has been duplicated with flour from different grades of wheat. In samples Nos. 1 and 2, which may be taken as good types of northern grown hard spring wheat, the gluten con- tains about 60 per cent gliadin (binding material) and 40 per cent glutenin (material for the gliadin to adhere to). In the so called soft wheat as Nos. 6, 9, and 13, there is from 7 to 13 per cent more of gliadin and a correspondingly less amount of glutenin. It is to be observed that in samples Nos. 1, 2 and 6 the highest amounts of protein are found. The Indian and Chili wheats contain a very low per cent of protein, and the gluten is of an entirely different character from that of hard northern grown wheat. In samples Nos. 1 and 4 the gluten is quite similar in composition; there is about the same ratio of gliadin to 40 HUMAN FOOD INVESTIGATIONS. glutenin in both, yet in sample No. 1 there is nearly twice as much gluten and other proteids as in sample No. 4. Sample No. 11, from Argentine Republic, is deficient in gliadin. In frosted wheat there is more gliadin than in similar sound w^heat. In frosted wheat a small amount of glucose is formed, and sour acid bodies are readily produced in the flour. Testing the Quality of Wheat Gluten. — Samples of wheat or flour in which there is an excessive amount of gliadin, or the gluten is otherwise poor, are readily detected in the fol- lowing way: To an ounce of flour add a sufficient amount of water to form a stiff dough, after allowing an hour for the physical qualities of the gluten to develop place the dough in a small linen or fine cotton bag, work the mass gently with the fingers, while a small stream of water is al- lowed to flow on the bag. This is continued until the water that drains from the bag is clear, which indicates that the starch has been washed out. The qualities of the gluten can then be observed. Good gluten is elastic, and when pulled, the threads are long and rope-like. Good gluten is not sticky, when flat- tened it has a good power to recoil, and it can be kneaded into a thin transparent mass. Poor gluten is dark in color, very sticky, when pulled, the threads readily break, and are flat and tape-like. Poor gluten has but little power to recoil. Bread made of Flour from which the Gliadin has been Extracted. — When the gliadin is partially removed from a sample of flour, it has a marked effect upon the bread-making qualities; when the gliadin is entirely removed the yeast has no power to expand the mass and form a light dough. In the illustration, figure No. 2 represents a section of a loaf of bread made of flour from which the gliadin had been extract- ed, while figure No. 1 represents a section of a loaf of bread anade from the same amount of flour from which the gliadin had not been extracted. When the gliadin was extracted, the dough was not sticky; it felt like putty, and broke off" like putty. The yeast caused the mass to expand a little when first placed in the BREAD PROM GLIADIN-EXTRACTED FLOUR. 41 oven, then the top of the loaf began to break apart, and the loaf decreased in size as if no yeast had been used. The loaf, when baked, was about as heavy as the same bulk of rubber. When any of the wheat proteids. except gliadin or glute- nin, are extracted the expanding and bread-making qualities of the flour are not affected. When the albumin is removed (and other water soluble proteids as well), the effect upon, the appearance of the bread is not noticeable. Figure No. 3 is a section of a loaf of bread made from flour after extracting the albumin. When the salt soluble proteids (globulins) were extracted, the bread produced was normal in appear- ance. The gliadin and glutenin are the only proteids which give character to bread — that is, provided the bread is prop- erly made. No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. Bread made from nor- Bread made of flour Bread made of flour mal flour. The same from which the gliadin from -which the albu- amount of flour was had been extractud. min and water soluble used in all of the tests. proteids had been ex- tracted. -1 -I H H M 1-1 01 (^MtOMOlOOO-^ » Ul !>■ j: ,0 M 1 Z z o z r 2 T ■a o s ■* w !) 3 3 Q icolaeff Azim regon White o. 2 Red Win o. 2 Hard W 1 5 -1 T 1 i tn •o 3^ arly Genesee adoga 5. 1 3* 1° ff" 1 p+ •B r g g 3* ^" > -t S B M B 5' & en 3' B W f - 3^ 5" o a a J a f < a K B s 3 3 B n 0^ 3' n c s ►1 W 3 a B n re C d' 5' rt- 3 3 ir" K k-i M 1-1 K M ■ hi y.1 » -J © O >9 -1 00 to *■ to -1 O *■ 00 o o K3 ,J3 o -1 00 O to> 01 to -1 o -J '^n CO H 0! 90 00 h* CO 00 00 O *■ 03 CO o O 01 2. a-ti 1-1 M hi H 23 reE o 01 -1 00 H 01 a (!) to -1 00 O 00 O to w 01 0> <1 CD o> o CO iP- ^ ^0 CO 0) 1-1 J' K 9 01 ^ *^ to o to to 01 01 K 00 » 0> p » 2 OJ u 01 01 if^ to ^ *■ 01 -< 01 CO 01 0> -^ p' io e 01 0> -J a f' 01 -J (S a 0> Ci 01 0> o> Olff 00 0, Pt- »4 o 01 ^^ w CO a o 05 00 00 If- p r^-n b bo bo M H o I-l 01 bo 4 01 bo 01 CO COp ■ Q 32. il^ M M W 01 |^ to CO CO CO CO It' CO CO H o2 01 M to *■ O » 0> CO to w 1-1 1-1 01 to ■-^c rt if- b » • 00 b b io 01 to w 01 to 01 ^ 42. B C3 •SNOIJiVOIiSHAMI aOOii NVWnH Ef THE DIGESTIBILITY OF BREAD. Three experiments were made to determine the digesti- bility of bread. In the first experiment the bread was made from the best patent grade of spring wheat flour, while in the second and third experiments, bread made from the bakers' grade of flour, and from whole wheat flour, re- spectively, were used. The experiments were made with a man weighing 150 pounds. The daily exercise consisted of a four mile walk. In each of the experiments the daily ration consisted of about a pound and a half of bread, a fifth of a pound of butter, and hailf a pound of eggs (4 eggs). The ration w^as the same in each experiment, except that a different kind of bread was used. The amount of bread, butter, and eggs per day in each of the experiments was as follows: TABLE No. XXIV.— Food Consumed Per Day. Experiment No. 1. Bread from Patent flour. Experiment No. 2. Bread from Bakers* flour. Experiment No. 3. Bread from Tvhole wheat flour. Bread, pounds. Butter, " EgKs, ■' ... 1.45 .19 .51 1.48 .19 .50 1.48 .20 .54 These rations supplied all of the needs of the body and produced suflScient energy for a four mile walk per day. In each of the experiments about 95 per cent of the total nitro- gen of the food could be accounted for, indicating that none of the vital functions had been carried on at the expenses of food w^hich had been stored up in the body. This ration may be considered as merely a maintenance ration, and would not be suited for severe labor. NOTE. — These experiments, as well as the experiments relating to the digesti- bility of potatoes, the loss of food value by prolonged fermentation in bread mak- ing, and the loss of food value when potatoes, carrots and cabbage are boiled in different ways, were made in co-operation with the office of Experiment Stations of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. The details of the experiments are not given but will be published either in the annual report oi this station, or in the publi- cations of the office of Experiment Stations. 44 HUMAN POOD INVESTIGATIONS. The rations contained nearly a pound and a quarter of dry matter. The dry matter ,was composed of about a quarter of a pound of protein, a quarter of a pound of fat, and .85 of a pound of carbohydrates, present principally in the form of wheat starch. The nutrients of the ration were distributed approximately as follows: TABLE No. XXV. Dry Matter. Lbs. Fat. Lbs. Protein Lbs. Carbohydrates. Lbs. .94 .17 , .13 .04 .17 .04 .14 .09 85 Btitter, .20 " Eggg, .52 " 1.24 .25 .23 .85 The bread supplied all of the carbohydrates (heat pro- ducing nutrients) 65 per cent of the protein (muscle and tissue repairing nutrients), and sixteen per cent of the fat. The four eggs supplied the same amount of fat as the bread, and about 35 per cent of the protein of the ration. If the bread w^ere purchased of the baker at 5 cents per loaf, and the butter cost 20 cents per pound, and the eggs 12 cent per dozen, the ration would cost 15% cents per day. If the bread were home-made, and the eggs were 9 cents per dozen, and the butter 16 cents per pound, the ration w^ould cost about 10 cents per day, exclusive of the cost of the labor of preparing the materials. The whole wheat flour which was used in this experi- ment was a poor type of a whole wheat flour. It was pur- cbased as a high grade flour, but had evidently been made from winter wheat w^hich was deficient in protein. It con- tained less protein than the bakers' grade of flour, and only ^a very little more than the white patent flour. The samples of flour from which the breads were made had the following composition: DIGESTIBILITY OP BREAD. TABLE No. XXVI.— Composition of Flour Samples. 45 Dry Matter Per Cent. Ash. Per Cent. Fat. Per Cent. Protein. Per Cent. Carbo hydrates. Per Cent. Patent Flour 87.64 91.99 93.50 .51 .75 .98 1.62 2.22 ■ 2.01 12.44 15.50 ,12.81 73.07 73.52 "Wholewheat Flour 77.60 Omitting the details of the separate experiments, it was found that there was practically no difference in the total digestibility of the bread made from the three kinds of flour. The digestibility of the bread, as found in each of the experi- ments was as follows: TABLE No. XXVII.— Digestibility of Bread. Dry Matter Protein Fat Carbohydrates.. Bread from Patent Flour. Per Cent. Digested. 94 86 87 97 Bread from Bakers' Flour. Per Cent. Digested. 84 87 97 Bread frohi Whole wheat Flour. Per Cent. Digested. 93 87 86 97 In an average sample of bread, the approximate amounts of the various nutrients are represented graphically in figure No. 4. The indigestible starch, fat, and protein are repre- sented by the dark squares in figure No. 5. Fig. No. 4. The Composition of Bread. Fig. No. 5. ■ The Indigestible Nutrients of Bread. COMPOSITION OF BREAD. There is a greater difference in the composition of sam- ples of bread, than there is in the digestibility of the bread, that is, provided the bread is properly made. Bread as ordinarily used contains about 33 per cent, of -water, from 9.5 to 10 per cent, of protein, 2 to 2% per cent, of fat, about .6 per cent, ash and salt and 54 per cent, of starch. In comparing the food value of the different samples of bread the preference should be given to the bread containing the most protein. In some cases, however, this would be misleading, as in the bread made fi"om the "Red Dog" grade of flour, -which is rich in protein but the, gluten is of poor quality and consequently the bread is of poor mechanical condition. The -whole wheat breads are not constant in composi- tion. It is to be observed that the amount of protein ranges from 8.06 to 11.69 per cent. In many cases the -whole -wheat flours are made from winter wheats poor in protein, which produce a flour poorer in protein than ordinary flour. It frequently happens that whole -wheat bread is purchased be- cause it is supposed to contain more nutrients, -when in reali- ty it may contain less nutrients than ordinary bread. When the whole -wheat flour is made from the best grades of wheat it will contain a little more protein than ordinary flour. It is questionable, in many cases, if this small additional amount of protein is worth the additional price usually charged for such flours. As to the superior merit of whole -wheat flour over ordinary flour, it is more a question as to the qualitj' of the wheat from which each flour has been made. In some of the samples of baker's bread an excessive amount of lard or butter is used, which is indicated by a high per cent, of fat when the bread is analyzed. The cost of bread is another important item. Three pounds of flour will make a little more than four pounds of bread, on account of the water which has been used in mak- THE COST OF BREAD. 47 ing the bread. At two cent apound fortheflour, four loaves of bread can be made from six cents' worth of flour. With a liberal allowance of two cents for yeast and shortening, the cost of the materials in the four loaves of bread would be about eight cents or two cents a loaf, exclusive of fuel and labor. A barrel of flour costing $4.00, if purchased in the form of bread at five cents a loaf, will cost over $11.00. When flour is more than two cents per pound the cost of bread can be calculated from the figures given: Flat Bread. — Flat bread is a type of unfermented bread •which is quite extensively used in many parts of the state. It is made from either whole wheat or ordinary flour, and is baked in the form of large flat round cakes. Sometimes it is rolled very thin before baking. There is less water in flat bread than in the flour from which the bread was made. The bread is rich in protein and possesses good keeping qual- ities. The composition of three samples of flat bread was found to be as follows: TABLE NO. XXVIII.— Composition of Flat Bread. Water Per cent. Protein Per cent. Fat Per cent. Carbohy- drates. 9.38 15.50 .70 72.92 9.03 15.63 .60 72.64. 10.54 13.44 .20 75.28 Ash Per cent. From whole wheat flour From whole "wheat From Patent flour. 1.50 1.50 .34 The composition of other kinds of bread will be found in the tables at the close of the bulletin. THE LOSS OF FOOD VALUE BY PROLONGED FER- MENTATION IN BREAD MAKING. In bread making the fermentation process causes]a loss of dry matter. This loss by feiinentation is not necessarily confined to the sugar, starch and other non-nitrogenous compounds, but the nitrogenous compounds, as the gluten, may also undergo fermentation changes. In wheat and flour nearly all of the element nitrogen is in the form of pro- tein. It is the protein which gives flour its characteristic value as a food. As previously stated, the protein in flour is present mainly in the form of gluten. Thus it follows that any loss of nitrogen, which is the principal element of pro- tein, means a corresponding loss of protein and of food value; hence it is unnecessary to emphasize the importance of pre- venting excessive losses of nitrogen by fermentation in bread making. Inasmuch as bread is made in so many different ways, it was thought best to compare the two extreme methods in common use, viz: short fermentation and prolonged fer- mentation, to determine the nature and extent of the losses w^hen each process is followed. The methods of procedure were essentially as follows: (1) Short fermentation method, making a dough of the flour, water, and yeast, kneading it thoroughly, allowing it to rise until it doubled its bulk, kneading it again thoroughly, when after rising a second time it was baked. (2) Prolonged fermentation method making a batter out of the flour, yeast, and water, allowing this batter to ferment for 10 or 15 hours, usually over night, then adding more flour, kneading and allowing the dough to rise, when it was given the same treatment as in the first method. In the first method a larger amount of yeast was used and the fermentation was carried on for a shorter time and at a higher temperature, while in the second method a PROLONGED FERMENTATION. 49 smaller quantity of yeast was used, and the fermentation was carried on for a longer time and at a lower temperature. Seven separate bread making trials are recorded; in four of the trials the bread was made by the slow fermentation process, and in three of the trials by the rapid fermentation process. In the prolonged fermentation trials the fermen- tation process was continued from twenty to forty hours, a longer time than iS Usually the case in bread making. The time of fermentation and other details, are given in the tables at the close of the article. About 400 grams of flour (14ozs.) vsrere first carefully weighed, and the amount of un- used flour, after mixing and kneading the dough, w^as w^eighed, and deducted from the weight of flour taken. The flour, yeast, and bread were all weighed and analyzed, and the amount of dry matter and nitrogen lost in each of the trials was determined. The bread was all made from one lot of hard spring wheat patent flour. No milk or fat was used in making the bread, thus avoiding complications from the introduction of foreign materials. The details of the separate trials were carried out by Miss A. M. Pattee. It is not intented to convey the idea that for ordinary bread making purposes so large a quantity of yeast, as was used in some of these experiments, is necessary. An ordinary- yeast cake weighs about 12 grams. While the length of time for fermentation as givea for some of the trials is ex- cessive, the losses of both dry matter and nitrogen were not in all cases found to be proportional to the time of fermen- tation. In some of the trials, not reported, it appeared that the greatest losses occurred during the first twelve or fifteen hours of the prolonged fermentation. Briefly stated, the losses were found to be as follows: Loss of Dry Matter. — When the bread was made by the short fermentation process, there was a loss of 1.74 per cent of dry matter equivalent to a loss of a little more than three pounds of flour per barrel. When the bread was made by the prolonged fermentation process there was a loss of 8.0^ per cent of dry matter, equivalent to a loss of about four- teen and a half pounds of flour for every barrel of flour used. Loss of Nitrogen. — When the bread was made by the 50 HUMAN FOOD INVESTIGATIONS. short fermentation process there was an average loss of 2.10 per cent of the total nitrogen; with the prolonged fer- mentation process the loss of nitrogen was 7.77 per cent. When aliarrel of flour is made into bread by the prolonged fermentation process, the loss of nitrogen exceeds the loss by the short fermentation process in protein value equal to about seven pounds of the best sirloin steak. TABLE No. XXIX.— Summary of Losses. Short Fermentatton. No. Prolonged Fermentation. No. Drv Matter. Per Cent Lost. Total Nitrogen. Per Cent i^ost. Dry Matter. Per Cent Lost. Total Nitrogen. Per Cent Lost. 1 3.94 1.50 2 11.09 8.14 3 .13 1.76 4 5.94 10.23 5 2.25 1.95 6 9.29 6.80 7 6 01 5.93 Average 2.10 1.74 8.08 7.77 TABLE No. XXX.— Weight In Grams of Materials used and of Bread Produced. Short Fermentation. No. Flonr. Yeast. Water. Time (hours) Bread. 1 3 5 353.57 366.34 332.28 6.85 6.27 6.57 230 230 230 2% 2% 2% S12.76 520.7 445.1 Prolonged Fermentation. 2 378.2 1.68 230 23 490.1 4 390.67 2.66 230 22 525.7 6 435.8 2.45 40 553.6 7 415.7 2.35 23 566.1 COMPOSITION OF FLOUR AND YEAST. 51 TABLE No. XXXI.— Weight In Grams of Dry Matter and Nitrogen in Materials Used and Bread Produced. Short Fermentation. Flour and Yeast. Bread. No. Dry Matter. NltroKen. Dry Matter. Nitrogen. 1 3 5 317.7 328.6 299.4 7.5J6 7.820 7.076 312.9 322.8 293. .■> 7.229 7.81 6.917 Prolonged Fermentation. 2 339.2 7.937 310.6 7.057 4 349. 8.218 313.3 7.73 6 389.2 9.156 362.7 8.304 7 371.2 8.733 3g5.3 8.208 TABLE No. XXXTI.-Comp osltlon of Flour and Teast. > Flour. Yeast. Water, per cent. Nitrogen, per cent 10.853 3.09 65.49 2.00 Composition of Bread Samples. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Water, per cent. Nitrogen, per cent. 38.962 1.41 36.69 1.44 38.15 1.52 40.44 1.47 35.54 1.52 34.52 1.47 37.23 1.45 THE DIGESTIBILITY OF POTATOES. The digestibility of potatoes when used as food for do- mestic animals has been determined by a number of investi- gators, but few experiments, however, appear to have been made with potatoes as a human food. Inasmuch as pota- toes form such an important part of the food of many peo- ple, and there is such a difference of opinion regarding their digestibility, it was considered best to determine the digesti- bility by actual experiment. The experiment was performed with a man weighing about 140 pounds. The daily ration consisted of 3% pounds of boiled potatoes, 8 eggs, 1% pints of milk, and half of a pint of cream. It was the intention to confine the ration to eggs and potatoes, but this was found impracticable on account of the potatoes making the ration too bulky. The experiment was carried on for four days. The daily ration contained, approximately, the fol- lowing amounts of nutrients : TABLE No. XXXIII. Dry Matter lbs. Ash. lbs. Protein, lbs. Pat. lbs. Carbo- hydrates. lbs. Potatoes, 314 pounds.. Mess. 8 .80 .25 .20 .09 .033 .009 .011 .003 .09 .11 .06 .01 .001 .108 .06 .075 .66 Milk, 1% pints .067 .008 Total 1.34 .055 .27 .244 .735 The daily ration contained 1.34 lbs. of dry matter.. The dry matter was composed of about a quarter of a pound of fat, a little more than a quarter of a pound of protein, and nearly three-quarters of a pound of carbohydrates. This DIGESTIBILITY OF POTATOES. 53 ratipn supplied all the requirements of the body and pro- duced enough energy for moderately hard labor. Without entering into the details of the experiment, the digestibility of potatoes was found to be as follows: Per cent. Digestible. Dry matter 89.9 Ash 62. Protein 67. Starch and other carbohydrates 94. About ninety per cen t . of the dry matter of the potato was found to be digestible. Of the protein, 67 per cent, was di- gested. The starch and other carbohydrates were found to be the most digestible of all the nutrients. No figures are I Protein. ^Fat. ■ Indigestible. Fig. No. 6. Showing the Composition of the Potato. TABLE No. XXXIV. In 100 pounds of Potatoes. Total Pounds. Pounds Digestible. Dry Matter . . 25. 22.5 Ash 1.0 .1 3.5 .3 20. .6 Fat 1.7 Fiber 19. 54 HUMAN FOOD INVESTIGATIONS. given for the digestibility of the fat, because the potato con- tains such a small amount of fat that its digestibility can not be accurately determined. The digestible part of the po- tato is composed mainly of starch, which is a valuable heat- producing nutrient. The protein of the potato is not as digest- ible as the protein from other foods. As far as total digesti- bility is concerned, this experiment indicates that potatoes occupy a high place among our vegetable foods. The average composition of potatoes, and the amount of digestible nutrients present are as given in Table 34 on preceding page. THE LOSS OF FOOD VALUE WHEN POTATOES ARE BOILED IN DIFFERENT WAYS. In boiling potatoes, five or six different methods of pro- cedure may be followed; one of the most common w^ays is to (1) peel the potatoes, soak them in cold w^ater for an in- definite period, and boil them, starting with cold water. (2) Another way is to omit the soaking, and to place the pota- toes directly into either hot or cold water to boil. (3) Some- times the potatoes are not peeled, but after cleaning, are placed directly into the kettle of either hot or cold water for boiling. The cooking of potatoes so as to retain the highest amount of food value is a very important question. Lawes and Gilbert have shown that from 80 to 85 per cent, of the nitrogen of potatoes is in the juice, and that the same proportion of the mineral matter may also be in the juice. They suggest th^t the boiling should be conducted so as to retain the albumin, which is soluble in water. No figures of losses from actual trials are given, but they sug- gest that the losses may be very large. In Bulletin No. 42, from this station, the losses of albumin were found to range from 2 to 80 per cent, of the total amount in the potato, according to the w^ay in which the potato was boiled. NUTRIENTS LOST FROM POTATOES. 55 It was considered advisable to make further trials, using diiFerent kinds of water, as hard lime water, alkali water, and distilled water. Twenty-eight separate trials were made. In each trial from three to five fair-sized potatoes were used, the boiling was done in a metallic kettle over a gas flame, at about the same rate as with a good fire in a stove. Both the potatoes and water in which the potatoes were boiled were analyzed. When the potatoes were peeled, soaked in water five hours, and started in cold water over 57 per cent, of the total nitrogen was extracted and lost. In the earlier trials, re- ported in Bulletin No. 42, when the potatoes were cut into _medium-sized pieces, soaked and boiled slowly, 80 per cent, of the total nitrogen was extracted and lost in the drain water. The losses of nutrients are the heaviest when the potatoes are peeled, sliced, soaked and then boiled slowly, starting with cold water. The losses of nutrients are the least when the potatoes are not peeled, and are placed directly into hot water, or even cold water, provided the water is warmed rapidly. The loss of total nitrogen is then reduced to about one per cent. When the potatoes are peeled and placed directly into hot water about eight and a half per cent, of the total nitro- gen is extracted and lost. If the potatoes are peeled and placed in a kettle containing cold water the losses are much greater. The smaller the pieces and the slower the rate of cooking the greater the losses. The losses were about the same with hard lime water, alkali water, and distilled water. The losses of starch and dextrin are insignificant compared with the losses of nitro- gen and ash. When the potatoes are not peeled the com- bined losses of starch and dextrin are less than a tenth of one per cent. When the potatoes are peeled the loss of soluble starch and dextrin ranges from .63 to 1.50 per cent. The loss of such a large proportion of the total nitrogen of the potato is a serious matter. Before cooking there is about one part of protein to every 10 or 11 parts of starch and starch-like bodies. After improper cooking, and losing half of the total nitrogen the ratio is widened to 1 to 20 or HUMAN FOOD INVESTIGATIONS. more. In a bushel of potatoes a loss of 25 per cent, of the vegetable albumin is equivalent in food value to all of the protein in a pound of sirloin steak. In many cases the losses are even greater than 25 per cent. These trials suggest, that in order to retain the highest food value: (1) Potatoes should not be peeled and soaked. (2) They should be placed directly into hot water. (3) The potatoes should not be cut into fine pieces. (4) An unneces^^ sarily large amount of water should not be used for boiling. TABLE NO. XXXV.— Summary Table of Average Per Cent, of Loss. m Dry Matter. Ash Total Nitrogen. Starch, etc. 6 Potatoes not peeled and placed .44, 3.43 4.20 3.09 6.48 3.41 16.18 2,40 18.91 33.49 1.05 8.52 .98 15.92 51.72 80. • 6 Potatoes peeled and placed in kettle of cold "water 1 01 6 Potatoes not peeled and placed in kettle of cold water .07 (followed by rapid boiling.) 6 Potatoes peeled and placed in 2 Potatoes peeled, soaked and placed in kettle of cold water., 2 Potatoes peeled, sliced, soaked and placed in kettle of cold THE LOSS OF FOOD VALUE WHEN CARROTS ARE COOKED IN DIFFERENT WAYS. ' In the preparation of carrots for the table, it is usually the custom to place the sliced carrots into either hot or cold water, and boil them until they are soft and easily punc- tured with a fork. The water m which the carrots have been boiled is usually drained oflf and thrown away. This water is colored yellow and has a very sweet taste, plainly indicating that some of the nutrients of the carrots have LOSS OF FOOD VALUE FROM CARROTS. 57 been extracted and are lost, and that the boiled carrots have a different composition and food value from the uncooked carrots. In order to determine just how much food value is lost in the drain water from boiled carrots, twelve separate trials were made, in which lime water, alkali water, and soft water (distilled water) were each used. A sample of the carrots used was analyzed. The carrots were prepared by washing and cleaning with a brush, scraping, and before w^eighing were dried quickly with a towel to remove surplus water. The drain water, as well as the smaller amount of distilled water used for rinsing were als6 weighed and analyzed. From the weight and analysis of the carrots and the weight and analysis of the drain waters the amounts of nutrients extracted and lost were calculated. The carrots were sliced in wedge-shaped pieces about four or five inches long. In some of the trials the pieces were smaller, while in others they were larger. The carrots were cooked in a metallic kettle by means of a. gas burner, under as nearly normal conditions as possible. The rate of boiling was very similar to that on a gasoline stove. Composition of the Carrots. — The carrots used contained 12.50 per cent, dry matter, which is practically the amount given for the composition of American carrots. A little over half of the dry matter was cane and fruit sugar, — viz., 6.60 per cent., of which 3.66 per cent, was cane sugar and 3.00 per cent, was fruit sugar and glucose. The amount of nitro- gen in the carrots was .18 per cent., equivalent to 1.12 per cent, of crude protein. About 44 per cent, of the total ni- trogen was present as albuminoid nitrogen. The Losses in the Drain Waters. — In the boiling of car- rots from a fifth to over a half of the total nutrients are ex- tracted and lost in the water used for boiling. The amount of loss depends more upon the size of the pieces and the rate of boiling than it does upon the kind of water employed. With small-sized pieces and slow boiling half of the nitrogen may be extracted and lost. The most serious losses are of the nitrogenuous compounds and the fruit sugar. There appears to be a larger loss of the nitrogenuous compounds 58 HUMAN FOOD INVESTIGATIONS. than of sugar. Unlike the potato, there appears to be about the same relative loss of nitro- gen when the carrots are placed directly into hot water, as when placed in cold water. This is probably due to the presence of the large amount of sugar and other extractive matters whicli leave the carrots in such a porous condition that the coagulated al- bumin cannot be retained. These trials suggest that in the cooking of carrots (1) the pieces should be large rather than small, (2) that the boiling should be rapid rather than slow, (3) that as little water as possible should be used, (4) and that this extractive matter should be used as food along with the carrots instead of being thrown away,.' so as to prevent the loss of the Pig. 7. Composition of a carrot. 20 tO 30 per CCUt. of the mOSt valuable nutrients of the carrot. ^Protein. H Fiber. I Ash. TABLE No. XXXVI.— Summary. Average Per Cent of Loss. Dry Matter Ash. Total. Nitrogen. Sugar. 29.93 23.57 20.18 47.91 37.45 29.70 42.49 27.64 20.22 25.98 Carrots cut in Medinm Sized Pieces Carrots cut in Large Pieces 2R.00 15.4,0 THE LOSS OF FOOD VALUE WHEN CABBAGE IS COOKED IN DIFFERENT WAYS. Similar experiments were made to determine the extent of the losses when cabbage was boiled by beginning with hot or cold water. In each trial one half of a fair sized solid cab- bage was used. The cabbage was first weighed, and then boiled in a metallic kettle over a gas flame. The drain waters were also weighed and analj'zed. The rate of boiling was the same as in the experiments with potatoes and car- rots. Distilled water, lime water, and alkali water were each used in the hot and cold water trials. Composition of the Cabbage. — The cabbage contained 92.52 per cent water, .70 per cent ash, .18 per cent nitrogen, equivalent to 1.12 per cent of crude protein. Sixty-one per cent of the total nitrogen was in the form of albuminoid nitrogen. The Losses in the drain water from boiled cabbage are very large. Even under the most favorable conditions, — starting with hot water and boiling rapidly — the lowest amount of dry matter lost amounted to 29 per cent of the total dry matter in the cabbage, while about a third each of total nitrogen and ash were lost. The heaviest losses oc- curred when the cooking was started w^ith cold water, when over 42 per cent of the total dry matter was extrated, and nearlyhalf of the total nitrogen and over half of the ash were lost. On account of the leafy and porous structure of the cabbage a larger amount of surface is exposed to the action of the water used for boiling. In the boiling of cabbage the losses can not be held in check as effectually as in the boiling of potatoes. It is sometimes customary to soak cabbage be- fore boiling, in which case the losses must be even larger. The loss of the dry matter, containing from a third to a half of both the total nitrogen and, ash seriously lessens the food value of the cabbage. It means that when a hundred pounds of cabbages are boiled there is only about 5.50 pounds of dry matter actually consumed, while 2.25 pounds contain- ing the most valuable nutrients of the cabbage are lost. THE RATIONAL FEEDING OF MEN. HARRY SNYDER. Importance. — The object of the rational feeding of man is to supply the human body with the proper amounts of the right kinds of food. In thefeeding of man, as in the feeding of animals, the best results are obtained in the way of econo my, health, and amount of labor that can be performed, when the body is supplied with the proper nutrients for the, production of heat and energy, and for the necessary repair of the worn-out tissues. In order to discuss the subject it will be necessary to con- sider the composition of foods, the uses made of foods bythe body, the amount of food required for different kinds of labor, the combination of foods to form balanced rations so as to meet all of the requirements of the body, and the com- parative cost and value of various kinds of foods. COMPOSITION OF FOODS. Many of our common food materials as meat, and the various vegetables are very complex in composition, in fact the exact number and nature of the compounds in an ordi- nary food material are not known. Although foods are composed of many compounds, the main difference in com- position between two foods is, as a rule, confined to a few of these compounds. One food differs from another in contain- ing more or less of some nutrient as starch, sugar, fat or albumin. In dealing w^ith the composition of foods it is necessary to make use of a number of terms as nutrient, dry matter, organic matter and protein, which will first be briefly defined. NoTK — This article has been condensed from lecture notes given as a part of the course in chemistry at the Minnesota School of Agriculture. The material has been compiled largely from the works of Konig, Voit, Atwater and the publi- cations of the U. S. Departmea^- of AsricHltiire- COMPOSITION OF FOODS. 61 A nutrient is either a compound or a group of compounds capable of serving some purpose as food. Sugar, fat, and albumin are nutrients because they are compounds which can be used by the body as food. Water as a Constituent of Foods. — All foods contain water. In the white of the egg, in milk, in vegetables and in the juices of meats the water is perceptible, while sub- stances like meal, flour and sugar, which appear perfectly dry, contain water. Dry Matter, or Solids. — Whenever the water is entirely removed from any substance, the material which is left is called the dry matter or solids. When all of the water is re- moved from a sample of milk it leaves a brittle shining resi- due called the milk solids. If a quart of milk is weighed, and all of the water removed in the way to be described, it will be found that about four and a half ounces of solid material are obtained. At the same rate a hundred pounds of milk would give about 13 pounds of solids. How the Water in Foods is Removed. ^-The water in any food or other substance is removed by drying the material at the temperature of boiling water. This is accomplished by dry ing in a water oven, which is madt of tin or copper and has double walls. The space between the walls is filled with water which is kept boiling. When any food is dried in such an oven, the water which is present is expelled in the form of steam, leaving what is known as the dry substance or water free material. These two terms, water and dry matter, are used fre- quently in speaking of foods. When it is desired to express the amount of water which a substance contains it is always expressed in pounds per hundred of that substance. In all books and tables these figures are given as percentage amounts, which means pounds of water in one hundred pounds of the substance. 62 THE RATIONAL FEEDING OF MEN. In 100 lbs. of milk there are from 86 to 88 pounds of water. In 100 ' cheese H " 30 to 35 In 100 ' flour " 10 to 14 In 100 ' butter " 8 to 15 In 100 ' beef " 50 to 60 In 100 ' chicken " 70 to 75 In 100 ' waterml' n '' " 95 to 96 In 100 ' sugar " .Ito 1. In 100 ' oysters a " 86 to 88 The amount of water in other foods is given in the tables of. analyses. It is to be observed that there is a great difference in the amount of water present in food stuffs. Whenever we buy a pound of beef we buy about half a pound of water, and when we buy a barrel of flour, from 20 to 30 pounds of water are purchased. Tomatoes, cucumbers and many other veget- ables frequently contain 95 to 96 parts of water in every 100 parts of the vegetable material. Ash. — The diy matter of foods is composed of a number of separate and quite distinct compounds, some of them as starch, sugar and fat, are familiar bodies. If this dry matter of foods is burned, a small amount of ash is obtained. In all food stuffs, as eggs, meat and vegetables, there is a certain amount of material that is left after the substance is burned which is called the ash, or mineral, or earthy matter. In all foods there is more or less ash present, just as there is in wood or coal. In the case of milk, there is about three-quarters of a pound of ash in 100 pounds of milk. In all meats there is from a pound to a pound and a half of ash per 100 pounds of the meat. In other food stuffs this mineral matter is present in various amounts as given in the tables of the composition of foods. This mineral matter is a necessary food constituent. The ash of the food is impor- tant because it furnishes material for the formation of bones and it also enters into the composition of all of the vital fluids and every part and organ of the body. The ash is composed of a number of constituents as salt, lime, iron, phosphoric acid, etc. Foods differ materially as to the com- position of their ash. In potatoes the mineral matter is COMPOSITION OF FOODS. 63 largely potash, while in grains it is composed largely of phosphates. Organic Matter. — The dry substance which has been burned is known as the organic or volatile part of the food. The ash is called the non-volatile or inorganic part. The organic matter is obtained by subtracting the ash from the dry matter. Fats. — One of the nutrients present in all foods is fat. The amount of fat in foods is variable. In 100 pounds of milk there may be present from 3.5 to 5 pounds of fat; in flour fat is present to the extent of one pound in every 100 pounds of flour. In lean meat from a fifth to a third of the total weight is fat. The amount of fat is least in the veget- able food stuffs, and greatest in the animal food stuffs. There is a great difference in the quality of fat from dif- ferent foods. In some cases the fat is firm and hard like tallow, while in other cases it may be in the form of an oil. Fat is not a simple material. There are a great many differ- ent kinds of separate fats; and in milk there are no less than seven or more separate fats. The fats are sometimes spoken of when the ether extract materials are meant. Fats are soluble in ether and consti- tute, nearly all of the ether extract of grains, and animal food products. In fresh green vegetables the ether extract contains a great many other compounds besides fat. The ordinary figures given for the fat content of green vegetables are much higher than the actual amounts of pure fat present, while the ether extract from animal food products, and from most grain products is nearly pure fat. The amount of fat ^vhich various foods contain is given in the tables of analyses. Fiber. — The fiber includes the cellulose and lignin bodies which constitute the frame work of vegetable substances. The amount of fiber in human food stuffs is usually small. In ordinary flour there is about one part of fiber in 1000 parts of flour. In some foods, as the potato, the amount of fiber is sometimes exaggerated. In the potato there are three or four parts of fiber per 1000 parts of potato. The fiber is not entirely indigestible. 64 THE RATIONAL FEEDING OP MEN. Carbohydrates. — The starch and sugar compounds to- gether with similar substances constitute the carbohydrate group. As ordinarily used the carbohydrates include com- pounds as the organic acids, or sour principles of vegetables, the jellies or pectose substances, and many other bodies which are not carbohydrates. The term nitrogen-free-extract is fre- quently made use of to designate this miscellaneous group. The term nitrogen-free-extract means compounds, like starch or sugar, which contain no nitrogen, (nitrogen-free) , are easily soluble bodies, and are capable of being readily extracted from foods. The term nitrogen free extract is, as its name implies, a very indefinite one. The Non-nitrogenous and the Nitrogenous Compounds — The fat, fiber, starch, sugar, and other allied compounds constitute a group to w^hich the name non-nitrogenous com- pounds is given. The non-nitrogenous compounds contain no. nitrogen. Compounds like albumin-, casein and fibrin contain nitrogen, and are called nitrogenous compounds. Non-nitrogenous compounds contain no nitrogen: nitrogen- ous compounds contain nitrogen. The divisions into these two classes is an important one, because each class serves a different food purpose. The nitrogenous compounds are by far the most expensive and the most important nutrients found in foods. The nitrogenous compounds are divided into groups. Protein. — The proteids are the largest and the most im- portant group of the nitrogenous compounds. Unfortu- nately, the terms used to designate the nitrogenous com- pounds have been confused. By many the terms proteids, albuminoids, and nitrogenous compounds are used synony- mously, but each term has a distinct meaning. The nitro- genous compounds constitute the general class, while pro- teids and albuminoids are distinct classes of nitrogenous compounds. For food purposes the nitrogenous compounds are, by common usage, collectively spoken of as the crude protein. Nutritive J?atio.— The nutritive ratio is the ratio which exists between the protein and the non-nitrogenous com- pounds. A nutritive ratio of 1 to 5.5 means one part of MISCELLANEOUS COMPOUNDS OF FOODS. 65 protein to 5.5 parts of non-nitrogenous compounds. In cal- culating the nutritive ratio the fats are multiplied by 2% be- cause they are so much more concentrated than the carbo- hydrates. In calculating the nutritive ratio the fat, after multiplying by 2%, is added to the carbohydrates, then this sum, divided by the protein, gives the nutritive ratio. A narrow ratio means a small proportion of non-nitrogenous compounds to protein. A wide ratio means a large propor- tion of non-nitrogenous compounds to protein. Miscellaneous Compounds. — In addition to the com- poxmds which have been given ,*there are a great many other compounds present in foods. Many fruits and vegetables contain essential oils and- other similar products which im- part flavor and render foods more digestible. Many foods also contain various organic acids, as tartaric acid, found in grapes, and malic acid found in small fruits. The jellies, or pectose substances are also found in many foods. In the potato pectose substances and organic acids are both present. Some foods contain compounds, as tannic, which impart a a negative food value. In the following chart a classification of the important compounds found in foods is given. A division is first made into water and dry matter. The dry matter is then divided into two parts; ash, and the organic or volatile part. The organic part is in turn divided into tw^o classes of com- pounds: non-nitrogenous and nitrogenous. Both of these classes are subdivided as indicated on the chart. While the classification may seem somewhat complicated, it must be remembered that when we are dealing with foods we are considering very complex bodies. THE RATIONAL FEEDING OF MEN. Composition of Foods, 2. Dry Matter. 2. Organic Compounds. a2 o ^ II ?2 BE? C (t a a > > B >» HtJ Q !> Q ~ ET re o 'S ►tjcco o- E USES MADE OF FOODS BY THE BODY. In order to sustain life the body must be supplied with food for the production of heat and for maintaining the body. In the case of growing children an additional amount is re- quired in excess of that required for the two purposes named. Foods should supply all of these needs of the body. Heat Producing Foods. — Fat, starch and sugar w^hich belong to the non-nitrogenous compounds are gener- ally called the heat producing compounds. A pound of starch, when it is fully digested by the body, produces the same amount of heat as if the starch were burned in a stove. In fact all of our food which is digested produces heat. In order for the functions of the body to be properly performed, a certain amount of heat is required. There is a great differ- ence in the amount of heat which different foods are capable of producing. Some foods are greater heat producers than others. Heat Units. — The heat which is present in foods is measured by the amount of work which it is capable of do- ing. The amount of heat required to raise a pound of water .8 of a degree F. is called a Calorie. A pound of sugar or starch will produce 1860 Calories; that is a pound of starch when burned, if all of the heat were used for warming w^ater, would warm 1860 pounds of water .8 of a degree P. The heat produced by foods is sometimes spoken of as the heat units. Apound of starch or sugar will yield 1860 heat units. A pound of fat will produce 4225 heat units, about 2.25 times more heat than a pound of starch. Starch, sugar and fat not only produce heat but may al- so be used for the formation of fat in the body. These com- pounds alone can not produce muscle or sustain life because they contain no nitrogen. The muscles, blood, skin, etc. all contain nitrogen, hence the sugar, starch and fat, are incom- plete foods because they supply no nitrogen. The nitrogen 68 THE RATIONAL FEEDING OF MEN. of the body must be supplied in the form of protein as albumin, or casein. Importance of Protein. — The protein compounds are fre- quently called the muscle forming compounds, a term first used by Liebig. As previously stated they are the most im- portant compounds present in foods. They are the building materials out of which the greater portion of the muscles of the body are formed. They enter into the composition of the bones, tendons and ligaments, hair, skin, nails, nerve tissues, and all of the vital fluids of the body. Every muscular act of the body is carried on at the expense of some protein material. All of these demands for protein in the human body must be met by a liberal supply in the food. It is the protein -which is usually the most deficient in our food materials. The protein compounds are the vital nutrients. From what has been said in regard to the protein compounds entering so largely into the composition of the body, the necessity of combining a sufficient amount of protein in our food is apparent. Protein not only performs these functions but it also produces heat. A pound of protein when digested will produce the same amount of heat as a pound of starch or sugar. Digested Products. — When protein is digested, the nitro- gen is excreted in the form of urea. The carbon of the food appears as carbon dioxide, and the hydrogen as water, both of which are expelled in respired air. In order to form car- bon dioxide and water the oxygen of inhaled air is essential. In addition to forming completely digested products as car- bon dioxide, water, and urea, cleavage products are also formed. The income and outgo of the carbon of the food is studied by Petten Rofer's apparatus, by means of which all of the respiratory products, as carbon dioxide and water are accurately determined. THE AMOUNT OF FOOD REQUIRED BY THE BODY. The amount of food which the body requires is deter- mined by experiments. The food is, so regulated that the amount of -waste matter is entirely replaced by the food con- sumed. The amount of food which the body demands can be as accurately determined as the amount of fuel required by an engine for different kinds of work. The amount of food required by diiferent persons varies in the same way as the fuel requirements of different stoves. Unlike the stove, the body, when it is not supplied with food, begins to draw upon itself. Making due allowance for individual differences, the average amount of food per day required b3'a man at moder- ate physical labor is as follows: Protein 25 pounds. Fat 25 " Carbohydrates 1.00 Total dry matter 1.50 pounds. Heat units or fuel value of food about 3300 calaries. The food consumed should vary with the occupation, the climate, and the characteristics of the individual.' The figures for the dietary standards, calculated from many experiments by different investigators, as given by Atwater, are as follows: TABLE No. XXXVII.— Dietary Standards. Protein lbs. Fat lbs. Carbo- hydrates lbs. Fuel Value. Nutritive Ration. Man -witli little physical exercise.. .20 .20 .66 2.450 5.5 Man with light muscular work.... .22 .22 .77 2.800 5.7 Man with moderate muscular w'rk .28 .28 .99 3.520 5.8 Man with active muscular work.. ,33 .33 1.10 4.060 5.6 Man with hard muscular work.... .39 .55 1.43 5.700 6.9 70 THE RATIONAL FEEDING OF MEN. It is to be observed that any increase in the amount of labor performed should be met with a corresponding increase in the amount of food consumed. The food should be regu- lated according to the amount of work that is to be performed. There is no question that, ordinarily, too little attention is paid to the proper combination of foods so as to furnish the nutrients according to the demands of the body. It is not intended to convey the idea that every particle of food a per- son consumes should be weighed, and the nutrients which it contains calculated. A general knowledge of the composi- tion of foods will enable one to know what foods can be combined with other foods to advantage. Some foods are rich in protein, some are rich in fat, while others are rich in carbohydrates. Take for example a few foods as butter, rice, potatoes, eggs and beef. A combina- tion of butter, rice and potatoes w^ould be deficient in protein and would be an unbalanced ration. A combination of beef, eggs and butter would likewise form an unbalanced ration, one rich in protein and fat, and containing no carbohyd- rates. If the two classes of foods are blended a good balanced ration is the result. In the combination of foods there is sometimes a tenden- cy to use too much fat. A certain amount of fat in the food is absolutely necessary'. The carbohydrates can not entirely take the place of the fats because the body demands a cer- tain amount of concentrated heat-producing food as fat. Too much fat is not only a waste of food but is also a detri- ment. Four ounces of fat daily is a fair amount, in some cases four or six ounces can be used by the body to advant- age, but ten or twelve ounces per day of fat, which is fre- quently the amount consumed, is too much. Example of a Balanced Ration. — The combination of foods to form balanced rations is not a difficult matter. Suppose a ration is to be made from bread, butter, potatoes, sugar, eggs, milk and some meat as round steak. The com- position of each. food should first be noted. In the tables of composition of foods, the nutrients in 100 pounds of the food are given. By moving the decimal point two places to the left the nutrients in one pound of the food are obtained, as follows. EXAMPLES OP BALANCED RATIONS. TABLE NO. XXXVm. 71 Protein lbs. Fat lbs. Carbohydrates lbs. Heat Units CalOTies. One pound bread contains .095 .02 .55 1300 One pound butter contains .85 3600 One pound potatoes contains... .02 .20 400 One pound su^^ar contains .9S 1600 One pound eggs (with shells).... .12 .10 650 One pound round steak., .18 .04 .12 .04 .05 870 . S25 The object is to combine the foods so that about .25 lbs. of protein, .25 lbs. of fat and about one pound or a little less of carbohydrates are obtained. The ration should, in bulk, contain from 1.3 to 1.5 pounds of dry matter and produce about 3000 heat units. Combining the foods named so as to obtain these amounts it would require about 8 ozs. of po- tatoes, 8 ozs. of steak, 12 ozs. of bread, 3 ozs. sugar, 2 ozs. of butter, 1 pint of milk and 3 eggs. TABLE No. ZXXIX.— Nutrients foi One Day. Quantity. Food. Dry Matter. Lbs. Protein. Lbs. Pat. Lbs. Carbohydrates Lbs. 8 ozs. Round sceak. .16 .50 .12 .19 .11 .07 .13 .09 .07 .01 .04 .04 .06 .01 .11 .03 .04 .41 8 ozs. 3 ozs. Potatoes Sugar Butter .10 .19 4.5 ozs. 16 ozs (3) Eggs Milk .05 Total 1.28 .25 .25 .75 The protein of this ration is suppliedby the steak, bread, eggs and milk. The butter and steak furnish the larger part of the fat, while the bread, potatoes and sugar supply the carbohydrates. In order to make the ration more complete fruit or vegetables should be added. A tew examples of rations, calculated for average muscu- 72 THE RATIONAL FEEDING OF MEN. lar labor, are given. The figures are for the uncooked materials as ordinarily purchased or sold in the market; average allowance being made for waste and refuse parts of the food. With the exception of the sugar and a few^ other articles, it is to be noted that nearly all of the foods included in the rations may be produced on the farm. The rations are given merely as outlines and may be varied to suit the tastes of the individual. All of the rations should have fruits and vegetables added to make them more complete. The eye should be trained so that the weight of all foods can be approximately determined. One should become acquaint- ed with the comparative bulk and weight offb'bds so that the quantities required for ratibns can be told without weighing every article of food. Notes on the Rations. — It is to be observed that the main sources of protein are cheese, beans, meat, milk, and bread. Other foods, as potatoes and rice, contain some protein, but they contribute but little to the total protein of a ration. The foods which supply fat in the largest amounts are butter, pork, ham, bacon, mutton, beef, cheese, and milk; beans, rice, potatoes, and bread contain but little fat. Nearly all of the carbohydrates are supplied by potatoes, bread, beans, sugar, rice and oat meal. The rations are not calculated for .the most severe. musT cular labor, but for average farm work. With, light work, the amounts of food should be reduced one-third. For hard labpr about twice as much food is required as for light work. The same amount of work could not be accomplished equally well with all of the rations. In ration No. Ill there are 1000 more heat units than in ration No. VI. Foods which are slow of digestion should be combined with foods which are easily digested. The ration of a labor- ing man should -not consist-entirely-^f easily digested food, because the food will leave the stomach in so short a time that hunger will result although the ration contained the requisite amounts of nutrients. EXAMPLES OP BALANCED RATIONS. TABLE NO. XL.— Examples of Balanced Human Bations. 73 Amount in Ounces. (For one day.) Dry Matter in Pounds. Nutrients. Food Materials. Protein lbs. Fat lbs. Carbohyd- rates, lbs. Heat Units. No. II. 4 2 2 12 8 2 4 4 8 .22 .11 .11 .52 .17 .12 .17 .07 .07 .06 .01 .07 .01 .07 .04 .02 .10 .11 .01 .09 .03 .02 .15 .41 .10 .12 .03 397 Pork 494 450 Bread 979 103 Sugar 200 ^00 Egga 202 Milk 161 8 12 3 13 16 3 2 1.55 ;30 .04 .15 .15 .51 .13 .18 .12 .28 .08 .03 .02 .07 .04 .02 .36 .19 .02 .16 .01 .04 .01 .81 .14 .41 .05 .18 .09 3546 No. III. 970 Eggs (2) 136 285 Butter . . . 675 Bread 979 Milk 323 300 Oat Meal 232 Total 8 2 2 16 4 2 8 3 2 8 1.52 .17 .12 ■11 .13 .06 .11 .35 .04 .12 .12 .26 .07 .04 .02 .01 .03 .02 .02 .01 .43 .09 .11 .04 .01 .02 .01 .87 .12 .05 .04 ,10 .28 .09 .10 No. IV. Mutton Roast. Sugar Butter 530 200 Milk 323* Peas (green).... Rice 100 204 Oat Meal Potatoes 163 Total — 1.33 .24 .28 .76 3010 74 THE RATIONAL FEEDING OF MEN. Table XL. Continued. Amount in Ounces. (For one day.) Dry- Matter in Pounds. Nutrients. Food Materials. Protein lbs. Fat lbs. Carbohyd- rates, lbs. Heat Units. No. V. 4 4 12 2 2 S 4 8 .18 .22 .51 .11 .12 .12 .17 .06 .02 .06 .07 .01 .06 .02 .15 .01 .11 .09 .02 :15 .41 .12 .10 .03 695 397 Bread 979 ' 450 300 Potatoes 163 500 Milk 160 Total...: 6 2 2 16 13 8 8 1.49 .08 .13 .11 .13 .51 .06 .12 .13 .05 .34 .06 .04 .07 .03 .01 .02 .04- .38 .03 .10 .04 .01 .02 .01 .08 .81 .12 .05 .41 .10 .09 3544 No. VI. 135 Sugar Butter 300 449 Milk -1 323 Bread 979 Eggs (31; 304 163 Oat Meal Cottage cheese 333 150 Total 8 6 4 S 4 1.30 .44 .33 .17 .16 .33 .21 .27 .04 .09 .07 .02 .05 .33 .03 .08 .01 .21 .77 .35 .23 .15 .38 2835 No. VII. Corn meal 824 595 Cheese 500 Bread Butter 650 Total — 1.64 .27 .32 1.00 3719 NOTES ON THE COMPOSITION OF FOODS. Beef. — As a general average about fifty per cent, of beef and other meats is water. When the meat is very lean it contains more water than when fat. In very lean round steak sixty -six per cent, as purchased is water, while medi- umly fat round steak contains about sixty per cent, water. As a rule, the parts of the animal which contain the most fat contain the least water. The amount of refuse materials, as trimmings, bones, etc., ranges from three to sixty per cent, according to the part and condition of the meat. The refuse matter in ordinary steaks should not exceed twelve percent. The water and refiise matter of meat make up about sixty per cent, of the butchers' w^eight. It frequently exceeds this amount. Of the remaining forty per cent., about fifteen per cent, is protein, and twenty-tw^o to twenty-five per cent, is fat. The amount of ash or mineral matter in meat rarely exceeds one per cent. Beef varies so in composition that average figures, unless applied to average samples, are liable to be misleading. The composition of beef and of all meats depends upon the condition of the animal. When in a very lean condition there is a large amount of refuse matter, and the meat con- tains a high per cent, of water. When in prime condition, not only is the quality of the meat better, but the meat con- tains less water and there is less waste and refuse matter. In the tables of analyses the coniposition of the various cuts of meat is given. The figures make no distinction as to the physical form of the nutrients. A high nutritive value is as- signed to many of the cheaper cuts of meats. Although the nutrients in the cheaper cuts are present in less palatable forms, the total nutrients, as a rule, exceed the amounts in many of the more expensive cuts. In veal there is less fat than in the corresponding parts of beef. In a side of veal there is about six per cent, of fat. 76 THE RATIONAL FEEDING OF MEN. while in an average side of beef, as purchased, there is six- teen per cent, of fat. Veal contains more water than beef. In beef there is. not so large a proportional amount of pro- tein as in veal. As a general rule the meat from old animals contains less water, more fat, and less protein than the meat from young animals. Mutton. — The average amounts of refuse matters in- beef and mutton are nearly the same. The refuse matter in aside of mutton, as purchased, amounts to about nineteen per cent., in beef, 18.3. There is more solid matter, as a rule, in mutton than in beef. The various cuts of beef, however, contain a little more protein than the corresponding cuts of mutton. Mutton contains more solid matter, somewhat less protein, and more fat than beef. Poultry. — In chickens and turkeys the refuse and waste materials amount to about a third of the butcher's weight. The lean meat of all fowls is rich in protein. In chickens and fowls, in general, the fat accumulates in various parts of the body rather than being evenly distributed through the tissues. In the goose, how^ever, the amount of fat usually exceeds a third of the weight of the body. The edible por- tion of poultry contains more protein than the edible portion of beef. Although the pei' cent, of refuse material is high, the amount of protein obtained from fowls compares very favorably Avith the amount obtained from beef. Pork. — The per cent, of water in pork varies according to the amount of fat present. The higher the per cent, of fat the lower the per cent, of water. In lean salt pork about twenty per cent, is water; in fat salt pork about seven per cent, is water. In ham about fifteen per cent., as purchased, is refuse. In bacon there is about eight percent, of refuse and waste. The amount of protein in pork ranges from 1.8 in salt pork to about 15 per cent, in ham; the fat ranges from 25 per cent, in shoulder to 87 per cent, in salt pork. The high heat producing value and the low muscle-forming value of side pork, compared with other meats, are indicated in the table. A side of pork, as purchased, contains about 11 per cent, of refuse, 26 per cent, of water, 55 per cent, fat, 7 per cent, protein, and .5 per cent. ash. " COMPOSITION OF POODS. 77 Fish. — About half of the butcher's ■weight offish is refuse. Fish contains a very high per cent, of water. The edible portion of all fish is about three-fourths water. Not- withstanding the fact that such a large proportion of fish is refase and water, the per cent, of protein is relatively quite high. In the edible portion of fish there is about the same amount of protein as in the edible portion of lean meat. The amount of fat is small in cod and "white fleshed fish," and in salmon it is about the same as in beef. In salted fish there is less water than in the same kind of fresh fish. Eggs. — About three-quarters of the entire egg (shell re- mbved) is water. The shell makes up about 10 per cent', of the weight of the egg. About 15 per cent, of the egg is pro- tein and 10 per cent is fat. There is a marked difierence be- tween the composition of the white and the yellow parts of the egg. The yolk contains 50 per cent, water while the white contains 87 per cent, water. The yolk contains about 31 per cent, of fat and 15 per cent, of protein. There is about the same amount of water in eggs as in potatoes; the potato is a type of starchy food, while the egg is a type of proteid food. Cheese. — Cheese is a concentrated form of food rich in both protein and fat. The food value of cheese is generally underestimated. Cheese contains about 35 per cent, of fat and 28 per cent, of protein. A pound of cheese is more than equal in food value to a pound and a half of the best sirloin steak. Cheese is sometimes spoken of as indigestible; cheese may be slow of digestion but it is not indigestible. Experi- ments have shown that nearly all of the protein of cheese and ninety -five per cent of the fat is digestible. Experiments given by Koenig show that cheese has a very beneficial effect upon the digestibility of other foods. The diges- tibility of the protein of maize (corn) meal, for example, was found to be 58 per cent. When cheese was added to the maizeraealthedigestibilityof the protein of the ration was 93 percent. There is no question but what more cheese could be used to advantage in our rations. Cheese is not a luxury, but is one of the cheapest and best of our food articles. Milk. — Milk is one of the best types of what may be 78 THE RATIONAL FEEDING OF MEN. termed a well-balanced food. A hundred pounds of milk contain about thirteen pounds of solid matter. The solid matter is composed of fat, protein, in the forms of casein and albumin, milk sugar and mineral matter. The most variable nutrient in milk is fat, the other nutrients vary but little in different samples of normal milk. In dietary studies by Professor Jordan at the Maine State College the value of milk is given as follows: "The dietaries in which milk was more abundantly supplied were somewhat less costly than the others and at the same time were fully as acceptable." "These results indicate that milk should not be regarded as a luxury, but as an economical article of diet, which families of moderate income may freely purchase as a probable means of improving the character of the dietary and of cheapening the cost of their supply of animal foods." Wheat Flour. — The variations in the composition of w^heat flour are quite pronounced. As a rule flour contains about twelve per cent water; there is more water in flour than in the wheat from which the flour is made. The pro- tein in flour ranges from 7 to 14 per cent, according to the quality of the wheat, and the method of milling employed. In flour made by the roller process there is about 12.50 per cent protein. For bread making purposes, the quality of the gluten which forms the larger portion of the protein, is very important. The composition of gluten, and its in- fluence upon the character of the bread product, are discussed in a preceding article in this bulletin. The per cent of ash in flour ranges from .3 to .9; in the lower grades of flour the per cent of ash is the highest. The amount of starch and starch-like bodies ranges from 68 to 75 per cent. The differ- ence in composition between spring wheat and winter wheat flour is a difference mainly in the character of the gluten; as a rule, however, there is a little more protein in spring wheat than in w^inter w^heat flour. Buckwheat Hour is quite different in general composition from wheat flour. Buckwheat flour contains more starch and less protein than wheat flour. Com meal contains less protein than wheat flour, but more than buckwheat flour. Corn meal is frequently so COMPOSITION OF FOODS. 79 mucli cheaper than flour that a given sum of money expended in corn meal will procure more total nutrients than the same amount of money expended in flour. When used for human food, corn meal should be combined with foods rich in pro- tein so as to form a well balanced ration. There is no material difference in. composition between yellow and white com meal. It is a difference simply in coloring matter, which is present in the yellow meal and not present in the white meal. Oat meal is a food which is richer in protein than either com meal or flour. In oat meal there is about 1 part of pro- tein to every 5% parts of non-proteid material, which is about the right proportion for a well balanced ration. Some of the breakfast food preparations on the market contain less in the way of nutrients than the prices Tvhich are charged for them warrant. Particularly is this true of the prepar- ations made from the starchy parts of corn. The oat starch grain i§ quite different in structure from the starch grain of other cereals. It is a compound starch grain, made up of segments, which necessitates a different method of treatment in the way of its preparation as food. Beans and Peas are vegetable foods which are very rich in protein. In a pound of beans there is one-fourth more protein than in a pound of beef. Peas and beans are the only vegetable foods which approach in composition the protein content of animal bodies. In the examples of rations given, it is to be observed that in some of the rations, quite a large proportion of the protein is obtained from beans. Peas and beans should be more extensively used to take the place of expensive meats. But few experiments appear to have been made to determine the digestibility of beans or peas. Sugar is frequently looked upon as a food adjunct rather than a food. Sugar is a valuable fonn of food. Granulated sugar is about 99 per cent pure. The per capita consumption of sugar in the United States amounts to about three ounces per day. There are a great many different kinds of sugar, a discussion of which would not be in the province of this bulletin. Sugar is a type of w^hat might be termed a one- sided food; it is capable of producing heat, but alone can not sustain life. - Many foods as carrots, beets and corn, contain appreciable amounts of sugar. THE COST OF FOOD. The market price of foods is never regulated according to the amount of nutrients which the foods contain. It should be the aim of the purchaser, and the farmer as well, to both buy and sell human food products according to their actual food values. For example, round beef steak is 10 cents per pound, and eggs are 10 cents per dozen, which is the cheaper and better food? At these prices will it pay the farmer to sell the eggs and buy beef? In order to answer this question it is only necessary to calculate the amount of nutrients in 10 cents' worth of each food. The pound of beef steak or 10 cents' worth of steak contains .18 pounds of protein, .11 pounds of fat and produces 780 heat units. Ten cents' worth of eggs will produce .18 pounds of protein, .18 pounds of fat, and 1080 heat units. The same amount of protein can be procured in either the eggs or beef, at the prices stated, but in the eggs over a half more fat can be obtained, which will produce 300 more heat units than the beef, which makes the eggs the cheaper food. When eggs are the same price per dozen that beef is per pound the eggs are the cheaper food. When comparing two foods as to cost and food value the preference should be given to the food containing the most protein. Where there is but little difference as to the amount of protein, the preference should be given to the food containing the most nutrients in the form of fat and carbo- hydrates. Table No. XLI gives the amount of nutrients w^hich can be procured for 10 cents w^hen the various animal and vegetable foods are at the prices stated. When the prices are different from those given calculations can be made to correspond with other prices. When milk is 5 cents a quart and round steak is 12 cents a pound, how do the two foods compare in food value? In THE COST OP FOOD. 81 two quarts, or 10 cents' worth of milk there are .15 pounds of protein, .17 pounds of fat, .2 pounds of carbohydrates and the food will produce 1350 heat units. In 10 cents' worth of 12-cent round steak there are .15 pounds of pro- tein, .09 pounds of fat, and 645 heat units. There is the same amount of protein in each, but the milk contains so much more of the other nutrients that it is by far the cheap- er and better food. When sirloin sieak and mutton chops are the same price per pound, 10 cents will buy a little more protein in the form of beef, but the 10 cents' worth of mutton contains more fat which produces 370 more heat units. When ham and beef are the same price per pound about twice as much pro- tein can be procured in the form of beef, while the 10 cents' worth of ham contains about twice as much fat as the beef. The high food value of cheese is also indicated in the table. When cheese and beef are the same price per pound, cheese is by far the cheaper food. Cheese at 18 cents per pound, is as cheap a food as beef steak at 12 cents per pound. The food value of beans is particularly worthy of notice. At 5 cents per pound more protein can be obtained in the form of beans than' in any other food. It sometimes happens that when a given sum of money is expended in purchasing two food articles, more nutrients and a better balanced ration can be obtained than if the money were all expended for one food article. From the table it will appear that at ordinary prices eggs, milk, cheese, wheat flour, oat meal, corn meal, pota- toes and beans are among the cheapest foods as far as ac- tual food value is concerned. 82 THE RATIONAL FEEDING OF MEN. TABLE NO. XLI.— The Cost of Food.— Nntrients Obtained for Ten Cents When Foods Are at Different Prices. (From 1894 Year Book Dept of Agr.) Food Materials as Purchased. Animal Foods. Prices per Pound, Cents. Total Ten Cents will Buy Nutrients. Protein Pound. Fat Pound. Carbo- hyd- rates. Pound. Fuel value Calo- ries. Beef: Neck do Shoulder Rib Sirloin do do ^..., Round do do Veal: Shoulder do Loin (chops) do Mutton: Shoulder do do Loin (chops) do do Pork: Smoked ham do Smoked shoulder Salt pork, fat Fish: Fresh cod, dressed do Fresh mackerel, dr's'd. 4 6 6 10 13 15 18 10 12 15 8 10 15 20 7 10 8 12 16 12 16 8 10 6 8 12 2.50 1.67 1.67 1.00 .83 .67 .55 1.00 .83 .67 1.25 1.00 .67 .50 2.00 1143 1.00 1.25 .83 .63 .83 .63 1.25 1.00 1.67 1.22 .83 0.36 .24 .27 .13 .14 .11 .09 .18 .15 .12 .21 .17 .11 .08 .26 .19 .13 .16 .11 .08 .06 .04 .16 .04 .18 .13 .09 0.28 .19 .18 .21 .16 .13 .10 .11 .09 .07 .11 .09 .06 .04 .37 •26 .19 .39 .26 .19 .31 .24 .41 .69 1825 1220 1270 1140 915 735 605 780 645 525 845 , 675 445 335 2050 1465 1025 1935 1285 975 1430 1090 2030 2995 340 255 300 THE COST OF FOOD. Table No. XLI.— Continued. 83 Food Materials as Purchased. Animal Foods. Prices per Pound. Cents. Total Pounds. Ten Cents will Buy Nutrients. Protein Pound. Fat Pound. Carbo- hy- drates. Pound. Fuel value. Calo- rics. Salmon Salt mackerel do Salt cod, dry do Eggs: 10 cents a dozen 15 cents a dozen 20 cents a dozen Milk; Sweet, 4 cents a quart do 5 cents a quart Butter do do Cheese. Whole milk do do •. Vegetable Foods: Wheat flour do Corn meal Oat meal Rice Wheat bread Milk crackers Sugar, granulated Potatoes, 25 cts. a bu B.eans 25 8 12 6 8 2 16 20 25 10 12 15 2% 2 3 5 5 6 5 .40 1.25 .83 1.67 1.25 1.50 1.00 .75 5.00 4.16 .63 .56 .45 1.00 .83 .67 5.00 4.00 5.00 3.33 2.00 2.00 1.67 2.00 2.40 3.33 .06 .18 .12 .28 .20 .18 .13 .09 .18 .15 .28 .23 .18 .55 .44 .46 .50 .15 .22 .16 .42 .74 .04 .19 .13 .01 .01 .18 .12 .09 .20 .17 .54 .43 .34 .36 .30 .24 .06 .04 .18 .24 .01 .02 .22 .03 .06 .24 .20 .01 .01 .01 3.74 2.99 3.56 2.27 1,59 1.11 1.16 2.00 3.66 1.98 270 1135 755 525 395 1080 720 540 1625 1350 2275 1897 1583 1998 1665 1420 8225 6580 8250 6160 3260 2530 3355 3720 7680 5345 84 THE RATIONAL FEEDING OP MEN. TABIE NO. XLII.— Compositian of Human Foods. (Prom Bulletins Nos. 28 and 34, Office of Experiment Stations.) Kind and Cut of Meat. Animal Foods. Refuse Per Ct. Water Per Ct. Water free sub- staiic e Per Ct. Protein Per Ct. Fat Per Ct. Ash Per Ct. BEEF— Chuck ribs: Edible portion As purchased ; Loin: Edible portion As purchased Neck; Edible portion As purchased Ribs: Edible portion As purchased Round: Edible portion As purchased Rump: Edible portion As purchased Shank, fore: Edible portion As purchased Shank, hind: Edible portion As purchased Fore quarter: Edible portion As purchased Hind quarter: Edible portion As purchased Cooked, com'd & cann'd As purchased 13.0 27.6 7.7 21.4 36.9 19.4 15.8 57.3 49.3 60.5 52.6 63.4 45.9 55.4 43.8 65.8 60.7 56.7 44.5 67.9 42.9 67.8 31.3 61.4 49.5 61.0 51.3 53.1 42.7 36.9 39.5 34.4 36.6 26.5 44.6 35.4 34.2 31.6 43.3 34.1 32.1 20.2 32.3 14.8 38.6 31.1 39.0 32.9 17.4 15.0 18.3 15.9 19.2 13.9 16.9 13.4 19.7 18.1 16.8 13.2 19.6 12.3 19.8 9.1 17.5 14.1 18.0 15.2 24.4 21.1 20.2 17.6 16.5 11.9 26.8 21.3 13.5 12.6 25.6 20.2 11.6 7.3 11.5 5.3 20.2 16.3 20.1 17.0 14.0 .9 .8 1.0 .9 .7 .9 .7 1.0 .9 .9 .7 .9 .6 .9 .7 .9 .7 4.4 THE COMPOSITION OF FOOD. Table No. XLII— Continued. 85 Kind and Cut of Meat. Animal Foods. Refuse Per Ct. Water Per Ct. Water free sub- stance Per Ct, Protein Per Ct. Fat Per Ct. Ash Per Ct. Fuel value Per Lb. Calo- ries. BEEF— Continued. Dried and smoked: As purchased VEAL— Leg. whole: Edible portion As purchased Rump: Edible portion As purchased Fore quarter: Edible portion As purchased Hind quarter: Edible portion As purchased LAMB— Leg, hind. Edible portion As purchased Loin: Edible portion As purchased Neck: Edible portiotl As purchased Shoulder: Edible portion As purchased MUTTON— Leg, hind Edible portion As purchased Loin: Edible portion As purchased 24.5 20.7 20.3 50.8 ' 49.2 31.8 70.4, 29.6 20.1 59 4 25.0 16.9 62.6 37.4 20.1 43 7 26.1 14. 71.7 28.3 19.4 54..2 21.3 14.6 70.9 29.1 19.8 56.2 23.1 15.7 63.9 36.1 3 8.5 52.9 29.7 15.2 53.1 46.9 17.6 45.3 39.9 15.0 56.7 43.3 17.5 46.7 35.6 14.4 51.8 48.2 17.5 41.3 38.4 14. 62.8 37.2 18.2 51 4 30.6 14.9 50 1 49.9 15.9 42.2 42.5 13.2 8.4 7.2 16.2 11.3 8.0 6.0 8.3 6.6 16.5 13.6 28.3 24.1 24.8 20.4 29.7 23.6 18.0 14.9 33.2 28.6 1.1 .9 1.1 .8 .9 .7 1.0 .8 1.1 .9 1.0 .8 1.0 .8 1.0 .8 1.0 .8 730 620 1055 735 700 525 720 570 1040 855 1520 1295 1375 1130 1580 1255 1100 905 1695 1450 THE RATIONAL FEEDING OP MEN. Table No. XLII— Continued. Kind and Cut of Meat. Animal Foods. Refuse Per Ct. Water Per Ct. Water free sub- stance Per Ct, Protein Per Ct. Fat Per Ct. Ash Per Ct. MUTTON— Continued Neck: Edible portion As purchased Shoulder: Bdible portion As purchased Fore quarter: Edible portion As purchased Hind quarter: Edible portion As purchased Side, without tallow: Edible portion As purchased PORK— Flank: Edible portion As purchased Ham, smoked: Edible portion As purchased Shoulder, fresh: Edible portion As purchased Salt, clear fat; As purchased Salt, lean ends; Edible portion As purchased i, Bacon, smoked; Edible portion..,,., As purchased... 21.7 21.1 16.7 19.2 71.2 14.4 8. 58.2 41.6 61.9 48.5 40.6 54.8 45.6 53.1 42.9 59. 17. 40.7 34.9 57.5 30.4 19.9 17.6 18.2 .16.8 41.8 30. 38.1 29.8 48.3 38.3 45.2 37.7 46.9 37.9 41. 11.8 59.3 50.7 42.5 23. 92.7 80.1 71.2 81.8 75.2 16.3 11.7 17.3 13.5 15. 11.! 16.2 13.5 15.4 12.5 17.8 5.1 15.5 13.3 16.6 8.3 7.3 6.5 10.0 9.2 24.5 17.6 19.9 15.6 32.4 25,7 28.2 23.5 30.7 24.7 22.2 6.4 39.1 33.4 26.1 14.3 87.2 67.1 59.6 67.2 61.8 1.0 .7 .9 .7 .9 .7 .8 .7 .7 .7 4.7 4. 3.7 5.7 5.1 4.6 4.2 THE COMPOSITION OF FOOD. Table No. XLIL— Continued. 87 Refuse Per Ct. Water Per Ct. Nutrients. Fuel Kind and cut of Meat. Animal Foods. Water free sub- stace. Per Ct. Protein Per Ct. Fat Per Ct. Ash Per Ct. value Per Lb. Calo- rfes. PORK— Continued. vSide: Edible portion 29.4 70.6 8.5 61.7 .4 2760 As purchased 11 2 26 1 62 7 7 5 54 8 4 2455 POULTRY— Chicken: 25.8 22.8 1.8 1.2 600 As purchased 34.8 48.5 16.7 14.8 l.l .8 325 Turkey: Edible portion 65.5 44.5 20.6 22.9 1.0 1350 22.7 34.9 15.7 18.4 .8 1070 FISH, fresh— Cod, dried: 17.4 15.8 .4 1.2 310 As purchased 29.9 58.5 11.6 10.6 .2 .8 205 Mackerel, entrails rem 'd : Edible portion 73.4 26.6 18.2 7.1 1.3 640 As purchased 40.7 43.7 15.6 11.4 3.5 .7 360 Salmon, Cal., sections: Edible portion 63.6 36.4 17.5 17.9 1.0 1080 As purchased 10.3 57.9 31.8 16.1 14.8 .9 925 Salmon Trout, whole: Edible portion 69.1 30.9 18.2 11.4 1.3 82() As purchased 56.3 30. 13.7 7.7 5.4 .6 985 Trout, brook, whole: Edible portion 48.1 77.8 40.4 22.2 11.5 18.9 9.8 2.1_ 1.1 1.2 .6 4-tO As purchased 230 FISH, preserved. Cod. salt: Edible portion 53.6 46.4 21.4 .4 24.6 410 As purchased 24.9 40.3 34.8 16. .4 18.4 315 Mackerel, salt: Edible portion 42.2 57.8 22. 22.6 13.2 1360 22 9 32 5 44 6 17 17 4 10 2 1050 Salmon, canned, as pur- 64.5 35.5 20.1 11.6 2.4 890 THE RATIONAL FEEDING OF MEN. Table No. XLIL— Continued. Kind and Cut of Meats. Animal Foods. Refuse Per Ct. Water Per Ct. Nutrients. Water free sub- stance. Per Ct. Protein Per Ct Fat Per Ct Ash Per Ct. ■ Fuel value Per Lb. Calo- ries. FISH, preserved — Con. Sardines, C£.nned, as pur- chased Shell Fish. Clams, round: Edible portion As purchased Oysters, "solids," as pur- chased DAIRY PRODUCTS: Cheese— Chedder Butter ♦Milk *Cream EGGS: In shell Edible portion 67.5 13.7 86.2 28. 88.3 33.00 13.00 87.00 63.1 73.8 13.8 4.5 11.7 67.00 87.00 13.00 23.2 26.2 6.5 2.1 28.00 .50 3.5 a. 5 12.1 14.9 12.7 .4 .1 1.4 35.00 85.00 4.00 20.0 3 0.2 10.5 2.7 .9 4.00 1.5 .7 .5 .9 .8 1010 215 65 235 1999 3600 323 655 721 *MiIk also contains 4.8 per cent, carbohydrates. The fat content of cream ranges from 10 to 30 per cent. THE COMPOSITION OF FOOD. Table No. XLII— Continued. .89 Vegetable Foods. Refuse Per Ct. Water Per Ct. Protein Per Ce. 11.9 12.6 11.6 11.8 12.5 10.4 14.3 6.1 12.9 8.9 7.2 15.6 12.4 7.8 52.7 5.0 31.0 9.9 32.2 9.5 S.2 10.7 94.0 1.8 13.2 22.3 87.6 1.6 20.0 70.0 1,3 90.3 2.1 15.0 76.8 1.8 88,2 1.1 20.0 70.5 .9 79.9 1.7 20.0 63.9 1.3 10.8 24.1 Fat Per Ct. Carbo- hy- drates. Per Ct. Ash Per Ct. Fuel value Per Lb. Calo- ries. Wheat flours, meals, etc. *Roller process flour Spring wheat flour.... Winter wheat flour. . Buckwheat flour Corn meal, bolted Oat meal Rice Rice, boiled *White bread *Graham bread Crackers Sugar, granulated Sugar, maple Vegetables — Asparagus: As purchased Beans, dried. As purchased Beets: Edible portion As purchased Cabbage: Edible portion... As purchased Carrots: Edible portion As purchased Parsnips: Edible portion As purchased Peas, dried: As purchased .8 1.1 1.0 1.0 2.2 7.3 .4 .1 1.4 2.5 9.9 74.3 .4 75.0 .5 75.6 .5 77.2 1.4 75.1 ,9 68.0 1.9 79.0 .4 41.9 .3 57.1 .6 54:7 1.1 68.8 2.4 98.0 82.8 3 3 .7 59.1 3.6 9.6 ' 1.1 7.7 .9 5.8 1.4 4.9 1.2 9.2 1 1 7.4 .9 16.1 1.7 12.9 1.4 61.5 2.5 1650 1660 1640 1590 1655 1860 1630 875 1306 1895 1600 1540 210 170 165 140 210 170 355 285 *From Minnesota Analyses. 90 THE RATIONAL FEEDING OP MEN. Table No. XLIL— Concluded. Vegetables. Refuse Per Ct. Water Per Ct. ' 78.1 50.0 39.0 78.9 15.0 67.1 69.3 15.0 58.9 86.5 50.0 4.3.3 88.9 30.0 62.2 96.0 81.3 96.0 02.4 86.3 Protein Per Ct. Fat Per Ct. Carbo- by- drates. Per Ct. Ash Per Ct. .5 16 1 .9 .3 8.0 .5 .1 18.0 .9 .1 15.3 .7 .7 27.1 1.1 .6 23.1 .9 .6 10.4 .9 .3 5.2 .4 _2 8.7 .8 .1 6.1 .6 .4 2.5 .3 1.1 14.1 .7 .2 2.5 .5 .5 3.1 1.9 .8 4.4 7.0 Fuel, value Per Lb. Calo- ries. Peas, green: Edible portion As purchased Potatoes, raw. Edible portion As purchased Potatoes, sweet: Edible portion As purchased Squash: Edible portion As purchased Turnips: Edible portion As purchased Tomatoes; Edible portion Green corn Cucumber Spinach. ...\ ..: Sauerkraut 4.4 2.2 2.1 1.8 1.8 l.S 1.6 .8 1.4 1.0 .8 2.8 .8 2.1 1.5 400 200 380 325 565 480 245 125 195 135 80 360 70 120 145 THE WORLD'S WHEAT SUPPLY BY SIR JOHN BENNET LAWES, Baet., D.C.L., Sc.D. P.R.S. AND SIR J. HENRY GILBERT, LL.D., Sc.D., P.R.S. Reprint of Letter in The Times, December 2, 1898 SPOTTISWOODE & CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE, LONDON 1898 THE WORLD'S WHEAT SUPPLY BY SIE JOHN BENNET LAWES, Baet., D.C.L., Sc.D., F.E.S. AND SIE J. HENEY GILBEET, LL.D., Sc.D., F.E.S. Eeprint of Letter in The Times, December 2, 1898 SPOTTISWOODE & CO., NEW-STEEET SQUAEE, LONDON 1898 THE WORLD'S WHEAT SUPPLY. (Keprint of Letter in The Times, December 2, 1898.) The President of the British Association is always selected for that distinguished position on account of his great scientific attainments. When the present President, Su." William Crookes, startled his audience at the late meeting of the Association at Bristol, by telling them that — " England and all civilised nations stand in deadly peril of not having enough to eat " — we may feel sure that not only would his hearers be startled, but that the alarm would spread over the civilised world. Having ourselves paid considerable attention to the subject of the home and foreign production of wheat, we have several times been asked to say something on the momentous question raised by Sir William Crookes. In complying with the request, we should at the outset say, that we do not propose to criticise in any detail Sir William Crookes's statistics, but only to call attention to some points, the consideration of which it is of importance to bear in mind. No one can deny Sir William Crookes's statement that — "land is a limited quantity." But his further statement that — " as mouths multiply, food resources dwindle " — is more open to question. Sir William Crookes first considers what will be the position of this country under " the universal dearth to be expected." He seems to think that we must for the future depend more on our own resources, and less upon imports for the wheat required to feed our population. He says—" A total area of land in the United Kingdom equal to a plot 110 miles square, of quality and climate sufficient to grow wheat to the extent of 29 bushels per acre, does not seem a hopeless demand." He further points out, that the area thus required is about one-tenth of the total area of the United Kingdom. On this point it is to be borne in mind that the total area (77,67'2,816 acres) includes land and water, and uncultivated as well as cultivated land ; whilst, according to official statistics, there were in 1897 only 19,943,843 acres of arable land, and 27,924,710 acres of permanent grass, making together only 47,868,553 acres available for agricul- tural purposes out of the total area of 77,672,816 acres. Sir William Crookes, however, expresses doubt whether the amount of land supposed could be kept under wheat, except under the imperious pressure of impending starvation, or the stimulus of a national subsidy, or permanent high prices ; and he assumes that all the land now under barley and oats would not be suitable for wheat, and that for the present our annual deficit must be imported. As the question whether or not the United Kingdom could grow enough wheat for its population is one to which we have paid a good deal of attention, and on which we have published our opinion more than once, it may be well brieily to summarise ithere. Taking Sir William Crookes's estimate of the amount of land required for this purpose to be about 8 million acres, the argument at the present time would be somewhat as follows : — As above stated, the total arable area of the United Kingdom was, in 1897, rather under 20 million acres, so that the above requirement for the growth of wheat would absorb about two-fifths of the existing total arable area of the country ; and such a scheme would obviously soon require more. Our dependence on foreign produce would, however, not thus be lessened ; for we should have to depend on imports to supply the place of the other grain crops, and the stock foods, displaced by the devotion of so much more land to wheat. Or, if the area at present devoted to these other crops were to be maintained as at present, the total arable area would have to be increased to the extent of the increase in the area under wheat, thus trenching on the land now devoted to permanent grass. It is obvious that under such circumstances our live stock would have to be reduced, and our imports of live animals and meat very much increased. Such would be the case with our present popula- tion, to say nothing of continued increase, and of the fact that there is proportionally very little possible increase in our own food-producing area. In any case, therefore, a material increase in our own area under wheat would not reduce the imports requisite to meet the food requirements of the people, but would only substitute those of wheat for those of barley, oats, stock foods, or meat, or all of these. This is assuming that the change proposed were to be a permanent one. But if it were to be only temporary to meet the exigencies of war, or of dearth in other countries, the circumstances of the time would indicate what derangement of our agricultural system would yield the most food, and be the least objectionable. Sir WilHam Crookes dismisses the subject of our own home production with the remark that — " We eagerly spend millions to protect our coasts and commerce ; and millions more on ships, explosives, guns, and men ; but we omit to take necessary precautions to supply ourselves with the very first and supremely important munition of war — food." It is rather hard thus to be told that we are negligent upon the important subject of our food supply, when, up to the time of the Bristol meeting, the remedy had been locked up in Sir William Crookes's brain ! The truth is, that we produce more per acre of every staple food suited to our soil and climate, than any other country in the world. But we have a greater population in proportion to our cultivable area than any other country in Europe ; and it is simply impossible to provide the food required without very large importation. In fact, it would require very extensive emigration to bring down our population within the limits of our own possible food supply. Sir WiUiam Crookes next reviews the capabilities of the world in the future for the production of wheat. He says : — " For the last thirty years the United States have been the dominant factor in the foreign supply of wheat. . . ." And further: — Almost yearly, since 1885, additions to the wheat-growing area have diminished, while the requirements of the increasing population of the States have advanced, so that the needed American supplies have been drawn from the acreage hitherto used for exportation. Practically there remains no uncultivated prairie land in the United States suitable for wheat-growing. The virgin land has heen rapidly absorbed, until at present there is no land left for wheat without reducing the area for maize, hay, and other necessary crops. It is almost certain that within a generation the ever increasing popu- lation of the United States will consume all the wheat grown within its borders, and will be driven to import, and, like ourselves, will scramble for a lion's' share of the wheat crop of the world. This being the outlook, ex- ports of wheat from the United States are only of present interest, and will gradually diminish to a vanishing point. And:— But if the United States, which grow about one-fifth of the world's wheat, and contribute one-third of all wheat exportations, are even now dropping out of the race, and likely soon to enter the list of wheat-importing countries, what prospect is there that other wheat-growing countries vrill be able to fill the gap, and, by enlarging their acreage under wheat, replace the supply which the States have so long contributed to the world's food ? First, as to the statement that additions to the wheat- growing area in the United States have diminished almost yearly since 1885. As a matter of fact, the area has distinctly diminished during the last four of the eleven years 1886-96 ; but in 1891 it was the highest ever reached, in 1889 and in 1892 much higher than the average, and in six of the eleven years, commencing with 1886, it was more than the average of that period. That the area should not have shown more continued increase since 1885 is what would be expected from the fact that it is just about from that date that the price of wheat has gone down so disastrously to the producer ; con- ditions potently adverse to the extension of the area of production.' As to the United States already falling out of the race, notwithstanding their increasing population, their exports of wheat were, on the average of the last five years, to 1896-97 ' In reference to the above statements, whicli only come down to 1896, it may be added that according to the ofBcial returns, the average area over the four years of crop, 1893, 1894, 1895, and 1896, was only 34,644,158 acres. The officially re visedfigure for the crop of 1897, after a special investigation made at the close of the harvest, is, however, as quoted in Tke Journal of t!ie Board of Agriculture, 39,465,000 acres ; but the Statistician states, that no satisfactory comparison can be made between this acreage in 1897, and that for 1896, as it is believed that the returns for earlier years were under-estimated. Then, for the crop of 1898, the area is provisionally estimated at 43,000,000 acres; though it is said that the figure still awaits final confirmation. Supposing, however, the record for 1897 to be correct, and that for 1898 approximately so, it may be stated that the area for 1897 has only been exceeded twice before, and then only to a small extent; whilst that for 1898 would be more than 3,000,000 acres over any previous year. At any rate, it is admittedly very probable that the areas recorded for the immediately preceding years are too low, and it is certain that those for both 1897 and 1898, show a very great increase. inclusiYe, over 3,000,000 quarters (=24,000,000 bushels) iQore per annum than over either of the two precedmg qmn- quennial periods. It is true that the area of suitable land yet remaining to be brought in for the crop is comparatively not large ; but there is a very wide scope for an increase of produce per acre. It should be remembered that a large pro- portion of the area brought under cultivation in recent years for the production and export of wheat, consists of rich prairie land, notwithstanding which the average yield per acre of the United States as a whole is only between 1"2 and 13 bushels, against more than twice as much, about 28 bushels, the average produce under ordinary cultivation, of the very much poorer lands of the United Kingdom. Again, the unmaniu'ed plot of the comparatively poor soil of the permanent experi- mental wheat field at Eothamsted, has yielded an average of more than 13 bushels per acre per annum over fifty consecu- tive years — that is, rather more than the average of the whole of the United States, including so much rich prairie land, and also rather more than the estimated average of the whole of the wheat lands of the world. Yet it is alleged by some that the wheat lands of the United States are already showing exhaustion. How are these facts to be accounted for ? The wheat pro- duced in ordinary agricultural practice on the comparatively poor lands of the United Kingdom, is grown in rotation, the land is comparatively well cultivated, and it is kept compara- tively fi-ee from weeds. In the case of the growth of an average of more than 13 bushels per acre for fifty years in succession without manm'e at Eothamsted, the land has been kept as free from weeds as is possible. On the other hand, most of the export lands of the United States are scarcely more than skimmed by the plough, scarcely any labour is bestowed on cleaning, weeds largely rob the fertility, the straw and weeds are to a great extent burnt, and manure is often wasted. These are certaiuly conditions well calculated to reduce fertiUty rapidly. But, considering the original cha- racter of a large portion of the land, much of which has not been broken up so long as, or more than, twenty years, it is impossible to believe that the wheat-growing areas of the United States, which are said to be already showing 8 exhaustion, would not, with good cultivation, yield large crops for many years yet ; for it is not so much reduction or de- ficiency of fertility, but failure to utilise the existing fertility, that is the cause of the restricted yield. Improvement in this respect can, however, only be attained by an increased expen- diture of both capital and labour. Upon the whole, we think there is no doubt that there still exists in the United States great inherent capability of production of wheat, not only for home consumption, but for export also, for many years to come. As to Eussia, which comes second to the United States as a wheat exporter. Sir William Crookes says that the great supply is merely provisional and precarious. He speaks of the development of the fertile, though somewhat over-rated black earth as progressing rapidly. But he adds that — " the consumption of bread in Eussia has been reduced to danger point. The peasants starve and fall victims to ' hunger typhus,' whilst the wheat-growers export grain that ought to be consumed at home." At the same time, he admits that the yield per acre is extremely low. As to the low produce of the black earth, which is very low indeed, much the same argument is applicable as in the case of the low produce of the rich prairie soils of the United States. For want of proper cultivation the rich Eussian soils yield much less per acre than such soils should do, and there can be no doubt that, if properly cultivated, they would yield food for the population and to spare. With regard to Canada, Sir William Crookes speaks of— " the extent and marvellous capacity of the fertile plains of Manitoba and the North-West Provinces." But in his appen- dix he says :— " The most trustworthy estimates give Canada a wheat area of not more than six millions of acres in the next 12 years, increasing to B.maximum of 12 milhons of acres in 25 years." He adds that the development of this area must necessarily be slow, as the population is wanting to supply the needful labour at seed-time and harvest ; whilst as population increases, so do home demands for wheat. He further adds that thus far performance had lagged behind promise, the wheat-bearing area of all Canada having increased comparatively little, and the exports not in greater proportion. Of course, the above are only estimates of the probable development under existing conditions ; but the evidence at command is to the effect that very much more than is here supposed is available for the crop whenever circumstances show that it would be profitable to devote it to the purpose. On these points Mr. Sydney C. D. Eoper, who is officially connected with the subject at Ottawa, speaks of — " the existence in the North-West of the finest undeveloped wheat fields in the world." He adds, however, that at present the population is lacking, as also are lacking the immediate inducements to immigration, though a marked advance in wheat values would probably supply both the one and the other. He at the same time recognises that the appreciation of prices, when it comes, is not likely to be lasting. Lastly, in regard to the non-extension of area in Canada under existing circumstances, it is said that it is actually in contemplation to appeal to farmers to reduce their acreage under wheat in order to check over-production. So much for the probable prospective capabilities for wheat production of the United States, Eussia, and Canada. But it is safe to assert that there are very large areas suitable for the growth of the crop in other countries of the world, which have as yet been opened up only very partially, or not at all. In some cases the necessary population and labour are wanting, in some cheaper transport, in some irrigation is required, and in some more than one of these necessary con- ditions of success are wanting. With the low prices of recent years, however, which indicate that the supply is equal to the demand, rapid development was not to be expected. But there is no reason to doubt that, with remunerative prices, the obstacles to progress above referred to would be gradually overcome, and that the area of production would increase con- currently with the demand. In fact, the little extension of the area of production throughout the world generally in recent years is to be attributed to nqji-remunerative prices, and is not to be interpreted as indicating that we are approaching the limit of the available land of the world for the growth of the crop. The dependence of the available supply of wheat on its market value may even be illustrated by what has taken 10 place within the present year. Sir William Crookes says that in April last the world's visible supply amounted to 10,000,000 bushels (=li million quarters) less than in 1897 at the same date. We may add that it was estimated by some that the supply up to the end of the harvest year must run short of the demand, and that therefore a further rise of price was to be expected. As a matter of fact, there was a considerable rise of prices, due more to the artificial con- ditions bringing about the Leiter boom, than to the natural effect of supply and demand. The rise had, however, for its result, the bringing out of *a great increase of supply. Thus, from the beginning of March to the end of the harvest year (the end of August), the imports of wheat into this country, though they had previously been less than in 1896-97, were this year, notwithstanding the alleged deficiency of IJ million quarters in April, nearly 2 million quarters more than in 1897 over the same period. Concurrently, however, from the middle of June the price gradually declined, reaching the lowest point within the twelve months at the end of the har- vest year ; and it has gone lower still since. This illustration of the effect of price in bringing supplies of wheat into the market is, it is true, one of only temporarj' and exceptional influence. With regard to the climatic conditions essential for the successful growth of wheat. Sir WiUiam Crookes says: — "The ripening of wheat requires a temperature averaging at least 65 deg. F. for 55 to 65 days." If such were the case, we fear that so far from increasing our own area under the crop, we should have to reduce it. Thus, in neither of the five dis- tricts into which the wheat-growing area of Great Britain is divided, has either July or August, our two hottest months, shown that mean temperature in any one of the last twelve years, of higher than average produce ; whilst the average mean temperature over the five districts collectively,. has only reached or exceeded 60 deg. F. in four of those twelve years in July, and in only four years in August. Further, it may be stated that, at Greenwich, the mean temperature ovef the 50 years, from 1841 to 1890 inclusive, was only 62-5 deg. for July, and only 61-6 deg. for August ; whilst the mean tem- perature of 55 to 65 days would be below 62-0 deg. F. It 11 may be added that, with the exception of 1863 and J 894, the heaviest crop of wheat, both grain and straw, grown in Great Britain during the last 50 years, was in 1854 ; the season of which was described as follows : — After a favourable seed time, the winter was unusually severe ; the early spring was favourable, but was succeeded by cold and unseasonable weather until the middle of July, from which time until har- vest, the period, though changeable, included some fine maturing and harvest weather. The harvest was, however, late. Further, the mean temperature at Greenwich was, in June, 3 deg. below the average, whilst in July it was only 61'0 deg., and in August only 61-1 deg. F. Sir William Crookes places very little reliance on the extension of the wheat-growing area of the world. His remedy is in an increase in the yield per acre of the world's crop ; and he proposes that it should be raised from 12-7 bushels as at present, to twenty bushels per acre ; thus adding to the world's annual crop nearly 150,000,000 qrs. on the present area. Keferring to our experiments on the continuous growth of wheat, he selects a plot on which nitrate of soda, with a full mineral manure in addition, had been employed for a number of years in succession, and from the results he calculates that it would require 22"86 lbs. nitrate of soda to produce an increase of one bushel of wheat. Accordingly, he reckons that to increase the world's crop by 7'3 bushels per acre, it would require the annual application of 1^ cwt. of nitrate of soda per acre annually. Thus, on his estimate of 163,000,000 acres under the crop, it would require 12,000,000 tons of nitrate annually to be distributed in varying amounts over the wheat- growing countries of the world ; those which produce more than the average of 12*7 bushels requiring less, and those below that average requiring more. Broadly speaking, how- ever, about 12,000,000 tons of nitrate will be required annually, in addition to the 1,250,000 tons already absorbed by the world for various crops. Sir William Crookes proposes to manufacture the nitrate of soda required by his calculation, by oxidating the free nitrogen of the air by means of electricity, and he calculates that, by employing water power to generate the electricity, nitrate of soda could be produced for £5 per ton, and that the 12 Falls of Niagara are capable of supplying the required energy without much lessening their mighty flow. It may be men- tioned here, that many years ago, when nitrate of soda had risen to an exorbitant price, one of us paid a visit to the late Sir Benjamin Brodie, who was carrying out experiments on the production of ozone by means of electricity, to obtain his opinion on the practicability of the production of nitrate of soda by its agency. His conclusion was that there would be no difficulty about such production, but that the cost would be too great. As we have, from 1852 up to the present time, grown very much larger crops of wheat every year than the proposed twenty bushels per acre the world over, by means of liberal applications of nitrate of soda in conjunction with the necessary mineral constituents, we have not only no objections to raise against Sir William Crookes's proposal, but we should consider a cheap supply of nitrate to be a very great boon to the agricultural world. Whether, however, an average of twenty bushels per acre would be obtained year after year the world over, by the annual application of 12,000,000 tons of nitrate of soda, we very much doubt. Sir William Crookes himself warns us that — " When we apply to the land nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, or guano, we are drawing on the earth's capital, and our drafts will not perpetually be honoured." In fact, if the nitrate were used alone year after year, the available mineral constituents would soon show deficiency. Further, not only does the wheat crop thrive upon nitrate, but all the miscellaneous vegetation which infests our fields under the name of weeds, fights desperately for a share of this food, and it is only by a large and costly expenditure of labour that we can keep our fields clean enough to grow our grain crops. It is doubtless partly for this reason that much of the nitrate of soda used is employed for " cleaning-crops," roots, &c. It is also used for grass, and for spring crops such as barley or oats, rather than for wheat ; as they are more easily kept free from weeds than the autumn-sown wheat. Owing to the conditions of insufficient labour under which many of the wheat crops of the world are grown, it is quite possible that the application of nitrate might in some cases result in less rather than larger crops ; but probably the systems of farming may be improved before the Falls of 13 Niagara furnish the world with 12,000,000 tons of nitrate of soda annually. It will be of interest briefly to compare the composition of some typical soils, so far as their richness in certain important elements of fertility is concerned. The carbon-compounds of our crops, such as the starch of grain crops and potatoes, the sugar of the sugar-cane and of roots, &c., derive their carbon either mainly or exclusively from the atmosphere, and not from the soil. We will therefore confine attention to some illustrations of the amounts of nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid, in our own soil compared with some rich prairie lands, and some rich Eussian soils. In the case of our own soils, we have determinations of the nitrogen down to a considerable depth — sometimes to twelve times 9 in., or 108 in. in all; and we have found that some deep-rooting leguminous plants send their roots down to, and draw nitrate from, that depth. In the case of Canadian and Eussian soils, however, we have only results for much less depths. Again, in the case of our own soils, the results for potash and phos- phoric acid only relate to the three upper depths of 9 in. each, or 27 in. We will therefore limit our illustrations to a comparison of the amounts of the three constituents in the different soils, to a depth of 12 in. only. First, as to the amounts of nitrogen per acre : — Kothamsted unmanured wheat plot 3,139 lb. nitrogen ; corresponding to 20,058 lb. nitrate of soda. Average of four Manitoba soils 10,458 lb. nitrogen; corresponding to 66,824 lb. nitrate of soda. Average of five Eussian soils 11,207 lb. nitrogen ; corresponding to 71,609 lb. nitrate of soda. Thus, even in the poor Eothamsted soil, the amount of combined nitrogen is very large ; but, to the same depth, the quantity is, on the average, more than three times as much in the four Manitoba soils, whilst the Eussian soils are richer still. These great stocks of nitrogen exist in the soils as organic nitrogen, and as such are very insoluble ; but the nitrogen is gradually, though very slowly, oxidated into nitric acid, which forms with lime, soda, or other bases in the soil, very soluble salts, in which state the nitrogen becomes avail- able to vegetation. It is estimated that the unmanured 14 Kothamsted wheat soil yields up an average of not more thali from 20 to 25 lb.' of nitrogen per acre annually, notwithstand- ing that to the depth of 12 in. it contains 3,139 lb., cor- responding to 20,058 lb. of nitrate of soda ; whilst to a depth of 90 in., or 7i ft. it contains about 15,000 lb., cor- responding to about 96,000 lb. of nitrate of soda. In other fields where samples have been taken down to twelve times 9 in., or 108 in., from 15,000 lb. to 20,000 lb. of nitrogen have been found to be present down to that depth. Further, experiments in the Eothamsted Laboratory indicate that a larger proportion of the total nitrogen is readily soluble in rich garden soil, and in permanent meadow soil, than in the ordinary arable soil at Eothamsted. There can, in fact, be no doubt that under favourable conditions of cultivation the rich United States, Canadian, and Eussian soils, would yield up very much more nitrogen in an available form than they have done hitherto, and also very much more than the poorer . Eothamsted soil. Indeed, even under existing conditions, the • Canadian soils do, on the average, yield about 1| time as , much wheat per acre as either the Eothamsted unmanured soil, or the average of the United States soils. The conclusion must be that the United States soils, especially the rich prairie soils, are capable of yielding much more wheat than they do. Then as to the potash and phosphoric acid : — We have no results relating to these for the Canadian soils, none •relating to the Eothamsted soil below 27 in., and none relating to the Eussian to much more than 12 in. The following is, however, a comparison of the total amounts (as determined by strong acid), in the Eothamsted' unmanured wheat soil, and (on the average) in the five Eussian soils, in each case reckoned to the depth of 12 in. : — ■ lbs. per Acre Pota5h Phosphoric Acid Eothamsted Unmanured Wheat soil . Average of 5 Russian soils .... 8,687 61,22y 3,962 5,398 Thus, there is to a depth of 12 in., about seven times as ' Perhaps it would be better to say 20 to 30 lb according to season, w ■much potash, and about one and a third time as much phos- phoric acid, in the rich Russian, as in the poor Eothamsted soil. These constituents, in the condition in which they exist in soils, are, however, like the nitrogen, only slowly rendered available for vegetation. We have not similar particulars, either for other Canadian soils, or for any United States prairie soils. We have, how- ever, the percentages of nitrogen in other Canadian soils, and also in some United States prairie soils ; and these show that they are very much richer in nitrogen than the Eothamsted soil. But, as we do not know the depth to which the samples were taken, we cannot estimate the amounts of nitrogen per acre, to a given depth. There can, in fact, be no question that these rich prairie soils are capable of yielding up much more nitrogen, and of giving much larger crops of wheat, than the Eothamsted soil. It will be some satisfaction to those who fear that our soils are becoming exhausted to find that a soil which cannot be considered a very fertile one, and which has been under arable cultivation for some centuries, still contains such large stocks of fertility, and under good cultivation is still yielding as much wheat per acre per annum without manure, as the average of the whole of the wheat-growing lands of the world ; whilst, by the aid of suitable artificial manures, it has, in one year, yielded as much as 55 bushels per acre ; and has, on the average of 50 years, given much more than the average of the whole of the United Kingdom under ordinary cultivation. What part artificial manures will play in the agriculture of the future it is difficult to foretell. Much will depend on the stores of phosphates and of potash which may be found available for use throughout the world. With regard to nitrates, as Sir William Crookes has pointed out, nitrogen exists in enormous quantities in the air in the free state, but plants require it to be supplied to them in a fixed or com- bined condition. Whether we go to water— as at Niagara — for the source of power, or have recourse to wind or steam, the question of a home manufacture of nitrate from the free nitrogen of the atmosphere, to supply the wants of agriculture, is a very important one. Nitrate of lime contains more nitric acid than nitrate of soda, and lime is cheaper than soda, and 16 nitrate of lime might prove the better manure in some cases ; but its deliquescence might prove a difficulty, both in trans- port and use. To sum up on the world's wheat supply : — It may be said that, whilst wheat is capable of producing very large crops under favourable conditions as to soil, climate, and manuring, it possesses a remarkable power of obtaining food from a poor soil. It can stand a considerable amount of frost, and it can thrive over an immense area of the world's surface. Although endorsing all that Sir William Crookes says as to the im- portance of wheat as a food, we cannot adopt his desponding views in regard to the future supplies of it. That we may have considerable fluctuations in produce and in price, the result of war, or of the vicissitudes of the seasons in different countries, is very probable ; but we believe that there will always be a sufficient supply forthcoming, for those who will find the money to purchase it at a remunerative price. Spollisuoode * Co. Primers, Keu-street iiqllare, London, ON THE COMPOSITION OP THE ASH OF WHEAT-GRAIN, AND WHEAT-STEAW, GROWN AT ROTHAMSTED, IN DIFFERENT SEASONS, AND BY DIFFERENT MANURES. BT SIE J. B. LAWES, Bart., LL.D., F.E.S., F.C.8., and J. H. GILBERT, Ph.D., LL.D., F.E.S., V.P.C.S. From the Journal of the Chemical Society, Vol. XLV, August, 1884. LONDON: HARRISON AND SONS, ST. MARTIN'S I:ANK, printers to ©rbinarg ia fer Pajtsta. 1884. ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE ASH OF WHEAT-GRAIN, AND WHEAT-STRAW, GROWN AT ROTHAMSTED, IN DIFFERENT SEASONS, AND BY DIFFERENT MANURES. SIE J. B. LAWES, Baet., LL.D., F.E.S, r.C.S., and J. H. GILBEET, Ph.D., LL.D., F.E.S., V.P.C.S. From the Journal of the Chemical Society, Vol. XLT, Augifst, 1884. LONDON: HARRISON" AND SONS, ST. MARTIN'S LANK, ^rintm in ©ririnarg to "^tx Pajestg. 1884. r I/ONDON : BABEISON AND SONS, PEINTBES IN OEDINAEY TO H^E MAJESTY, ST. MAETIN'S 14HE. On the Gomposition of the Ash of Wheat- Grain, and Wheat- Straw, grown at Bothamsted, in different Seisons, and by different Manures. By Sir J. B. Lawes, Bart., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., and J. H. Gilbert, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.C.S. CONTENTS. PAGE Introduction ....... ..... 3 First Series of Analyses ... 5 Second Series of Analyses . ... . . 28 Third Series of Analyses . ... .... 48 Summary and Conclusions . . 68 Appendix-Tables .80 In the Journal of the Ohemical Society for 1857, we published a paper entitled : — " On some Points in the Composition of Wheat-Grain, its Products in the Mill, and Bread." In that paper the results of 23 wheat-grain ash-analyses were embodied. The present paper relates to the analyses of 92 wheat-grain and 92 wheat-straw ashes, and including 69 duplicates, the number of complete ash-analyses involved is 253. Every ash is of produce of known history of growth, as to soil, season, and manuring. Thus, there is a series for 16 con- secutive seasons, under three very characteristically different condi- tions as to manuring. There is a series representing nine different conditions as to manuring, each in two unfavourable, and in two favourable seasons for the crop. Lastly, there is a series representing the proportionally mixed produce for the 10 years, 1852-1861, and again for the succeeding 10 years, 1862-1871, for 10 differently manured plots in each case. The results are thus calculated to illustrate the influence of fluctua- tions of season from year to year under known, but very different conditions as to manuring ; the influence of characteristic seasons under a great variety of manuring conditions ; and the influence of continuous supply or exhaustion of certain constituents. Most of the results have long been waiting for an opportunity of full discussion ; but as such opportunity seems still remote, it is pro- posed now to submit them, arranged in such form as will be con- venient for reference; and to accompany the record with only so much of explanation and discussion, as will suffice to indicate the most important conclusions, and usefully to direct the further study of the results. B 2 4 LA WES AND GILBERT ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE In explanation of the history of the specimens from which the asbes have been obtained, it should be stated that they have all been grown in the experimental field at Rothamsted, which has now yielded wheat for 40 years in succession, 1844 to 1883 inclusive, respectively without manure, with farmyard manure, and with a great variety of artificial manures ; the same manure being, as a rule, applied j'ear after year, to the same plot. The descriptions of wheat grown have been as follows: — 1844-1848, Old Red Lammas; 1849- 1852, Red Cluster ; 1853-1881, Red Rostock; 1882 and since. Club ' Wheat (red) ; all of which are well acclimatised, and, with the excep- tion of the first-J"iiot very dissimilar varieties. In the body of the paper, the results of each of the three series of analyses are arranged in Summary Tables, in convenient forms for illustration, and they are given more fully and in more systematic form in the Appendix-Tables I — XV (p. 80, et seq.), as under: — 1. The analytical results, excluding sand and charcoal, calculated to 100.* 2. Each constituent calculated per 1000 dry matter of produce. 3. Each constituent calculated per acre, actual produce. The method of preparing the ashes is as follows : — The substance, generally 20 ounces = 567 grams of wheat-grain, and 12-5 ounces = 354 grams of wheat-straw, is burnt on platinum sheets turned up at the sides and at the back, thus forming dishes about 12 inches long and 4-^ inches wide. These are heated in cast-iron muffles, 18 inches long, 3| inches high, and 5 inches wide at the bottom. Each mufiSe, which has a flange at the fore part, fits exactly into an orifice in a cast-iron furnace front ; and a. cast-iron pipe of 1| inch bore is fixed into the back of the muffle, and passes through the cast-iron furnace back. . The muffle rests on a fire brick, so that the fuel is in direct contact only with its sides and top, chiefly the latter, thus lessening bottom heat and, as far as possible, prevent- ing fusion. By this arrangement, the access of dust from the fire is entirely avoided ; the ash is burnt by surface, not by bottom heat; the access of air is free, and the incineration is accomplished at a low temperature. Of the 263 ash analyses, nine have been made by' Mr. F. A. Manning, and six by Mr. R, Warington. The whole of the remainder (238) have been executed by Mr. R. Richter ; the earlier ones in the Rothamsted Laboratory, and the later in his own laboratory at Charlottenburg (Berlin). Mr. Richter has in fact exe- cuted about 700 complete analyses of the ashes of various products, animal and vegetable, of known history, prepared at Rothamsted. He * Where duplicaie analyses have been made the mean results are adopted. ASH OF WHEAT-GRAIN AND WHEAT-STEAW. 5 has also conducted numerous investigations of metliod, with the view to testing the limits of accuracy of previous work, and to attain greater accuracy in future ; and in the course of these inquiries he has analysed mixtures of precipitates obtained in precisely the same way in series of analyses, to determine their degree of purity, and so on. It is not intended on the present occasion to go into these matters of detail, which of themselves would supply sufficient material for an independent paper* It will be seen that Mr. Eichter's expe- rience has thus been very great ; and independently of the confidence in the results which our knowledge of his competency and con- scientiousness inspires, their consistency with thej ^history of the specimens, which will be amply illustrated further on, can leave no doubt of their trustworthiness and value. On this point it should be stated injustice to Mr. Richter that all the ashes, duplicates included, have been supplied to h.im under consecutive numbers, without any indication as to the history of the specimens. First Series of Analyses. In our former paper, above referred to, analyses of the grain-ash only, from the produce of eight of the differently manured plots in the first season 1844, of seven in 1845, and of six in 1846, were given; and in two cases duplicate analyses were made, making in all 23. At that time, the plan of applying the same manure to the same plot each year had not been fully adopted ; nor were the straw-ashes of those early years analysed. The series now to be considered includes the analyses of both grain-ash and straw-ash, from three of the differently manured plots, in each of 16 consecutive seasons, commencing with the fifth, 1848, and ending with, the twentieth, 1863. Two of the three plots have, respectively, been under the same treatment from the first year, * It may here be remarked, however, that the first and second series of analyses were made more than 15 years ago, since "which time there lias been much discussion of the details of the magnesium method for the determination of phosphoric acid, by which process nearly the whole of those results were obtained. It is now generally admitted that the conditions of experiment then recommended by the highest authorities are liable to give high results ; and Mr. Eichter's subsequent investi- gations of method referred to above, lead him to the same conclusion. The actual results obtained are, however, in all cases adopted ; nor would any of the conclu- sions drawn be aS'ected, if correction had been made in accordance with the indica- tions of the subsequent examinations of method. It should be further stated that indications of the presence of manganese in probably determinable quantity having been observed in some wheat grain-ashes, some quantitative estimations were made, and the amounts found corresponded to a mean of 0'26 per cent. Mn302. The indications in the case of straw-ashes have not been such as to lead to quantitative determinations being made ; but it may be supposed that the amount of manganese in Ihem would at any rale not be less tlian in the grain -ashes. 6 LAWES AND GILBERT ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE 1844, and the third has been substantially so from the second year, 1845, as explained more in detail below. The three plots are : — Plot 2. Farmyard manure, 14 tons per acre, every year from the commencement. Plot 3. Unmanured, every year from the commencement. Plot 10a. First year (1844), a mineral manure consisting of super- phosphate of lime, and a crude silicate of potash ; second year, 168 lbs. sulphate, and 168 lbs. muriate of ammonia of commerce, per acre ; third year, 224 lbs. sulphate of ammonia ; fourth and fifth years, 150 lbs. sulphate and 150 lbs. muriate ; sixth and each suc- ceeding year, 200 lbs. sulphate and 200 lbs. muriate of ammonia, per acre per annum. The conditions of growth, so far as the supply of constituents by manure is concerned, were therefore very widely different in the three cases. Thus, the produce of Plot 2, with farmyard manure, was grown under the influence of an excessive supply both of nitrogen and of mineral, or ash-constituents ; that of Plot 3, unmanured, under conditions of exhaustion of both nitrogen and ash-constituents ; and that of Plot lOo (receiving ammonium-salts alone), with an excess of supplied nitrogen, but with great relative deficiency of ash-constitu- ents. If, therefore, the composition of the ash of the produce is directly affected by the available supply of ash-constituents within the soil, we should expect very marked difierences in the composition of the ash in the three cases. The Appendix-Tables I, II, and III (pp. 80-85), give the percentage composition of the pure grain-ash, and the pure straw-ash, for each of the 16 consecutive years : I, for the farmyard manure plot ; II, for the unmanured plot ; and III, for the plot with ammonium-salts alone. By the term " pure " ash is meant the ash excluding sand and char- coal. Referring to' these Appendix-Tables for the full details, the results will be discussed chiefly by the aid of a series of summary tables. The following summary Table, I, brings prominently to view some important facts, and indicates some important conclusions. There is there given for each of the three differently manured plots, the highest, the lowest, and the mean percentages of potash and phos- phoric acid, in the grain-ash, and in the straw-ash, in the 16 consecu- tive years. There is thus shown the extreme range of variation in the composition of the ash in some important particulars, with the same manure in very various seasons, and also the range with the different manures. It may be observed that the two constituents selected for illustration together contribute between 80 and 85 per cent, of wheat grain-ash. ASH OF WHEAT-GRAIN AND WHEAT-STRAW. Table I. Highest, Lowest, and Mean Percentages of Potash and Phosphoric Acid in the Pure Ash, in 16 Consecutive Seasons. Plots. Manures. Per cent, in grain-ash. Per cent, in straw-ash. Highest. Lowest. Mean 1.6 years. Highest. Lowest. Mean 16 years. Potash. 3 10a Farmyard manure TJnmanured .... Ammonium-salts alone 35-5 35-5 27-2 29-7 31-6 33 25-6 20-7 12-9 10-5 35-9 28 1 33-4 23-4 10-5 18-3 14-6 16-5 Phosphoric Acid. 2 Farmyard manure 54-7 47-1 51-7 6-21 2-98 3-79 3 Unmanured .... 52-6 45-6 49-7 5-96 2-98 3-79 10a Ammonium-salts alone 52-9 43-4 47-3 4 '34 1-73 3 09 A glance at the table shows that in both grain-ash and straw-ash there is, in the case of both constituents, a much wider range of varia- tion in their percentage in the ash with the same manure in diflferent seasons, than there is in the mean percentage under each of the three very characteristically different conditions as to manuring. Thus, the percentages of potash in the grain-ashes in the 16 seasons range — with farmyard manure, from 35'5 to 27'2 ; with- out manare, from 35'5 to 29'7; and with ammonium-salts alone, from 35'9 to 28'1. But the mean percentage over the 16 years only ranges between 31"6 with farmyard manure, 330 without manure, and 33'4 with ammonium-salts alone. The amount of potash in the straw-ashes shows a still greater range in different seasons with the same manure, and comparatively small differences in the mean per- centages under the influence of the different manures. Thus, the variation in the percentage of potash in the straw-ashes according to season is — with farmyard manure, from 25'6 to 12'9 ; without manure, from 20'7 to 10'5 : and with ammonium-salts alone, from 23'4 to 10"5 ; whereas the difference between the mean percentages over the 16 years is, under the three different conditions as to manuring, very much less, the mean amounts being with farmyard manure 18'3, without manure 14'6, and with the ammonium-salts 165. 8 LAWES AND GILBERT ON THE COMPOSITION OP THE The facts relating to phosphoric acid are equally striking. Thus, its percentage in the grain-ash ranges, according to season — with farmyard manure, from 54'7 to 47"1 ; without manure, from S2'6 to 45'6 ; and with ammonium-salts, from 52'9 to 43'4 ; but the differ- ence between the mean percentages under each condition of manuring over the 16 years, is only as follows: — with farmyard manure 5I"7, without manure 49"7, and with ammonium-salts 47'3. Again, the variation in the percentage of phosphoric acid in the straw-ashes is, according to season — with farmyard manure, from 6'21 to 2'98 ; with- out manure, from 5'96 to 2'98 ; and with ammonium-salts alone, from 4"34 to 1'73 ; whereas the mean percentage over the 16 years is — with farmyard manure 3'79, without manure 3'79, or exactly the same as with farmyard manure, and with ammonium-salts alone 309. With both potash and phosphoric acid, therefore, there is very great difference in the percentage in the ash of both grain and straw, according to season, and very much less difference in the mean per- centage according to manure. With few exceptions, a similar result is observed with other constituents. What is the significance of these facts ? In the first place it is that the character of development of a crop left to ripen, depends very much more upon season than upon manuring. Indeed, if one crop (of wheat for example) grows side by side with another of exactly the same description, but yielding under the influence of manure twice the amount of produce, and both under such conditions of season that each fully and normally ripens, the composition of the final product, the seed, will be very nearly identical in the two oases. In other words, there is scarcely any difference in the composition of the truly and normally ripened seed. But, as variations of season affect the character of development, and the conditions of nlafuration, there may obviously be, with these, very wide differences in the composi- tion of the product. The wide range in the composition of the ash of the grain, which the table shows according to season, represents iu fact a corresponding deviation from the normal development. It should be noted that the highest and the lowest percentages of both potash and phosphoric acid in the grain-ashes, as given in the tables, are in the produce of very unfavourable seasons, thus further showing how varied are the characters of developmentdependent on the varying external conditions of season. In the case of the straw ashes, the highest percentages of potash are not, but the lowest are, in the produce of unfavourable seasons ; and the highest per- centages of phosphoric acid are, and the lowest are not, in unfavour- able seasons. The differences between the grain-ashes and the straw, ashes in these respects will be better understood as we proceed. But it may be remarked in passing that the results are connected with the ASH OF WHEAT-GEAm AND -WHEAT-STRAW. 9 facts tiat unfavourable seed-forming and ripening conditions may supervene on conditions of high or of low luxuriance, that is, of great or limited activity of accumulation of constituents by the plant ; or, on the other hand, favourable seed-forming and ripening conditions may supervene on very various conditions as to previous accumula- tion. Table II shows the variation according to season and manure, not in the percentage composition of the ash, but in the amount of potash and phosphoric acid per 1000 dry substance of the grain and the straw respectively. This mode of representation obviously brings more prominently to view the variations in the proportion of the two ash-constituents to the organic substance produced. Table II. Highest, Lowest, and Mean Amounts of Potash and Phosphoric Acid per 1000 Dry Substance. Plots. Manures. Per 1000 dry grain. Higliest. Lowest. Mean 16 years. Per 1000 dry straw. Highest. Lowest. Mean 16 J ears. Potash. 3 10a Farmyard manure TJnmanured . . . Ammonium-salts alone 7-79 8-38 5-38 6-01 6-35 6-62 18 -37 14 16 9-06 6-96 7-38 5 15 6-02 13-24 5 69 11-91 9-30 8-71 Phosphoric Acid. 2 Farm-pard manure 11-10 9-65 10-44 4-12 1-49 2-45 3 Unmanured .... 10-75 8-98 10-03 3-74 1-65 2-42 lOo Ammonium-salts alone 10 03 7-18 8-54 3-47 0-93 1-63 It is here seen that the proportion of both potash and phosphoric acid to the organic substance, even of the grain, which, if normally ripened, is assumed to be a comparatively uniform product, varies very considerably according to season ; whilst, at any rate as between the grain grown by farmyard manure, and that grown without manure, the mean proportion over the 16 years differs but little. The grain grown under the influence of the ammonium-salts alone, that is, as will afterwards be further illustrated, under conditions of 10 LAWES AND GILBERT ON THE COMPOSITION OP THE very abnormal mineral exhaustion, shows not only a wide range in the proportions of both potash and phosphoric acid, especially the latter, according to season, but much lower mean amounts than either with farmyard manure or without manure. In the straw, the range of variation is seen to be much wider still according to season ; and it is considerable also according to manure. In the case of straw, we should not expect the amounts of mineral constituents finally retained to bear so uniform a proportion to the organic substances as in that of the grain. Besides the amounts of mineral constituents that may he essential to the organic formations of the straw itself, there will be a variable quantity accumulated in the plant, and not finally appro- priated by the seed. The next point to consider is — what is the connection between high or low amount of the different ash-constituents and the quality of the produce ? Table III (pp. 12-13) is arranged to illustrate this. The question here arises, what is the proper measure of quality of produce ? So far as the grain is concerned, the weight per bushel, although by no means a perfect measure, is at any rate the best single character recognised in practice. High and equal weight, or low and equal weight, may, however, respectively be accompanied by different characters in other respects. But grain of high weight per bushel would be classed by the farmer and miller as of good, and grain of low weight, of bad quality. It is to be regretted that the average weight of a given number of seeds, or the number of seeds contribut- ing to a given weight, has not been determined ; but, in defect of such data, we adopt weight per bushel as the best conventional measure of quality at our command. The produce of the 16 years on each of the three plots is arranged in the Table (HI), in the order of highest weight per bushel ; and other characters which have also to be taken into account, are given side by side. *Thus, in the succeeding columns of the table are given, the quantity of grain to 100 straw, the quantity of pro- duce (grain, straw, and total) per acre in lbs. ; and the percentages of pure ash and of nitrogen in the dry matter of the grain. Lastly, in the columns to the right of those showing these general characters, are recorded the percentages of some selected constituents in the grain- ash (pure), and the proportion of the same constituents in 1000 dry substance of the grain. The upper division of the Table gives the results for the produce of the farmyard manure plot, the middle divi- sion for the unmanured plot, and the lower division for the plot with ammonium- salts alone. The Table (III), shows that, under each of the three conditions as to manuring, the eight seasons of higher weight per bushel also yield on the average a higher proportion of grain to straw, ASH OF WHEAT-GRAIN AND WHEAT-STRAW. 11 and higher amonnts of produce, than the eight of lower weight per bushel. But although there is with high average weight per bushel of the grain, this general tendency to higher characters of produce in other respects, the coincidence of these characters is very far from being borne out in detail. Thus, with farmyard manure, the season giving the highest weight per bushel (1849) gives considerably less than the average amount per acre of both grain and straw, especially the latter, and although high, not the highest proportion of grain to straw. Again, of the three years of highest amount of total produce, 1863, 1854, and 1859, the two former give high weight per bushel of grain, but 1859 a very low weight per bushel. The fact is, as already alluded to, high character of grain, as indicated by high weight per bushel, which depends on favourable ripening and harvest weather, may supervene on conditions either of restricted growth, or of high luxuriance — that is, high vegetative activity and great accumulation. Without manure, the year of highest weight per bushel (1863) is one of about average amount of produce on that plot, and of high, but not the highest proportion of grain to straw. With ammonium-salts alone, the year of highest weight per bushel (1863) is also the year of highest total produce, and of nearly the highest proportion of grain to straw with that manure. Again, with each condition as to manuring, there is with high quality of grain, as shown by high weight per bushel, a general and marked, but not uniform tendency to low percentage of total mineral constituents (ash), and also low percentage of nitrogen, in the dry substance of the grain. That is to say, the higher quality of the grain is connected with a greater accumulation of . the non-nitro- genous matters primarily derived from the atmosphere, in proportion to the amounts of the soil-derived ash-constituents and the nitrogen, which have been stored up. In fact, in comparable cases, high quality of grain means high proportion of carbohydrates (starch), and coincidently low proportion of nitrogenous substances. As there is lower percentage of total ash with higher quality of grain, there is necessarily a lower proportion of individual mineral constituents in the dry substance. Accordingly, with each of the three conditions as to manuring there is — taking the average of the eight years of highest weight per bushel — almost without exception a lower proportion of each of the individual mineral constituents in the dry substance of the grain than on the average of the eight years of lower weight per bushel. This is naore or less the case with lime, magnesia, potash (soda), phosphoric acid (sulphuric acid), and silica. The actual amount of silica is in all cases small ; but the difference in the amount is greater than that of any of the 12 LAWES AND GILBERT ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE Table III. Geueral Characters of the Produce ; percentage of Selected Constituents in the of Grain. Harvests in order of Weight per bushel, Ihs. Grain to 100 straw. Produce, per acre, lbs. Per cent, in dry matter. Per cent in grain aah (pure). Grain. Straw. Total. Nitrogen. Ash (pure). Lime. Magnesia. PotaBh. 1 1 ^1849 1861 1863 1858 1854 1856 1860 1862 ; 63 -8 63-6 63-1 62-6 62-6 62-0 61-9 61-0 68-3 66-2 67-6 66-6 60-1 68-2 57-3 63-3 2068 2049 2886 2612 2676 2237 1861 2447 3029 3094 4279 3837 4450 3846 3246 4196 6097 6143 7166 6349 7125 6082 6106 6642 1-68 1-87 1-62 1-91 1-70 2-19 1-86 1-67 1-93 1-93 1-85 2-04 1-98 2-08 2-04 1-99 2-82 2-88 2-34 2-61 2-46 2-49 2-80 2-61 10-6 11-1 11-4 11-2 11-3 11-0 11-1 11-1 33-1 32-4 31 -S 31-9 32 '0 30-9 31-4 32-0 Mean ... 1861 1857 1856 1848 1862 1869 1860 1863 62-6 62-5 2342 3747 6089 1-73 1-98 2-53 11-1 31 '9 60-6 60-4 68-6 68-2 68-2 66 -5 66-6 61-1 71-0 77-9 52-8 66-0 49-6 47-1 64-2 33-2 2202 2687 2277 1706 1716 2263 1864 1120 3101 3323 4317 3041 3467 4810 3440 3372 6303 6910 6594 4746 6173 7073 6304 4492 1-96 1-97 1-89 1-89 2-02 2-09 2-00 1-76 2-16 1-94 1-98 2-03 1-98 2-11 2-15 2-20 2-52 2-83 2-63 2-41 2-79 2-37 2-78 2-60 10-3 12-0 11-7 10-8 12-3 11-2 10-1 10-2 33-1 29-8 29-3 30-2 27-2 31-2 33-8 35 -S ^Mean ... 67-4 64-6 1967 3607 6674 1-96 2-06 2-61 11-1 31-3 ,1863 1349 1861 1864 1860 1868 1856 1857 62-7 61-4 61-1 60-6 60-6 60-4 69-2 58-3 70-4 76-1 66-6 63-6 68-2 68-3 60-0 78-3 1127 1229 1083 1369 1002 1141 1072 1236 1600 1614 1627 2137 1719 1670 1787 1677 2727 2843 2710 3496 2721 2811 2869 2813 1-65 1-73 1-67 1-92 1-83 1-86 2-14 1-91 1-96 1-88 1-94 1-96 2-02 2-02 2-02 1-92 2-66 3-15 2-98 2-67 2-98 2-76 2-64 , 3-39 10-9 9-7 10-2 10-4 9-9 10 -e 9-9 10-8 32-3 36-3 .84-7 34-2 33-0 32-7 33-9 32 '0 ►^ J Mean ... 60-5 67-4 1166 996 736 962 860 892 738 1061 369 1716 1713 1264 1712 1.M7 1658 1469 2176 1413 2872 1-84 1-96 2-90 10-3 33-6 1 CO o 1862 1861 1848 1862 1856 1860 1869 1853 67-8 87-4 67-3 66-6 64-3 62-6 62-6 46-9 58-2 68-7 66-6 53-9 67-3 60-6 48-3 25-4 2709 1990 2664 2467 2480 2197 3226 1772 1-76 2-04 2-17 2-08 1-91 1-92 1-96 2-09 2-03 2-19 2-00 2-03 2-04 2-16 2-08 2-36 2-64 2-68 2-87 2-87 2-65 2-71 2-76 3-09 10-2 9-6 10-4 11-7 10-8 9-1 11-0 10-3 32-3 34-4 31-2 29-7 30-6 33-6 31-9 36 -5 ^Mean ... 64-3 51-1 823 1610 2433 1-98 2-08 2-76 10-4 32' 1 8 1 ^1863 1849 1861 1854 1860 1868 1848 1867 62-6 62-3 61-9 60-5 60-2 69-6 58-1 68 -0 74-3 75-1 64-0 61-5 66-7 67-6 66-3 76-9 2587 2141 1966 2211 1721 1439 1334 1816 3481 2861 3070 3697 3089 2130 2367 2392 6068 4992 6036 8808 4810 3669 3701 4208 1-70 1-96 2-16 2-30 2-13 2-23 2-42 2-08 1-66 1-67 1-81 1-72 1-86 1-90 1-96 1-63 3-85 3 '46 3-51 3-36 3-63 4-06 3-22 4-38 11-2 10-3 10-7 10-2 10-7 10-6 10-8 11-7 34-4 35-6 32 '6 36-8 33 '2 33-5 30-6 31-6 ss i 1 S Mean ... 60-4 66-2 1902 2872 4774 2-09 1-74 3-68 10-8 33-4 1866 1862 1862 1866 1861 1869... . 1860 1853 67-1 66-6 66-9 66-6 66-0 61-6 49-6 48-6 61-2 66-2 47-3 63-4 44-2 44-2 40-9 31 '3 1286 1467 1320 1606 864 1207 906 642 2612 2593 2787 2818 1930 2730 2213 2049 3797 4060 4107 4323 2784 3937 3118 2691 2-40 1-89 2-48 2-23 2-08 2 -,30 2-24 2 '43 1-91 1-84 1-83 1-85 2-00 1-86 2-12 1'98 3-57 3-54 3-51 3-61 3-47 3-64 3-41 3-76 10-4 10-7 12-7 11-4 10-0 11-2 9-1 9-3 34-7 34-2 28'1 31-9 35 -S 32-7 34-8 36-9 ^^ ^Mean ... 63-7 46-7 1147 2464 3601 2-25 1-91 3-66 10-6 33-5 ASH OF WHEAT-GRAIN AND WHEAT-STRAW. 13 Table III. Chain-Ash (pure), and amount of the Ash-Constituents per 1000 Dry Matte Highest Weight per bnshel of Grain. Per cent, in grain ash (pui-e). Per 1000 of dry matter of grain. Harvests. Phosphoric acid. Sulphuric acid. Silica. Lime. Magnesia. Potash. Pho-sphoric acid. Sulphuric acid. Silica. 60-3 1-61 0-.53 0-49 2-03 6-37 9-7 0-29 0-10 1849 50-7 0-92 0-66 0-65 2-16 6-26 9-8 0-18 0-13 18S1 52-0 0-93 0-65 0-43 2-12 6-85 9-7 0-17 0-12 1863 51-9 0-75 0-49 0-63 2-28 6-52 10-6 0-15 0-10 1868 62-2 0-47 0-60, 0-49 2-24 6-34 10-4 0-09 0-10 1854 63-3 0-03 0-70 0-62 2-29 6-43 H-1 0-01 0-14 1855 50-5 1-42 0-92 0-67 2-27 6-41 10-3 0-29 0-19 1850 61-6 0-61 0-83 0-60 2-22 6-37 10-3 0-10 0-16 1862 61-6 0-83 0-66 0-61 2-20 6-30 10-2 0-16 0-13 Mean 61-4 1-01 0-50 0-64 2-21 7-12 11 -l 0-22 0-U 1861 62-5 0-46 0-49 0-66 2-32 5-79 10-2 0-09 0-10 1857 54-2 0-23 0-76 0-60 2-32 6-80 10-7 0-06 0-16 ■ 1856 52-7 0-66 1-66 0-49 2-19 6-U 10-7 0-11 0-32 1848 64-7 0-14 0-99 0-85 2-63 6-38 10-8 0-03 0-20 18.12 62-6 0-61 0-80 0-60 2-36 6-58 11-1 0-11 0-17 1859 49-4 0-87 1-28 0-60 2-18 7-27 10-7 0-19 0-27 1860 47-1 2-35 0-93 0-67 2-23 7-79 10-3 0-62 0-20 1853 51-8 0-76 0-91 0-54 2-29 6-40 10-7 0-14 0-18 Mean 61-6 0-67 0-59 0-62 2-12 6-28 10-0 0-13 0-12 1863 47-7 1-83 0-74 0-69 1-83 6-66 9-0 0-34 0-14 1849 49-1 1-13 0-72 0-68 1-97 6-75 9-6 -22 0-14 1851 49-4 1-66 0-45 0-62 2-04 6-67 9-6 0-31 0-09 1864 49-7 1-14 1-H 0-60 1-99 6-66 10-0 0-23 0-23 1860 60-9 0-66 0-97 0-66 2-12 6-61 10-3 0-13 0-20 1858 60-8 0-66 0-92 0-53 2-01 6-86 10-3 0-13 0-19 1866 60-0 1-28 0-97 0-66 2-08 6-16 9-6 0-26 0-19 1857 49-9 1-12 0-81 0-67 2-02 6-56 9-8 0-23 0-15 Mean 49-6 1-60 1-18 0-51 2-08 6-66 10-1 0-33 0-24 1862 47-6 1-66 2-61 0-59 2-09 7-54 10-4 0-36 0-66 1861 61-4 0-79 1-34 0-67 2-07s 6-25 10-3 0-16 0-27 1848 SI -8 0-99 1-31 0-68 2-36 6-01 10-5 0-20 0-27 1862 62-6 1-06 1-00 0-52 2-19 6-23 10-7 0-22 0-20 1866 47-4 2-21 2-37 0-69 1-98 7-26 10-3 0-48 0-51 1860 60-6 1-26 1-06 0-67 2-28 6-64 10-5 0-26 0-22 ■ 1869 45-6 2-40 1-26 0-73 2-43 8-38 10-8 0-57 0-30 1863 49-6 1-60 1-51) 0-58 2-17 6-70 10-4 0-29 0-30 Mean 46-0 2-37 0-86 0-60 1-75 6-37 7-2 0-37 0-13 1863 46-9 2-70 0-86 0-68 1-72 5-93 7-7 0-45 0-14 1849 49-6 1-46 0-64 0-64 1-93 6-89 9-0 0-26 0-11 1851 46-1 2-23 0-72 0-68 1-74 6-15 7-9 0-38 0-12 1854 49-2 1-64 0-60 0-68 1-99 6-18 9-2 0-29 0-11 1850 46-7 2-78 1-01 0-77 1-99 6-35 8-9 0-o3 0-19 1868 6i-3 0-78 1-42 0-63 2-11 5-98 10-0 0-15 0-28 1848 47-0 2-12 1-61 0-72 1-90 5-16 7-7 0-34 0-26 1867 47-7 2-00 0-96 0-64 1-87 6-84 8-3 0-36 0-16 Mean 47 -S ■ 1-63 0-97 0-68 1-97 6-61 9-1 0-30 0-18 1865 44-3 2-91 1-80 0-66 1-98 6-30 8-2 0-64 0-33 1862 62-9 0-61 1-04 0-64 2-33 6 -16 9-7 0-11 0-19 1862 50-1 1-00 1-11 0-67 2-11 6-88 9-3 0-19 0-20 1866 44 -e 2-63 1-68 0-69 2-00 7-12 8-9 0-63 0-34 1861 47-2 2-36 1-17 0-68 2-09 6-09 8-8 0-44 0-22 1869 43-4 3-67 2-60 0-72 1-94 7-38 9-2 0-76 0-55 1860 44-7 2-45 1-82 0-74 1-85 7-09 8-8 0-49 0-36 1863 46-8 2-14 1-62 0-68 2-05 6-32 9-0 0-39 0-28 Mean 14 LAWES AND GILBERT ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE other constituents; being, without manure, and with ammonium-salts alone, nearly twice as high on the average of the eight years of low- quality of grain as over the eight of higher quality. It is, moreover, remarkable that the grain grown by farmyard manure, which supplies a large amount of available silica, shows a smaller proportion of it in its dry substance than that grown either without manure or by ammonium-salts alone. It may here be observed that the higher proportion of silica in the dry substance with lower conditions of maturation of the produce, is very marked in the case of the straw also. Thus, with farmyard manure, the average proportion of silica per 1000 dry substance of the straw is 41'7 over the eight years of highest maturation, and over the eight of lowest maturation 44'6 ; without manure, with the years of best ripening, it is 42' 7, and with those of the worst ripening 47'5 ; and with the ammonium-salts alone it is 32'1 over the eight best, and 37'3 over the eight worst seasons. This result is quite inconsistent with the usually accepted view that high quality and stiffness of straw depend on high amount of silica. Pierre and Bretschneider have, however, concluded from their experiments that this is not the case, and we have ourselves long maintained a contrary view. In fact, high proportion of silica means relatively low proportion of organic substance pro- duced. Nor can there be any doubt that strength of straw depends on favourable development oi the woody substance ; and the more this obtains the more will the accumulated silica be, so to speak, diluted — in other words, show a lower proportion to the organic substance. Further evidence will be adduced on this point as we proceed. It may be mentioned, however, that in this neigh- bourhood, where the straw-plait industry prevails, the complaint during the last few seasons of bad harvests has been that an unusually large proportion of the straw is brittle and breaks in the working ; and considering the character of the seasons there can be no doubt that this is associated with low development of the woody matter and high proportion of silica. It will be well to go a little more into detail in reference to other individual mineral constituents ; and first as to the proportion of potash in the dry substance of the grain in the different seasons. With each condition as to manuring, there is not only a lower average proportion of potash, but a much greater uniformity in the proportion, in the eight seasons of higher, than in the eight of lower quality of grain. The chief exceptions to uniformity in the eight years of higher quality are, with farmyard manure in 1863, without manure in 1863 and 1857, and with ammonium-salts again in 1863 and 1857. In these years the proportion of potash was, though not ASH OF WHEAT-GRAIN AND WHEAT-STRAW. 15 actually the lowest in the 16 years, considerably below the average. The season of 1863, which shows a low proportion of potash under each of the three conditions as to manuring, was not only the one of the greatest luxuriance, as shown by the yield of total produce (grain and straw), but it was the one of highest produce of grain throughout the 40 years of the experiments 1844 to 1883 inclusive, both in the experimental field and in the country at large. The other season of low proportion of potash in the grain, 1867, was one of lower than average growth of straw ; but, owing to high summer temperature and less than the average fall of rain, the season was very favourable for seed-formation ; but with some excess of rain about harvest time the weight per bushel was low. Both these seasons of low proportion of potash were therefore seasons of high grain pro- ductiveness, and the low proportion of potash is due, not to deficiency of potash, but to high accumulation of organic substance. In fact in 1863, the quantity of potash per acre in the total crop, under each condition of manuring, was more than over the average of seasons ; and in 1857 the quantity per acre in the grain was more than in the grain on the average of seasons. Very different, however, were the conditions of season, and of crop, under which absolutely the lowest proportion of potash in the grain throughout the 16 years was found. With each condition as to manuring, the actually lowest proportion of potash in the dry sub- stance of the gi-ain was in 1852, which yielded less than the average amount of both grain and straw, lower than average proportion of grain to straw, and grain of very low weight per bushel. The spring had been dry, cold, and backward, the early summer rainy and cold, and the seed-forming and maturing period variable, with a good deal of hot weather, but some heavy storms. Here then the low proportion of potash in the grain (and it was very low in the straw also, even on the farmyard manure plot) was due to defective conditions of season, for growth, for seed-formation,-and for maturation. It is remarkable that whilst it is with good seasons that we have a comparatively uniform and low proportion of potash in the dry sub- stance of the grain, it is with a very bad season that we have actually the lowest proportion ; and it is again in nearly the worst season of our whole series of 40 years that there is actually the highest propor- tion of potash in the dry substance. Thus, in 1853 we have, with farmyard manure and without manure, the highest, and with ammonium-salts alone, very high proportion of potash in the grain, with at the same time the lowest amount of produce, the lowest pro- portion of grain to straw, and the lowest weight per bushel of grain throQghout the 16 years. The conditions of growth were that, owing to an extremely wet autumn and winter, the seed could not be sown 16 LAWES AND GILBERT ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE until tlie spring ; the spring was unseasonably cold and wet, and the summer colder than the average, and very wet. The high proportion of potash was thus due to defective accumulation of organic substance under the influence of unfavourable climatic conditions. These details as to the proportion of potash iu the dry substance of the grain illustrate in a very striking manner the greater influence of season than of manuring on the mineral composition of the grain. With favourable seasons there is comparatively little variation ; but with unfavourable seasons there is very great variation, sometimes much lower, but sometimes much higher, and on the average higher proportions of potash than in favourable seasons. Nor is there evi- dence that there is, comparing one season with another, high propor- tion of either lime, magnesia, or soda, with low proportion of potash, or vice versa. Comparing the average results of one plot with those of another, however, there is, with the small produce without manure, even a rather higher proportion of both potash and lime, but lower of magnesia than with farmyard manure. With ammonium-salts alone, on the other hand, where there is great exhaustion of mineral con- stituents having regard to the amount of crop grown, there is a distinctly lower average proportion of both potash and magnesia, and a rather high proportion of lime. The conclusion is, that with normal maturation there is nearly uniform composition, and that the devia- tions from normal mineral composition are associated with deviations from normal development of the organic substance. It will be well to call attention, though more briefly, to the connec- tion between the character of the produce and the proportion of phosphoric acid it contains. As with potash, so also with phosphoric acid, there is with each of the three conditions as to manuring, a lower average proportion in the dry substance of the grain over the eight better, than over the eight worse seasons ; and the proportion is generally the lowest in the individual seasons of high quality of grain. There is, however, with lower average and lower individual proportions of phosphoric acid in the better seasons, a wider range of variation than in the seasons of lower quality of grain ; and also a wider range of variation than in the case of the potash. In the case of the farmyard manure plot at any rate, it cannot be supposed that the low proportions of phosphoric acid in the dry substance of the grain of the better seasons are due to deficient supply. The indica- tion is indeed, as with the potash, that the low proportion with high quality of grain is the result of enhanced accumulation of organic sub- stance, by which the proportion of the mineral constituents is reduced. On this view, a relatively low proportion of any one constituent may be due to its favourable action, and will by no means necessarily imply either deficient supply, or that it has been without beneficial effect. ASH OF WHEAT-GRAIN iVND WHEAT-STRAW. 17 Comparing, however, the results for the three diSerent plots with one another, the question of supply or exhaustion obviously comes in. It is seen that the proportion of phosphoric acid in the dry substance of the grain is lower without manure than with farmyard manure, and much lower still with ammonium-salts alone. Other evidence will be given further on, showing that with ammonium-salts alone there was doubtless very abnormal exhaustion of phosphoric acid. Further, there is unmistakeable evidence of increase in the proportion of sul- phuric acid with the decrease in that of phosphoric acid, though not in amount to compensate for the deficiency. The question here arises, how far the phosphoric acid and sulphuric acid found in the ash are due to the oxidation ofi phosphorus and sulphur in the burning ? The evidence at command leads to the con- clusion that the existing phosphorus and sulphur are at any rate only in part so oxidated. On the other handi the - evidence goes to show that sulphuric acid is liable to be expelled in^the incineration, in presence of acid phosphates, or • much silica-, or to be reduced by charcoal if there be not sufficiently free access of air. In the method of burning adopted at Rothamsted, there is probably a minimum liability to loss from such reduction. As bearing upon the question of the probability of loss of sulphuric acid (and chlorine) by expul- sion in presence of acid phosphates or silica, it may be mentioned that, excluding the ferric oxide on the one hand, and the silica on the other, and calculating the whole of the phosphoric acid as tribasic, the grain-ashes show more than one and a half time as much acid as base ; and even calculating the whole of the phosphoric acid, whether combined with alkalis or earths, as only bibasie^ there is still an excess of acid. On the other hand, the straw-ashes, calculated in the same way, show a considerable excess of base, even when the whole of the phosphoric acid is reckoned as tribasic ; but they contain more than 60 per cent, of silica. The question arises, therefore, whether carbonic acid (from organic acids or carbonates as such), and some sulphuric acid and chlorine, have not been expelled in the burning ; in the case of the grain-ashes, in the presence of acid phos- phates, and in that of the straw-ashes, in the presence of an excess of sihca. Referring to the control of ash-analyses, Bunsen maintains that by treating the ash with carbonic acid, and subsequent evaporation, all the bases present are converted into neutral salts ; and that the results of the analysis can only be considered satisfactory, when the sum of the quotients obtained by dividing the weights of the indivi- dual bases by their equivalent weights, is very approximately equal to the sum of the quotients of the amounts of the acids found, divided by their equivalents. In otller words, acids and bases must stand in 18 LAWES AND GILBERT ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE such relation to one another as to form neutral salts without leaving any residue. It seems diflBcnlt to suppose that the analyses of the ashes of -wheat- grain and wheat-straw, such as those recorded in this paper, could he so proved to be correct. Thus, in the case of the grain-ashes, the basicity of the phosphoric acid must be calculated as may be required to give neutral salts ; and in the case of the straw-ashes as much of the siHca as may be required must be brought in. Unfortunately we have nOt complete analyses of the ash of the separate mill-products of wheat-grain, but in our former paper (this Journal, 1857) we gave the -amounts of nitrogen, and of total ash, in some series of such products,-^ and the amount of phosphoric acid and magnesia in selected cases. Dempwolf has, however, given most of the constituents in a complete series of mill-products (Ann. Ohem. Pharm., 1869, 149, .343), and so far as the constituents, nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and magnesia, which we also determined, are con- cerned, his results and our own are generally accordant. Within the range of the white flours, there is very generally a slight increase in the percentage of nitrogen proceeding from the finer to the coarser. There is a more marked increase in the percentage of nitrogen in the more branny products, though it is not quite so high in the purest bran as in the products next above it in the series ; the greatest concentration of nitrogenous substances being immediately below the pericarp itself. Referring to the distribution oi the several ash constituents, it may be stated that, according torthe data^referred to,'the amount of potash and of lime in proportion to a given weight of organic substance increases somewhat more rapidly than does that of the nitrogen, proceeding from the finer to the coarser white flours, that of magnesia does so in a greater degree still, and that of the phosphoric acid in about the same degree as the potash. The proportion of all the con- stituents mentioned is very much greater in the more branny portions. Thus, the proportion of potash is about 10 times as high in the dry •substance of the bran as in that of the finer flours ; the proportion of lime is 4 or 5 times as high ; that of magnesia 15 to 20 times, and that of phosphoric acid more than 10 times as high. Our own ex- periments showed about 15 times as much magnesia, and about 10 times as much phosphoric acid in the dry substance o'f the bran as in that of the white flours. Again, experiments of W. Mayer (Ann. Chem. Pharm., 1857) showed about 14 times as much phosphoric acid in the dry substance of bran as in that of the finest flour. In fact the more the cei'eal grain, which is characteristically a starchy product, is perfectly matured, the higher will be the propor- tion of flour, as a rule the lower will be the proportion of nitrogenous ASH OF WHEAT-GRAIN AND WHEAT -STRAW. 19 substances, the lower that of the bran, and the higher that of starch. It is obvious from the facts quoted above, that the more these charac- ters are developed, the lower should be the proportion of the mineral constituents in the total grain ; and the results which have been dis- cussed have consistently shown a lower proportion of mineral consti- tuents in the produce of the seasons of favourable maturation. Table III (pp. 12 — 13) also shows, as has been referred to, a gene- rally lower percentage of nitrogen in the better matured grains, that is, in those in which more starch has been accumulated. In reference to this point, it may be stated that in 1847 we took samples of a growing wheat crop at different stages of its progress, commencing on June 21, and determined the dry matter, ash, and nitrogen in them. Calculation of the results showed that whilst during little more than five weeks from June 21, there was comparatively little increase in the amount of nitrogen accumulated over a given area, more than half the total carbon of the crop was accumulated during that period. Consistently with this, Professor R. C. Kedsie, and the late Professor Bi. P. Kedsie have recently shown by a series of experiments in which they partially analysed samples of a wheat crop cut on 21 consecutive days, commencing June 26, 1879, that with increase in the weight of the kernels there was, especially in the earlier stages, a decrease in the percentages of nitrogen, cellulose, and mineral matter; whilst calcu- lated per acre at the different periods, there was an increase in the actual amount of nitrogen stored up over a given area up to a given point, hut a considerably greater increase in the quantity of carbo- hydrates accumulated in the same time over the same area. Again, in a very comprehensive investigation of the composition of American wheats, conducted by Mr. Clifford Richardson, under the auspices of the Department of Agriculture at Washington, ho finds a generally low average percentage of albuminoids in American as com- pared with European wheats ; and he concludes that this is indication of inferiority of quality, in many cases due to deficient supply of nitrogen by the soil. It is more probably due to enhanced formation of starch under the influence of high ripening temperature. In our former paper, we discussed the point as far as the data then at com- mand permitted, and we concluded that high percentage of total nitrogenous substance was by no means a characteristic of the wheats held in the highest estimation either by the miller or the baker ; and that so far as both the baker and the consumer are concerned, the condition of the nitrogenous matters is of more importance than their total amount. Comparing one description of wheat with another, the one with a relatively high percentage of nitrogen may be the better, provided the grain be at the same time fully ripened, and not too homy. But when the percentage exceeds a certain limit, the grain is c 2 20 LAWES AND GILBERT ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE generally either too hard, or there is deficient storing up of starch, and an unfavourable condition of the nitrogenous substances. In fact, comparing the grain grown from the same description of seed, but on difierent soils, or in different seasons, high percentage of total nitrogenous matter is almost invariably coincident with inferior maturation. The next point to consider is the bearing of the results relating to the three plots, as to the influence of full supply or of exhaustion on the mineral composition of the grain. Table IV (pp. 22 — 23) shows the average amounts obtained per acre, of grain, straw, and total produce, also of nitrogen, ash, and each mineral constituent in them, over the first eight, the second eight, and the sixteen years, under each of the three conditions as to manuring. Table V (pp. 24 — 25) shows the quantity of nitrogen, pTire ash, and each ash-constituent, per 1000 dry matter of produce (grain, straw, and total) over the first eight, the second eight, and the sixteen years respectively, for each of the three plots. It is difficult to say whether the first eight or the second eight seasons were on the average the more favourable for the crop. The first eight included perhaps more fairly good, and one or two very good seasons, but two very bad ones ; whilst the second eight included the best season of the sixteen — indeed of the forty up to the present time, some others of more than average favourable character, and only one exceptionally bad one. Under these circumstances, farmyard manure, with its annual accumulation, yielded more grain, more straw, and considerably more of both nitrogen and total mineral matter, over the second than over the first eight years. Without manure, there was almost identically the same amount of grain, rather less straw, and rather less both of nitrogen and of mineral matter, over the second eight years. With ammonium-salts alone, with great relative deficiency of mineral supply, there was less corn, less straw, less mineral matter, and in a more marked degree less nitrogen in the crops, over the second eight years. It is to be observed that there was this deficiency of nitrogen in the crop over the later period, notwithstanding a great excess was annually supplied by manure. The average quantities of total mineral constituents yielded per acre per annum over the sixteen years, on the three plots, were as follows : — In grain, lbs. By farmyard manure 36'3 Without manure 16"6 With ammonium-salts alone, , 23'0 Thus, considerably more total mineral matter is taken up under the In straw. Total. lbs. lbs. 201-1 237-4 89-5 106-1 119-2 142-2 ASH OF WHEAT-GRAIN AND WHEAT-STRAW, 21 influence of tlie ammonium-salts than without manure, but more than twice as much is taken up under the influence of farmyard manure as without manure. The last three columns of Table IV show a con- siderable increase in the amount of every constituent taken up under the influence of the ammonium-salts, and a still greater increase (excepting of soda) with the farmyard manure. The greatest pro- portional increase of constituents taken up on the ammonium-salts plot is in the lime, potash, magnesia, soda, sulphuric acid, and chlorine, and the least in phosphoric acid. With farmyard manure, by far the ■ greatest increase is in the potash, which is more than two and a half times as much as without manure ; there is also about twice as much magnesia, and more than twice as much lime, phosphoric acid, sul- phuric acid, soda, and silica, and nearly four times as much chlorine. Comparing on each plot the yield over the second eight years with that over the first eight, without manure the produce of grain contains nearly identical amounts of each ash-constituent over the two periods ; but even showing a tendency to excess in magnesia, phosphoric acid, and silica, over the second period. The result is, however, different with the straw and total produce ; both of which show more or less deficiency of every constituent excepting lime, which increases considerably, whilst ferric oxide and soda also show a tendency to increase. Deficiency in the straw, and with it in the total produce, that is, in the amount taken up and retained by the entire plant, or rather crop, is indication of deficient source, notwithstanding there may be no falling off in the contents of the grain. With farmyard manure, with its excessive supply, there is over the second period compared with the first, more or less increase in every constituent in grain, in straw, and in total produce, with the single exception of sulphuric acid, which is very slightly in relative defect in the straw and total produce over the second peribd. In the grain, the constituents in most marked increased amount are the typical ones potash and phosphoric acid ; in the straw, they are potash and silica ; and in total produce, potash, phosphoric acid, and silica. With ammoniam-salts alone for so many years in succession, there is, over the second period, in the grain, only slight deficiency of potash and magnesia, a greater deficiency of phosphoric acid, and a tendency to increase in lime, sulphuric acid, and silica. In the straw and total produce, however, there is more marked deficiency in every con- stituent excepting sulphuric acid ; and it is the most marked in the potash, the phosphoric acid, the chlorine, and the silica ; the chlorine ispecially, although it is liberally supplied in the ammonium chloride. That chlorine, and other constituents of possibly little other use than as carriers, may be taken up and returned to the soil, especially under certain conditions of weather, would seem not improbable. 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OP THE experiments of Anderaon and ourselves with beans show a consider- able reduction in the amount of mineral matter in the crop of a given area during the last few weeks, but in the case of this crop there is a considerable fall of leaf at this period. Dr. Anderson's results with wheat do not show such reduction, either of total mineral matter, potash, phosphoric acid, or silica. E. Wolff's experiments with potatoes showed considerable reduction in the amounts of nitrogen, total ash, lime, magnesia, and chloride of sodium, during the last! five weeks, but there was also considerable loss of total dry substance;. His experiments with mangel-wurzel, red clover, lucerne, and rape* showed, with immaterial exceptions, considerable gain of all consti- tuents to the end of the period quoted, when, however, such crops- would not have ripened. In one experiment with barley, there was gain of every constituent to the end; in a.second there was gain in all excepting potassium chloride, and potash, both of which showed a loss in the last stage ; and in a third there was considerable reduc- tion in total ash, chiefly in magnesia, potassium chloride, and potash. In two experiments with oats, there was gain in total ash, bub con-- siderable loss of potash. In an experiment with wheat, though- there was a gain in total ash, there was a considerable reduction of potash. In experiments on barley, by Scheven, there was gain of nitrogenous, non-nitrogenous, and total dry substance to the end, also gain of total ash, phosphoric acid, soda, and chlorine ; but reduc- tion in potash, lime, and magnesia. In experiments with barley, Bretsohtieider found gain in total dry matter, nitrogen, total ash, and most individual ash-constituents to the end, but during ripening a slight reduction of potash and chlorine was indicated. According to Joulie's experiments, there is a considerable reduction in the amount, especially of potash, in the total wheat-plant during the seed-forming and ripening periods. Marie-Davy concluded that during the ripen- ing period plants expel superfluous matters by their roots. Pierre, in experiments with rape, found a reduction in the amounts of nitrogen, and most ash-constituents, excepting phosphoric acid, in the later stages ; but he notes that leaves had fallen. In his experiments with wheat, the results were very similar. In experiments with oats, Arendt did not find any appreciable reduction either in total ash, or in ash- conatituents, excepting soda. In experiments with wheat, Deherain found no reduction until the crop was ripe, but a good deal after- wards ; and here the question arises whether there was not loss by birds, or otherwise than by excretion by the plant. In his experi- ments with oats, the results were irregular, owing to unfavourable weather. Upon the whole, it would seem that satisfactory evidence is still wanting on the point ; and it is probable that the result will be considerably influenced by the conditions of the weather. Recurring to the results as to the yield per acre of the several con- ASH OP WHEAT-GRAIN AND WHEAT- STRAW. 27 stitnents (in grain and straw) over the first and second half of the sixteen years, as given in Table IV (pp. 22 — 23), without manuie there is indicated a comparatively small relative exhaustion of both potash and phosphoric acid, and with ammoniutn-salts a greater exhaustion of both. Table V (pp. 24 — 25), which gives the amount of each constituent per 1000 dry substance of grain, straw, and total produce, shows the degree in which the composition is afEected by the excess or deficiency of supply. Takingthe mean result for the sixteen years in each case, 1000 dry sabstance of grain shows a rather higher proportion of nitrogen with- out manure than with' farmyard manure, and higher still with ammo- nitnn-salts alone. It shows almost identical amounts of total mineral constituents nuderthe influence of full supply of them by farmyard manure, and of exhaustion of both nitrogen and mineral consti- tuents without manure. There is, however, a considerable deficiency under- the very abnormal exhaustion of mineral constituents, when ammonium-salts alone are- used for so many years in succession. The dry substance- of the unmanured grain contains a rather higher proportion of potashj rather less magnesia, and less phosphoric acid, than tliat grown by farmyard manure. The relative deficiency in the dry substance of the grain grown by ammonium-salts is partly in potash, but mainly in phosphoric acid, which is only in small part compensated by an increased amount of sulphuric acid. Magnesia is also in slight relative defect. The composition of the straw, which much more directly indicates relative supply or- exhaustion, shows much wider variation under the three different conditions as to manuring. Compared with the straw grown with farmyard manure, that grown without manure contains, per 1000 dry substa,ncei considerably less potash, but otherwise there is but little difference, excepting that it contains notably less chlorine and more silica. With ammonium-salts alone, there is a still greater decrease in the amount of potash in the dry substance of the straw, partly compensated by more lime. There is also considerably less phosphoric acid, but rather more sulphuric acid, and there is much less silica than either with farmyard manure or without manure. Comparing the average composition of the produce of the second eight years with that of the first, with farmyard manure, the mineral composition of the dry substance of the grain is almost absolutely identical over the two periods. Without manure, again, it is very nearly so, the figures showing, however, a tendency to a rather lower proportion of potash over the latter half of the total period, with at the same time slightly more magnesia, and also more phosphoric acid -, conditions which are indicative of less perfect maturation, that is, less flour in proportion to bran. With ammonium-salts, the mineral com- 28 LAWES AND GILBERT ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE position of the grain, though showing, compared with that of the other plots, a marked deficiency in potash and magnesia, and especially in phosphoric acid, shows very little difference comparing the second eight years with the first. So far as the bases are concerned, the average proportion in the dry substance of the grain is almost identical over the two periods ; but there is an obvious tendency over the later period to decrease in phosphoric acid, and with this to increase in sulphuric acid and in silica. The conxposition of the dry substance of the straw, which has been seen to vary considerably as between plot and plot, varies also much more than does that of the grain over the two periods, but still com- paratively little. With farmyard manare, the chief difEerence is that there is a som.ewhat larger proportion of potash and silica, and some- what less phosphoric acid and sulphuric acid over the second period, difEerences probably due to season and character of growth depending thereon, rather than to soil supply independently of these. Without manure, the chief indication is a relative deficiency of potash and magnesia, partly compensated by more lime, also a deficiency of phos- phoric acid over the second period. With ammonium-salts alone, the most marked diSerence is a relative deficiency of potash over the later period. Thus, although it has been shown that there is much wider range of variation in the mineral composition of wheat-grain according to season than according to manure, it is seen that there is nevertheless an obvious difference in the average composition of the grain under the three very different conditions as to manuring ; but with each there is almost identical average composition over the first and second half of the period of sixteen years. The grain grown by the ammonium- salts alone shows exhaustion both of potash and phosphoric acid, but especially the latter. The condition of exhaustion here is, however, quite abnormal, and the results as a whole point to great uniformity in the mineral composition of the grain under varying conditions as to manure, provided only that it is perfectly and normally ripened. It will be seen, too, that the lowest average proportion of nitrogen is in the grain grown by farmyard manure, notwithstanding its liberal supply of it, again indicating that the composition, and especially high or low percentage of nitrogen, is much more dependent on maturation than on full or limited supply by the soil. The next series of results will further illustrate the influence of season and manuring on the composition of the wheat crop in selected seasons, and with a greater variety of manuring. Second Series of Analyses. This series includes the results obtained under nine different con-- ASH OF WHEAT-GRAIN AND WHEAT-STRAW, 29 ditions as to mannring, each in two unfavourable and in two favour- able seasons for the crop : — The conditions as to manuring were : — Plot 2. Farmyard manure, every year. Plot 3. TJnmanured, every year. Plot 6a. Mixed mineral manure,* alone. Plot 7a. Mixed mineral manure,* and ammonium-salts. f Plot 10a. Ammonium-salts, alone. Plot 11a. Ammonium-salts and superphosphate of lime.J Plot 12a. Ammonium - salts, superphosphate, and sulphate of soda.§ Plot 13a. Ammonium - salts, superphosphate, and sulphate of potash. II Plot 14a. Ammonium-salts, superphosphate, and sulphate of mag- nesia.^f It will be seen that, besides the conditions of manuring to which the first series of analyses relates, this series includes the results obtained on six other plots with widely different, but strictly com- parable, conditions of mineral or ash-constituent supply. Thus, we have ammonium-salts alone ; the same with superphosphate ; the same with superphosphate and soda-salt ; the same with superphosphate and potash-salt ; the same with superphosphate and magnesia-salt ; and the same with superphosphate, potash-, soda-, and magnesia-salt. The seasons selected were 1852, 1856, 1858, and 1863. 1852 was the ninth season from the commencement of the experi- ments, and the first of the twelve which comprise the four to which the series of analyses now under consideration relates. The winter had been favourable upon the whole ; but the spring was dry, cold, and backward ; the early summer was rainy and cold ; and the matur- ing period variable, with a good deal of hot weather, but some heavy storms. Without manure, the produce of grain was the lowest that * The mixed mineral manure was coinposed per acre as follows ; — 1852-1858, sulphate of potash 300 lbs., sulphate of soda 200 lbs., sulphate of magnesia 100 lbs. ; 1859 and since, sulphate of potash 200 lbs., sulphate of soda 100 lbs., sulphate of magnesia 100 lbs. j also superphosphate of lime made as described below. t Ammonium-salts, in all cases 200 lbs. sulphate, and 200 lbs. muriate of ammo- n'a of commerce, per acre. X Superphosphate of lime (per acre), in all cases made from bone-ash 200 lbs., sulphuric acid (sp. gr. 1'7) 150 lbs., and water. § Sulphate of Boda, 500 lbs. per acre 1852-1858; two-thirds as much 1859 and afterwards. II Sulphate of potash, .300 lbs. per acre 1852-1858 ; 200 lbs. 1859 and afterwards. IT Sulphate of magnesia, 420 lbs. per acre 1852-1858 ; two-thirds as much (280 lbs.), 1859 and afterwards. 30 LAWES AND GILBERT ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE had been obtaiaed so far, and below tte average of tbe first 20 years. Under the influence of ammoninm-salts, wtietlier alone or in conjunc- tion with mineral manures, the produce of grain was very much, and that of straw considerably, below the average obtained by such manures. Finally, the proportion of grain to straw, and the weight per bushel of the grain, were very low. 1856 was the thirteenth season of the experiments. The winter had been mild upon the whole ; the early spring was dry and cold, and the remainder cold and wet, the early summer was cold and changeable, then came a short interval of fine and hot weather, suc- ceeded, about the ripening period, by very heavy rains, and prevailing low temperatures. The harvest was also wet and unfavourable. With these conditions of season, the quantity of grain per acre was, excepting without manure, fully equal to, and that of the straw rather over, the average of the 12 years which comprise the four now under consideration. The crops were, however, unevenly and badly ripened, and the proportion of grain to straw, and the weight per bushel of the grain, were low. The -season was therefore, upon the whole, not unfavourable to quantity of produce, but it was unfavour- able for the full development and maturation of the grain. 1858 was the fifteenth season from the commencement. During the winter, spring, and summer there was, upon the whole, much less than the usual amount of rain ; though in February, April, May, and J uly, there were fair amounts. Throughout the summer, the air was generally drier than usual for the period, and the temperature was generally above the average throughout the spring and summer months, whilst June was unusually hot. Early in the summer, the promise was of great luxuriance, but the warm and dry weather of June checked this tendency, and brought on early maturity ; and the harvest weather was favourable. Accordingly, the quantity of straw was generally below the average with parallel conditions as to manuring ; but that of the grain was generally above it, especially with high manuring. The proportion of grain to straw was thus above the average, and the weight per bushel of the grain was also above the average. 186.3 was the twentieth season of the experiments. The winter and early spring were extremely mild, the plant came early forward, and the rains, though sparing upon the whole, came when needed, whilst the temperature of the summer, though seldom high, was (excepting some night frosts in July) generally sufficient, and the condition of the atmosphere was otherwise favourable. The characters of the season were such as to contribute to a lengthened and almost uninter- rupted course of accumulation ; and this, the twentieth wheat crop in succession on the same land, was not only the best up to that time ASH OF WHEAT-GRAIN AND WHEAT-STRAW. 31 ' obtained in quantity both of grain and straw, but it is the best obtained during the 40 years to 1883, inclusive. It was also nearly the best as to quality of grain. This extraordinary result was due to almost unchecked growth from tbe first appearance of tie plant above ground, up to the tinae of harvest, rather than to any extra- ordinary characteristics at any one or more particular period. Thus, of the four seasons selected, 1852 was very bad, both as to quantity and quality of produce ; 1866 gave fairly average quantity of both grain and straw, but the crop was unevenly ripened, and the weight per bushel was low ; 1858 yielded only a moderate amount of total produce, but a more than average proportion and amount of grain, and the weight per bushel was also above the average ; lastly, 1863 was the most productive season of the forty of the experiments, as to quantity both of straw and of grain ; the weight per bushel of grain was also considerably above the average. The analytical results (excluding sand and charcoal), are given in detail in Appendix Table X ; in Appendix Table XI, the constituents are calculated per 1000 dry substance, instead of per 100 of ash ; and in Appendix Table XII, the quantity of each constituent in the prodace per acre is given. Referring to these Tables for the study of the details, it will be convenient here to discuss the main bearings of the results by reference to a series of Summary Tables. In Table VI (p. 32), the mean percentage of -selected constituents in the pure ash (of grain and straw respectively), of the nine difEerently manured plots collectively, is given for each of the four seasons. Thus the effects of season, independently of manure, are shown. By the side of these results are given, as before, the general characters of the produce of each season, as indicated by the average weight per bushel of the grain on the nine plots, the proportion of grain to straw, the amount of total prodace (grain and straw) per acre, and finally the mean percentage of nitrogen, and of total mineral matter (or ash) in the dry substance. It is seen that, as indicated by the weight per bushel of the dressed grain, the quality of the grain was the lowest in the first, and the highest in the last of the four seasons, rising from year to year, taking the seasons in their chronological order. The first two years show lower than average, and the last two higher than average quality. The last two also show very much the higher proportion of grain to straw, that is, a very much higher seed-forming tendency. There can be no doubt, therefore, that so far as quality of produce is concerned the last two seasons were far superior to the first two, which were in fact very bad seasons \, whilst the two later seasons were much better, and the last of the four one of very high quality. As to quantity of grain too, there is an increase from the first to the fourth 32 LAWES AND GILBERT ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE o r^" fl N !^ «; ffl ^^^ Ph-S Q5 iS ^ a ■" a v-^ S^Tl l^a o § [H ^^S > S^N N s ^ ^ (0 rt m o 3 -■1 gp N.S m'^ CfH c6 O - 03 S g P ^ •^^ Fi PU JS ,CQ O i r;i m 3 -ri ^ -3 ^i 3 . iE .3 o . £ ^ns P<-3 & 1^ .g FM i 'S g "g Ph ^ ca B) ^ .^ hi >. rd £ rS ■^ P^ ■9S^ sa i Il^ H ;2i |ii Ph p^ o Ee Jh o fio ,_, •53^ SbS ^fe'S P. Od ' i |3 4 1 '? G! gSKS O iH o o O O iH iH OS 00 CO 05 (M tM O 03 iJI 1-4 N .H (M CO CO CO f- « ■* 03 M r-l O O iH fH iH i-t ^ (M O rH iH 03 -^ O CO W CO CO to N C0U5 03 OS 03 1> rH iH iH i-t oq GO 5D CO p 03 03 CO (M i-l iH iH O (M CO i-H Oi CO 03 CO CO QO 03X> iH iH >-l IM O) 03 -* 00 CO CO CD W3 -* >0 CO CO CO t~ iH IN lO US CO CO (S CO 00 CO rH I-l pH iH M ■«?' Oi t* J>i> CO t> CD Oj O Oi 03 CO O t-i N CO CO ■^ (M CD 00 CO U3 U3 IC CD X OO 00 00 ASH OF WHEAT-GRAIN AND WHEAT-STRAW. 533 season, the last yielding about twice as much as the first, and about one and half time as much straw. Coincidently with these general agricultural characters of great Buperiority in the produce of 1863, there is by far the lowest average percentage of both nitrogen and mineral matter (ash), in the dry sub- stance of the grain. In the dry substance of the straw, the percentage of mineral matter is not specially low, but that of the nitrogen is very low, both actually and relatively. The description of the seasons already given shows that the fairly good season of 1858 was one of early but checked, and finally, limited luxuriance, with high seed- form- ing tendency, in proportion to the amount of plant ; whilst that of 1863 was one of very great luxuriance throughout the growing period, with very high seed-forming tendency supervening. It will after- wards be seen, indeed, that the total crop of 1863 contained about one and a half time as much mineral matter per acre, and also consider- ably more nitrogen, than that of either of the other seasons ; yet the percentage of both was much lower in the grain,, and that of the nitrogen lower also in the straw, than in the produce of either of the other years. There is here again evidence that with favourable maturation there is low percentage of both mineral matter and nitrogen ; that is, favourable maturation means the greater accumula- tion of non-nitrogenous organic substances — carbohydrates, and especially starch — the result necessarily being a lowering of the pro- portion, though not of the actual amount, of both the nitrogenous and the mineral constituents. Turning to the composition of the ash. Table VI (p. 32) shows a con- siderably higher percentage of potash, and a considerably lower per- centage of phosphoric acid, in the ash of the grain of the two seasons of better quality. At the same time there is a tendency to lower per- centages of magnesia with the higher percentages of potash, and to higher percentages of sulphuric acid with the lower percentages of phosphoric acid, but by no means in compensating degree. The straw- ashes also show considerably higher percentages of potash, low per- centages of phosphoric acid, and higher of sulphuric acid, in the better seasons. But it has before been observed that the ash of the straw, in a much greater degree than does that of the grain, contains, besides the constituents that may be essential to its own formations, a variable amount of what may be called migratory matters, the quantities of which depend on the one hand on the quantities taken up from the soil during the periods of accumulation, and on the other on the characters of the maturing period, which influence the amounts stored up in the seed. The variations in the average percentage composition of the ash itself in the several seasons, as shown in Table VI, though instruc- D •3'4 LAWES AND GILBERT ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE Hi >5 o o o SIh fl <0 pi d o a) O OJ r^Ji 2-S cS ■"^ © -*3 13 o -&s „ rrt ^ m Lj «t).cl p^ 1 3 p t^ g a S o tH ^ o s .a ^ •?^ c £4-< a o i 3 Id si (D s -1 '■« fd f y ^ Ph "1?. 01 :5 fe -s v5 QQ i^ ii v V rt ^ d X o IT f< cb a 02 O •c . b a -a 1 DO ^ •S O O o o . fH o « u ,^ CM -s fl ■'l fii o •S «' ^ s . §0 !^ S h^i ^ 'i^ ■s s a -fg. t^ o pa ^ A< ^ -1 :^^ ^ P' ■4 w 00 03 ■* iM tH i-H r-l rH o o o o CN CO CO <:o O Oi OS CO rH CD O IC CO cq r^ CO r-l lO CO OO iH iH r-1 CM (M CO 00 CO m U3 lo CO 00 00 00 00 rH iH iM T-l Oj OS CO 05 O CO CO CO ic c:3 ^ 00 lO 'Ji (M . a 01 o H ^« h fli r^ .g ^ crt o S s i:^ -^ o fe a CU m (/J !U t~^ •-I3 h ^ ^ O" -p (V e4-t 6c e3 rJd M o ^ .1 <1 rt TS n T» eS -p: n m 1? o pi pl rn ■43 m ^1 a fc ,0) u rd jd 00 o iH (M US ^ CD CO IM CD W CO in kfl lo CO GO C30 00 00 rH rH rH rH iH r-i -^ eq OS N Tjlt- 00 (N iH rH iH 00 (M cq 00 CD i> OS CD CO -^ CD CD iH iH CO 00 10 10-* ■* ■* cp-f CO 00 N OS lO r-i oq oq 0: cq CO W3 CO us l-H CO -«? eq (M N CO CO ■* i> r-l 150-6 149-7 142-5 197-3 ^ cq CD CO -^ rH r-f iH J>l~CO J> OS CO rH (M CO CO -^ 46-8 53-9 66-4 65-8 oo-<}i-*

rH * H i> OS oq (M CO ^t>I> rH (pOS(S| i>c >o rH N oq oq ASH OP WHEAT-GKAIN AND WHEAT-STRAW. 37 Yet, with by far tte largest amount accumulated in the grain in 1863, its percentage in it is much lower than in either of the other years. There is thus, with the best growing and maturing conditions, the largest amount of nitrogen taken up by the plant, the largest amomit aooamulated in the grain, and the lowest percentage of it in the grair . Again, under equal conditions as to supply by manure, one and a third time as much of total mineral, or ash-constituents, is stored up in the total crop in the season of highest luxuriance and highest matura- tion, as in either of the others ; whilst the percentage of ash in the dry substance of the grain is lower than in either of the other years. There is also more of each of the mineral constituents enumerated (excepting silica), taken up, with the same supply by manure, in the two better than in the two worse seasons ; and comparing tlie best season with the worst there is about one and a half time as much Ume, magnesia, and phosphoric acid, and about twice as much potash and sulphuric acid, taken up in the season of most favourable growth and maturation. Tet, as Table VII (p. 34) shows, the proportion of lime, magnesia, and phosphoric acid was lower, and that of the potash nearly as low, in the grain of the large and well-matured produce. In these facts as to the nitrogen and the ash-constituents, there is again striking evidence of the much greater influence of season than of manuring on the composition of a ripened plant, and especially of its final product — the seed. The extent, and the limits, of the effects of manure, or of exhaustion, on the composition of wheat-grain and wheat- straw will be more clearly brought to view in the next illustrations. In the first place, Table IX (p. 38) shows a not very wide range of difference in the weight per bushel of the grain grown under such very wide differences as to manure, but all under equal season influ- ences. Still the differences, such as they are, are not without theif significance. Without manure (Plot 3), with sluggish growth and ripening, and with ammonium-salts alone (Plot 10a), that is, with great mineral exhaustion, the weight per bushel is low ; it is also low on Plot 11a, where, besides the ammonium-salts, there is superphos- phate, but neither potash, soda, nor magnesia supplied. With farm- yard manure (Plot 2) it is high. In the other cases — with mixed mineral manure (Plot 5a), the same and ammonium-salts (Plot 7a), ammonium-salts, superphosphate, and soda (Plot 12a), ammonium- salts, superphosphate, and potash (Plot 13a), and ammonium-salts, superphosphate, and magnesia (Plot 14a) — it is fairly uniform. The percentage of nitrogen in the dry substance of the grain is fairly uniform, excepting that on Plot 6a, with mineral manure alone and great nitrogen exhaustion, it is low ; and on Plot 10a, with ammonium-salts alone, and therefore great relative excess of nitrogen and deficiency of mineral constituents supplied, it is high. 38 LAWES AND GILBERT ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE 13 ^^ g-a eS ^ M B pi 3 ■=§ g CQ O 0) ,o«2 O ■g ^s '^^' <*-. o CLg OpH ^ m _2 j: . o ^-p S •a ca ^-^ i. o £ &-3 ff -^^ 3 S « Pi A .g fM rJS O .s ^ ,d m c3 Si 5 -p a> PM (2 pl 1.^ 1' o p bO ^3 S '^3 a )-] ° m m a &> o £:. ■s's~ ^:-a t3 '^^, R'^ el u Sg "^-S fJJO i g^ s o (ii %c^ 03 qT U S oT PI -^ S J ^■^. ir S^ . PM-^ 51 ^•s ■a » O o acfer nder t. ^1° § f^^ - te'P-i CI* ffl -S e8 53 CO § 1 O 1 Cii (Mt>0— 'OlMNGO-^ t>OSOi005i>J> CDC30 OOOrHOOOOO OOOrHiHOOOO COi— l(NQOi-HrHi— li-Hi— t 0«^0«iCI>.-IW3 O'-l'-HlMOr-ii-tr-liH COCOCQCOCOCOCOCOCO OOOOlfStMi-HrH-^OO CD— 'CdiniLncocciwsx a)9Oc-Q0Q000X>CJ0 r-l(MNp-li-liHrHiHiH o w3 '^ 00 (M CO in t>ii> OOOOJ>0050000aOQO r-lr-trHNiHi-liHi-lr-l a0w:iO5CQl>-^00r-lTfl '■sfOCC'-lOOiCOrHiXi «OtHI>tHC0C0"^-* (Mr-(rHrHW(M(M(MiM iHCOCOiHOOrHOO^Jf-i 05NirarH^01l>CD-<# ir3cDiiD':0(£)ioirsoia OOOOiXOsOOOCS e a s e e Q e iH 1-1 r-( iH iH QQ C0i-l(MQ0C0r-l«OrH CO^OiCDCOlOfMCOca CD-I>OCD^COCOCDCO COOi-HiClftCD-^iMM ooNOusco^coinco (MCO-#"*COCOCOCOCO OCO®GOOJOOCOOiift oO'^Oicooi'-iNcocq COCOCOC<)«i(N(NiMcO OONCOONCSCDQOCD WSOCv^WSNGO-^iOiM OOCOt-OOtD'^QO'^Ti CO'^COCDCDiC-^USiO COCOCOlAU3>OiOmia ooocooooo J>OQOOQiOCSCO»n ascot-oo-^OQiNin COrHi-ltNCO'*'^'*-^ pHCDtO'HaOrHpOliH ooooioooioooo; « a « e a « a 'MCOlOOi-l(MCO-^I> ASH OF WHEAT-GRAIN AND WHEAT-STEAW. 39 The percentage of total mineral matter (pure ash), is also fairly uniform, excepting that with farmyard manure (2), with purely mineral manure (5a), and without manure (3), it is somewhat high ; and with ammonium-salts alone (10a), where there is very abnormal mineral exhaustion, it is very low. A glance at the columns showing the mean percentage of the chief constituents of the ash of the grain shows a very marked uniformity under the nine very characteristically different conditions as to actual and relative mineral supply. In the potash column, for example, the only exceptions to this general uniformity are that with farmyard manure (2), and with ammonium-salts and superphosphate, hut with- out either potash, soda, or magnesia applied (11a), the mean per- centage is low. In the case of the farmyard manure plot, the result is obvionsly due to the characters of the growth and matura- tion, and not to deficient supply, as confirmed by the compara- tively high percentage of potash in the straw-ash. In the case of 11a, there is doubtless great potash exhaustion, and accordingly the straw-ash also shows a very low percentage of potash ; indeed a much lower percentage than on any other plot. In the phosphoric acid column again there is, upon the whole, great uniformity. The exceptions are, that with farmyard manure (2), the percentage is very high ; and with ammonium-salts alone (10a), where there is very abnormal exhaustion, it is very low ; and consistently ■with this, the percentage in the straw-ash is also low. With this low amount of phosphoric acid in the ash of both the grain and the straw of Plot 10a, there is, in both the grain-ash and the straw-ash of this plot, the highest percentage of sulphuric acid. The influence of supply, or exhaustion, on the amount of produce, on the amount of the different constituents taken up by the plant, on the distribution of the constituents in the grain and straw respectively, and on the composition of the dry matter of the grain and straw, will be further illustrated in Tables X and XI (pp. 40—42). It will be convenient first to consider the variations in the amounts of produce, and in the amounts and disbribution of the various constituents taken up over a given area, and afterwards the composition of the dry sub- stance produced. In reference to the results given in Table X (pp. 40 — 41), it is first to be noted that the quantity of produce, both grain and straw, yielded per acre, varied exceedingly under the very different con- ditions as to manuring. Without manure (3), the produce was very small; with a full mineral manure, but no nitrogen supplied (5a), it was but little higher. Then, taking the series with a given amount of ammonium-salts annually applied, there is in every case much more produce, and much more nitrogen and mineral matter taken up. 40 LAWES AND GILBERT ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE < o ■n ^ i1 Ti C3 § o «H -s s <1 o rn ca (U CO ^ S ^ 1 cu -P d O <1 3 O ■c a C3 a '\5 CO 00 us 'OS CO CO lA'CM (NI iH iH N « M Oq (M CO o o o o o o o b o 9§S99999a , ooooooooo OQOOlMCOOSOOOiOS N i-trHrirHrHrHrH i-iu3CDooocqi-irHeq iH rH iH 1-1 iH r-t ■^Q0rHC0«5O0SlMTf 00W3»rt»OCD00CDOI> OOOOpHrHrHpHW COiHrH(NCOCOCOCOCO CO^r-lCQCQCOCO«CO ■.r-ICOCOTj(Tj( (Mi-tr-iiHt>COTjl OX0S0005OOO05 OlCOiOOr-*CqcOTjli>, iH rH i-l rH rH CQ 0)»ftOD(Nt*0001COTP OSrHOrHiHlO-^i>QO H r-^ r-i r-i 1-i r-\ 00»rtCOO>OS-^00WiO CO rH rH cq [M CO 00 l> 01 *^iM CDt*0 -^OiO X rHt>-OOrHrHrHU3lO CD O) -^ lO lis CO CDODJN WpfHiHt-Q001(Nt> 0>COCOlOC5CO(MOJif3 COrH-^CDcOOOiTfl^ COrHrHrHrHCOCOCO'^ 05(MCDU5CD*^0>l^-iO CO t-m O QO O CO -^03 corHr^(^^(^^co(^^co^^^ OiCO"^CD>0(MO>U50 O t^ 00 00 (Nt-OSCit* OOCOCOJ>000000 rH ^ rHrH M(NOsasmC0C0rHW OSCO^OS-^COWCDOO rHOOOrHlOt^OOOOO IM rHrHrHrHrHrHffI OOOS^COrHrHCOCO'* cqiococococorHmo) 1-i tH r-i r-i r-\ r^ i-i (>JCDCO^t^(M05CDI> i>oaoooioos«)in OSCCt^OO-^OOtMiO COrHrHWCO-^TflTfi'^ rHttJCDrHGOrHOOSW Oi'?llO»HrHOSI>.CD'^ uacccococDuiiousio Ctwatp-fiOiHNOco COifliOUSiOCDCOCDiO 8 a 8 8 8 tS 8 Ncoinor-ioqo5-'t» e a a a & ea » OOOOtOOOtDOCO d» 6 bo MO 1^ 05 ends OxCTCTCJTOiOiOiOSCn MCOOWOOMOSOSM -'i-'<©'X05cnut(^fes05 cD Tt o -P n 01 cl 0) rn cd ^ C/J o fH pd 01 > ■a o fl bD tH t^ £ FM ;2i P.^ Dry tter re,l a a S « o fc ■" s a fi •3 " fe o Oo lill^ "S.Q £ii5 ^ S3=g D.° OQ f M s ■C0r-'O05lfSQ0O i-li-lrHCOtNrHrHi-iT-l OOOOOOOOO 0OU3r-ICD-*t>(M(M(M OOOQ00i0505050> iH i-I rH coomwsQOCD^inios 00Oi(MOSWDCO«OS00 OqrHCq050990rH OOOOOOOOO CprHCqV3W3Cp'X>U300 05OOi>*Q000Q0C0Q0 rHffqOlr-ir-li-lrHr-lfH O »f3 -fl 00 cq CO »pi>t* OOOOJ>OOSOOOOOOQO r-lr-tr-l(Ni— iiHrli— Ci— I cocomcoco-^mooffj 0i0001^i>O0iOO rH i-H iH (N rH (M (M tH O ^ rH 00 rH O 05 iH OSS^U5rHrHOH>CO-* COySOD-^OrHMOCp (MeOiOO'-H(MCO-«#l> OQ ^^^COCOCOCOCOCO XOrH(Min00rHrH'<*OS CpOi.>.rHt*OOaOGOOS rHCqcqiNrHrHrHrHr-H OOOi-^OiOrHeOCOttl rH tH t» 00 9 y( -^ -^t* OqtNCqrHrHiHrHrHrH oco^Oioooiipcpos rHOOOlCO-^XrHOsO rH 1-A t-< Cqj>rHI>OrHa)00l> 0(NOC3000H>OHN rHrHOOrHOOOO 0000i>-*O5CD*«#OSIM- iCODiracOiOrH^OX (NCqcqcOCOCQNCON osoococjoix>»pint- ifScooooTjHcq.-^tMi* GO'CD-^ LOC£>^OCO^^^U3 COlO-XiTflOrHNOtt) O GO 05 00 O O O OOi e « e Q e 8 e N M lO O ri (M CO3** ASH OF WHEAT-GRAIN AND WHEAT-STRAW. 43 tlian with the mineral manure alone. In fact, there is considerably more than twice as much produce, both grain and straw, grown under the influence of ammonium-salts and tbe mixed mineral manure (7a), as with the mixed mineral manure alone (5o) ; and there is one and a half time as much with ammonium-salts and the mixed mineral manure (7o), as with ammonium-salts alone (lOa). Comparing the different members of the ammonium-salt series one with another, where the ammonium- salts are used alone (10a), the pro- duce is much the lowest in amount ; with superphosphate added there is more ; with superphosphate and either potash, soda, or magnesia, there is more still, but almost identical amounts in the three cases ; lastly, with superphosphate and potash, soda, and magnesia together, there is the highest produce among the series. That there was so little difllerence in the amount of produce on the three plots, one with soda, one with potash, and one with magnesia, is explained by the fact already recorded, that the plots which received soda, or magnesia, but no potash, in 1852, and each year since, had, before that time, received potash, the effects of the residue of which were very marked for many years, and have only in recent years obviously declined. In refer- ence "to this point, it may be stated that Hermann von Liebig, having expressed a wish to examine some of the Rothamsted experi- mental soils, samples from some of the plots in the experimental wheat field, which had been collected in October, 1865, that is, after the removal of the twenty-second crop from the commencement, and the fourteenth since the application of the same manures year after year on the same plots, were sent to him accordingly. He determined in them the constituents soluble in dilute acetic acid, and the amount of phosphoric acid soluble in dilute nitric acid. The results showed a considerable accumulation of both potash and phosphoric acid where they had been applied in excess ; and in each case the accumulation was chiefly in the first 9 inches of depth. Again, Dr. Voelcker's analyses of the drainage- waters from the same field showed compara- tively little loss of either potash or phosphoric acid by drainage. With the very great differences in the amounts of produce grown according to the manure supplied, the Table (X) shows, in the main, corresponding differences in the amounts of nitrogen, total mineral matter, and individual ash-constituents, taken up. For the sake of brevity, attention must chiefly be confined to the variations in the amounts of potash and phosphoric acid in the produce of the different plots. Of potash, about three times as much was contained in the farmyard manure crop as in the unmanured one ; and there was more than three times as much in the crops grown with ammonium- salts and 44 LAWES AND GILBERT ON THE COMPOSITION OP THE artificial mineral manure containing potash, as without manure. The quantities of potash in the produce in the other cases when ammonia was applied have an obvious connection with the supply of it. Of the total potash in the crops, only from one-fourth to one-third is accumulated in the grain, excepting in the case of Plot 11a, where there is great exhaustion of potash, but otherwise conditions favourable for seed-formation, and here the proportion of the total potash taken up which is accumulated in the grain is greater, and the amount remaining in the straw is proportionally less. On the other hand, the proportion so remaining is the greatest where the supply is the most liberal (2, 13a, and 7a). Of phosphoric acid, there is only about twice as much in the highly artificial manured as in the unmanured produce. But a much larger proportion of the whole than in the case of the potash is accumulated in the grain. In fact, whilst only about one-fourth or one-third of the total potash of the crop is accumulated in the grain, about three- fourths, or even more, of the total phosphoric acid of the crop is stored in the grain. It may be observed in passing, that only a very small proportion (about one-tenth) of the total lime of the crop is found in the seed. Of the total magnesia generally more than one-half, of the sulphuric acid a very small proportion, of the chlorine scarcely a trace, and of the silica the smallest proportion of all, is found in the grain-ash. Bearing in mind the foregoing facts as to the very variable amounts of the different ash-constituents taken up under the very different conditions as to manuring, and as to the very different distribution of the several constituents in the grain and straw respectively, we are prepared to consider in what proportion they exist to the dry sub- stance of the grain and straw produced, and what is the range of variation in this proportion according to the condition of supply or exhaustion on the different plots. These points are illustrated in TableXI(p. 42). The general uniformity in the amounts of total ash, nitrogen, and each ash-constituent, in a given quantity of the dry substance of the grain grown under such very varying conditions as to supply, and with such very varying actual amounts taken up by the plant, is very striking. The exceptions to uniformity are so obviously coincident with abnormal exhaustion, or with irregularity in maturation, that the evidence is even the stronger that with equal maturation — that is with uniformity in organic composition — ^there would be uniformity in mineral composition also. Further, the wide difFerences in the amounts of the different ash-constituents per 1000 dry matter of the straw show in what variable degrees the constituents have been with- drawn from the general stores of the plant, to provide the necessary ASH OP WHEAT-GRAIN AND WHEAT-STRAW. 45 quantities for the all but uiiiforin requirements, for formation or reserve, of a given -weight of the final product of the plant — the seed. Referring to some of the exceptions to uniformity in mineral com- position of the grain a little more in detail, it is seen that the lowest proportion of potash is in the grain of Plot 10a with ammonium-salts alone, and Plot llo with ammonium-salts and superphosphate (without potash). In these cases, there was very abnormal exhaustion of potash; and consistently with this the proportion of potash in the straw is also very low. It may be noted that with the lower propor- tion of potash in the dry substance in these cases, there is a somewhat higher proportion of lime in both grain and straw. Again, the uniformity in the proportion of potash in the dry matter of the grain, with ammonium- salts, superphosphate, and soda (with residue of potash 12a), with ammonium-salts, superphosphate, and potash (13a), with ammonium-salts, superphosphate, and magnesia (with residue of potash 14a), with ammonium-salts, superphosphate, soda, potash, and magnesia (7a), and with farmyard manure (2), is very marked ; whilst the differences in the amounts in the cor- responding straws are not only very considerable, but have a very obvious connection with the supply by manure. The most prominent exceptions to uniformity in the proportion of phosphoric acid in the dry substance of the grain is in the case of Plot 10a, with ammonium-salts alone. Here there is very abnormal exhaustion of phosphoric acid, the proportion in the dry substance of the grain is very low, and it is also the lowest in the dry substance of the straw. With the lower proportion of phosphoric acid in the dry substance of the grain in this case, there is the highest proportion of sulphuric acid, but the excess is not at all in equivalent amount. Thus far it has been sought to elicit the teachings of this second series of wheat grain and straw-ash analyses, by reference to two sets of summary tables ; one showing the mean results of the nine plots, for each of the four years, and the other the mean results over the four years, for each of the nine differently manured plots sepa- rately. It will be well now to direct attention briefly to the results as given in more detail in the Appendix Tables, X, XI, and XII, in order to ascertain how far such examination leads to accordant con- clusions, or brings to view points of interest or importance that would otherwise be overlooked. The Appendix Table X shows, for each of the nine plots separately, the percentage composition of the ash (of grain and straw) in each of the four years ; the first two of which were unfavourable, and the last two favourable for the crop, especially the last of the four. The four seasons were, the first, fifth, seventh, and twelfth, of a series of 12 years. It should be farther observed, that after the third of the 46 LAWES AND GILBERT ON THE COMPOSITION OP THE four selected years, the supply of potash on the three plots annually receiving it (ha, 13a, and la) was reduced to two-thirds the previous amount. On examination of the table, it is seen that with every condition as to manuring without exception, whether involving an excessive supply or an exhaustion of potash, the percentage of potash in the grain-ash is higher in the two later and better seasons, than in the two earlier but inferior ones. In the straw-ashes again there is, with very different actual percentages in the case of the different plots, uniformly an increase in the percentage of potash in the ash from the first to the third of the four years, and with one exception some decline in the fourth year. The exception is on Plot 7a, where, besides ammonium-salts and superphosphate, there is annually applied a considerable excess of potash, soda, and magnesia, salts ; but where, as above stated, the amount of potash supplied had then been reduced for several years, notwithstanding which the percentage of potash in the straw-ash is increased. The decline in the percentage of potash in the straw-ash in the fourth and best year of the series in the other cases, is doubtless in great measure explained by the fact, to which attention has already been called, namely, that owing to favourable seed-forming and maturing conditions supervening on great luxu- riance, and therefore great accumulation by the plant, its stores were very largely drawn upon in the production of a very unusually large amount of grain. The details further show that with the uniform increase in the per- centage of potash in the grain-ash in the two later and better seasons, there is at any rate a distinct tendency to a reduction in the per- centage of magnesia ; but not in compensating degree. Almost equally as marked as the increase in the percentage of potash in the grain- ash, in the later and better years, is the decline in the percentage of phosphoric acid in those years. And as the increase in the percentage of potash in the ash was manifest in the better years even under conditions of exhaustion of it, so here the decline in the percentage of phosphoric acid in the grain-ash in the better years occurs even where there was a liberal annual application of it by manure. The greatest decline is, however, on Plot 10a, manured annually with ammonium-salts alone, and where, therefore, there is very abnormal exhaustion of phosphoric acid. Again, with the general decline in the percentage of phosphoric acid in the grain- ash in the later and better years, there is also a general decline in its percentage in the straw-ash in those years, and especially in the last and best year, even where the supply by manure was liberal. With the general decrease in the percentage of phosphoric acid in both the grain and the straw-ashes in the later years, there is also a ASH OF WHEAT-GRAIN AND WHEAT-STRAW. 47 very general, but not nniform increase in the percentage of sulphuric acid. This increase in the percentage of sulphuric acid in the later years is, however, more marked in the straw than in the grain-ashes. Of chlorine, whether the grain itself contained it in any quantity or not, there is scarcely a trace in the grain-ashes. But in the straw- ashes, the percentage is uniformly higher, and sometimes very much higher, in the later and better years. In fact, the increase in the percentage of chlorine in the straw-ashes is more marked than is that of the sulphuric acid. Whatever may be the case with the sulphuric acid (or its sulphur) there is no evidence leading to the conclusion that chlorine is an essen- tial constituent of the ripened grain ; but the question obviously suggests itself, how far the small but variable amounts of sulphuric acid, and the almost total absence of chlorine, in the grain-ashes, have a physiological significance ; or whether they are not in a greater or less degree dependent on the conditions of the incineration in the presence of phosphoric acid with less than three of fixed base. Again, there is the question how far the lai'ger and variable amounts of both sulphuric acid and chlorine in the straw-ashes, in a sense compensate the deficiency of phosphoric acid ; or how far, having been taken up by the plant, or the sulphuric acid partly due to oxidation of sulphur in the burning, they remain in the ash, containing as it does so little phosphoric acid in proportion to the fixed bases present, though at the same time so much silica. There is in fact a very considerable amount of both sulphuric acid and chlorine in the straw-ashes, notwithstanding the large amount of silica they contain ; but it is at the same time to be noted that, as a rule, the relatively high percentages of sulphuric acid and chlorine are in years when the percentage of silica is relatively low. The influence of the variations in the percentage composition of the ashes on the mineral composition of the dry matter oE the produce in the difierent seasons, is best studied in the Appendix Table XI, in which is shown the amount of each constituent per 1000 of dry matter, grain and straw respectively, in each of the four seasons, under each of the nine different conditions as to manuring. In discussing the first series of ash-analyses, which related to the produce of three very differently manured plots, in sixteen consecutive seasons, it was seen how small was the variation in the mineral com- position of the grain due to manuring, compared with that due to season, that is, to differences in the conditions of seed -formation and maturation. Again, the consideration of the mean results of the nine different conditions as to manuring, in each of the four years (Table VII, p. 34), and of the mean results over the four years, for each of the nine differently manured plots (Table X, pp. 40— 41), 48 LAWES AXD GILBERT ON THE COMPOSITION OF' THE Rhowed (10a excepted) more variation in the composition of the grain according to season than according to manure. Quite consistently, the details given in Appendix Table XI, show, under each of the nine conditions as to manuring, a notable difference in the mineral composition of the grain grown in the four different seasons, with their very different seed-forming and maturing con. ditions, and the very different characters of the grain accordingly. Owing, however, to the different proportions of total ash under these circumstances, and to the generally relatively small amount in the grain of 1863, the differences in the mineral composition of the dry substance of the grain in the different years are by no means so great as might be anticipated from the more marked differences in the percentage composition of the ash itself. Nevertheless, the amount of potash per 1000 dry substance of the grain is, with every condition as to manuring without exception, higher in the favourable season 1858, and almost without exception in the extraordinarily favourable season 1863, than in the two unfavourable seasons. On the other hand, the amount of phosphoric acid per 1000 dry matter, is in 1858 almost without exception, and in 1863 without exception, lower than in the two unfavourable seasons. In the season of 18G3, with both very large quantity and very high quality of grain, the proportion of phos- phoric acid is indeed very low ; and the potash is much lower than in 1858, owing, doubtless, as before explained, to the very favourable seed-forming and maturing tendency, and the consequent great develop- ment of organic substance (chiefly starch) in relation to the mineral matter stored up in the grain. Thus, the results of Series 1, with three very different conditions as to manuring, each over sixteen consecutive seasons, and those of Series 2, relating to nine different conditions as to manuring, each in four very different seasons, consistently show that, under otherwise equal circum- stances, the mineral composition of wheat-grain, excepting in cases of very abnormal exhaustion, is very little affected by different condi- tions as to manuring, provided only that the grain is well and normally ripened. Again, the results consistently show that the composition may vary very greatly with variations of season, that is with variations in the conditions of seed-formation and maturation, upon which the organic composition of the grain depends. In other words, dif- ferences in the mineral composition of the ripened grain are associated with differences in its organic composition. Third Series of Analyses. la considering the results of the first and second series of ash- analyses, some illustrations of the effects of supply, or exhaustion, have ASH OP WHEAT-GKAIN AND WHEAT-STRAW. 49 been given. But as the iSrst series, though relating to the produce of sixteen consecutive seasons, included the results for only three differ- ent conditions of manuring, and as the second series, though relating to nine different conditions as to manuring, included results for only four, and those not consecutive seasons, the evidence afforded was in either case somewhat limited. The third series, now to be discussed, was arranged with more special reference to the question of the effects of continuous liberal supply, or of exhaustion, of constituents, both on the quantity and the composition of the produce. This third series of ash-analyses relates to the produce obtained over a period of twenty consecutive years, 1852 — 1871 inclusive, on ten differently manured plots, in the experimental wheat field which has now grown the crop every year, commencing 1844, up to the present time. Most of the plots in the field consist of two lands, designated a and h respectively. Prior to 1852, but especially for the crops of 1846 and 1848, the a and the 6 portions were manured some- what differently, but from 1852 to 1863 inclusive they were manured alike. It will be observed (see p. 29) that in seven out of the nine con- ditions of manuring to which the second series of analyses relates, the produce was from the a portions of the plots; the remaining two not being divided plots. Of the ten plots, the results relating to which are now to be considered, nine are substantially the same as those to which Series 2 relates. Two (2 and .3) are in fact absolutely the same, and the other seven are the duplicate or 6 portions of the plots which, during the whole of the twenty years with which we are now con- cerned, were manured precisely as described for the a portions at p. 29. The tenth plot now included is 106, which also during the period under consideration, was manured precisely as 10a, that is, it receives ammonium-salts alone, and in the same quantities every year. Prior ■to 1862, however, 106 was once (in 1846) unmanured when 10a received ammonium-salts ; once (1848) 106 received a mineral manure comprising potash, soda, magnesia, and superphosphate of lime, as ■well as ammonium-salts, when 10a received ammonium-salts alone ; and once (1850) 106 received the same mineral manure alone, when lOo received ammonium-salts alone. Thus, during the years prior to the period now in question. Plot 106 twice received no ammonium- salts when they were supplied to Plot 10a, and twice received mineral manure when 10a did not. It is of much interest, therefore, to ascertain whether there is any difference of result comparing the one plot with the other, due, on the one hand to less mineral exhaustion on 106, owing to less ammonia having been previously applied, and on the other to mineral manure having been twice directly applied; whether in fact any residue of the mineral manure 50 LA'WES AND GILBERT ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE twice previously applied remained in the soil, and in a condition available for succeeding crops. "Referring to the footnote at page 29, for details as to quantities, &c., the general description of the manuring of the ten plots is given on the left hand of Table XIII, page 52. The farmyard manure plot, and the unmanured plot, have respectively been under the same treatment every year, from the commencement of the experiments in 1843-4, and each of the other plots from 1861-2. Prom the produce of each of the ten plots, ashes were prepared representing the grain and the straw separately, of the ten years 1852-1861, and again of the ten years 1862-1871. ' It is to be regretted that similar results are not available for a third period of ten years, to 1881 inclusive. The plan adopted was to take, for each of the ten years, an amount of grain proportional to the amount of produce, mix the whole, and prepare the ash from the mixture. For example, supposing the produce in one year were 1000 lbs. of grain per acre, in the next year 1500 lbs., in the next 2000 lbs., and so ou, then 1000, 1500, and 2000 parts were taken, and so on, and mixed together. The straw ashes were in like manner prepared from pro- portional mixtures of the produce of straw. In the Appendix Table XIII, will be found in detail the percentage composition of the ashes of the grain and straw respectively ; in the Appendix Table XIV, the results calculated per 1000 dry matter of the produce (grain and straw) ; and in Appendix Table XV the results are calculated per acre. It is obvious that before we can form a trustworthy judgment how far any differences in the composition of the ash, in that of the dry substance of the produce, or in the yield of individual constituents per acre, over the two periods, are due to supply or exhaustion, we must decide whether the first ten or the second ten seasons were the most favourable for the crop, so as to discriminate as far as possible between results due merely to season, and those due to manuring. The following Table, XII, which gives the mean results for the ten plots, over the first and second ten years, as to general characters of the produce, and the yield per acre, of grain, straw, and total produce, of nitrogen, total mineral matter, and of each ash-constituent, will throw light on the characters of the two periods. It is seen that the second period, though yielding less straw, and less total produce, characters which indicate less luxuriance, that is, less accumulation during the vegetative stages of the development of the plant, nevertheless gives more grain, a higher proportion of grain to straw, and a higher weight per bn.shel of grain. In fact, whilst in the country at large only three of the first ten years gave more than average produce of grain, six of the second ten gave over average; ASH OF WHEAT-GRAIN AND WHEAT-STRAW. 51 Table XII. General Characters of the Produce, and Quantities per Acre, lbs. Mean Results for the Ten Plots over each Period. Grain. Straw. Total produce. 10 years, 1852 -'61. 10 years, 1862-'71. 10 years, 1852-'61. 10 years, 1862-71. 10 years, 1852-'61. 10 years, 1862-'71. Grain to 100 straw Weight per bushel of grain Produce Nitrogen Ash (pure) 54-5 lbs. 57-1 1740 29-8 28-9 0-88 3 07 9-47 06 14-68 0-35 02 0-22 63-7 lbs. 60-2 1833 28-0 28-9 0-98 3 10 9-57 05 14-38 0-45 0-03 0-17 lbs. 3192 14-3 148-7 7-64 2 18 29-93 0-61 4-69 6-47 5-23 92-26 lbs. 2878 11-5 134-6 8-49 2-49 25-35 0-83 4-28 5-46 5-27 83 05 lbs. 4932 44-1 177-6 8-52 5-25 39-40 67 19-37 6-82 5-25 92-48 lbs. 4711 39-5 163-5 9-47 Mague?ia ..... Potash Soda 5-59 34-92 0-88 Phosphoric acid Sulphuric acid . Chlorine .... ^ Silica 18-66 5-91 5-30 83-22 and whilst the first ten years gave on the whole less than average produce of grain, the second ten gave more than average. It is clear, therefore, that the first ten years were on the average more favourable for luxuriance, that is, for total accumulation by the plant, but that the second ten were more favourable for seed-formation and maturation. Accordingly, the table shows that, taking the average of all the plots, there was rather more nitrogen, and more total mineral matter, in the total produce (grain and straw) over the first than over the second ten years; and so far as the individual mineral constituents are concerned, there was, on the average, more potash, phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid, and silica, but less lime, magnesia, soda, and chlorine, taken up and retained in the crops over the first ten years. There was, however, with the more favourable seed- forming tendencies in the second ten years, with the less amount of total mineral constituents taken up by the plant, as much or more of almost every individual mineral consti- tuent accumulated in the grain. The only e.'cception to this of any significance is that there was slightly less phosphoric acid in both grain and straw in the second ten years. These fa:;ts as to the characteristic season effects of the two periods E 2 52 LAWES AND GILBERT ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE on tlie accumulation of constituents by the plant, and on the distribu- tion of them in grain and straw respectively, must obviously be borne in mind in comparing the results obtained over the two periods on the differently manured plots. It will be convenient first to examine the evidence of effect of liberal Table XIII. General Characters of the Produce, and Quantities per Acre, oi Description ot manuring. Weight per hushel Produce per acre, lbs. Plots. of grain, lbs. Grain. Straw. 10 years, 1862-'61. 10 years, 1862-'71. 10 years, 1852-'61. 10 years, 1862-71. 10 years, 1852-'61. 10 years, 1862-71. 10 yeaiB, 1852-'61. 2 68-8 55-8 57 '2 65-1 56-3 56-9 58-0 58-3 68-0 67-8 61-3 69-4 60-5 69-1 69-6 58-9 60-4 61-2 60-6 60-7 66 -.5 66-8 69-2 1)2 -4 83-2 66-6 64-5 63-9 53-4 52-7 62-7 71-0 67-9 66-3 66-6 64-6 63-3 69-9 64-5 69-9 2148 944 1163 1318 1886 1782 2101 2098 2101 2163 2385 881 1007 1553 1707 1799 2173 2305 2210 2309 3796 1663 66 10a 106 116 SuperplioBpliat€,and sulpli., potash soda and magn. Ammonium salts alone . . . Ammonium salts alone ... Ammonium salts and 1963 2616 2984 3209 126 Ammonium salts, super- phospliate, and soda sul- 3857 136 Ammonium salts, -super- phosphate, and potash 3893 146 Ammonium salts, super- phosphate, and magne- 3937 76 Ammonium salts, super- phosphate, and sulph. pot. soda, and magna. ... 4104 57-1 60-2 54-5 63-7 1740 1833 3192 supply, or exhaustion, of constituents on the different plots, by refer- ence to the difference in the amounts of them taken up and retained per acre, over the two periods ; and afterwards to consider the influence of supply or exhaustion as so determined, on the composition of the ash, and on the mineral composition of the dry substance of the produce, grain and straw. Table XIII records the general characters of the produce of each - separate plot, both as to quantity and quality, over each of the ten-year periods. The Table (XIII) shows that, as when taking the average of the ten plots (Table XII), so under each of the ten different conditions as to ■ manuring, there was a considerably higher proportion of grain to straw, and a considerably higher weight per bushel of the grain, over the second period. On the other hand, in every case (excepting with ASH OF WHEAT-GRAIN AND WHEAT-STKAW. 53 farmyard manure, wlieii tlie quantities were practically equal), there was less produce of straw over the second ten years ; and the deficiency is obviously proportionally the greater the more defective the supply hy manure. Owing, however, to the much more favourable seed- forming qharacters over the second period, there is in every case, Table XIII. each of the Ten Plots, over each of the Two Ten-year Periods. Produce per acr( ,Ibs. Nitrogen per acre, lbs. Staw. Total. Grain. straw. Total. Plots. 10 years, 186»-'n. 10 years, 1862-'61. 10 years, 1862-'71. 10 years, 1862-'61. 10 years, 1862-71. 10 years, 1852-'61. 10 years, 1862-71. 10 years, 1862-'61. 10 years, 1862-71. 3803 1241 6940 2607 6183 2122 36-9 16-6 36-9 12-6 15-9 7-5 13-8 4-9 52-8 23-1 60-7 17-6 2 3 1483 2341 2565 3126 3834 4570 2490 3894 4272 19-0 22-9 27-6 14-6 26-1 26-6 9-7 12-3 14-0 6 -5 10-9 12-1 28-7 35-2 41-5 20-0 36-0 38-6 56 10a 106 2790 4991 4589 81-0 28-1 15-4 13-6 46-4 41-7 116 3431 5958 6604 35-8 33-3 16-8 12-1 61-6 46-4 126 3848 6991 6163 35-1 34-0 16-9 16-5 61-0 49-5 136 3426 6038 6635 36-1 32-8 17-5 13-2 63-6 46-0 146 3867 6267 6166 38-1 36-1 19-2 13-9 67-3 44-1 60-0 76 2878 4932 4711 29-8 28-0 14-3 11-6 39-5 Means. excepting without manure, and with mineral manure alone — that is, vpith relative deficiency of available nitrogen — a larger quantity of grain over the later period. In fact, there was more grain over the second period than over the first, wherever there was a liberal supply of ammonium-salts. It was so even where these were applied alone every year of the twenty, and for a greater or less period previously, as on Plots 10a and 10&, and where therefore there was great mineral exhaustion. Notwithstanding the generally higher produce of grain over the second period, there was, with the less growth of straw, very generally less total produce (grain and straw together) over the second period. The exceptions to this are that, with farm- yard manure (2), and with ammonium-salts, superphosphate, and potash, every year (136), there is some little excess over the later years. There is also slight excess, but on a much lower level of actual 56 LAWES AND GILBERT ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE and considerably more still on Plots 136 and Ih -with, their annual supply. The results relating to the second period illustrate the different condition of the plots still more strikingly. There is, with the increasing exhaustion of it, less potash taken up over the second period than over the first on Plots lOns, 10&, and 11 &. But the most instructive comparison is between Plots 126, 136, and 146. On Table XIV. Average Amounts, per Acre per Annum, in lbs., of Total Mineral Matter (Pure of each Plot, over each of ABh (pure). 10 years, 1862--61. 10 years, 1862-71. 10 years, 1862-'61. 10 years, 1862-71. 10 years, 1852-'61. 10 years, 1862-71. Magnesia. 10 years, 1862-'61. 10 years, 1862-71. Potash. 10 years, 1862-'61. 10 years, 186^71. Or aim. 2 37-1 16-4 20-4 20-8 26-1 29-3 34-7 34-4 34-7 36-2 38-5 14-9 17-3 22-7 26-5 27-4 34-0 36-3 35-0 36-9 0-20 0-12 0-13 0-16 0-17 0-18 0-19 0-23 0-25 0-26 0-18 0-09 0-09 0-14 0-15 0-13 0-18 0-22 0-19 0-21 0-93 0-51 0-54 0-81 0-85 1-13 1-03 0-99 1-00 1-01 1-00 0-48 0-49 0-99 1-06 1-18 1-22 1-07 1-20 1-09 4-05 1-72 2-15 2-17 2-65 3-09 3-67 3-62 3-71 3-84 4-23 1-56 1-84 2-47 2-77 2-90 3-61 3-83 3-83 3-96 11-8 5-5 6-6 7-1 8-6 9-3 11-4 11-3 11-3 11-9 12-4 4-9 6-7 7 7 87 8-8 11-4 12-2 11-6 12-3 3 66 10a 106 116 126 136 146 76 28-9 28-9 0-19 0-16 0-88 0-98 3-07 3-10 9-6 9-6 Straw. 2.. 3.. 66 lOos 104 116 126 136 146 76 206-4 84-8 106-4 HI -5 127-7 146-0 169-4 173-6 175-6 186-5 148-7 209-5 70-0 86-2 108-1 110-2 122-5 163 7 172-1 148-3 166-3 134-6 0-91 0-62 0-79 71 1-07 0-84 0-88 0-86 0-86 1-04 0-60 0-45 0-57 0-45 0-47 0-66 0-60 0-65 0-60 0-66 0-54 8-14 4-27 4-26 6-62 7-66 8-68 8-95 9-07 9-25 9-62 7-64 8-90 3-58 3-62 8-00 8-84 10-49 11-17 10-18 10-24 9-92 8-49 2-69 1-27 1-34 1-81 2-11 2-36 2-48 2-41 2-73 2 71 2-18 3-03 1-09 1-24 2-19 2-47 2-78 2-97 2-86 3-24 3-03 2-49 40-8 13-5 20-0 20-2 24-8 21-6 34-0 41-9 38-5 44-1 29-! 41-1 10-4 15-4 16-4 16-3 17-2 26-4 43-0 27-6 407 25-3 Total Produce. 2 242-5 101-2 126-8 132-3 162-8 175-3 204-1 208-0 210-3 222-7 248-0 84-9 108-6 180-8 1367 149-9 187-7 208-4 183-3 202-2 1-11 0-74 0-92 0-87 1-24 1-02 1-07 1-09 1-10 1-30 0-78 0-M 0-66 0-69 0-62 0-69 0-78 77 0-79 0-77 9-07 4-78 4-80 7-43 8-41 9-81 9-98 10-06 10-25 10-63 9-90 4-06 4-11 8-99 9-90 11-67 12-39 11-25 11-44 11-01 6-64 2-99 3-49 8-98 4-76 6 -45 6-16 6-03 6-44 6-55 7-26 2-66 3-08 4-66 6-24 6-68 6-68 6-69 7-07 6-99 62-6 19-0 26-6 27-3 33-3 30-9 46-4 63-2 49-8 66-0 63-5 15-3 21-1 23-1 25-0 26-0 37-8 55-2 39-1 63-0 3 66 10a 106 116 126 136 146 76 177-6 163-5 1-06 0-70 8-62 9-47 5-25 5-69 39-4 34-9 ASH OF WHEAT-GRAIN AND WHEAT-STRAW. 57' Plots 125 and 146, with tlieir rapidly reducing available residue of potash from previous applications, there is a great reduction in the amount taken up over the second period compared with the first, whereas on Plot 13b, with its liberal annual supply, there is even more taken up over the second period, though it was one of less general luxuriance. There is in fact over the first period about twice, Tablb XIV. Ash), and of each Ash-Constituent, in the Grain, Straw, and Total Prodace, the Two Ten-year Periods. 10 years, 1862-'61. 10 years, 1862-71. Phosphoric acid. 10 years, 1852-61, 10 years, 1862-71. Sulphuric acid. 10 years, 1852-'61. 10 years, 1862-71. Chlorine. 10 years, 1862-'61. 10 years, 1862-71. 10 years, 1862-'61. 10 years, 1862-71. Qrain. 0-08 0-06 19-6 20-1 0-20 0-34 trace 0-01 0-3 0-2 2 0-04 0-02 8-2 7-5 0-23 0-22 trace 0-01 0-1 0-1 3 0-05 0-02 10-5 8-8 0-17 0-30 trace trace 0-2 0-1 56 0-04 0-06 9-6 10-4 0-59 0-69 0-12 0-10 0-2 0-1 10a 0-06 0-04, 12-2 12-0 0-42 0-68 0-04 0-07 0-2 0-2 106 0-08 0-07 14-9 13-6 0-46 0-63 trace 0-06 0-2 0-2 116 0-07 0-07 17-7 17-0 0-47 0-40 trace trace 0-2 0-2 12!i 0-04 0-06 17-7 18-2 0-26 0-62 trace trace 0-2 0-2 136 0-06 0-04 17-9 17-6 0-26 0-36 trace trace 0-2 0-2 146 0-08 0-04 18-4 18-6 0-42 0-64 trace trace 0-2 0-2 76 0-06 0-06 14-7 14-4 0-38 0-46 0-02 0-03 0-2 0-2 Mean. Straw. 0-23 0-32 6-9 7-2 6-99 6-14 6-78 7-25 133-6 136-6 2 0-27 0-14 2-6 2-2 3-48 2-60 1-71 1-67 67-5 48 6 3 0-15 0-18 4-2 3-6 4-69 4-06 2-69 2-12 69-1 66 66 0-95 0-91 3-4 3-0 6-62 6-26 3-20 2-69 69-7 70 8 10a. 0-74 1-21 3-8 2-8 6-85 4-84 4-06 3-63 78-7 70 4 106 1-64 2-40 4-9 4-4 6-34 6-67 3-69 4-60 96-9 76 3 116 0-90 1-70 6-6 4-8 7-64 6-26 6-06 6-74 104-4 96 3 126 0-36 0-H 6-2 6-1 7-89 6-68 8-27 0-81 99-6 96 U 136 0-66 1-07 5-0 4-8 8-08 6-17 7-64 6-00 104-8 90 146 0'42 0-27 6-4 4-9 8-35 7-07 8-62 9-33 108-3 91-6 76 0-61 0-83 4-7 4-3 6-47 6-46 6-23 6-27 92-3 83-0 Mean. Total Produce. 0-31 0-38 26-6 27-3 7-19 6-48 6-78 7-26 133-9 136-8 2 0-31 0-16 10-8 9-7 3-71 2-72 1-71 1-68 67-6 48-6 3 0-20 0-20 14-7 12-3 4-76 4-35 2-69 2-12 69-3 56-1 66 0-99 0-96 13-0 13-4 6-21 5-96 3-32 2-79 69-9 70-9 10a 0-80 1-26 16-0 14-8 6-27 6-42 4-10 3-70 78-9 70-6 106 1-67 2-47 19-8 18-0 6-80 6-20 3-69 4-66 97-1 76-6 116 0-97 1-77 23-2 21-8 8-01 6-66 6-06 6-74 104-6 96-6 126 0-40 0-16 22-9 23-3 8-14 7-20 8-27 9-81 99-8 .96-2 136 0-62 I-ll 22-9 22-4 8-34 6-52 7-54 6-00 105-0 90-2 146 0-60 0-31 23-8 23-4 8-77 7-61 8-52 9-33 108-5 91-8 76 _ 0-67 0-88 19-4 18-7 6-82 6-91 6-26 6-30 92-5 83-2 Mean. 58 LAWES AND GILBERT ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE and over the second period with tlie declining amount where it was not applied, about two and a half times as m.uch potash accumulated in the total crop (grain and straw), where it was liberally supplied as where it was the most exhausted (10a), the supply of nitrogen being equal in the two cases. It may be noted that throughout the ammonium-salt series there is rather more of both lime and magnesia taken up over the second period than the first ; and the excess, especially of lime, is generally the greater where there is the more evidence of exhaustion of potash. Comparing plot with plot in the ammouium-salt series, the amount of phosphoric acid taken up, though obviously not independent of supply by manure, varies considerably with equal supply of it ; and the variations, especially over the second period, are obviously in some degree connected with the potash supply, and the variations in growth dependent thereon. Further examination of the Table (XIV) will show that, comparing plot with plot, the amounts of potash accumulated in the grain show a less, and those remaining in the straw a greater range of variation, according to supply, than do the total amounts accumulated in the crop. In other words, by the exigencies of grain-formation, the stores of the entire plant have yielded up to the grain a much larger proportion of the total amount taken up in some cases than in others. For example, over the first period the amounts of potash in the total produce of plots 12&, 136, and 14??, are respectively, 4!5'4, 53"2, and 49'8 lbs. per acre, whilst the amounts in the grain are 11"4, 11"3, and 11"3 lbs., and those remaining in the straw are 34'0, 41 '9, and 38'5 lbs. Over the second period, the point is still more clearly illustrated. Thus, the amounts of potash in the total produce of the three plots were : 37'8, 56'2, and 39'1 lbs. ; the amounts in the grain were 11'4, 12'2, and 11"6 lbs., and in the straw they were 26'4, 43'0, and 27'5 lbs. It is obvious that the amounts taken up on 136, with the annual supply, were in excess of those required for the grain-forma- tion of the seasons in question. Upon the whole, the evidence is quite distinct that the amounts of mineral constituents found in the total crop on the different plots were very directly influenced by their supply or exhaustion within the soil. It is also clear that, even under equal conditions as to supply of nitrogen, characters of season, and other circumstances, the final distribution of the mineral constituents in the grain and str^w respectively is not in proportion to the amount in the total plant, but is materially influenced by the seed-forming characteristics of the seasons ; the amount accumulated in the grain being fairly equal with very different amounts stored in the total plant, provided this supply be not below a certain limit. ASH OF WHEAT-GRAIN AND WHEAT-STRAW. 59 It Is t.lien established, that the amounts of the mineral or ash-con- stituents found in the total crop, have a very direct connection with the amounts available within the soil ; but that the amounts stored up in the grain are little influenced by the quantity taken up, pro- vided this is not deficient. It is in fact proved that the conditions of the experiment were such as to supply the data necessary for the elucidation of the questions with a view to the solution of which they were selected, and the analyses executed. Wo are now prepared to consider the influence of supply, or exhaustion, on the percentage com- position of the ash, of the grain, and of the straw, and on the relation of the mineral constituents to the dry substance of the produce. Table XV (pp. 60-61) shows the percentage of nitrogen, and of total mineral matter (pure ash), in the dry substance of the grain, and of the straw, of each plot, over each of the two periods. It also shows the percentage composition of the ash in each case. Attention has already been called to the facts that, taking the mean of all the plots, there was a lower percentage of total mineral matter in the dry substance of the grain over the second period with its higher seed-forming, and better maturing characters ; and that, with the lower proportion of total ash in the grain of the better quality, there was nevertheless a somewhat higher percentage of potash and lime, a lower percentage of phosphoric acid and silica, and with this a higher percentage of sulphuric acid, in the ash. Turning to the potash columns in Table XV, the details show a higher percentage in the ash over the second period than over the first, under each of the very different conditions as to manure, with the single exception of the unmannred plot (3). It is also seen within what comparatively narrow limits the percentage of potash in the grain-ash varies under such very widely difl^erent conditions as to supply of it within the soil. Its percentage in the straw-ashes, on the other hand, varies very much more. Thus, in the grain-ashes the percentage of potash varies in the first period from 31' 7 to 34'0, and in the second period, with its better maturing conditions, from 32'1 to 34'1 ; whilst in the corresponding straw-ashes it varies in -the first period from 14'8 to 24'1, and in the second period from I4'l to 25-0. Although the percentage of potash in the grain-ashes is thus com- paratively uniform, the variations, comparing plot with plot, are never- theless consistent with the variations in the conditions of the different plots. Thus, comparing the results for the four plots each with ammonium-salts and superphosphate, one with soda (12b), one with potash (136), one with magnesia (146), and one with potash, soda, and magnesia (76), in addition, the percentages of potash in the grain- ashes are, over the first period, 82-8, 32'9, 32-6, and 32-9; that 60 LAWES AND GILBERT ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE Table XV. Percentage of Nitrogen, and Total Mineral Matter (Pare Ash), in the Dry Sub- ihe Percentage of each Con- Nitrogen. Ash (pure). Ferric oxide. Lime. Magnesia. Potash. Plots. 10 years, 10 years, 10 yeai^. 10 years, 10 years. 10 years. 10 years, 10 years. 10 years. 10 years. 10 years, 1862-'61. 1862-'71. 1862-61. 1862-71. 1852-'ei. 1862-71. 1852-'61. 1862-71. 1852-61. 1862-71. 1862-'61. Grain. 2 2-06 ,.84 2-06 1-92 0-63 0-46 2-49 2-69 10-9 11-0 31-7 3 1-98 70 2 OR 2 00 0-72 0-57 3-13 3-22 10-4 10-5 33-5 .w .. 1-95 71 2 10 2 03 0-63 0-52 2-66 2-82 10-5 10-7 32-3 lOa ,. 2-07 90 RR 72 0-73 0-61 3-90 4-35 10-4 10-9 34-0 106 .. 2-07 82 RR 75 0-67 0-66 3-41 4-17 10-6 10-9 33-9 Uh .. 2-07 84 96 79 0-61 0-46 3-87 4-31 10-6 10-6 31-7 126 .. 2-03 SO 97 R4 0-56 0-62 2-97 3-67 10-6 10-6 32-8 136 .. 1-99 74 9S 86 0-66 0-62 2-88 2-96 10-6 10-6 32-9 146 .. 2-05 7.'i 97 R7 0-72 0-63 2-87 3-41 10-7 11-0 32-6 76 .. 2-09 1-86 1-99 1-89 0-71 0-66 2-79 2-94 10-6 10-7 32-9 Mean 2-04 1-80 1-98 1-86 0-65 0-54 3-10 3-43 10-6 10-7 32-8 Straw. 2 0-50 0-43 6-44 6-55 0-4.5 0-29 3-96 4-25 1 -27 . 1-46 19-9 3 0-54 0-47 6-08 6-68 0-73 0-66 5-03 5-12 1-49 1-56 18-9 56 .. 0-59 0-44 6-45 6-91 0-74 0-66 4-00 4-20 1-26 1-44 18-8 10a .. 0-58 0-S5 6-27 6 -46 0-64 0-42 6-93 7-41 1-63 2-02 18-2 106 .. 0-ii6 0-66 6-11 6-08 0-84 0-43 5-92 8-02 1-65 2-24 19-4 116 .. 0-67 0-58 6-41 6-24 0-58 0-46 6-94 8-56 1-63 2-26 14-8 126 .. 0-49 0-42 6-26 5-32 0-62 0-39 6-29 7-27 1-46 1-93 20-1 136 .. 0-49 0-48 6-35 6-32 0-60 0-32 6-22 5-91 1-38 1-66 24-1 146 ,. 0-63 0-46 5-31 5-16 0-48 0-41 5-27 6-90 1-65 2-18 22-0 76 .. 0-56 0-43 6-43 5-11 0-66 0-34 6-16 6-00 1-46 1-83 23-7 Mean 0-63 0-48 6-56 6-66 0-60 0-44 6-17 6-36 1-48 1-86 19-7 is very nearly identical, but slightly higher on the two plots receiving potash (136 and 7&). Further, in the second period, the percentages in the grain-ashes of the same four plots are : .33'3, 83'5, 33'1, and 33'4, again almost identical, but ivith a ten- dency to higher results on the two plots having an annual supply. The corresponding straw-ashes, on the other hand, show very -wide differences, which have a very marked connection with the known differences as to supply. Thus, the pei^centages of potash in the straw-ashes of the four plots are, over the first period, 20'1, 24'1, 22'0, and 23' 7; and over the second period, with the increasing exhaustion on the first and third plots, 126 and 146, they are, 17'2, 25'0, 18'5, and 24-6. The differences in the percentages of potash in the other grain- ashes are also consistent and significant. The lowest percentages in the grain-ashes are in those of 116, 2, and 56. In the case of 116, with ASH OF WHEAT-GRAIN AND WHEAT-STRAW. 61 Table XV. stance of the Grain and Straw of each Plot, over eact of the Two Periods ; also stituent in the Pure Ash. Potasli. SoSa. Phospho rie acid. Sxilphuric acid. Chlorine. Silica. Plots. 10 years, 10 years, 10 years. 10 years. 10 years, 10 years. 10 years. 10 years, 10 years. 10 years, 10 years, 1862-71. 1862-'61. 1862-71. 1852-'61. 1862-71. 1852-'61. 1862-71. 1862-'61. 1862-71. 1862--61. 1862-71. Chain. 32-2 0-22 0-16 62-8 62-2 0-65 0-89 0-01 0-02 77 0-66 2 33-2 0-23 0-13 49-8 60-3 1-40 1-44 0-03 0-07 71 0-60 3 32-8 0-26 0-10 61-7 60-9 0-82 1-69 0-01 0-02 1-00 0-69 66 34-1 0-18 -22 46-3 45-8 2-84 3-03 0-69 0-42 1-17 0-66 10a 34-1 0-23 0-17 48-6 47-0 1-69 2-26 0-16 0-27 78 0-60 lOd 32-1 0-11 0-26 60-8 49-7 1-66 1-91 01 0-18 0-83 0-66 116 33-3 0-19 0-20 61-0 50-0 1-37 1-18 0-01 0-01 0-60 0-.57 126 33 -6 0-14 0-14 61-5 60-2 071 1-43 0-01 0-01 0-71 0-60 136 33-1 0-18 0-10 61-6 60-3 73 1-00 0-01 0-01 0-67 0-64 146 83-4 0-20 0-12 61-0 60-1 1-16 1-46 0-01 0-01 0-69 0-64 76 33-2 0-19 0-16 60-6 49-6 1-28 1-63 0-09 0-10 79 0-60 Mean. Straw. 19-6 0-11 0-15 3-34 a -43 3-40 2-93 3-30 3-46 66-1 66-2 2 14-8 0-32 0-21 3-09 3-11 4-11 3-67 2-01 2-26 67-8 69 2 3 17-9 0-14 0-21 3-93 4-12 4-32 4 70 2-43 2-46 66-0 64 9 66 14-2 0-86 0-84 3-06 2 79 6-06 4-86 2-87 2-49 62-5 66 6 10a 14-8 0-58 1-09 2-97 2-65 4-68 4-40 3-18 3-30 61-6 63 9 106 14-1 1-06 1-96 3-39 3-63 4-36 4-63 2-45 3 76 66-4 61 6 116 17-2 0-63 1-11 3-24 3-14 4-46 4-07 3-68 3 73 61 7 62 126 26-0 0-21 0-06 2-98 2-97 4 •.')5 3-89 4 76 6-69 67-4 66 8 136 18-8 0-32 0-73 2-85 3-24 4-60 4-16 4-29 4-06 69 7 60 7 146 24-6 18-1 0-23 0-16 2-90 2-98 4-48 4-28 4 66 5-64 3-68 68-0 62-5 65 62 4 76 '— 0-44 0-65 3-17 3-20 4-39 4-15 3-34 4 Mean. ammonium-gaits and superphosphate, there is forced luxuriance to the utmost limits attainable with the conditions of great exhaustion of potash, which latter is clearly indicated by the very low per- centage in the straw-ashes. In the case of Plot 2, with farmyard manure, the low percentages in the grain-ashes are not due to deficient supply, as corroborated by the comparatively high amounts in the straw- ashes ; but rather to a full supply of every constituent throughout the periods of growth and maturation, and a different character of ripen- ing accordingly, as indicated by very high phosphoric acid, and very low sulphuric acid. That the percentage is also low in the grain- ashes of Plot S6, with full mineral supply, including potash, but no nitrogen supplied, is doubtless dependent on the total want of luxuri- ance during the earlier stages, and to eventual sluggish ripening. Lastly, the highest percentages of all are in the grain-ashes of Plots 10a and 106, with ammonium-salts alone, giving forced luxuri- 62 LAWES AND GILBERT ON THE COMPOSITION OP THE ance as far as the mineral supply will permit, but where there is known great exhaustion of both potash and phosphoric acid, and so far as can be judged, greater of phosphoric acid than of potash ; especially in the second period, as indicated by the low percentages in the straw-ashes. These conditions of mineral exhaustion must obviously materially affect the characters of the maturation. It is at least noteworthy that, with the generally higher percentages of potash in the grain-ashes of the second period with its more favour- able seasons, there is also in the case of every plot a higher percent, age of lime, and a slight tendency to higher percentage of magnesia over that period. A study of the details further shows, comparing plot with plot, that the percentages of lime are generally the higher where the exhaustion of potash is known to be the greatest, as, for instance, in the grain-ashes of Plots 10a, 10&, and 116 ; and again in those of Plots 126 and 146, compared with those of 136 and 76. Turning to the phosphoric acid columns, it is seen that there is as distinct a tendency to lower percentages in the grain-ashes of the later and better seasons, as there was to higher percentages of potash over those seasons. This is very marked in the case of the four comparable Plots 126, 136, 146, and 76. The influence of relative exhaustion of phosphoric acid, that is exhaustion having regard to the amount of crop grown, is also very clear. Thus, both the actual and relative exhaustion of phosphoric acid is undoubtedly the greatest on Plots 10a and 106, and it is in the grain-ashes of these plots that we have the lowest percentages of phosphoric acid in the first period, and lower still, and again the lowest over the second period. With the generally lower percentages of phosphoric acid in the grain-ashes in the second ten years, there is in every case (except- ing 126) a higher percentage of sulphuric acid; and comparing plot with plot the percentage of sulphuric acid is, over both pei-iods, the highest where the exhaustion, and the percentage, of phosphoric acid are the lowest (10a and 106). Again, with the generally lower percentages of phosphoric acid in the grain- ashes over the second period, there is, under every condition as to manuring, a lower percentage of both ferric oxide and silica; and small as are the actual percentages of these constituents in the grain-ashes, the result is too uniform to be without some significance.* * With regard to both ferric oxide and silica it should be stated, however, that their relative amounts in [.shes are very generally found to rise and fall with the amounts of " sand," and as the amounts of this are liable to be higher in the less favourably matured and harvested crops, we should expect less ferric oxide and silica due to adventitious matters in the more favourable seasons. It may be added that the mean percentages of sand in the grain-ashes were, in those of Series 1 1'66 of Series 2, 0'09, and of Series 3, 0'91 ; and in the straw-ashes they were, in those of ASH OF WHEAT-GRAIN AND WHEAT-STRAW. 63 It may perhaps be considered established that iron plays an importaat part during the vegetative or green stages of the life of the plant ; but there is not evidence of equal weight leading to the conclusion that iron is essential to grain formation ; though its accumulation in the seed may be of importance when the young plant grown from it first produces green leaves. We now turn from a consideration of the percentage composition of the ashes, to that of the relation of the mineral constituents to the organic substance produced. This is shown in Table XVI (pp. 64-66). It is seen that, with a lower proportion of total ash-constituents in the second and better maturing period, there is (with slight excep- tions in the case of the lime and the sulphuric acid), a lower propor- tion of each individual ash-constituent in the dry substance of the grain under each of the very different conditions as to manuring. This lower proportion of ash-constituents to organic substance pro- duced, is moreover coincident with a lower proportion of nitrogen in the dry substance, under each of the ten conditions as to manuring. It is also coincident with a higher weight per bushel of the grain in every case. The lower proportion of the several ash-constituents is therefore associated with better ripening, a lower proportion of nitro- genous, and a higher proportion of non-nitrogenous, constituents (carbohydrates), produced. To go a little more into detail : — It will be remembered that the grain-ashes showed (with one excep- ticii) a higher percentage of potash under every condition as to manuring over the second and more favourable period than over the first ; but when the potash is calculated, not to 100 of ash, but to 1000 of dry substance, we find with the lower proportion of total mineral matter, a lower proportion of potash in the dry substance of the grain of the later and better maturing period, under every condition of manuring without exception. And whereas there was the apparent anomaly of relatively high percentage of potash in the grain-ash where it was much exhausted (10a and 106), we have the lowest proportion to the dry substance produced on the three most potash-exhausted plots (10a, 105, and 116), namely, 6'39, 6"39, and 6'22, in the first period, and 5'87, 5-98, and 5' 76, over the second period, with its greater exhaustion. The straws of these plots also show the lowest proportion of potash to dry substance. Again, on the four comparable plots, 12&, 136, 145, and 75, the quantities of potash per 1000 dry substance of grain, are, over the first Series 1, 2-23, of Series 2, 2-19, and of Series 3, 2-28. Comparing the results for the two periods of Series 3, the mean percentage of sand in the grain-ashes of the first period was 1'09, and of the second period, 073 ; and in the straw-ashes it was, in those of the first period 2'74, and of the second period 1'81. 64 LAWES AND GILBERT ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE Table XVI. Quantity of Mineral Matter (pure Asli), and of each Ash- Ash (pure). Ferric oxide. Lime. Magnesia. Potash. Plots. 10 years, 1862-'ei. 10 years, 1862-71. 10 years, 1862-'61. 10 years, 1862-'7I. 10 years, 18a2--61. 10 years, 1862-71. 10 years, 1862-'61. 10 years, 1862-71. 10 years, 1862-'6I. 10 years, 1862-71. Grain. 2 20-6 20-8 21-0 18-8 18-8 19-6 19-7 19-6 19-7 19-9 19-2 20-0 20-3 17-2 17-5 17-9 18-4 18-6 18-7 18-9 0-11 0-16 0-13 0-14 0-13 0-12 0-11 0-13 0-14 0-14 0-09 0-11 0-U 0-11 0-10 0-08 0-09 0-11 0-10 0-11 0-61 0-66 0-66 0-73 0-64 0-76 0-58 0-56 0-66 0-66 0-60 0-66 0-57 0-76 0-78 0-77 0-66 0-66 0-64 0-66 2-25 2-17 2-21 1-96 1-99 2-06 2-08 2-05 2-11 2-11 2-10 2-11 2-16 1-88 1-90 1-90 1-95 1-96 2-04 2-03 6-62 6-98 6 79 6-39 6-39 6-22 6-46 6-43 6-41 6-63 6-18 6-66 6-66 6-87 6-98 6-76 6-14 6-22 6-16 6-33 3 ::::::::... 66 ! 10a i 106 ll!i 126 146 76 19-8 18-6 0-13 0-10 0-60 0-63 2-10 2-00 6-48 6-16 Straw. 2 64-4 60-8 64-6 62-7 61-1 64-1 62-6 63-6 53-1 64-3 66 6 0-29 0-44 0-48 0-34 0-43 0-31 0^27 0-26 0-26 0-30 0-19 0-43 0-46 0-23 0-22 0-24 0-21 0-17 0-21 0-17 2-66 3-06 2-68 3-13 3-02 8-22 2-78 2-80 2 -SO 2-80 2-78 3-42 2-90 4-04 4-08 4-48 3-86 3-16 3-66 '3-06 0-81 0-91 0-81 0-86 0-84 0-88 77 74 0-82 79 0-95 1-04 0-99 1-10 1-14 1-18 1-03 0-88 1-13 0-94 12-80 9-65 12-09 9-67 9-90 8-00 10-64 12-90 11-68 12-84 12-83 9-91 12-34 7-76 7-83 7-37 9-14 13-29 9-68 12-88 3 66 69 64 60 .62 53 63 61 61 8 1 6 8 4 2 2 6 1 S6 ....; lOa 106 116 126 136 146 76 66-6 66 6 0-32 0-22 2-86 8 -50 0-81 1-03 11-19 10-46 _ period, 6'46, Q'4Q, 6'41, and 6'53, or almost identical amounts ; and over the second period, 6'14, 6'22, Q'lQ, and 6'33, that is, lower amounts, and quantities -which are nearly, but not quite, as uniform as those over the first period. The differences, slight as they are, are, ho-wever, quite consistent -with the known differences as to available supply. Thus, the residue from previous applications of potash to plots 126 and 146 was becoming much reduced, and the accumulations from annual supply to plots 136 and 76 were becoming greater over the second period ; and accordingly there is a slightly lower propor- tion of potash in the dry substance of the grain of the two potash exhausted plots ; and the proportions in the dry substance of the straw of the four plots show very wide differences, due to supply on the one hand, and to exhaustion on the other. Thus, on the two potash exhausted plots, 126 and 146, the proportions of potash in the dry sub- stance of the straw are 9'14 and 9'55, and on the two plots with annual supply they are 13'29 and 12'58. ASH OF WHEAT-GKAIN AND WHEAT -STRAW. 65 Table XVI. Constituent per 1000 Dry Substance of Grain and of Straw. Soda. Phosphoric acid. Sulphuric acid. Chlorine. SiUca. Plots. 10 years, 10 yeare, 10 years, 10 years. 10 years. 10 years. 10 yeai-s. 10 years. 10 years. 10 years. i 1852-'61. 1862-71. 1862-'61. 1862-71. 1862-'61. 1862-'71. 1862-'61. 1862-71. 1852-'61. 1862-71. Grain. 0-06 0-03 10-87 10-01 0-11 0-17 trace trace 0-16 0-11 2 0-05 0-03 10-37 10-07 0-29 0-29 trace 0-01 0-16 0-12 3 0'06 0-02 10-86 10-36 0-17 0-36 trace 0-01 0-21 0-12 66 0-03 0-04 8-70 7-89 0-53 0-62 0-11 0-07 0-22 0-11 lOti 0-04 0-03 9-16 8-24 0-32 0-39 0-03 0-06 0-15 0-11 106 0-02 0-05 9-95 8-92 0-31 0-34 trace 0-03 0-16 0-10 116 0-04 0-04 10-05 9-21 0-27 0-22 trace trace 0-12 0-10 126 0-03 0-03 10-05 9-31 0-14 0-27 trace trace 0-14 0-11 136 0-04 0-02 10-15 9-38 0-16 0-19 trace trace 0-13 0-12 146 0-04 03 10-12 9 49 26 0-23 0-28 trace trace 0-14 0-12 76 0-04 0-03 10-06 9 0-24 0-29 0-01 0-02 0-15 0-11 Mean. Straw. 0-07 10 2-15 2-25 2-19 1-92 2-13 2-27 41-91 42-71 2 0-19 14 1 88 2 OS 2-49 2-39 1-22 1-50 41-19 46-25 3 0-09 14 2 53 2 84 2-78 3-25 1-67 1-70 41-88 44-83 66 0-46 n 46 61 .52 2-66 2-66 1-61 1-36 32-94 35-76 10a 0-30 Sfi ."12 29 2-34 2-23 1-62 1-67 31-47 32 -47 106 0-67 1 03 84 90 2-36 2-42 1-33 1-97 36-94 32-20 116 0-28 .■id 70 66 2-34 2-17 1-88 1-99 32-39 32-96 126 0-n n 03 59 68 2-43 2-06 2-55 3-03 30-70 29-66 136 0-17 37 51 67 2-46 2-14 2-28 2-09 31-69 31-28 146 0-12 0-08 1-67 1-52 2-43 2-19 2-48 2-88 31-50 28-29 76 0-23 0-34 1-75 1-77 2-42 2-25 1-96 2-17 34-48 34-28 Mean. The percentages of phosphoric acid in the grain-ashes varied more according to supply or exhaustion than did those of the potash, but with one exception (the unmanured plot 3), the percentage was lower over the second period than the first. In every case, -without excep- tion, Table XVI shows a lower proportion of phosphoric acid in the dry substance of the grain over the second period ; and over both periods a much wider range of variation in the proportion comparing plot with plot, that is, according to supply or exhaustion, than in the case of the potash. Thus, in the first period the proportion of phos- phoric acid in 1000 dry substance of the grain ranged from 870 with ammonium-salts alone, to 10 87 with farmyard manure; and in the second period from 7"89 with ammonium-salts alone to 10'35 with mineral manure alone. On the other hand, the four plots, 126, 136, 146, and 76, show almost uniform proportions, namely, 10'05, lO'OS, 10-15, 10-12, over the first period, and 9-21, 9 31, 9-38, and 9-49, over the second period. The very low proportions of phosphoric acid ia 66 LAWES AND GILBERT ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE tlie dry substance of the grain under the conditions of very abnormal exhaustion of it on Plots 10a and lOJ, with ammonium-salts alone, are accompanied, over the first period with very low weight per bushel of the grain, indicating low condition of maturation, and over the second period with lower weights per bushel than on the four plots above referred to. There is also very low proportion of phosphoric acid in the dry substance of the grain of Plot 116 with an annual application of superphosphate, and therefore relative excess of phos- phoric acid supplied, but with nevertheless very defective grain for- mation owing to great exhaustion of potash ; and here again there is very low weight per bushel. As indicated in the percentage com- position of the ash, there is also in proportion to the dry substance, the highest amount of sulphuric acid with the lowest amounts of phosphoric acid in the grain of Plots 10a and 106, but by no means in compensating equivalent proportion. The results of this third series of ash-analyses, specially arranged to trace the effects of supply or exhaustion of ash-constituents on the composition of the ash, and of the crop, agree with those of Series 1 and 2, in showing, in the case of the grain, much greater uniformity in the composition of the ash, and in the proportion of ash-constituents to dry substance, than in that of the straw. It is seen that, under otherwise equal conditions, the amounts of the mineral constituents taken up by the plant over a given area, depend very directly on the amounts in available condition within the soil. Further, with very different amounts so taken up over a given area, the amounts stored up in the grain will, other conditions being equal, be very nearly uniform ; whilst the amounts remaining in the straw will have a very obvious connection with the supply or exhaustion. The results also agree with those of the former series, in show- ing very distinctly the influence of season on the composition of the grain-ashes, and on the proportion of the ash-constituents to the dry substance of the grain ; and that these differences in the mineral composition of the grain, dependent on season, are associated with very different conditions as to maturation, and accordingly with different characters of the organic substance produced. As, however, this third series of ashes represents the average pro- duce of two periods, respectively of ten jeaxs each, which, though of obviously varying average characters, do not show anything like the extremes of individual good and bad seasons, the results do not illus- trate in so marked a manner the varying effects of season as do those of Series 1 and Series 2. On the other hand, the analytical results last considered do represent very marked variations in the conditions of supply, or exhaustion, of mineral constituents. Hence, contrary to those before discussed, they show a wider range in the miaeral ASH OP WHEAT-GRAIN AND WHEAT-STRAW. 67 composition according lo manure than according to season. Never- theless, it is evident that, when the supply of any mineral constituent is not defective below a certain limit in relation to the other con- ditions of growth, the mineral composition of the grain is very uniform. It is, indeed, very uniform, notwithstanding there may be a very great excess of supply, and a relatively very great excess taken up by the plant, in which latter case a large excess remains in the straw. In fact, the composition of the grain only varies in any marked degree according to manure, when there is very abnormal deficiency of one or more constituents, having regard to the amount of growth which is induced by the liberal supply of others. At the commencement of our paper, it was stated tliat it was not proposed to treat the subject exhaustively. Accordingly, attention has mainly been confined to an attempt to point out some of the most important conclusions to which a consideration of the enormous amount of experimental result recorded, seemed to lead. The discus- sion has nevertheless necessarily been one of much detail. It has at the same time served to raise many points of interest, and to suggest lines of study which neither the time nor the space at our disposal will allow us to follow up. There are, indeed, various aspects of the subject, chemical, physiological, and agricultural, which it might be expected we should consider. Some of these will be more appro- priately discussed when the results of the analyses of the ashes of other crops than wheat have been given. Thus, we have a series of ash-analyses relating to the produce of barley grown under different conditions as to season and manuring ; a series relating to some leguminous crops, including the bean-plant at different stages of growth ; a series relating to root-crops, and to potatoes ; a series relating to crops grown in rotation, but with different manures; and lastly, a large series relating to the mixed herbage of grass land, that is to the mixed produce of numerous species of plants growing in association, which are not allowed fully to ripen, but are cut at various stages of development short of complete maturation. In the meantime we submit the results relating to the mineral composition of wheat-grain and wheat-straw, with such comments as their study seemed to suggest, as a substantial contribution to a limited branch of the subject of the ash-constituents of our crops. In conclusion, extensive and comprehensive as has been the inquiry within its own limits, it must be borne in mind that the results relate to the produce obtained on one description of soil, and in one locality only.* Still, the number of very widely different seasons It is true that once within the period to which the results relate, there was a change of seed from one description to another not Tery widely different ; but theie F 2 68 LA.WES AND GILBEaT ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE over wMcIl the experiments have extended, and the very widely dif- ferent conditions as to manuring of the different plots, have probably provided a much greater range of conditions of growth than would have been secured had the experiments been made in fewer seasons, on various soils, and in various localities, but with more normal con- ditions as to manuring. Indeed, the conditions of relative excess, or exhaustion, of the available supply of individual constituents repre- sented in the experiments the results of which have been recorded, are probably much more distinctive and characteristic than could be obtained under more normal conditions. On this view it is obvious that, whilst the results are of a very marked character, and are there- fore very instructive if properly interpreted, it must not be without careful reservation that their application to the circumstances of actual agricultural practice should be inferred. Summary and Conclusions. The investigation comprises the analyses of 92 wheat-grain and 92 wheat-straw ashes, and, including 69 duplicates, the number of complete ash-analyses involved is 253. Every ash is of produce of known history of growth as to soil, season, and manuring ; all the specimens having been grown in the experimental field at Rothamsted which has now yielded wheat for forty years in succession, 1844 to 1883 inclusive. The results are arranged in three Series. First Series of Analyses. 1. This series includes results obtained under three very charac- teristically different conditions as to manuring, in each case for sixteen consecutive seasons. The manuring conditions were : — Plot 2, farm- yard manure every year; that is, with an excessive supply both of nitrogen, and of mineral, or ash-constituents. Plot 3, without manure every year ; that is, with exhaustion of both nitrogen and ash-con- stituents. Plot 10a, with ammonium-salts alone every year ; that is, with an excess of supplied nitrogen, but with great relative deficiency of ash-constituents. The results thus illustrate the influence of fluctuations of season from year to year, under known but very different conditions as to manuring. 2. There was a much greater range of variation in the percentages of potash and phosphoric acid in the ashes, both of grain and straw, due to variations of season, than to variations of manure. The range is no evidence leading to the conclusion that this irregularity has at all vitiated the conaparative character of the results, or the legitimacy of the conclusions that hare been drawn from them. ASH OF WHEAT-GRAIN AND WHEAT-STRAW. 69 of variation due to season, was much the greater in the straw-ashes ; which is explained by the fact that favourable or unfavourable seed- forming and ripening may supervene on conditions of high or of low luxuriance, that is, of great or of limited activity of accumulation of coastituents by the plant ; hence the withdrawal of constituents for seed-formation will leave very various amounts of migratory matters in the straw. 3. Taking high weight per bushel of the grain as a fairly good indication of high quality, and vice versa, there was, with each con- dition of manuring, a general and marked, but not uniform tendency to low proportions of nitrogen, of total mineral constituents (ash), and of individual ash-constituents, in the dry substance of the grain of the seasons of higher quality. That is, the higher quality of the grain is associated with the greater accumulation of the non- nitrogenous matters (carbohydrates) in proportion to the nitrogen, and to the mineral constituents which have been stored up. 4. Fer 1000 dry substance of the grain there is, with each condition as to manuring, much greater uniformity in the amount, and a rather lower average amount of potash in the eight better than in the eight worse seasons. Tet, it is in a very unfavourable season that there was actually the lowest, and in the worst season of the sixteen that there was actually the highest, proportion of potash in the dry substance of the grain; that is, the very different results are obtained under defective, but very different, conditions of development and matura- tion. 5. Fer 1000 dry substance of the grain there is, under each of the three conditions as to manuring, a lower average amount of phosphoric acid over the eight better seasons, and it is lower in individual seasons of high quality. Still there is a wider range than among the eight inferior seasons, and wider than in the case of the potash. In the case of the farmyard manure plot, the lower proportion of phosphoric acid in the better seasons cannot be due to exhaustion, but to enhanced production of organic substance. The average proportion of phos- phoric acid to organic substance is, however, lower without manure than with farmyard manure, and lower still with ammonium- salts alone, in which case there is very abnormal mineral exhaustion. 6. The details illustrate in a striking manner the greater influence of season than of manuring on the proportion of the ash-constituents to the organic substance of the grain. With normal maturation it is, under otherwise comparable conditions, nearly uniform with difEerent conditions as to manuring ; and deviations from normal mineral com.- position are associated with deviations from normal development of the organic substance. 7. The percentage of silica in the dry substance of the straw is 70 LAWES AND GILBERT ON THE COMPOSITION OP THE lower in the seasons of more favourable maturation. In fact, stiffness of straw depends on favourable development of the woody substance, by the increase of which the proportion of the accumulated silica to the organic substance is reduced. 8. Excluding the ferric oxide and the silica, and calculating the whole of the phosphoric acid as tribasic, the grain-ashes show more than one and a half time as much acid as base ; and even calculating the whole of the phosphoric acid, whether combined with alkalis or earths, as bibasic, there is still an excess of acid. The straw-ashea, calculated in the same way, show a considerable excess of base, even reckoning the whole of the phosphoric acid as tribasic ; but they con- tain more than 60 per cent, of silica. The question arises whether carbonic acid (if any), and some sulphuric acid and chlorine, have not been expelled in the incineration ; in the case of the grain-ashes in the presence of acid- phosphates, and in that of the straw-ashes in the presence of an excess of silica. 9. Investigations at Rothamsted and elsewhere have established that there is a general increase in the percentage of nitrogen proceed- ing from the finer to the coarser flours obtained from the same wheat- grain, and that there is marked increase in the more branny portions, the greatest concentration being immediately below the pericarp. The percentage of potash, lime, magnesia, and phosphoric acid, also increases from the finer to the coarser flours, and it is the highest in the branny products. The percentage of potash is about ten times, of lime four or five times, of magnesia fifteen to twenty times, and of phosphoric acid more than 'ten times, as high in the dry substance of the bran as in that of the finer flours. It is also established that, in comparable cases, the better matured grains contain the lower percentages of nitrogen and total mineral matter, and a higher per- centage of starch ; and the ash-analyses now under consideration con- sistently show a lower proportion of the chief individual mineral constituents in the grains of better quality. 10. The average annual amounts of total mineral constituents in the cropsper aare (grain and straw) over the sixteen years were — with farm- yard manure 237'4 lbs., without manure 106'1 lbs., and with ammonium- salts alone 142 lbs. ; that is, with ammonium-salts one and a third time, and with farmyard manure more than twice, as much as without manure. With ammonium-salts, the greatest proportional increase was in lime, potash, magnesia, soda, sulphuric acid, and chlorine, and the least in phosphoric acid. With farmyard manure, by far the greatest increase was in potash, of which there is more than two and a half times as much as without manure ; and there is about twice as much magnesia, and more than twice as much lime, phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid, soda, and silica, and nearly four times as much chlorine. ASH OF WHEAT-GRAIN AND WHEAT-STRAW. 71 11. Comparing the amounts of the individual ash-constituents in the crops per acre over the first eight years with those over the second eight, they are, without manure, in the grain nearly identical ; but in the straw there is more or less deficiency of every constituent, excepting lime, over the second period. Deficiency in the straw and total produce generally, but not uniformly, indicates deficient source. With farmyard manure, there was more of every ash-constituent (excepting sulphuric acid), in the grain, straw, and total produce, over the second period ; the most marked increase being, in the grain in potash and phosphoric acid, and in the straw in potash and silica. With ammonium-salts alone there was, over the second period, in the grain slight deficiency of potash and magnesia, and greater in phosphoric acid, but there was slight increase in lime and sulphuric acid. In the straw there was more marked deficiency in every con- stituent, excepting sulphuric acid, and the deficiency is the most marked in potash, phosphoric acid, chlorine, and silica, though chlorine is largely supplied in the ammonium-salts. 12. Upon the whole, the comparison of the yield of ash-con- stituents per acre over the first and second eight years shows — without manure a small relative exhaustion of both potash and phosphoric acid, and with ammonium-salts a greater relative exhaustion of both. 13. Per 1000 dry substance of grain there were, taking the average of the sixteen years, almost identical amounts of each of the ash-con- stituents without manure, and with farmyard manure ; but with ammonium-salts alone there was marked deficiency, especially of phosphoric acid, and in a less degree of potash. Per 1000 dry sub- stance of straw, there was, without manure considerably less potash than with farmyard manure, but otherwise not much diflference. With ammonium-salts alone, there was still greater deficiency of potash, but more lime, less phosphoric acid, but more sulphuric acid, and considerably less silica, than either without manure or with farm- yard manure. 14. Comparing the amounts of ash-constituents per 1000 dry sub- stance of the grain, over the first and second eight years, with farmyard manure they are almost identical over the two periods, and without manure very nearly so, but there is slightly less potash, and more magnesia and phosphoric acid, over the second period — conditions indicating less perfect maturation, that is, less flour in proportion to bran. With ammonium-salts alone, the dry substance of the grain shows a marked deficiency of potash and magnesia, and especially of phosphoric acid, compared with that of the other plots ; it neverthe- less shows very little difference comparing the second eight years with the first, though there is a slight decrease of phosphoric acid, and increase of sulphuric acid and silica, over the second period. 72 LAWES AND GILBERT ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE 15. Per 1000 dry substance of the straw, the amount of the various ash-constituents varies more over the two periods than in the case of the grain, but still comparatively little. Without manure there is, over the second, period, a deficiency of potash and magnesia, partially compensated by lime, also a deficiency of phosphoric acid. With ammonium-salts, the most marked deficiency over the second period is of potash ; there is also less chlorine, but more sulphuric acid. 16. In conclusion, in regard to this first series of ash-analyses, although the results show a much wider range of variation in the mineral composition of the grain due to season than to manuring, there are still distinct differences due to the very different conditions as to manuring ; but with each of the three conditions there is com- paratively little diSerence over the first and the second eight years. With ammonium -salts alone, where there is very abnormal mineral exhaustion, the dry substance of the grain shows relative deficiency of both potash and phosphoric acid, but especially the latter. Upon the whole, the results point to great uniformity in the mineral com- position of the grain under the different conditions of manuring, pro- vided only that it is perfectly and normally ripened. High or low percentage of nitrogen is also more dependent on the conditions of maturation than on full or limited supply of it by the soil. Second Series of Analyses. 1. This series relates to the produce obtained under nine different conditions as to manuring, each in two unfavourable, and in two favourable seasons for the crop. They thus illustrate the influence of characteristic seasons under a great variety of manuring con- ditions. 2. The manuring conditions were : — Farmyard manure ; without manure ; superphosphate, and sodium, potassium, and magnesium sul- phates ; ammonium-salts alone ; ammonium-salts and superphosphate ; ammonium-salts, superphosphate, and sodium sulphate ; ammonium- salts, superphosphate, and potassium sulphate ; ammonium-salts, superphosphate, and magnesium sulphate ; ammonium-salts, super- phosphate, and sodium, potassium, and magnesium sulphates. 3. The four seasons were : — 1852 and 1866, which were unfavour- able, and 1858 and 1863, which were favourable for the crop. 1852 (the ninth from the commencement of the experiments) was bad both as to quantity and quality of produce. 1856 gave fairly average quantity, both of grain and straw, but the crop was unevenly ripened, and the quality of the grain was low. 1868 yielded only a moderate amount of total produce, but more than average proportion and amoupt of grain, which was of over average quality. 1863 (the ASH OP WHEAT-GRAIN AND WHEAT-STRAW. 73 twentieth, year of the experiments) was the best both as to quantity and quality of produce throughout the forty years, 1844-1883, in- clusive. 4. Taking the mean results of the nine plots in each of the four seasons, there was from the first to the fourth season an increase in the weight per bushel of the grain, and in the proportion of grain to straw, and a decrease in the percentages of nitrogen and total mineral matter in the dry substance of the grain. Coincidently with these characters, there was, from the first to the fourth season, great increase in the percentage of potash, and considerable decrease in that of magnesia, and there was great decrease in the percentage of phos- phoric acid, and an increase in that of sulphuric acid, in the grain- ash. 5. Calculated per 1000 dry substance of the grain, there was more potash, and less magnesia, and especially much less phosphoric acid, and some more sulphuric acid, in the produce of the two later and better seasons. These are indications of higher proportion of flour to bran, that is, of more starch. The variation in the mineral composition is thus associated with variation in the organic composition of the grain. Per 1000 dry substance of the straw, there was also more potash, less phosphoric acid, and more sulphuric acid, in the better seasons. 6. Calculated per acre, there was about twice as much grain, nearly one and a half time as much straw, and more than one and a half time as much total produce, in the best as in the worst of the four seasons. Of total nitrogen in the crops per acre, there was an average of only 38 lbs. in 1852, and of 60'1 lbs. in 1863 ; whilst of the less total quantity in 1852 a considerably larger actual amount remained in the straw. Tn 1852, 6] ■& per cent., in 1856, 72'9 per cent., in 1858, 73'8 per cent., and in 1863, 77'4 per cent., of the total nitrogen of the crops was stored up in the grain. In 1863, with the largest actual amount of nitrogen in the grain per acre, there was the lowest percentage of it in the grain ; that is, under the influence of the very favourable growing and maturing conditions, there was a greater accumulation of non-nitrogenous constituents in proportion to the amount of nitrogen stored up. 7. Calculated per acre, there was, in 1863, one and a third time as ranch total mineral matter in the crop as in either of the other years. Comparing the best and the worst seasons (1863 and 1852), there was one and a half time as much lime, magnesia, and phosphoric acid, and about twice as much potash and sulphuric acid, in the total produce per acre, in the season of most favourable growth and maturation. Yet, per 1000 dry substance of the grain, the amounts of lime, magnesia, and phosphoric acid were lower, and the amount of potash was not much higher, in the better seasons. 74 LAWES AND GILBERT ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE 8. Taking the average results over the four years, for each of the nine different conditions as to manuring separately, there is, with one or two exceptions, comparatively little variation in weight per bushel with the equal season, but very varying manuring conditions ; and the differences, such as they are, are consistent. The percentage of nitrogen is also in the main fairly uniform with the different manures ; but it is low with mineral manure alone and great nitrogen exhaustion, and high with ammonium-salts alone and relatively excessive nitrogen supply. The percentages of total mineral matter are also fairly uniform ; but somewhat high with farmyard manure, without manure, and with mineral manure alone, and low with ammonium- salts alone. 9. Per 1000 dry substance of the grain, there is also general uniformity in the amount of the chief individual ash-constituents under the very different manuring conditions. The exceptions to uniformity in the amounts of potash are, that it is somewhat high without manure and with purely mineral manure, and somewhat low with ammonium-salts alone, and with ammonium-salts and super- phosphate, but without potash. The exceptions to general uniformity in the amounts of phosphoric acid are, that it is high with farmyard manure, without manure, and with purely mineral manure, and low with ammonium-salts alone. 10. Per 1000 dry substance of the straw, the amounts of the indivi- dual ash- constituents are much more variable on the different plots. The variation is especially marked in the case of the potash and phos- phoric acid, and it is obviously much dependent on their supply. It is also very marked in the case of the silica. 11. Calculated per acre, there is very great variation in the amounts of produce, and of its various constituents, according to manure. Without manure, and with purely mineral manure, the produce was very small ; it was much more with ammonium-salts alone, and much more still with ammonium-salts and mineral manure together. With ammonium-salts and the most complete mineral manure, there was more than one and a half time as much total produce as with ammo- nium-salts alone, and nearly two and a half times as much as with mineral manure alone. There were in the main corresponding differ- ences in the amounts of nitrogen, total mineral matter, and the chief individual ash-constituents, stored up in the crops. 12. Of potash, the ashes show three times as much in the total pro- duce per acre with farmyard manure, and more than three times as much in that with ammonium-salts and mineral manure containing potash, as without manure. On the other plots (excepting with mineral manure alone), the quantities of potash in the crops are obviously dependent on the supply. Of the total potash of the crops, ASH OF WHEAT-GRAIN AND WHEAT-STRAW. 75 there is generally only from one-fourtli to one-tliird acoumiilated in the grain. 13. Of phosplioric acid, there wa« little more than twice as much per acre in the highly manured as in the unmanured produce ; but three-fourths or more of the total phosphoric acid of the crop may be accumulated in the grain. 14. Of the total lime and sulhuric acid of the crop, a very small proportion, of the magnesia generally more than half, of the chlorine scarcely a trace, and of the silica the smallest proportion of all, is found in the grain-ashes. 15. With very great variation in the amounts of nitrogen and ash- constituents in the total crop per acre on the different plots, there is remarkable uniformity in the amounts of each per 1000 dry substance of grain ; but wide variation in the amounts pe>- 1000 dry substance of straw. The greatest exceptions to uniformity in the amount of potash per 1000 dry substance of the grain are, that it is low with ammonium- salts alone, or with superphosphate only in addition (10a and 11a), and high without manure, and with purely mineral manure (3 and 5ffi). The most marked deviations from general uniformity in the amount of phosphoric acid in the dry substance of the grain are, that it is low with ammonium-salts alone (10a), and high with farmyard manure, without manure, and with purely mineral manure (2, 3, and 5a). 16. "With every condition of manuring there is, in the grain ashes, a higher percentage of potash, and lower of phosphoric acid, and some- what lower of magnesia also, in the two favourable seasons, indicating higher proportion of flour to bran. There is lower percentage of phos- phoric acid in the better seasons even where there is liberal supply of it, but the lowest is on Plot 10a, where it is the most exhausted. The straw-ashes also show a higher percentage of potash in the two better seasons. 17. With decline in the percentage of phosphoric acid in the ashes, there is increase in sulphuric acid ; and in the straw-ashes increase of chlorine in a greater degree. It is a question how far the small amounts of sulphuric acid and chlorine in the grain-ashes are due to the presence of so much acid-phosphate ; and how far the much larger amounts in the straw-ashes are due to their excess of base to acid, other than silica, although of this there is so much. 18. Calculated per 1000 dnj substance of the grain, there is, with every condition as to manuring, a higher amount of potash in 1868 and almost without exception in 1863, than in the two unfavourable seasons. On the other hand, the proportion of phosphoric acid is in 1858 almost without exception, and in 1868 without exception, lower than in the unfavourable seasons. 76 LAWES AND GILBERT ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE 19. The second series of analyses, as did the first, consistently show considerable variation in the mineral composition of wheat-grain, according to season, but little according to manuring (excepting in cases of abnormal exhaustion), provided the seed be properly matured. In fact, variations in the mineral composition are associated with differences in the organic composition. Third Series of Analyses. 1. This series was more specially arranged to trace the influence of supply or exhaustion. The ashes represent the produce obtained under ten different conditions as to manuring, each over ten years, 1852-1861, and ten years, 1862-1871. Nine of the plots are sub- stantially duplicates of those to which Series 2 relates ; and the tenth, 106, is a duplicate of lOre, with ammonium- salts alone, excepting that twice prior to the period now under consideration it received mineral manure, including potash and phosphoric acid, when 10a did not. 2. The average results per acre, of the ten plots, for each of the two periods, show that the first ten years were on the average the more favourable for luxuriance, that is, for total accumulation by the plant, and the second ten the more favourable for seed-formation and maturation. Accordingly, with less mineral matter in the total pro- dace per acre over the second ten years, there was as much or more of almost every individual ash-constituent accumulated in the grain. 3. With each condition of manuring where the nitrogen supply was not deficient, there was more grain, and of better quality, over the second ten years. Comparing plot with plot, there was, over both periods, with equal nitrogen supply, considerable increase by the addition of superphosphate and potash. Comparing the second period with the first, the influence of supply, or exhaustion, especially of potash, is very marked (10a, 106, 116, 126, 146, 136, and 76). 4. With equal supply of nitrogen, very variable amounts of it are found in the total produce per acre of the different plots, according to the associated mineral supply. 5. Of individual ash-constituents there was more in the total pro- duce per acre with some of the artificial manures than with farmyard manure. Comparing the plots with equal ammonium-salts but different potash supply, the amounts of potash in the total prpduce are in the order of the supply. 6. Comparing Plots 126, 135, 146, and 76, all with the same nitrogen supply, but the first and third with a decreasing residue of potash from previous applications, and the second and fourth with an annual supply of it, the amounts of potash in the total produce per acre per ASH OP WHEAT-GRAIN AND WHEAT-STRAW. 77 annum over the first ten years are — 45-4, 53-2, 49-8, and 56-0, but the amounts in the grain are 11-4, 11-3, 11-3, and 11-9 ; over the second period, with the further exhaustion on the first and third plots (126 and 146), the amounts of potash in the total produce are 37'8, 55 :2, 391, and 53'0, but the amounts accumulated in the grain are 11-4, 122, 116, and 123. Thus, the amounts iu the total produce are directly influenced by the supply or exhaustion, especially over the second period ; but over each period the amounts in the grain are nearly identical on the four plots, showing only slight relative deficiency over the second period on Plots 126 and 146, with their reducing residue of potash supply. 7. The amount of phosphoric acid in the total produce per acre varies much with equal supply of it, and of nitrogen, and is obviously much dependent on the available supply of potash. The amounts of mineral constituents accumulated in the total plant (as indicated by the amounts in the total crop) are very directly influenced by the supply or exhaustion ; but, other things being equal, the final distri- bution in the grain is influenced much more by the seed-forming characters of the season than by i;he amounts of the constituents in the total plant, provided there be not a deficiency. 8. Percentage Composition of the Ashes. — As in the case of the mean results for the ten plots, so in that of each plot (exceptiug plot 3, with- out manure), there is a higher percentage of potash in the grain-ashes of the second period with its better seed- forming and maturing tendencies. The percentage of potash in the grain-ashes only varies from 317 to .34'0 over the first, and from 321 to 34"1 over the second period; but in the straw-ashes it varies from 14'8 to 24' 1 over the first, and from 14"1 to 25'0 over the second period. The variations in the straw-ashes are consistent with the variations in the supply. 9. Comparing Plots 125, 136, 146, and 76, the percentages of potash in the grain-ashes are — over the first period 32'8, 32'9, 326, and 32-9, and over the second period 333, 335, 33-1, and 33-4 ; but in the straw-ashes they are — over the first period 201, 24'1, 22'0, and 23'7, and over the second , period, with the increasing exhaustion on the first and third plots (126 and 146), 17-2, 25-0, 18-5, 24-6. 10. With higher percentages of potash in the grain-ashes over the second period, there are also higher percentages of lime, and there IS a tendency to higher percentages of magnesia ; but there is in every case, excepting without manure, a lower percentage of phosphoric acid, and with this, in every case but one, a higher percentage of sulphuric acid, over the second period. 11. Per 1000 dry substance of the grain there is generally a lower amount of each ash-constituent (excepting lime and sulphuric acid) 78 ASH OF WHEAT-GRAIN AND WHEAT-STRAW. over tlie later and better seed-forming and maturing period; there is also a lower amount of nitrogen, and therefore a higher proportion of non-nitrogenons constituents. Comparing plot with plot, the amounts of potash per 1000 dry suhstcmae of the grain are fairly uniform ; hut even in the grain, and in the straw in a much more marked degree, it is lowest where it is the most exhausted. Com- paring Plots 126, 136, 146, and 76, the amounts per 1000 dry suhsta/nce of the grain are — over the first period 6'46, 6'43, 6'41, and 6'53, and over the second period 614, 6"22, 6'16, and 6'33 ; but in the straw they are — over the first period 10'54, 12'90, 11-65, and 12'84, and over the second period, with the increasing exhaustion on the first and third plots, 9-14, 13-29, 955, and 12-68. 12. The amounts of phosphoric acid per 1000 dry substance of the grain varied more according to supply than did that of the potash ; but it was, with every condition of manuring, lower over the second and more favourable period. Over the first period, it ranged from 8-70 to 10-87, and over the second from 7-89 to 10-35. On Plots 126, 136, 146, and 76 it was— over the first period 10-05, 10-05, 10-16, and 1012, and over the second period 9-21, 9-31, 9-88, and 9-49, or much lower over the second period, but within each period almost uniform on the four plots. Taking the whole series of plots, it was the lowest on lOo. and 106, where it was most exhausted, but it was also low on 116, where it was annually supplied, though without potash, and with defective development accordingly. 13. The results of the third series of analyses agree with thosef of the first and second in showing, upon the whole, marked uniformity in the mineral composition of the ripened grain, even when there is wide variation in that of the straw dependent on supply or exhaus- tion. They also show distinct influence of season, and that the differences in the mineral composition of the grain due to season are associated with differences in the organic composition. With less variation in the conditions of season, and of influence therefrom, but with a wider range of mineral supply, or exhaustion, than in the other series, there is a wider range in the mineral composition of the grain according to supply or exhaustion ; it is, however, comparatively little influenced by excess of supply, but more by deficiency. The three series show that, under otherwise comparable conditions, there is, in the better matured grain, that is in the grain of higher quality, a lower percentage of total mineral matter (ash) ; in the ash, a higher percentage of potash, but lower of phosphoric acid ; but in the dry substance of the grain, generally a lower percentage of potash, and considerably lower of phosphoric acid, and also a lower per- centage of nitrogen. APPENDIX-TABLES, i-xy. 80 LA WES AND GILBERT ON THE COMPOSITION OP THE Oomposition of the Ash of Wheat-Qrain, and of Wheat- Appendix-Tahle I. — General Characters of the Produce, and Percentage Com- Straw, in sixteen consecutive Plot 2. — Farmyard Manure, every year. 1848 1849 1860 1861 1852 1863 1864 1855 66-0 68-2 68-3 63-8 57-3 61-9 66-2 63-6 49-6 68-2 33-2 81-1 60-1 62-6 68-2 62-0 Composition of the Grain^ per cent. Dry matter Nitrogen \ - ^.„ „„*«.„ , 79-68 1-89 2-03 82-76 1-68 1-93 83-92 1-86 2-04 84-60 1-67 1-93 83-26 2-02 1-98 80-27 1-76 2-20 86-88 1-70 1-98 Composition of the Orain-Ash (pure), per cent. FeiTic oxide Lime Magnesia .. Potash , Soda Phosphoric anhydride . Sulphuric anhydride,... Chlorine Silica Total Deduct = 01 1-23 0-78 1-16 0-88 0-96 0-83 0-62 0-70 2-41 2-62 2-80 2-88 2-79 2-60 2-46 2-49 10-81 10-66 11-07 11-11 12-77 10-16 11-27 11-04 30-15 33-07 31-36 32-36 27-22 36-46 31-97 30-91 0-67 0-68 0-81 0-60 0-46 0-64 0-48 0-84 62-66 60-33 60-48 50-69 64-69 47-06 62-21 63-29 0-55 1-61 1-42 0-92 0-14 2-35 0-47 0-03 0-08 0-03 none trace trace 0-11 0-02 none 1-66 0-53 0-92 0-66 0-99 0-93 0-60 0-70 100 -02 100 -00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-02 100-00 100-00 0-02 — — — — 0-02 — 100 -00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 Composition of the Straw^ per cent. Dry matter 81-46 82-46 82-60 86-42 82-16 80-66 84-89 84-00 0-49 0-46 0-60 0-48 0-46 0-73 0-35 0-43 6-49 6-64 6-27 6-66 7-04 6-64 4-90 7-40 Composition of the Straw- Ash (^pwe), per cent. Ferric oxide Lime Potash . Soda .... Phosphoric anhydride . ■ Sulphuric anhydride.... Chlorine Silica Total Deduct = 01 0-69 4-00 1-27 16-73 0-23 4-62 2-92 2-06 69-10 100-46 0-46 0-78 6-09 1-76 17-19 0-65 2-98 3-27 2-93 66-11 100 -66 0-66 0-61 5-21 2-14 19-06 0-94 4-26 3-62 3-80 61-23 100 -86 0-86 100 -90 0-44 4-20 1-87 17-72 0-64 4-60 3-34 2-77 65-16 100-63 0-63 0-85 3-87 1-62 12-86 0-60 3-21 2-58 1-86 73-07 100 -42 0-42 0-44 3-22 1-36 20-14 0-62 6-21 3-65 2-68 62-48 100-60 0-00 0-33 6-31 1-96 19-66 0-46 3-04 4-62 3-24 62-11 100-73 0-73 ASH OF WHEAT-GRAIN AND WHEAT-STRAW. 81 Straw, grown at Bothmnsted, year after year on the same Land. position of the Ash (excluding Sand and Charcoal), of the Grain, and of the "Seasons, 1848-1863. Plot 2. — Farmyard Manure, evert/ year 1866 1857 1858 1859 1860 1861 1862 1863 Average. Harvests. 62-8 68-6 , 77-9 60-4 65-6 62-6 47-1 66-6 64-2 56-6 71-0 60-6 58-3 61-0 67-6 63-1 58-6 60-0 Grain to 100 straw. Wt. per bushel of grain, lbs. Composition of the Orain, per cent. 82-58 1-89 1-98 86-63 1-97 1-94 83-66 1-91 2-04 82-70 2-09 2-11 85-60 2-00 2-15 84-66 1-95 2-16 83-27 1-57 1-99 84-63 1-52 1-85 83-76 1-83 2-01 Dry matter. X-)}-4=7--«- Composition of the Grain-Ash (pure), per :>ent. 0-86 2-53 U-71 29-27 0-42 64-18 0-23 0-07 0-75 1-05 2-88 11-97 29-84 0-77 62-53 0-46 0-01 0-49 0-90 2-61 11-17 31-87 0-28 51-88 0-76 0-06 0-49 0-78 2-37 11-18 31-18 0-64 52-64 0-51 trace 0-80 1-02 2-78 10-13 33-78 0-65 49-44 0-87 0-07 1-28 0-49 2-52 10-29 33-13 0-66 51-41 1-01 none 0-60 0-76 2-61 11-12 32-00 0-66 61-61 0-51 none 0-83 0-43 2-34 11-41 31-54 0-66 52-04 0-93 trace 0-65 0-84 2-69 11-11 31-67 0-69 61-70 0-79 0-03 0-79 Ferric oxide. Lime. Magnesia. Potasli. Soda. Phosphoric anllydride. Sulphuric anhydride. Chlorine. Silica. 100-02 0-02 100-00 100-01 0-01 100-00 100-02 0-02 100 -00 100 -00 100 -00 100-01 0-01 Total. Deduct = 01. 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 Total. Composition of the Straw, per cent. 83-08 84-42 85-24 84-68 86-00 85-83 83-88 84-44 83-81 0-38 0-39 0-47 0-40 0-56 0-43 0-37 0-26 0-44 6-57 6-45 6-42 6-24 7-91 7-17 6-69 6-42 6-52 Dry matter. S&,}- 4^ -''«■•■ Composition of the Straw-Ash (pure), per cent. 0-49 3-98 1-67 14-62 0-53 3-42 2-62 2-29 7i-00 100-52 0-62 0-80 5-46 1-61 20-11 0-44 3-46 2-67 4-01 62-31 0-44 4-03 1-69 21-70 0-49 3-41 3-57 4-81 60-95 0-61 4-66 1-34 18-62 0-64 3-62 2-04 2-78 66-62 0-84 3-20 1-06 16-70 0-51 4-04 2-64 1-96 69-60 0-23 3-39 1-20 26-62 0-71 3-62 3-60 4-98 67-87 0-39 3-23 1-34 14-53 0-54 3-28 2-29 1-84 72-98 0-18 3-78 1-41 17-97 none 3-16 2-54 3-61 68-16 0-52 4-13 1-62 18-33 0-51 3-79 3-00 3-16 65-75 Ferric oxide. Lime. Magnesia. Potash. Soda. Phosphoric anhydride. Sulphuric anhydride. ' Chlorine. Silica. 100-87 0-87 101 -09 1-09 100-63 0-63 100-44 0-44 101-12 1-12 100 -42 0-42 100 -81 0-81 100-71 0-71 Total. Deduct = CI. 100 -00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100 -00 100-00 100 -00 Total. 82 LAWES AND GILBERT ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE Oomposition of the Ash of Wheat- Grain, and of Wheat- Appendix-Table II. — General Characters of the Produce, and Percentage of the Straw, in sixteen con- Plot 3. — Unmanured, every year. 1848 1849 1860 1861 1852 1863 1854 1865 66-6 76-1 61-4 68-2 60-6 66-6 61-1 63-9 66-6 25-4 45-9 63-6 60-6 60-0 69-2 Composition of the Grain, per cent. 80-34 2-17 2-00 82-28 1-73 1-88 83-80 1-83 2-02 84-30 1-67 1-94 82-67 2-08 2-03 80-12 2-09 2-36 84-67 1-92 1-96 84-76 2-14 2-02 sr&)}i-<^-"" { Composition of the Grain-Ash, per cent. Ferric oxide Lime Magnesia Potash Soda Phosphoric anhydride Sulphuric anhydride Chlorine Silica Total , Deduct O = CI Total , 1-37 1-07 1-32 0-72 1-07 1-26 0-60 0-61 2-87 3-15 2-98 2-98 2-87 3-09 2-67 2-64 10-35 9-72 9-86 10-16 11-67 10-27 10-44 9-93 31-19 36-84 32-97 34-74 29-66 35-49 34-18 33-92 0-66 0-42 0-91 0-45 0-61 0-64 0-73 0-49 51-41 47-71 49-68 49-07 61-79 45-65 49-36 60-79 0-79 1-83 1-14 1-13 0-99 2-40 1-56 0-65 0-02 0-02 0-04 0-03 0-04 0-19 0-02 0-06 1-34 0-74 1-11 0-72 1-31 100-01 1-25 0-46 0-92 100-00 100 -00 100 -01 100 -00 100 -04 100-00 100-01 — — 0-01 — 0-01 0-04 — 0-01 100-00 100-00 100 -00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 Gomposition of the Straw, per cent. Dry matter Srdure)}'-^'^-"- 81-00 82-08 82-64 84-28 . 82-84 81-69 83-30 82-77 0-63 0-49 0-53 0-57 0-67 0-86 0-39 0-48 6-77 7-02 7-03 ' 6-64 7-04 6-27 5-16 7-30 Composition of the Straw-Ash, per cent. Ferric oxide , Lime Magnesia Potash Soda , Phosphoric anhydride Sulphuric anhydride , Chlorine Silica Total Deduct O = CI Total 1-12 1-01 0-47 0-78 1-03 0-94 0-49 0-48 2-78 2-84- 2-71 2-86 2-52 4-42 6-21 2-66 2-21 3-41 3-23 2-79 2-64 1-72 1-82 1'85 13-36 14-85 16 13 16-84 10-64 14-26 17-85 16-67 0-33 0-81 0-48 0-33 0-62 0-72 0-51 0-40 4-20 2-98 4-71 5-37 3-66 5-96 3-19' 3-16 2-06 2-83 3-11 3-63 2-37 3-32 4-76 2-52 1-43 1-86 2-06 2-21 1-08 1-10 2-60 2-80 72-84 69-82 68-67 65-70 76-98 67-82 64-23 70-09 100-32 100 -41 100-46 100-60 100-24 100 -25 100 -66 100-63 0-32 0-41 0-46 0-50 0-24 0-26 0-66 0-63 100 -00 100-00 100 -00 100 -00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 ASH OF WHEAT-GRAIN AND WHEAT-STRAW. 83 Straw, grown at Boihamsted, year after year on the same Land. Composition of the Ash (excluding Sand and Charcoal), of the Grain, and secutive seasons, 1848-1863. Plot 3. — JJnmanured, every y iar. 1856 1857 1858 1859 1860 1861 1862 1863 Average. Harvests. 67 '3 64-3 78-3 68-3 68-3 60-4 48-3 62 -o 60-6 52-6 68-7 67-4 68-2 57-8 70-4 62-7 69-6 67-4 Grain to 100 straw. Wt. per iushel of grain, Its. Composition of the Grain, per cent. 82-18 1-91 2-04 84-91 1-91 1-92 83-65 1-86 2-02 82-37 1-96 2-08 83-10 1-92 2-16 86-12 2-04 2-19 82-36 1-76 2-03 83-97 1-65 1-96 1-90 2-01 Dry matter. Composition of the Grain-Ash, per cent. i 0-87 2-66 10-76 30-66 0-66 52-66 1-06 trace 1-00 1-09 3-39 10-81 32-00 0-42 60-00 1-28 0-06 0-97 1-03 2-76 10 -.60 32-74 0-49 50-86 0-66 none 0-97 0-96 2-75 10-98 31-94 0-41 60-69 1-26 0-08 1-06 1-61 2-71 9-14 33-69 0-74 47-44 2-21 0-24 2-37 1-05 2-68 9-56 34-42 0-53 47-47 1-66 0-J6 2-51 1-32 2-64 10-24 32-33 1-18 49-66 1-6" 0-07 1-18 0-51 2-66 10-91 32 -32 0-76 51-68 0-67 none 0-69 1-03 2-83 10-33 32-96 0-62 49-71 1-31 0-oe 1-16 Ferric oxide. Lime. Magnesia. Potash. Soda. Phosphoric anhydride. Sulphuric anhydride. Chloi-ine. Silica. 100-00 100-01 o-oi 100 -00 100 -82 02 100 -06 0-06 100-03 0-03 100 -02 0-02 100 -00 100-01 0-01 100 -00 Total. Deduct = 01. 100-00 100-00 100-00 100 -00 100 -00 100-00 100-00 100 -00 Total. Composition of the Straw, per cent. 84-17 84-36 85-42 84-62 86-57 85-36 83-58 84-07 83-58 0-41 0-46 0-46 0-61 0-58 0-63 0-44 0-33 0-60 6-87 4-82 6-64 6-33 8-33 6-85 6-89 7-12 6-44 Dr3' matter. Sh(fu?e)}'=«^^-"- Composition of the Straw-Ash, per cent. 1-16 4-61 1-70 11-87 0-69 4-00 3-16 1-46 71-78 1-64 2-89 3-80 16-08 2-12 3-61 2-73 2-16 66-85 0-67 6-10 2-18 17-29 0-62 3-01 4-41 2-61 63-70 0-92 6-07 1-69 13-11 0-64 3-66 3-42 1-40 69-50 1-32 4-10 1-03 11-64 0-34 3-48 2-39 1-14 74-92 0-32 4-28 1-46 20-68 0-35 3-68 4-05 3-19 62-72 0-67 3-76 1-30 10-93 0-38 3-06 2-63 1-21 76-37 0-34 4-39 1-48 13-02; 0-26 1 3-16 2-87 2-04 72-90 0-84 3-89 2-12 14-66 0-69 3-79 3-14 1-89 69-61 Ferric oxide. Lime. Magnesia. Potash. Soda. Phosphoric anhydride. Sulphuric anhydride. Chlorine. Silica. 100-33 0-33 100-48 0-48 100-69 0-69 100-31 0-31 100-26 0-26 100-72 0-72 100 -28 0-28 100-46 0-46 100 -43 0-43 Total. Deduct = CI. . ■ -^ _ 100-00 100 -00 100 -00 100 -00 100-00 100 -00 100 -00 100 -00 100-00 Total. 84 LAWES AND GILBERT ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE Composition of the Ash of Wheat-Orain, and of Wheat- AppendvB-Table III. — General Characters of the Produce, and Percentage of the Straw, in sixteen con- Plot 10a. — Ammonium- Salts alone, every year. 1848 1849 1850 1861 1852 1853 1854 1865 56 '3 68-1 76-1 62-3 65 '7 60-2 64-0 61-9 47-3 65 '9 31 '3 48-6 61 '6 60-5 61 '2 67 •! Gomposition of the Chain, per cent. Dry matter Sr&|-«T matter. 81-19 82-71 84-33 84-47 83-75 80-45 84-85 84-20 2-42 1-96 2-13 2-15 2-48 2-43 2-30 2-40 1-95 1-67 1-86 1-81 1-83 1-98 1-72 1-91 Composition of the Grain- Ash, per cent. Ferric oxide Lime Magnesia Potash Soda Piiosphoric anhydride Stdphuric anhydride Chlorine Silica Total , Deduct = CI Total 1-04 3-22 10-80 30-60 0-81 51-33 0-78 trace 1-42 100 -00 0-79 3-46 10-31 35-66 0-43 46-87 2-70 0-03 0-86 100 -01 0-01 0-80 3-63 10-70 33-19 0-28 49-24 1-64 0-03 0-60 100 -01 0-01 0-83 3-61 10-67 32-64 0-66 49-67 1-46 0-03 0-64 100 -01 0-01 0-64 3-51 12-70 28-10 0-48 62-92 0-61 trace 1-04 100 -CO 1-20 3-75 9-34 35-88 0-78 44-65 2-45 0-17 1-82 100 -00 0-04 0-79 3-36 10-16 35-75 0-63 46-11 2-23 0-46 0-72 100 -10 0-10 100 -00 Composition of the Straw, per cent. Dry matter 82-81 0-82 6-43 83-90 0-86 6-83 85-66 0-78 6-30 84-86 0-74 6-42 83-28 0-89 5-60 80-94 1-29 5-86 84-32 0-56 4-54 Composition of the Straw-Ash, per cent. Ferric oxide Lime Magnesia Potash Soda jPhosphoric anhydride Sulphuric anhydride Chlorine Silica Total Deduct = CI Total 0-66 6-20 1-42 13-62 0-74 3-23 3-08 1-91 70-67 100 -43 0-43 0-78 7-00 2-16 14-81 1-84 2-71 3-55 3-30 64-69 100 -74 0-74 0-43 6-19 2-18 17-43 1-73 3-47 4-16 3-74 61-61 100 -84 0-84 0-52 5-96 2-36 17-04 1-49 3-27 4-12 62-54 100 -93 0-93 0-75 5-60 1-61 10-53 1-31 2-50 2-56 1-64 73-96 100 -36 0-36 1-20 4-90 1-32 16-89 0-87 4-34 3-25 2-51 65-29 100 -67 0-67 0-38 6-70 1-74 23-40 0-61 2-14 4-77 5-06 57-44 101 -14 1-14 100-00 ASH OP WHEAT-GRAIN AND WHEAT-STRAW. 86 Strww, grown at Rothamsted, year after year on the same Land. Oomposition of the Ash (excluding Sand and Cliarcoal), of the Grain, and seoutive Seasons, 1848^1863. Plot 10a.- —Ammonium -Salts alone, every year. 1856 1857 1858 1869 I860 1861 1862 1863 Average. Harvests. 63-4 66-6 76-9 68-0 67-6 69-6 44-2 51-6 40-9 49-6 44-2 66 -0 66-2 66-6 74-3 62-6 67-2 67-1 Grain to 100 straw. Wt. per iushel of grain, lbs. Composition of the Grain, per cent. 83-98 2-23 1-85 84-93 2-08 1-63 83-92 2-23 1-90 82-37 2-30 1-86 86-03 2-24 2-12 84-86 2-08 2-00 83-66 1-89 1-84 84-80 1-70 1-66 83-92 2-16 1-80 Dry matter. S&)}-*^y-tter. Composition of the Orain-Ash, per cent. 0-69 3-61 11-41 31-86 0-37 50-06 1-00 none 1-11 1-27 4-38 11-65 31-68 0-40 46-99 2-12 0-13 1-61 0-63 4-06 10-52 33-62 0-37 46-69 2-78 0-66 1-01 0-98 3-64 11-23 32-69 0-73 47-17 2-36 0-04 1-17 1-86 3-41 9-14 34-82 0-68 43-35 3-67 0-86 2-60 0-69 3-47 9-98 36-64 0-50 44-62 2-63 1 -14 1-68 1-10 3-64 10-73 34-17 0-92 44-31 2-91 0-67 1-80 0-59 3-86 1) -20 34-42 0-64 46-02 2-37 0-19 0-86 0-91 . 3-62 10-68 33-43 0-65 47-28 2-07 0-28 1-24 Ferric oxide. Lime. Magnesia. Potash. Soda. Pliosplioric anhydride. Sulphuric anhydride. Chlorine. Silica. 100-00 100 -03 0-03 100 -12 0-12 100 -01 0-01 100-19 0-19 100 -26 0-26 100 -15 0-15 100 -00 100 -04 0-04 100 -06 0-06 Total. Deduct = CI. 100-00 100-00 100-00 100 -00 100 -00 100 -00 100 -00 100-00 Total. Composition of the Straw, per cent. 83-34 84-96 86-36 86-24 84-80 84-71 83-37 84-17 84-11 0-SO 0-56 0-63 0-64 0-58 0-71 0-58 0-35 0-67 4-58 3 98 4-61 4-29 8-08 6-97 6-45 6-40 6-32 Dry matter. Composition of the Straw-Ash, per cent. 0-71 6-67 1-21 13-95 1-71 3-33 3-98 1-69 68-31 1-05 7-79 1-88 17-50 0-81 2-99 4-23 2-73 61-64 0-65 8-64 2-44 17-34 1-16 3-15 7-79 2-86 66-73 0-90 8-37 2-03 13-29 1-88 3-54 4-56 1-78 64-06 1-09 3-32 1-13 15-37 0-13 4-29 2-96 1-64 70-52 0-19 6-62 1-91 22-20 1-81 2-90 4-88 3-83 67-52 0-46 5-78 2-05 13-65 1-02 3-35 3-44 1-68 68-96 0-22 6-92 1-74 14-26 0-52 1-73 3-88 3-65 67-99 0-63 6-07 1-78 16-46 1-15 3-09 4-05 2-89 64-63 Ferric oxide. Lime. Magnesia. Potash. Soda. Phosphoric anhydride. Sulphuric anhydride. Chlorine. Silica. 100-36 ■ 0-36 100 -62 0-62 100 -65 0-65 100-40 0-40 100-35 0-35 100-86 0-86 100 -38 0-38 100-80 0-80 100 -66 0-66 Total. Deduct = CI. 100-00 100 -00 100 -00 100 -00 100-00 100 -00 100 -00 100 -00 100-00 Total. 86 LAWES AND GILBERT ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE Composition of the Ash of Wheat-Grain, and of Wheat- Appendix- Table IV. — General Characters of the Produce, and amounts' of 100° C), of Grain, Straw, and Total Produce, in Plot 2. — Farmyard Manure, every year. Hai-vests 1848 1852 1S54 1855 Grain to 100 straw Weight per tuahel of grain, lbs. 66-0 68-2 68-3 63-8 67-3 61-9 49-6 68 -2 33-2 61-1 60-1 62-6 Per 1000 dry matter 'Fresh produce oj grain. (Nitrogen 1265 18-9 1209 15-8 .192 18-6 1184 16-7 1201 20-2 1246 17-6 1164 17-0 Asli-constituents, per 1000 dry matter of grain. Ferric oxide Lime Magnesia ,,, Potash Soda Phosphoric anhydride Sulphuric anhydride.. Chlorine Total Deduct = CI 0-25 0-49 2-19 6-11 O-U 10-67 0-11 0-01 0-32 20-26 0-16 0-49 2-03 6-37 0-13 9-70 0-29 0-01 0-iO 0-24 0-57 2-27 6-41 0-16 10-32 0-29 none 0-19 0-17 0-66 2-15 6-26 0-10 9-79 0-18 trace 0-13 0-19 0-66 2-53 6-38 0-09 10-83 0-03 trace 0-20 19-27 20-46 19-32 19-80 0-18 0-67 2-23 7-79 0-12 10-33 0-52 0-02 0-20 21-96 0-12 0-49 2-24 6-34 0-10 10-36 0-09 trace 0-10 19-84 19-84 Per 1000 dry matter J Fresh produce of straw. (Nitrogen 1228 4-9 1212 4-5 1212 6-0 1171 4-8 1216 4-6 1239 7-3 1178 3-5 Ash-constituents,, 'per 1000 dry matter of straw. Ferric oxide Lime Magnesia ... Potash Soda Phosphoric anhydride Sulphuric anhydride.. Chlorine Silica 1-J7 11-41 0-36 1-98 2-18 1-95 43-92 Total Deduct = 66-25 0-30 66-87 0-44 0-38 3-27 1-34 11-96 0-69 2-67 2-27 2-39 38-40 0-30 2-79 1-24 11-80 0-36 3-07 2-22 1-85 43-39 0-59 2-73 1-07 9-06 0-42 2-27 1-82 1-31 61-47 0-29 2-14 0-91 13-38 0-34 4-12 2-36 1-77 41-60 0-16 2-60 0-96 9-64 0-23 1-49 2-26 1-59 30-43 63-26 0-54 67-02 0-42 70-74 0-30 66-81 0-40 49-36 0-36 62-72 Per 1000 dry matter'^ i.„„,, „„„j„„„ of total produce IS^f^il"'*""* (grain and straw), j N'teog^h 1237 9-9 1210 9-1 1205 10 -U 1176 9-1 1211 9-8 1241 9-9 1173 Ash-constituents, per 1000 dry matter of total produce {grain and straw.) f Ferric oxide Lime Magnesia ... Potash Soda Phosphoric anhydride Sulphuric ahhydriae.. Chlorine L Silica 0-33 1-85 1-31 8-76 0-16 5-67 1-27 0-87 29-09 0-37 2-20 1-62 9-36 0-27 6-12 1-41 1-16 26-11 0-33 2-28 1-68 9-91 0-43 5-49 1-64 1-61 24-32 0-25 1-91 1-60 9-60 0-25 5-73 ]-41 I-I2 26-26 0-46 2-00 1-56 7-83 0-31 5-13 1-22 0-87 34-31 0-26 1-75 1-23 11-99 0-29 5-67 1-90 1-34 31-24 0-15 1-80 1-44 8-39 0-18 4-84 1-44 0-99 18-96 Total Deduct = CI 49-31 0-20 47-52 0-26 47-49 0-34 47-15 48-13 0-26 63-69 0-20 55-67 0-30 66-37 38-19 0-22 37-97 ASH OF WHEAT-GRAIN AND WHEAT-STRAW. Straw, grown at Bothamsted, year after year on the same Land. Nitrogen, Ash-Constituents, and Total Ash (pure), ;per 1000 D)-y Matter (at sixteen consecutive Seasons, 1848-1863. Plot 2.~F arm/yard Manure, every year. 1856 1857 1868 1859 1860 1861 1862 1863 Average. Hai-vestB. 62 '8 68-6 77-9 60-4 66-6 62-6 47-1 66-6 54-2 56-6 71-0 60-5 68-3 61-0 67-5 63-1 68-6 60-0 Grain to 100 straw, Wt. per bushel of grain, lb; . 1211 18-9 1124 19-7 1197 19-1 1209 20-9 1169 20-0 1181 19-6 1201 15-7 1182 15-2 1194 18-3 Fresli produce. Nitrogen. 0-17 0-50 2-32 6-80 0-08 10-73 0-05 0-01 0-15 0-20 0-56 2-32 6-79 0-15 10-18 0-09 trace 0-10 0-19 0-53 2-28 6-62 0-06 10-61 C-16 0-01 0-10 0-16 0-60 2-36 6-58 0-U 11-10 0-11 trace 0-17 0-22 0-60 2-18 7-27 0-14 10-65 0-19 0-02 0-27 0-11 0-64 2-21 7-12 0-14 11-06 0-22 none 0-11 0-15 0-80 2-22 6-87 0-13 10-28 0-10 none 0-16 0-08 0-43 2-12 6-86 0-12 9-66 0-17 trace 0-12 0-16 0-62 2-24 6-35 0-12 10-44 0-15 0-01 0-15 Ferric oxide. Lime. Magnesia. Potash. Soda. Phosphoric anhydride. Sulphuric anhydride. Chlorine. SiUca. 19-81 19-39 20-45 21-09 21-64 21-60 19-91 18-64 20-14 Total. Deduct = CI. 19-81 19-39 20-45 21-09 21-54 21-60 19-91 18-64 20-14 Total. 1204 3-8 1185 3-9 1174 4-7 1181 4-0 1176 6-6 1165 4-3 1192 3-7 1184 2-6 1193 4-4 p-resh produce. Nitrogen. 0-32 2-61 1-03 9-60 0-35 2-25 1-72 1-50 46-64 0-44 2-98 0-88 10-96 0-24 1-89 1-46 2-19 33-98 0-28 2-69 1-09 13-92 0-31 2-19 2-28 3-09 39-10 0-38 2-86 0-83 11-63 0-34 2-19 1-27 1-74 41-57 0-66 2-63 0-84 13-21 0-40 3-20 2-01 1-64 56-05 0-16 2-44 0-86 18-37 0-61 2-69 2-61 3-67 41-48 0-26 2-16 0-90 9-73 0-36 2-20 1-53 1-24 48-84 0-12 2-43 0-91 11-63 none 2-02 1-63 2-32 43-74 0-33 2-66 0-98 11-91 0-32 2-46 1-92 2-06 43-08 Ferric oxide. Lime. Magnesia. Potash. Soda. Phosphoric anhydride. Sulphuric anhydride. Chlorine, silica. 66-02 0-34 66-02 0-49 64-86 0-69 62-80 0-39 79-44 0-36 72-49 0-81 67-22 0-28 64-70 0-52 66-71 0-46 Total. Deduct = CI. 66-68 64-53 64-16 62-41 79-09 71-68 66-94 64-18 66-25 Total. 1206 9-0 1178 10-9 1183 10-3 1190 9-3 1174 10-7 1172 10-5 1195 8-1 1183 7-6 1193 9-6 Fresh produce. Nitrogen. 0-27 1-89 1-48 8-29 0-26 6-17 1-14 0-99 30-64 0-34 1-91 1-61 8-68 0-20 6-65 0-86 1-22 19-04 0-24 1-78 1-66 11-03 0-21 5-48 1-45 1-88 23-86 0-31 2-11 1-31 10-04 0-26 5-00 0-91 1-19 28-64 0-60 1-85 1-31 11-12 0-31 6-83 1-37 1-01 36-72 0-14 1-66 1-42 13-73 0-36 6-07 1-66 2-10 24-44 0-22 1 -56 1-38 8-60 0-28 5-16 1-01 0-78 30-99 0-10 1-63 1-39 9-24 0-06 5-10 1-04 1-38 26-16 0-27 1-87 1-46 9-85 0-25 5-40 1-27 1-30 27-23 Ferric oxide. Lime. Magnesia. Potash. Soda. Phosphoric anhydride. Sulphuric anhydride. Chlorine. Silica. 60-13 0-23 39-30 0-27 47-49 0-42 49-67 0-27 69-02 0-23 51-48 0-47 49-87 0-18 46-08 0-31 48-89 0-29 Total. Deduct = CI. 49-90 39-03 47-07 49-40 58-79 51-01 49-69 46-77 48-60 Total. 88 LAWES AND GILBERT ON THE COMPOSITION OP THE Composition of the Ash of Wheat-Grain, and of Wheat-' Appendix-Tahle V. — General Characters of tiie Produce, a,iid amounte of 100° C), of Grain, Straw, and Total Produce, in Plot 3. — Unmanured, every year. H 1848 1849 1860 1861 1862 1863 1854 1855 Grain to 100 stra-n Weight per bushel 66-6 67-3 76-1 61-4 68-2 60-6 66-6 61-1 63-9 66-6 26-4 46-9 63-6 60-6 60-0 ■ 69-2 ; Per 1000 dry matte offfrain. r (Fresh produce 1244 21-7 1216 17-3 1193 18-3 1186 16-7 1211 20-8 1247 20-9 1181 19-2 1179 21-4 0-28 0-67 2-07 6-25 0-13 10-29 0-16 trace 0-27 0-20 0-69 1-83, 6-65 0-08 8-98 0-34 trace 0-14 0-26 0-60 1-99 6-66 0-18 10-02 0-23 0-01 0-23 0-14 0-68 1-97 6-76 0-09 9-63 0-22 0-01 0-14 0-22 0-58 2-36 6-01 0-13 10-60 0-20 0-01 0-27 0-30 0-73 2-43 8-38 0-13 10-75 0-67 0-04 0-30 0-12 0-62 2-04 6-67 0-14 9-64 0-31 trace 0-09 0-12 0-53 2-01 6-86 0-10 10-27 0-13 0-01 0-19 Potash Ash-constituents, per 1000 dry -i matter of grain. Phosphoric anhyctride Sulphuric anhydride... Chlorine ... Silica Total 20-02 18-81 20-17 19-43 20-28 23-63 0-01 19-63 20-22 Uednct = CI ... 20-02 18-81 20-17 19-43 20-28 23-62 19-63 20-22 Per 1000 d'ry matte of straw. r f Fresh produce 1234 6-3 1218 4-9 1211 6-3 1186 6-7 1194 6-7 1226 8-6 1201 3-9 1207 4-8 0-76 1-88 1-50 9-04 0-23 2-83 1-39 0-97 49-28 0-70 2-00 2-40 10-43 0-67 2-09 1-99 1-31 49-06 0-33 1-91 2-27 10-64 0-34 3-31 2-19 1-44 48-22 0-62 1-86 1-83 11-02 0-22 3-51 2-37 1-46 43-00 0-73 1-77 1-86 7-43 0-36 2-62 1-67 0-76 63-61 0-69 2-77 1-08 8-94 0-46 3T4 2-09 0-70 42-64 0-25 2-69 0-94 9-22 0-26 1-66 2-46 1-30 33-17 0-36 1-94 1-35 12-17 0-29 2-30 1-84 2-04 61-14 AsTirconstitwints, Tiiatter of straw. Phosphoric anhydride Sulphuric anhydride... Chlorine Total 67-88 0-22 70 -.64 0-29 70-66 0-32 65-78 0-33 70-60 0-17 62-90 0-16 61-94 0-29 73-42 0-46 Deduct = CI ... Total 67-66 70-25 70-33 66-45 70-43 62-74 51-66 72-96 Per imo dry matte of total produce {grain amd straw) '' 1 Fresh produce 1238 11-2 1217 10-3 1204 10-1 1186 10-1 1209 11-0 1230 11-0 1193 9-9 1197 11-1 fFerric oxide 0-68 1-42 1-70 8-05 0-19 6-49 0-96 0-63 31-86 0-49 1-39 2-16 8-79 0-36 6-07 1-28 0-74 27-88 0-31 1-42 2-17 9-16 0-28 6-80 1-46 0-91 30-38 0-37 1-35 1-89 9-31 0-17 6-92 1-61 0-87 26-87 0-56 1-36 2-03 6-93 0-28 6-31 1-16 0-60 34-90 0-83 2-37 1-35 8-83 0-38 6-14 1-78 0-67 34-10 0-20 1-84 1-37 8-22 0-22 4-78 1-61 0-79 20-18 0-26 1-40 1-60 10-15 0-22 6-34 1-19 1-27 31-76 Ash-constituents, Magnesia Potash matter of total - ^produce {grain and straw). Phosphoric anhydride Sulphuric anhydride... ^Silica 60-87 0-14 48-16 0-16 61-89 0-21 47-26 0-20 63-02 0-11 66-06 0-13 39-21 0-18 63-18 0-29 Deduct = CI ... Total 60-73 47-99 61-68 47-06 62-91 54-92 39-03 62-89 ASH OF WHEAT-GRAIN AND WHEAT-STRAW. 89 Straw, grown at JRothamsted, year after year on the same Land. NitmgeTi, Ash-Constifcnents, and Total Ash (pure), per 1000 Dry Matter (at sixteen consecutive Seasons, 1848-1863. Plot 3.— TTnmanured, every year. 1866 1867 1858 1859 1860 1861 1862 1863 Average. Harvests. 57-3 54-3 7? -3 58-3 68-3 60-4 48-3 52-6 50-6 62-6 68-7 67-4 68-2 57-8 70-4 62-7 59-5 57-4 Grain to 100 straw. Wt. per bushel of grain, lbs. 217 19-1 1178 19-1 1197 18-6 1214 19-6 1204 19-2 1176 ■20-4 1216 17-6 1191 16-6 1200 19-0 Fresh produce. Nitrogen. 0-18 0-62 2-19 6-23 0-13 10-72 0-22 trace 0-20 0-21 0-66 2-08 e-i6 0-08 9-62 0-25 0-01 0-19 0-21 0-66 2-12 6-61 0-10 10-27 0-13 none 0-20 0-20 0-67 2-28 6-64 0-09 10-52 0-26 0-02 0-22 0-35 0-59 1-98 7-26 0-16 10-25 0-48 0-06 0-61 0-23 0-69 2-09 7-54 0-12 10-39 0-36 0-03 0-65 0-27 0-51 2-08 6-66 0-24 10-06 0-33 0-02 0-24 0-10 0-62 2-12 6-28 0-15 10-03 0-13 none 0-12 0-20 0-67 2-08 6-62 0-13 10-03 0-25 0-01 0-22 Fei-ric oxide. Lime. Magnesia. Potash. Soda. Phosphoric anhydride. Sulphuric anhydride. Chlorine. Silica. 20-39 19-26 20-20 20-80 21-63 0-01 21-90 0-01 20-30 19-45 20-11 Total. Deduct = CI. 20-39 19-25 20-20 20-80 21-62 21-89 20-30 19-46 20-11 Total. 1188 4-1 1186 4-5 1171 4-6 1183 6-1 1169 6-8 1172 6-3 1196 4-4 1190 3-3 1196 6-0 Fresh produce. Nitrogen. 0-69 2-70 0-99 6-96 0-36 2-36 1-86 0-86 42-11 0-79 1-39 1-69 7-26 1-02 1-69 1-32 1-04 32-19 0-37 3-38 1-21 9-69 0-34 1-67 2-46 1-44 86-31 0-49 3-23 0-86 6-98 ^ 0-34 1-96 1-82 0-76 37-02 1-10 3-42 0-86 9-61 0-28 2-90 1-99 0-96 62-40 0-22 2-93 0-99 14-16 0-24 2-62 2-77 2-19 42-94 0-47 2-88 0-89 7-63 0-24 2-11 1-81 0-83 62-69 0-24 3-13 1-06 9-27 0-18 2-25 2-03 1-46 51-92 0-63 2-48 1-35 9 -.30 0-35 2-42 2-0O 1-21 45-00 Ferric oxide. Lime. Magnesia. Potash. Soda. Phosphoric anhydride. Sulphuric anhydride. Chloi-ine. Silica. 58-87 0-20 48-39 0-23 65-76 0-33 63-43 0-17 83-61 0-21 68-96 0-49 69-05 0-19 71-63 0-33 64-64 0-27 Total. Deduct = CI. 68-67 48-16 65-43 63-26 83-30 68-47 68-86 71-20 64-37 Total. 1198 9-6 1182 10-9 1182 10-1 1193 9-8 1181 10-2 1173 11-5 1203 9-2 1190 8-7 1198 10-3 Fresh produce. Nitrogen. 0-61 1-92 i-4e 6-70 0-27 6-35 1-27 0-65 27-09 0-64 1-07 1-86 6-77 0-60 5-19 0-84 0-59 18-09 0-31 2-25 1-57 8-40 0-24 6-12 1-62 0-87 21-24 0-39 2-38 1-31 6-87 0-26 4-70 1-32 0-61 26-24 0-85 2-49 1-23 8-83 0-24 6-32 1-49 0-66 42-02 0-22 2-07 1-40 11-72 0-19 6-42 1-89 1-39 27-29 0-39 1-83 1-33 7-18 0-24 6-00 1-27 0-63 33-63 0-18 2-06 1-.50 8-04 0-17 6-46 1-25 0-85 30-63 0-41 1-77 1-62 8-30 0-27 6-26 1-35 0-76 28-32 Ferric oxide. Lime. Magnesia. Potash. Soda. Phosphoric anhydride. Sulphuric anhydride. Chlorine. Silica. 46-08 0-13 36-66 0-13 41-62 0-20 42-98 0-11 63-13 0-15 61-59 0-31 61-30 0-13 60-03 0-19 48-06 0-17 Total. Deduct =01. _ 44-96 35-42 41-32 42-87 62-98 61-28 51-17 49-84 47-89 Total. ■90 LAWES AND GILBERT ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE Appendix-Table VI.- Gomposition of the Ash of Wheat- Gh-am, and of Wheat- -General Characters of the Produce, Amounts of K'itrogen, Grain, Straw, and Total Produce, in sixteen Plot lOo.- -Ammonium- Salts alone, every y ear. He 1348 1849 I860 1851 1852 1863 1884 1863 Grain to 100 straw Weight per bushel 66-3 68-1 76-1 62-3 65-7 60-2 64-0 61-9 47-3 86-9 31-3 48-6 61-5 60-5 61-2 57-1 Per 1000 dry matte of grain. M' Fresh produce 1232 24-2 1209 19-5 1186 21-3 1184 21-5 1193 24-8 1242 24-3 1178 23-0 1188 24-0 0-20 0-63 2-11 6-98 0-16 10-03 0-16 trace 0-28 0-13 0-68 1-72 6-93 0-07 7-66 0-45 0-01 0-14 0-15 0-68 1-99 6-18 0-06 9-16 0-29 0-01 0-11 0-15 0-64 1-93 5-89 0-12 8-96 0-26 0-01 0-11 0-12 0-64 2-33 8-16 0-09 9-69 0-11 trace 0-19 0-24 0-74 1-85 7-09 0-15 8-82 0-49 0-03 0-36 0-14 0-58 1-74 6-18 0-09 7-93 0-38 0-08 0-12 0-14 0-68 1-97 6-61 0-07 9-06 0-30 0-06 0-18 Ash-constitumts, 2nr 1000 dry ■ onatter of grain. Soda .... Phosphoric anhydride Sulphuric anhydride Silica Total Deduct = CI ... 19-64 16-69 18 -62 18-07 18-32 19-77 0-01 17-21 0-02 19-06 0-01 Total 19-54 16-69 18-62 18-07 18-32 19-76 17-19 19-05 Per 1000 dry matte of straw. rf Fresh produce 1208 8-2 1192 8-6 1167 7-8 1178 7-4 1200 8-9 1236 12-9 1186 6-6 1204 6-2 0-30 2-83 0-77 7-40 0-40 1-76 1-67 1-04 38-41 0-45 4-08 1-26 8-62 1-B7 1-68 2-07 1-92 37-63 0-23 3-28 1-16 9-23 0-91 1-84 2-20 1-98 32-58 0-29 3-23 1-28 9-23 0-80 1-97 1-78 2-23 33-88 0-42 3-13 0-90 5-89 0-74 1-40 1-43 0-87 41-39 0-70 2-87 0-78 9-89 0-51 2-64 1-90 1-47 38-24 0-17 2-69 0-79 10-63 0-23 0-97 2-16 2-30 26-09 0-17 2-62 0-71 12-36 ' 0-48 1-17 2-52 2-64 34-09 Potash Ash-constituents, matter of straw. Phosphoric anhydride Sulphuric anhydride Total 64-58 0-23 58-68 0-43 53-41 0-44 64-69 0-81 56-17 . 0-20 68-90 0-33 45-93 0-62 66-66 0-67 Deduct = CI ... 64-36 68-25 62-97 64-18 65-97 58-57 46-41 86-09 Per 1000 dry matte of total produce {grain and straw] ^ 1 Fresh produce 1216 13-9 1199 13-2 1174 12-6 1180 12-9 1198 14-0 1237 15-6 1183 12-3 1198 12-3 0-27 2-04 1-25 6-89 0-32 4-70 1-13 0-67 24-84 0-32 2-69 1-46 7-48 0-65 4-16 1-38 1-11 21-67 0-20 2-36 1-46 8-16 0-61 4-44 1-52 1-28 21-08 0-23 2-22 1-83 7-93 0-64 4-69 1-19 1-37 20-74 0-32 2-33 1-36 6-66 0-63 4-08 1-00 0-89 28-10 0-69 2-37 1-03 9-23 0-43 4-03 1-66 1-13 29-23 0-16 1-82 1-15 8-91 0-18 3-63 1-48 1-45 16-16 0-16 1-95 1-14 10-40 0-34 3-86 1-76 1-69 22-62 Asjirconstituents, Soda matter of total * produce (grain ai\d straw.) Phosphoric anhydride Sulphuric anhydride Total 42-11 0-15 40-82 0-26 41-09 0-29 40-44 0-31 43-96 0-14 49-60 0-26 34-94 0-32 43-82 0-38 Deduct = CI ... Total 41-96 40-67 40-80 40-13 43-82 49-34 34-62 43-44 ' - ASH OF WHEAT-GRAIX AND WHEAT-STRAW. 91 Straw, grown at Rothamsted, year after year on the same Land. Ash-Constituents, and Total Ash (pare), -per 1000 Dry Matter (at 100" C), of conseontive Seasons, 1848-1863. Plot 10a. — Amvionium- Salts alone, every year. 1856 1867 1858 1859 1860 1861 1862 1863 Average. Harvests. 63-4 56 '6 191 22-3 75 -9 58-0 67-6 69-6 44-2 61-6 40-9 49-5 44-2 56-0 66-2 66-5 74-3 62-6 57-2 67-1 Grain to 100 straw. Wt. per bushel of grain, lbs. 1178 20-8 1191 22-3 1214 23-0 1175 22-4 1178 20-8 1197 18-9 1179 17-0 1191 21-5 Fresh produce. Nitrogen. 0-11 0-67 2-11 5-88 0-07 9-25 0-19 none 0-20 0-21 0-72 1-90 6-16 0-07 7-67 0-34 0-02 0-25 0-12 0-77 1-99 6-36 0-07 8-86 0-63 0-11 0-19 0-18 0-68 2-09 6-09 0-14 8-78 0-44 0-01 0-22 0-39 0-72 1-94 7-38 0-12 9-18 0-76 0-18 0-55 0-14 0-69 2-00 7-12 0-10 8-94 0-53 0-23 0-34 0-20 0-65 1-98 6-30 0-17 8-17 0-64 0-12 0-33 0-09 0-60 1-75 S-37 0-09 7-18 0-37 0-03 0-13 0-16 0-66 1-93 6-02 0-10 8-54 0-37 0-04 0-21 Ferric oxide. Lime. Magnesia. Potash. Soda. Phosphoric anhydride. Sulphuric anhydride. Chlorine. Silica. 18-48 _ 16-34 18-98 0-02 18-63 21-22 0-04 20-09 0-05 18-46 0-03 15-61 0-01 18-02 0-01 Total. Deduct = CI. 18-48 16-34 18-96 18-63 21-18 20-04 18-43 15-60 18-01 Total. 1201 6-0 1177 6-6 1171 6-3 1173 6-4 1180 6-5 1180 7-1 1199 5-8 1188 3-6 1189 6-7 Fresh produce. Nitrogen. 0-32 2-55 0-65 6-39 0-79 1-63 1-82 0-73 31-27 0-42 3-10 0-75 6-97 0-32 1-19 1-69 1-09 24-63 0-26 3-98 1-13 8-00 0-64 1-46 3-60 1-31 26-16 0-39 3-69 0-87 5-69 0-81 1-62 1-95 0-76 27-45 0-88 -.2-68 0-91 12-42 0-10 3-47 2-39 1-25 57-01 0-12 3-36 1-14 13-24 1-08 1-73 2-91 2-29 34-32 0-24 3-16 1-12 7-44 0-65 1-83 1-88 0-92 37-69 0-12 3-74 0-94 7-70 0-29 0-93 2-09 1-92 36-74 0-33 3-18 0-94 8-71 0-60 1-63 2-10 1-57 34-49 Ferric oxide. Lime. Magnesia. Potash. Soda. Phosphoric anhydride. Sulphuric anhydride. Chlorine. Silica. 46-96 0-16 40-06 0-26 46-43 0-30 43-03 0-17 81-11 0-28 60-19 0-51 64-72 0-20 64-47 0-43 53-65 0-35 Total. Deduct = CI. 45-79 39-81 46-13 42-86 80-83 69-68 64-52 64-04 63-20 Total. 1197 11-0 1177 12-2 1179 12-7 1185 11-4 1178 10-4 1180 11-3 1199 10-5 1184 9-3 1190 12-1 Fresh produce. Nitrogen. 1 0-26 1-89 1-10 6-21 0-53 4-23 1-25 0-47 20-40 0-33 2-07 1-24 6-19 0-21 3-99 1-11 0-63 14-06 0-20 2-70 1-47 7-35 0-36 4 '41 2-37 0-83 15-80 0-32 2-71 1-24 6-81 0-61 3-70 1-50 0-64 19-30 0-74 2-11 1-21 10-95 0-11 5-13 1-92 0-94 40-58 0-12 2-64 1-40 11-36 0-78 3-96 2-18 1-66 23-88 0-23 2-26 1-43 7-03 0-42 4-11 1-39 0-63 24-17 0-11 2-40 1-28 6-70 0-20 3-61 1-35 1-11 21-07 0-27 2-26 1-30 7-74 0-42 4-14 1-47 1-01 22-03 Ferric oxide. Lime. Magnesia. Potash. Soda. Phosphoric anhydride. Sulphuric anhydride. Chlorine. Silica. \ 36-33 0-11 29-83 0-14 36-48 0-19 35-73 0-12 63-69 0-21 47-87 0-37 41-66 0-14 37-83 0-26 40-64 0-23 Total. Deduct = CI. 36-22 29-69 35-29 35-61 63-48 47-60 41-52 37 -58 40-41 Total. 92 LAWES AND GILBERT ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE Composition of the Ash of Wheat- Grain, and of Wheat- Appendix-Table VII. — General Characters of the Produce, and Quantities of (pure), per Acre, in Grain, Straw, and Total Plot 2. — Farmyard Manure, every year. , Grain to 100 straw Weight per buBhel of grain, lbs. 66-0 68-2 67-3 61-9 66-2 63-6 49-6 68-2 33-2 61-1 60-1 62-5 Produce of grai„f^^l^^^-^^_ LNitrogen per aci-e, lbs. 1705 1369 26-7 2068 1712 27-0 1861 1S61 29-0 2049 1731 27-2 1716 1429 28-9 1120 899 16-8 2675 2298 39-1 Ash-consiituents of grain, per acre, lbs. Ferric oxide Lime Magnesia Potash Soda Phosphoric anhydride Sulphuric anhydride,. Chlorine Sihca 0-34 0-66 2-97 8-30 0-16 14-49 0'16 0-02 0-43 0-26 0-83 3-48 10-91 0-22 16-60 0-50 0-01 0-18 0-37 0-90 3-53 10-01 0-26 16-11 0-46 none 0-29 0-29 0-96 3-72 10-82 0-17 16-96 0-31 trace 0-22 0-27 0-79 3-61 7-70 0-13 16-47 0-04 ■trace 0-28 0-16 0-61 2-00 7-00 0-11 9-29 0-47 0-02 0-18 0-28 1-12 6-14 14-68 0-22 23-80 0-21 0-01 0-23 Total Deduct = Total.. 27-62 32-98 31-92 33-44 28-29 19-74 46-69 32-98 19-74 /jffr n.{yfe. Iha. I „::' "^o-ui^ii per aere, lbs. LNitrogen ., 3041 2477 12-1 3029 2499 11-2 3245 2677 13-4 3094 2642 12-7 3467 2842 13-1 3372 2721 19-9 4460 3778 13-2 Ash-constituents of straw, per acre. lbs.. Ferric oxide Lime Magnesia .... Potash Soda Phosphoric anhydride Sulphuric anhydride... Chlorine Silica 0-94 6-46 2-06 25-31 0-45 7-26 4-70 1-30 8-43 2-93 28 -62 0-91 4-94 5-44 4-88 109 -76 Total Deduct : 161 -62 0-74 167-11 1-09 Total.. 1-02 8-76 3-69 31-98 1-67 7-16 6-07 6-41 102-78 0-79 7-38 3-29 31-16 0-95 8-10 5-87 4-88 114-63 1-69 7-76 3-04 25-76 1-19 6-44 6-16 3-72 146 -27 0-78 6-83 2-47 36-39 0-93 11-22 6-42 4-83 112-92 0-62 9-83 3-63 36-41 0-86 6-62 8-54 6-00 114-96 169 -34 1-46 177-06 1-11 201 -03 0-84 181 -79 1-08 186-47 1-36 Total produce f Fresh produce {grain and straw), < Dry matter . .. peracre,lbs. [Nitrogen 4746 3836 37-8 6097 4211 6106 4238 42-4 6143 4373 39-9 6173- 4271 42-0 4492 3620 35-7 7126 6076 62-3 Ferric oxide Lime Magnesia Potash Soda AsJv-constituents of total produce (grain and strmi), per acre, j phosphoric anhydride Sulphuric anhydride... 1 Chlorine iSilica " 1-28 7-11 6-02 33-61 0-61 21-75 4-85 3-32 111-59 1-65 9-26 6-41 39-43 1-13 21-64 6-94 4-89 109-94 1-39 9-66 7-12 41-99 1-83 23-27 6-62 6-41 103 -07 1-08 8-34 7-01 41-98 1-12 25-06 6-18 4-88 U4-86 1-96 8-56 6-66 33-46 1-32 21-91 5-20 3-72 146 -55 0-94 6-34 4-47 43-39 1-04 20-61 6-89 4-86 113-10 0-90 10-96 8-77 60-99 1 1-08 29-42 8-76 6-01 116-19 Total Deduct = CI ... Total.. 189-14 0-74 200-09 1-09 201 -26 1-45 210 -49 1-11 209 -38 229 -32 0-84 228 -48 201 -63 1-08 232-06 1-36 ASH OF WHEAT-GRAIN AND WHEAT-STRAW. 93 Straw, grown at Bothamsted, year after year on the same Land. Fresh Produce, Dry Matter, Nitrogen, Ash-Constitaents, and Total Ash Produce, in sixteen consecutive Seasons, 1848-1803. Plot 2. — Farmyard Manure, evei •y year. 1856 1857 1863 1859 I860 1861 1862 1863 Average. Harvests. 62-8 68-6 77-9 60-4 66-5 62-6 47-1 66-6 64-2 66-5 71-0 60-5 68-3 61-0 67-5 63-1 68-6 60-0 Grain to 100 straw. Wt. per bushel of grain, lbs. 2277 1881 35-6 2687 2212 43-6 2612 2099 40-1 2263 1872 39-1 1864 1694 31-9 ■2202 1864 36-3 2447 2038 32-0 2886 2442 37-1 2164 1804 33-1 Fresh produce. Dry matter. Nitrogen. 0-32 0-94 4-36 10-91 0-16 20-19 0-09 0-03 0-28 0-45 1-24 6-13 12-80 0-33 22-52 0-20 trace 0-21 0-39 1-12 4-79 13-68 0-12 22-27 0-32 0-03 0-21 0-31 0-94 4-42 12-31 0-21 20-79 0-20 trace 0-31 0-35 0-95 3-48 11-60 0-23 16-96 0-30 0-02 0-44 0-19 1-01 4-13 13-27 0-26 20-60 0-41 none 0-20 0-31 1-02 4-52 12-98 0-27 20-94 0-21 none 0-33 0-20 1-06 5-17 14-28 0-30 23-66 0-42 trace 0-29 0-30 0-94 4-04 11-45 0-22 18-83 0-27 0-01 0-27 Ferric oxide. Lime. Magnesia. Potash. Soda. Phosphoric anhydride. Sulphuric anhydride. Chlorine. Silica. 37-28 0-01 42-88 42-93 0-01 39-49 34-33 40-07 40-58 46-27 36-33 Total. Deduct = 01. 37-27 42-88 42-92 39-49 34-33 40-07 40-58 46 -27 36-33 Total. 4317 3587 13-6 3323 2805 10-9 3837 3269 16-4 4810 4073 16-3 3440 2924 16-4 3101 •2662 11-4 4195 3619 13-0 4279 3613 9-0 3677 3082 13-5 Fresh produce. Dry matter. Nitrogen. 1-15 9-38 3-71 34-44 1-25 8-06 6-16 5-38 167-29 1-23 8-35 2-47 30-75 0-68 6-30 4-08 6-14 95-32 0-92 8-46 3-56 46-60 1-03 7-16 7-47 10-08 127 -84 1-55 11-69 3-38 47-36 1-36 8-94 6-19 7-08 169-33 1-93 7-40 2-45 38-63 1-17 9-36 5-88 4-52 160 -96 0-44 6-48 2-29 48-89 1-37 6-89 6-68 9-60 110-42 0-91 7-61 3-16 84-23 1-27 7-73 5-39 4-36 171 -89 0-42 8-77 3-27 41-68 none 7-32 6-88 8-37 168 -03 1-02 8-19 3-03 36-70 1-00 7-65 6-91 6-34 132 -79 Ferric oxide. Lime. Magnesia. Potash. Soda. Phosphoric anhydride. Sulphuric anhydride. Chlorine. Silica. 236-82 1-23 154-32 1-37 212 -00 a -27 266 -77 1-60 232 -29 1-02 192 -96 2-16 236 -65 0-98 233 -74 1-88 202 -63 1-43 Total. Deduct = CI. 235-59 152-95 209 -73 264-17 231-27 190 -80 235 -67 231 -86 201-10 Total. 6594 5468 49-2 6910 5017 64-5 6349 6368 55-6 7073 5948 65-4 6304 4518 48-3 5303 4526 47-7 6642 W67 45-0 7165 6065 46-1 6831 4886 46-6 Fresh produce. Dry matter. Nitrogen. 1-47 10-32 8-07 46-35 1-41 28-25 6-25 5-41 167-67 1-68 9-59 7-60 43-66 I -01 27-82 4-28 6-14 95-53 1-31 9-68 8-34 69-18 1-16 29-42 7-79 10-11 128 -06 1-86 12-53 7-80 69-66 1-67 29-73 6-39 7-08 169 -64 2-28 8-36 6-93 60-23 1-40 26-31 6-18 4-54 161-40 0-63 7-49 6-42 62-16 1-63 27-49 7-09 9-60 no -62 1-22 8-63 7-68 47-21 1-64 28-67 6-60 4-36 172 -22 0-62 9-83 8-44 65-96 0-30 30-87 6-30 8-37 158 -32 1-32 9-13 7-07 48-16 1-22 26-38 6-18 6-36 133 -06 Ferric oxide. Lime. Magnesia. Potash. Soda. Phosphoric anhydride. Sulphuric anhydride. Chlorine. SiUca. 274-11 1-24 197 -20 1-37 254 -93 2-28 296-26 1-60 266 -62 1-02 233 -03 2-16 277 -13 0-98 279 -01 1-88 238 -86 1-43 Total. Deduct = CI. 272-86 195 -83 262 -65 293-66 265 -60 230 -87 276-16 277 -13 237 -43 Total. 94 LAWES AND GILBERT ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE Composition of the Ash of Wheat-Grain, and of Wheat- General Characters of the Produi (pure), per Acre, in Grain, S Plot 3. — Unmanured, every year. Appendix- Table VIII. — General Characters of the Produce, and Quantities of (pure), per Acre, in Grain, Straw, and Total Pro- Harvests.. 1849 1860 1854 Grain to 100 straw Weight per bushel of grain, lbs. .55-6 67-3 76-1 61-4 68-2 60-6 53-9 66-6 63-6 60-6 n J .(■_ . f Fresh produce Produce of gram, ( j, ^^^^^ per acre, tbs. ^uita-ogen 962 ' 765 16-6 1229 1011 17-5 1002 840 15-4 1083 913 15-2 860 710 14-1 1359 1161 22-1 1072 109 19-5 AshrConstUuents of grain, per acre, lbs. f Ferric oxide Lime Magnesia Potash Soda Phosphoric anhydride Sulphuric anhydride... Chlorine l.SiIioa 0-21 0-44 1-59 4-78 0-10 7-87 0-12 trace 0-21 0-20 0-60 1-86 6-72 0-08 9-08 0-35 trace 0-14 0-22 0'50 1-67 5-58 0-16 8-42 0-19 0-01 0-19 Total Deduct = CI .. 16-32 19-02 16-94 Total 16-32 17-74 0-14 0-60 2-36 7-68 0-16 11-09 0-36 0-01 O-IO 22-48 peracre,lbB. \NitWn 1712 1387 7-4 1614 1325 6-5 1719 1420 7-5 1627 1372 7-1 1597 1322 7-5 1413 1153 9-1 2137 1780. 6-i A ah^constituents of straw, per acre, lbs. Feme oxide Lime Magnesia Potash Soda Phosphoric anhydride Sulphuric anhydride Chlorine .Silica Total Deduct = CI Total.. 1-06 2-61 2-08 12-64 0-32 3-93 1-92 1-34 68-36 94-14 0-30 0-93 2-66 3-18 13-82 0-76 2-77 2-64 1-73 64-99 93-46 0-39 93-07 0-47 2-71 3-23 15-11 0-48 4-70 3-11 2-04 68-48 0-71 2-66 2-51 15-12 0-30 4-82 3-25 1-99 58-99 0-96 2-34 2-45 9-82 0-48 3-33 2-21 1-00 70-74 0-67 3-20 1-24 10-32 0-62 4-31 2-41 0-80 49-06 0-46 4-79 • 1-67 16-41 0-47 2-93 4-38 2-30 59-06 100 -33 0-46 90-25 0-46 93-33 0-23 72-52 0-18 92-45 0-62 Total produce ( Fresh produce {grain and Straw), < Dry matter per acre, lbs. (.Nitrogen 2664 2162 24-0 2843 2336 24-0 2721 2260 22-9 2710 2286 23-0 2457 2032 22-3 1772 1441 15-8 3496 2931 29-0 Ashrconstitumts of total produce (grain aitd -< straw), per acre, lis. Ferric oxide Lime Magnesia Potash Soda Phosphoric anhydride Sulphuric anhydride Chlorine Silica 1-26 3-05 3-67 17-32 0-42 11-80 2-04 1-34 68-66 1-13 3-26 5-03 20-54 0-83 11-85 2-99 1-73 66-13 0-69 3-21 4-90 20-69 0-64 13-12 3-30 2-05 68-67 0-84 3-09 4-31 21-28 0-38 13-52 3-45 2-00 69-12 0-59 5-39 4-02 24-09 0-63 14-02 4-73 2-31 59-16 Total Deduct = CI ... Total.. 109-46 0-30 112-48 0-39 117 -27 0-46 107 -99 0-46 107 -73 0-23 107-60 79-32 0-18 114-93 0-52 ASH OF WHEAT-GRAIN AND WHEAT-STRAW. 95 StrOiW, grown at Rothamsted, year after year on the same Land. Fresh Produce, Dry Matter, Nitrogen, Ash-Constituents, and TotaL Ash dace, in sixteen consecutive Seasons, 1848-1863. Plot 3. — TJmnanured, every year. sr" 1866 1857 1853 1869 1860 1861 1862 1863 Average. Parvests. 57-3 54-3 78-3 68-3 68-3 60-4 48-3 52-5 50-6 62-6 68-7 67-4 68-2 67-8 70-4 62-7 69-6 67-4 Grain to 100 straw. Wt. per bushel of grain, lbs. 892 733 14-0 1236 1049 20-0 1141 963 17-7 1051 866 17-0 738 613 11-8 736 626 12-8 996 820 14-4 1127 946 16-6 990 825 15-7 Fresh produce. Dry matter. Nitrogen. 0-13 0'38 1-61 4-57 0-10 7-85 0-16 tnu:e 0-15 0-22 0-68 2-18 6-46 0-09 10-09 0-26 0-01 0-20 0-20 0-53 2-02 6-30 0-09 9-79 0-13 none 0-19 0-17 0-49 1-98 5-75 0-07 9-11 0-23 0-02 0-19 0-21 0-36 1-21 4-46 0-10 6-29 0-29 0-03 0-32 0-14 0-37 1-31 4-72 0-07 6-51 0-23 0-02 0-34 0-22 0-42 1-70 5-38 0-20 8-26 0-27 0-01 0-19 0-09 0-49 2-01 6-95 0-14 9-49 0-12 none 0-11 0-16 0-47 1-72 6-46 0-10 8-28 0-21 0-01 0-18 Ferric oxide. Lime. Magnesia. Potash. Soda. Phosphoric anhydride. Sulphuric anhydride. Chlorine. Silica. 14-96 14-96 20-19 19-25 18-01 13-26 0-01 13-71 16-64 18-40 16-59 Total. Deduct = 01. 20-19 19 -25 18-01 13 -25 13-71 16-64 18-40 16-59 Total. 1558 1312 5-4 1677 1331 6-0 1670 1426 6-4 2175 1838 9-4 1459 1248 7-2 1254 1070 6-7 1713 1432 6-3 1600 1345 4-4 1663 1390 7-0 Fresh produce. Dry matter. Nitrogen. 0-90 3-54 1-30 9-13 0-46 3-08 2-44 1-13 66-25 1-05 1-86 2-24 9-67 1-35 2-25 1-75 1-39 42-85 0-53 4-82 1-72 13-67 0-49 2-38 3-49 2-06 50-35 0-90 6-95 1-66 12-84 0-62 3-68 3-36 1-37 68-04 1-37 4-26 1-08 11-99 0-36 3-62 2-48 1-19 77-87 0-23 3-14 1-06 15-16 0-26 2-69 2-97 2-34 46-95 0-67 3-70 1-28 10-78 0-36 3-02 2-69 1-19 75-30 0-32 4-20 1-42 12-47 0-24 3-03 2-74 1-96 69-83 0-73 3-45 1-88 12-93 0-49 3-36 2-78 1-68 62-55 Ferric oxide. Lime. Magnesia. Potash. Soda. Phosphoric anhydride. Sulphuric anhydride. Chlorine. Silica. 77-23 0-26 64-41 0-31 79 -61 0-46 98-21 0-31 104-21 0-26 73-79 0-63 98-88 0-28 96-21 0-44 89-85 0-88 Total. Deduct = 01. 76-97 64-10 79-05 97-90 103-95 73-26 98-60 95-77 89-47 Total. 2450 2046 19-4 2813 2380 26-0 2811 2379 24-1 3226 2704 26-4 2197 1861 19-0 1990 1696 19-5 2709 2262 20-7 '2727 2291 20-0 2663 2215 ■22 -7 Fresh produce. Dry matter. Nitrogen. 1-03 3-92 2-91 13-70 0-56 10-93 2-60 1-13 65-40 1-27 2-54 4-42 16-13 1-44 12-34 2-01 1-40 43-06 0-73 6-35 3-74 19-97 0-58 12-17 3-62 2-06 60-64 1-07 6-44 3-54 18-69 0-69 12-69 3-58 1-39 68-23 1-68 4-62 2-29 16-44 0-45 9-91 2-77 1-22 78-19 0-37 3-61 2-37 19-87 0-33 9-20 3-20 2-36 46-29 0-89 4-12 2-98 16-16 0-65 11-27 2-86 1-20 75-49 0-41 4-69 3-43 18-42 0-38 12-62 2-86 1-96 69-94 0-89 3-92 3-60 18-39 0-59 11-64 2-99 1-69 62-73 Ferric oxide. Lime, Magnesia. Pota.sh. Soda. Phosphoric anhydride. Sulphuric anhydride. Chlorine. Silica, 92-18 0-26 84-60 0-31 98-76 0-46 116-22 0-31 117-47 0-27 87-50 0-63 115-62 0-28 114-61 0-44 106-44 0-38 Total. Deduct = CI. _ 91-92 84-29 98-30 115-91 117-20 86-97 115-24 114-17 106 -06 Total. 96 LAWES AND GILBERT ON THE COMPOSITION OP THE Oomposition of the Ash of Wheat- Grain, and of Wheat- Appendix-Tahle IX. — General Characters of the Produce, and Quantities of (pure), per Acre, in Grain, Straw, and Total Produce, Plot 10a. — Ammonium- 8 alts alone, every year. Hai 1348 1849 1850 1851 1852 1853 1864 1856 Grain to 100 straw Weight per busliel 66-3 68-1 75-1 62-3 65-7 60-2 64-0 61-9 47-3 56-9 31 -3 48-6 61-6 60-6 51-2 57-1 Produce of grain pur acre, lbs. ■ Fresh produce 1334 1083 26-2 2141 1771 34-6 1721 1451 30-9 1966 1661 36-7 1320 1106 27-4 642 517 12-6 2211 1877 43-2 1285 1082 26-0 0-22 0-68 2-29 6-48 0-17 10-86 0-17 trace 0-30 0-23 1-02 3-04 10-51 0-13 13-66 0-80 0-01 0-25 0-21 0-98 2-89 8-96 0-08 13-30 0-42 0-01 0-16 0-26 1-06 3-20 9-79 0-20 14-88 0-44 0-01 0-19 0-13 0-71 2-57 5-69 0-10 10-72 0-13 trace 0-21 0-12 0-38 0-95 3-66 0-08 4-56 0-26 0-02 0-19 0-25 1-09 3-28 11-64 0-17 14-87 0-72 0-16 0-23 0-15 0-74 2-14 7-14 0-07 9-80 0-33 0-06 0-20 Potash AsJirCOnstituents of ffraifiy per acre, lbs. Soda Phosphoric anhydride Sulphuric anhydride... Chlorine LSilioa \ Total 21-17 29-56 27-01 30-01 20-26 10-21 32-30 0-03 20-63 0-01 Deduct = 01 ... Total 21-17 29-65 27-01 30-01 20-26 10-21 32-27 20-62 Produce of straw per acre, lbs. [■Fresh produce 2367 1960 16-1 2861 2392 20-3 3089 2647 20-6 3070 2606 19-3 2787 2322 20-7 2049 1658 21-4 3597 3032 17-0 2512 2087 12-9 0-60 5-64 1-52 14-60 0-79 3-44 3-28 2-03 75-28 1-08 9-76 3-02 20-63 2-66 3-78 4-95 4-60 90-00 0-61 8-68 3-06 24-44 2-41 4-87 5-83 5-26 86-24 0-74 8-41 3-33 24-07 2-09 5-12 4-63 5-82 88-31 0-98 7-27 2-09 13-68 1-71 3-26 3-31 2-01 96-11 1-16 4-76 1-29 16-40 0-85 4-21 ■ 3-16 2-44 63-39 0-52 7-84 2-39 32-22 0-71 2-95 6-56 6-96 79-10 0-34 5-46 1-48 25-80 1-01 2-45 6-25 6-3Q 71-16 Magnesia of straw, -1 jper acre, ihe. Phosphoric anhydride Sulphuric anhydride... LSilioa 106-98 0-46 140-38 1-04 141 -39 1-17 142-62 1-32 130 -42 0-46 97-65 0-55 139-26 1-67 118-26 1-19 Deduct = CI ... Total 106-52 139-34 140 -22 141-20 129-96 97-10 137 -68 117 -06 Total produce (grain and straw per acre, lbs. Fresh produce 3701 3043 42-3 4992 4163 54-8 4810 4098 61-6 6036 4267 55-0 4107 3428 48-1 2691 2176 34-0 6808 4909 60-2 3797 3169 38-9 Nitrogen 0-82 6-22 3-81 20-98 0-96 14-30 3-46 2-03 76-68 1-31 10-78 6-06 31-14 2-69 17-34 6-76 4-61 90-25 0-82 9-66 5-96 33-40 2-49 18-17 6-26 6-26 86-40 0-99 9-46 6-63 33-86 2-29 20-00 5-07 5-83 88-60 I -11 7-98 4-66 19-37 1-81 13-98 3-44 2-01 96-32 1-28 6-14 2-24 20-06 0-93 8-77 3-40 2-46 63-68 0-77 8-93 5-67 43-76 0-88 17-82 7-28 7-11 79-33 0-49 6-20 3-62 32-94 1-08 12-26 5-68 5-36 71-36 Lime Ash-constituents raqM :)i3nj Moqs /aq; f puB[3ag; n; a^Bp ja:)^! b jo sauaAoosip aq; aijBjoqojJoo pnc ?nB?Jodaii we 8jb 'pnB[a9z:jiMg 'nasnequaqoy ;b 'a8[ntuooiss8j\[ jo puB 'aa3avjj\^ jBau 'jjajj i(q papjooai eauaAOOsip aqj, 'iCiddns pooj jo aojnos b sb pasn sbm raaqj Xq puB saqii; jCjjBa aqi jCq pa}BAt:nno sbm ijBaqM ^Bq:> vfpAisnjonoo SA\oqs siqx '^^^ ano)s aq; jo [BijajBca ouojsiqajd jaqp qjm aoipanaoo ni pnnoj snatnioads JO snBara Aq i; aoEj; o% pajqBua naaq aABq aM. %vm naAa pnOifaq ?ng •aSBanij sji aoBj'^ O'} sn sajqBna noijuani jbuoisbooo jo ^nanbajj ajaqA\ 'sSupiiM ;naionB aqj ijb qSnojq? 5[0Bq saoS ifjo:)siq e^j "pooj joj pasn pnB p3jBAi:j[no sniBjS [eaaao ^sapjo aq:j jo aao X[qBqoad si ^Baq^ •AHOXSIH "UaM. SB pooj Joj asn Jiaq; nt pnB A[tBoiaB:)oq pa^B[aj if[JBan jp aaB naoo pnB 's^BO 'Ia\ -jBq 'ais ':)Baq/i\ snqj^ •^BaqMijonq :)daoxa saiBaS fBajaa jno j[b png 9M dnojS auo ni ajjqM. 'scnnqSjos aq) Saiprqoni 's5aB[d aSsjoj jasjBOO aqj JO XuBiu pnB sassBjS aq^ apn[oai sapads asaqj;, 'saioads jo jaqranu aSjBi B o;)nj papiAip asaq; puB 'passnosip BjaaaS xis-X:)Xis pnB saqu) aaaq:^ 'AviQ o:j SaipjoooB 'Saiaq aaaq!) 'sjnB[d jo sjapjo )saSjB[ aq; jo ano SI siqji^ •WduimvdQ -^{iniBj jo japjo (jBajS aq:j ni S)aB[d jo sdnojS aq; JO auo jo snnaS b si ;i '•» "i f ssbjS b sb ^BaqM. Aionjj s;sinB;og ■piMcn aq; ui s)nB[d Snionpojd-pBajq jo pBaq aq; ;b ;BaqM aoB[d o; jibj aM nosBaj siq; ao^ •qojE;s jo ;jBd ;BajS ni pasodnioo Saiaq q;oq jo spaas aq; 'noi;isodraoD ni aJ[ilB qontn ajB om; aq; ^[[BoituaqQ "aaBj UBninq aq; jo oo!;jod JofBcn aq; jo aoaBna;sns aq; nijoj o; piBS si 'aou 'jauaSnoo s;i ;nq 'pasn niBj3 aq; o; XjjBfnoi; -jBd ajom SaiJjajaj ^,'aji[ jo jg;B;s aq;„ pa;Buinioaap naaq SBq pBajg •XjjnnoD jno ui sjaqjo [jb aAoqB 8pnB;s iBaiao siq; ;nq 'pooj joj soijoj snojJBA ui pasn ajB suibjS Jaq;o •;aBid Snionpojd-pBajq ;BajS aq; sb BOijaray ui XBp-o; spnB;s IBaq^y^ •noi;Bioos9y ^sjaj -\\K 3?«1S 'NOSNHOf -g -ji ;napisaj ^ a J ^ -< -fl oj OS I-* ^ .-S > rK r^ 3^ O =« .. .2 H V .2 'J= P > o tn .-i S ^ ■" r^ a; -S ^ S g 0) .:: _a -C Si w _ . eg prt trt .S •z: ■S "a j^ *!= ra n §-■§ § oi i^-sifl g 2|S a a (» I --^ i § I I I 2 " g -J i II ^ 1 - ^ ^ I ^1 -^^it -^ J f|| I I^J I 1^.2 § IS :S3S. 1^ ■t to o •^ CO 84 Wheat and Some of Its Produots. NEW VAEIETIES. M. Henri Vilmorin, in France, and Carter Bros., seedsmen, in Lon- don, have done much to bring out new varieties by cross-fertilization ; also a number of men and experiment stations in America are at work upon the same problem. That new varieties can be very readily multiplied and distributed is shown by the work of Mr. Jones. (See vol. 3, 1st series, Jour. Eoyal Agrl. Society Eng., page 395.) 1. One ear of wheat, 50 grains selected, sown, produced from 30 grains which grew, 14f ounces. 2. Sowed 14f ounces and received 1 bu. 1 pk. 3. Sowed 1 bu. 1 pk. and received 45 bushels. 4. Sowed 45 bushels and received 537 bushels. Thus in four years from one head (ear) of wheat was raised enough grain to sow a section of land, as some seed it, and about 500 acres as the majority sow it. The experiment stations are glad to do the work for the farmer and then distribute the results of their labor. WHEAT IN NEBRASKA. The raising of wheat has engaged the attention of the farmers of this state to some extent for several years. In this work, spring va- rieties have usually been chosen so as not to subject the crop to the dangers incident to hard freezipg, often unaccompanied by snow. It has only been in recent years, that the more progressive farmers have attempted to raise winter wheat in any quantity. The year 1892 seems to have been well adapted to the growth of this cereal and the consequence is that about 25,000,000 bushels of wheat of excel- lent quality were raised and a large per cent marketed. The yields reported from all parts of the state were exceptionally large and va- ried from 25 to 52 bushels per acre of weighed wheat. In 1891 twenty-seven varieties of wheat were grown at the Experiment Sta- tion, and out of that number only a few withstood the attacks of rust which were so prevalent that year, and gave reasonably good yields ; out of these, four varieties wer'e selected and seed sown in larger area, to note the result when cultivated as does the ordinary farmer. In addition to these the seed of the Ironclad was obtained in South Da- kota ; it was recommended for its hardiness and for being prolific un- Wheat and Some of Its Products. 85 der strongly adverse conditious. In this respect it did not seem to equal the other varieties, Hickman and Tuscan Island, growing beside it. At no period of its growth did it show such good appearance or growth of top or root, nor did it yield as well. The seed of two other varieties was obtained from foreign sources and sown, but they were entirely gone by April 1, 1 892, so that the land was plowed and sown to other crops. Table II. — Winter Wheat— Best Five Varieties. No. Variety. Landreth..., Extra Early Red, Hickman Tuscan Island... Ironclad Area Date acres. sown. 1891. 2.5 Sept. 29 2.5 Sept. 30 1.0 Oct. 17 1.0 Oct. 17 1.0 Oct. 17 Condition When When har- April 9, 1892. headed. vested. 1892. 1892. 100 June 6 July 11 100 June 6 July 13 100 June 9 July 11 85 June 9 July 13 85 June 14 July 30 Bushels per acre. 36.17 39.00 41.00 36.00 27.00 Other varieties of winter wheat were sown as follows, and out of the number, several did well, others medium, and others poorly. We have not designated the yield, as the loss by shelling and from other unavoidable causes was such that the error of computation to acre areas must be such as to give unreliable results. 86 Wheat and Some of Its Products. Table III. — Winter Wheat— Experiment Plats. No. 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 Variety. Brazilian Bed Buckeye Cross Bed Currell Deitz Egyptian Fnltz Hungarian May Mediterranean Miller Missouri Blue Stem Nigger Oakley Penquite's Velvet Chaff. Poole Beliable Bnmsey Bussian Bed Sibley's New Golden.... Strayer's Egyptian Strayer's Longberry Tasmanian Bed Wyandotte Bed . ., Coryell Deitz Longberry Fnlcaster Fultz Genesee Golden Cross Golden Prolific Lancaster Bed New Australian Velvet Chaff. When sown. Condition April 9, 1892. 1891. Oct. 19 Oct. 19 Oct. 19 Oct. 19 Oct. 19 Oct. 19 Oct. 19 Oct. 19 Oct. 19 Oct. 19 Oct. 19 Oct. 19 Oct. 19 Oct. 19 Oct. 19 Oct. 19 Oct. 19 Oct. 19 Oct. 19 Oct. 19 Oct. 19 Oct. 19 Oct. 19 Oct. 19 Oct. 19 Oct. 19 Oct. 19 Oct. 19 Oct. 19 Oct. 19 Oct. 19 Oct. 19 Oct. 19 Oct. 19 60 65 60 70 68 75 65 90 70 65 75 70 75 65 75 80 30 60 70 20 20 20 35 35 60 70 65 65 70 70 65 65 65 75 Wheat headed. Har- vested. 1892. June 10 June 10 June 13 June 10 June 11 June 11 June 12 June 10 June 10 June 12 June 11 June 12 June 12 June 12 June 14 June 13 June 14 June 19 June 14 June 13 June 14 June 12 June 12 June 11 Jnne 11 June 13 June 14 June 13 June 13 June 14 June 13 June 12 June 12 June 12 1892. July 27 July 27 July 27 July 27 July 27 July 27 July 27 July 27 July 27 July 27 July 27 July 27 July 27 July 27 July 27 July 27 July 27 July 27 July 27 July 27 July 27 July 26 July 26 July 26 July 26 July 26 Jnly26 July 26 July 26 July 26 July 26 July 26 July 26 July 26 Condition at harvest. 60 65 60 80 75 70 75 85 70 75 75 70 80 60 95 80 40 60 65 20 25 20 35 50 65 65 70 75 70 70 70 75 65 80 The seed of many of the above named varieties was received from the Kansas Experiment Station by courtesy of the officers, while other varieties have been grown at the station, Lincoln, Nebraska, for one or more years. In grading the appearance in April and at har- vest, Landreth, Extra Early Red, and Hickman were each rated at 100. Tuscan Island and Ironclad at 85. Some of the varieties improved later in the season, while others failed to improve and even depreciated in value. The yield of all the varieties was full in quality, and sam- ples in the sheaf and of the threshed wheat have been used in the ad- vertising train and in other ways to show Nebraska's productions. Wheat and Some of Its Products. 87 SPRING WHEATS. The following varieties were raised from seed imported from India and raised one year in Colorado under irrigation : Table IV. — India Wheat. No. Province. Variety. Condition at harvest. 1 ^1 9 Ferozepur Lfaladoim . ^ FerozeDUr . . Lalawal > . 4 BanDU WalaWala ,5 Ratti Injured quite seri- ously by hot winds. 8 Ferozepur Lalawal 7 Lohi 8 X)era> Tannnl-'K'a.Tm Pilli 9 Baeei in BaDDU Waziri-sani J&hel 11 RawalPitidi EodiChitti These wheats were sown April 16th at the rate of six pecks seed per acre, and made reasonable growth. Three or four of the varieties give promise of usefulness. All will be sown in the spring of 1893. In addition to these the following varieties were grown : No. Table V. — Spring Wheat Varieties. Variety. Saxon Fife Gypsum Polish {Triticum Polonicum) Australian Club Chili Minnesota Fife Prussian Niagara Amethyst Remarks. Promising. Good. Good. Fair. Fair. Poor. Poor. Fair. Good. The seed of the above varieties was obtained from Colorado, and sown April 23, 1892, at the rate of six pecks seed per acre. The product did not equal in quality the seed sown, nor did the varieties yield as they have usually done at the elevation of 5,000 feet, under irrigation. They will be subjected to further trial, in order to see if, when thoroughly acclimated, they will not improve. 88 Wheat and Some of Its Products. DISTRIBUTION. This section of the Experiment Station, impressed with the value of winter wheat as a paying crop in the state, made a distribution of 250 bushels of five varieties of wheat, which had given the best results during 1891-92. The varieties (Hickman, Landreth, Tuscan Isl- and, Ironclad, and Extra Early Eed) were put in twenty-pound packages — one-third of a bushel — and sent by express with the re- quest that certain definite questions enclosed be answered after har- vest in 1893. If but a single variety proves to be a valuable accession to our list for general production, this work of the Experiment Sta- tion will be valuable to the state. On accouHt of the extreme and prolonged drouth, extending from August 22, 1892, to near April 1, 1893, and which covered nearly all of Nebraska, winter wheat was severely tried, and as the distribution of seed did not take place so that sowing could be perforoned earlier than September 29 to October 10, and on some plats as late as Oc- tober 29, out of nearly 750 packages sent out with blanks for report only about 50 were returned, or the recipients sent personal letters ex- plaining the results. Ninety per cent of them said, "Frozen or dried out," " did not withstand the winter." A few made a comparison be- tween the wheat distributed and the Turkey Red, a standard variety extensively cultivated in the state. Others reported good yields under excellent conditions of selected soil, etc., one reporting 75 bushels per acre for Landreth White. The fact that at least three persons ob- tained such results as this where the wheat was sown late upon low, black loam (creek bottom soil) shows that the drouth affected all other plats. WHEAT IN 1893. There being no winter wheat sown in 1892, there was no harvest in 1893. The condition of the soil was such as to utterly preclude the idea of preparing it so as to sow grain upon it or to germinate it if sown. (See Plate II, where beets were being plowed out October 1, 1892.) The spring wheats were again sown, with the result that excellent growth was made until the grain was forming, when a few days of hot south wind caused it to shrink and shrivel so that there was only a poor yield of grain of inferior quality. Yet of the India wheats there are at least four varieties that promise to "■f"".' '"/ '>7 ' ;*" W s -^.^ ' ,' « *)«.' ■^ V V . •4, '^ '♦ .'' V'4' .. f \, . . 1 Wheat and Some of Its Products. 89 withstand drouth and hot winds quite well, as they are bred to do in their habitat. The Fife wheat, an excellent hard wheat, and very fine when well grown, for milling purposes, only made a poor yield and its quality was much impaired. MILLING QUALITIES. It has been known for several years that the wheat most desired by the miller was a variety which was hard and flinty, because in milling it produced a flour of a superior quality, one that was especially liked by the bakers and consumers. The former desired a flour that would produce a greater number of loaves of bread of good quality. This depended in a great measure upon the per cent of gluten (an albumi- noid compound) in the wheat and flour. The soft wheats contain a large per cent or proportion of starch to albumen. It therefore often happens that the variety of wheat that is most profitable for the baker and the miller to handle is the very one that is a poor variety for the farmer to raise, for the reason that it is not a strong grower or good yielder.* The farmer prefers to raise wheat that is of a large berry, that grows strongly and branches or tillers well, and that threshes out the greatest number of bushels per acre. This to him is manifestly to his greatest profit, provided the price per bushel remains the same ; but the miller can ill afford to buy much wheat of that character as it must be mixed with wheat of harder berry in order to produce a nice even quality of first-class flour. Gibson, in his work on milling^ says : " The facilities for knowing flours are better in the flour markets than in the mills." " The facilities for examination are best where there is the greatest variety of flours." Color and strength are the two cardinal points in flour. If very white, but of poor strength, or if of dark color and good strong flour, they are equally undesirable- from the baker's standpoint, and so do not sell well. The strength depends upon the amount of gluten present, while the color depends on the amount of foreign substance in the flour, i. e., fibrous matter * Gradual Beduction Milling, chapters XI and XII, by Gibbons. Report of Mich. Board of Agr. for 1878, Eeport of Chemist, pages 47-8. "Eeport ou Hungarian Milling," in the report of the statistician of Departmentr of Agriculture, report 101, new series. Bulletin 4, Bureau of Chemistry, Dept. of Agr., "The Composition of Americaa Wheat and Corn." 90 Wheat and Some of Its Products. from bran, middlings, etc., together with material from the germ of the wheat. The last makes dark flour. Again, the fineness of divi- sion affects the color. The finer ground flour, other things being equal, has the lighter color. The dough test, practiced by millers and oth- ers, consists in working up a given quantity of flour into dough with water and after a few minutes testing it for its color and elasticity. This indicates quite well the value of the flour. Having shown the apparent opposition of interests of the miller, the baker, and the consumer, to that of the farmer, let us suggest that as farmers we attempt to produce as far as possible the wheats which are desirable and breed them up to a better standard of profit to ourselves by attention to SELECTION OP SEED. The ordinary method of selecting seed is as follows : First — Select that variety which has shown itself to be hardy and to give a large yield. Second — When threshed run this through the fanning mill and take out the majority of weed seeds and light grains by a strong blast of air, and by a screen to remove all the small ones. The seed thus selected looks nice and possibly may give good results. But the wheat plant has traits of heredity, the same as other things in nature, and, as many of its characteristics are highly bred up through a long series of years, several things need attention. To show you how the wheat plant has been developed we call at- tention to Plate I, in which we give a photograph of the old native wheat plant with one or two grains in each head. Then another with from six to ten grains. Then the spelt, a higher and more differen- tiated] form, and the Polish wheat, improperly called "giant rye"; lastly, the fully developed head of wheat from a field which yielded 40 bushels per acre. To one who will give this matter close attention the plate is full of interest. At one glance it tells the history of the development of the heads of the plant from a poverty-stricken low form to one of strong growth, of good profit to cultivate, and the supporter of life to a large part of the human race. Perhaps no man has done more in a short space of time in the se- lection of seed wheat and thus building up useful and valuable varie- ties that are wonderfully prolific than has Mr. Frederick F. Hallett in England. This gentleman took the ordinary varieties of wheat and selected the largest heads from the largest and longest stalks. He Wheat and Some of Its Products. 91 took note that these came from a strong root with a large number of tillers or branches. When these were threshed and the small and imperfect grains culled out, the perfect grain was sown. This process was repeated through a series of years until the following result was shown : Table YL—Salleii's Wheat. Year. 1857 1858 1859 1860 1861 Grain. Original ear Finest ear raised. Finest ear raised. Heads imperfect.. Finest ear , Length. 4f inches 6jt inches 7f inches 8f inches No. of grains. 47 79 91 123 No. of ears on one root. 10 22 39 52 By this process the length of the ear was nearly doubled, the num- ber of grains per head trebled, and the tillering or branching of the plant increased fivefold. This is the rational w^y to select seed, and it is the only way in which the ordinary difiiculties may be overcome. The ordinary method selects only the plump grains; many of these have probably been raised on a weak sucker or tiller on a stalk and on a very short head. It may have come also from a root sup- porting only two or three stalks. What a contrast to the former method which takes the heads for a series of generations from a distin- guished line, each more valuable and better developed than the pre- ceeding ones. It also tends to fix the three characteristics already named, viz., length of head or ear, the number of grains in each, and the number of stalks from one grain of wheat sown. SMUT. Bulletin 11 of the Experiment Station has one section devoted to the damage to cereal grains by smut. This is caused by the lodgment of the spores in the heads of grain where they develop and destroy the grain. This year many inquiries came to us from the western counties of this state as to what to do to prevent this great damage. Bulletins were sent out and articles prepared for the newspapers, editors, millers, and others, as well as the farmers who were seeking for relief, knowing 92 Wheat and Some of Its Products. full well that the prosperity of the farmer is the foundation on which all prosperity is built. At the risk of repetition we repeat the remedy for smut to be used thoroughly on the seed every year. The follow- ing is the prescription; use it in the following proportions : 4 ounces of blue vitriol (copper sulphate). 1 gallon of water. Fill a barrel two-thirds full of the solution. Dip the wheat thor- oughly so that all the wheat grains are well soaked ; ten minutes prob- ably will suffice. Use a gunny sack, or some other old sack, and ar- range a drip shelf so that the fluid drip will run back into the barrel. Renew the strength of the solution and the quantity from time to time so as to do the work with thoroughness. The smut may not all leave the first year, but two or three years of persistent efibrt will cause it to succumb and be practically annihilated. Hot water and other remedies have been recommended, but an experience of nine years, where this treatment of seed was persisted in by the best farm- ers, shows a uniformity of good results, and that the above formula is an excellent remedy. The losses which this remedy is designed to prevent were reported in several counties by good judges to be nearly or quite 50 per cent. FLOUB AND GLUTEN TESTS. The Experiment Station, becoming convinced that something in re- gard to the milling qualities would be highly appreciated by the wheat raisers, addressed a letter to Mr. F. S. Johnson, president of the State Millers' Association, asking him to co-operate with them in presenting this phase of the wheat question. This he kindly offered to do, and arranged a test of several varieties which was carried to completion. He then wrote us the following letter, dated March 21, 1893 : "We are a little backward with regard to having our humble report on the samples of wheat sent us submitted to the criticisms of scientists all over the world. So many conditions affect a test such as this ; the condition of the wheat, the amount of the sample, etc. With a half bushel lot, the rolls are no sooner adjusted to properly grinding it than the wheat gives out. Closer grinding will yield a larger per cent of gluten than the coarse grinding method we are obliged to use with a small lot. Then, too, the quality of the gluten is an item that Wheat and Some of Its Produots. 93 should enter into such a report as you desire to make. There is a dif- ference in wheat in this respect. " Personally we should very much prefer to make a series of tests with small lots, or a single exhaustive test with large lots, before pub- lishing results to be sent broadcast. We would then be more certain as to the accuracy of the results, and would not be afraid to meet any criticism. Of course, in making a series of tests much time would be needed, which will be shown by the fact that our Mr. McEachron was engaged about three days with the nineteen samples which you sent us, but we feel that the subject is an important one, directly to the peo- ple of Nebraska, and too great pains cannot be taken to get a good and right start. We shall be pleased to have you call upon us at any time and will take pleasure in showing you anything in our mill or any of our methods. We have no secrets in the milling industry. We hand you with this, directions accompanying our device for test- ing gluteu and the name of the device. " Our idea in investigating the various wheat samples was mainly to ascertain how they compared with each other and with the principal varieties of wheat raised iu this vicinity. We believe that any of the varieties we had from you will make a good flour; i. e., they are what are called good milling wheats, and are far better in all ways than the varieties used by our farmers. There may be a question with regard to their hardiness in our climate, and we trust that this question will be settled satisfactorily, if it has not already been done." The Director had forwarded nineteen samples from the state Experi- ment Station that were raised in 1892 in sufBcient quantity, and the test was made in the following manner with the aleurometer, made by M. Boland, Paris, France, an instrument designed for the purpose of ascertaining the bread-making qualities of different kinds of flour: THE ALEUROMETER. An instrument for measuring the per cent of aleurone or gluten, present in flour. It shows relatively the bread-making quality of flour. "The bread-making qualities of flour depend not only upon the quan- tity of gluten it contains, but also upon the property it haslof forming with water a dough more or less firm, strong, and elastic, and in con- sequence producing a bread more or less light and palatable. " The object of the aleurometer is to measure the elasticity of gluten 94 Wheat and Some of Its Products. submitted to the same temperature as bread in the process of baking. It is composed of a hollow upper tube having at its lower extremity a movable cap, at the other end a small piston and scale. The piston, drawn its full length from the tube, shows twenty-five marks or divis- ions. The first of these marks is numbered 25. The space between the cap at the bottom of the tube and the piston corresponds to twenty- five divisions, making the total interior length of the instrument equivalent to the fifty divisions on the scale. This, properly speaking, is the aleurometer, and may be used by bakers as it is, in their ovens. But that it may be used by others, the following described addition has been made : "Upon a copper stove, heated by an alcohol lamp, rests a copper base enclosed by a cover, in the center of which is soldered a cylindrical tube. This copper base must be filled with sufficient oil (any oil not explosive will suffice, neats-foot oil preferred) to completely submerge the tube. Light the lamp and introduce the thermometer in the cop- per tube. Allow the temperature to rise until the thermometer indi- cates a temperature of 150 degrees C. Then remove the instrument and introduce the aleurometer in its place, having beforehand placed the gluten in the little cap at the bottom of the tube. The lamp is allowed to burn ten minutes longer and is then extinguished. Ten minutes after, the gluten is removed from the aleurometer after noting the number of marks in the scale. During this operation, the gluten, under the influence of the water which is seduced to vapor, expands and moulds itself in the cylinder of the aleurometer. In its develop- ment it rises through the empty space of 25 degrees, which separates it from the piston and by its expansive force lifts the latter so that we take from the aleurometer a cylinder of gluten which represents ex- actly a skeleton of the loaf of bread it will make. If the gluten does not rise as high as the piston and in consequence does not dilate as much as 25 degrees, it should be considered as unfit for making bread. "In this test the gluten is obtained from a dough made of thirty grammes flour and fifteen grammes water, by washing in a basin of water and then under a jet of water, thus removing all starch. The gluten remaining is squeezed and compressed to remove all excess of water. A piece weighing seven grammes, first rolled in starch to pre- vent it from adhering to any object, is used in the attached directions." Wheat and Some of Its Products. 95 95 sl-s H a ».3 OOaOQOaOQOC005CX)l>QO S So 13 CB 15 S o is o an o ^ g a o It ?! ►1 on Fl A r^ H a> 96 Wheat and Some of Its Products. , Tlie final report was made as follows : This, with the chemical gluten determinations of the same wheats made for the Agricultural Depart- ment by Professor Nicholson, is for convenience of reference arranged in the same table (Table VII) in columns headed laboratory tests. The samples of wheat were tested for color of flour and baker's per cent of gluten; the wheats are also described as to condition of grain when received from the Agricultural Experiment Station of the Uni- versity of Nebraska. The tests ,were made by Mr. John McEachron, with F. S. Johnson & Co., millers, Milford, Nebraska. In further explanation of the material and data furnished by the above table we append the following communication from Mr. F. S. Johnson, president of the State Millers' Association : "We hand you herewith result of tests on samples of wheat which you sent us some time since. You will notice that we have one col- umn descriptive of the wheat berry. . We have put this in more for our own information than anything else. With reference to color tests, we took the whitest flour, that made from the Landreth sample as a standard, using the No. 10. With each shade darker we dimin- ished by one. The gluten tests were made by a device purchased by us in Paris, France. It is made expressly for this purpose and is sup- posed to yield accurate results. You will understand that under more favorable conditions our tests would show up to greater advantage. With a larger quantity of each kind of wheat we could have made whiter flour from each sample. Where the wheat is sprouted, there is necessarily some loss in gluten. All these wheats are good milling wheats, in our opinion. We made some tests with the Turkey winter wheat and with several varieties of spring wheat. The results are favorable to your samples. We have samples of the flour made from this grain which are at your disposal if you desire them. We would like to have further investigations made along this line and will gladly do anything in our power at any time, provided we can be of service to you." The milling qualities of the grain then depend, as has been shown, upon the general term hard and soft, as applied to wheat. For purposes of comparison we introduce the results obtained by Mr. Cliflbrd Richardson, of the Department of Agriculture, Wash- ington, D. C. In his report of 1884, page 29, he summarizes the re- sults of 147 complete analyses of wheat in which the average albu- Wheat and Some of Its Products. 97 minoids present was 10.53 per cent. These wheats were grown in various parts of the United States and in the British Provinces. The samples showed the highest per cent to be 18.03 and the lowest 7.70 per cent. The averages by divisions were as follows : Table VIII. — Albuminoids. Average Highest Lowest per cent. per cent. per cent. Atlantic States 11.57 12.78 10.33 Middle states 12.86 16.10 10.68 "Western states 12.71 18.03 8.93 Manitoba 14.53 15.58 13.48 Pacific states 13.49 12.78 7.70 It has been asserted that the per cent of gluten increases in an ele- vated inland climate but decreases in an oceanic climate, and that seed transported from the latter to the former climate does not for several years become as fully developed in gluten deposits as the native grown wheats. Agricultural Science for 1887 says that grain of high specific gravity is usually rich in gluten. Richness in this constituent is valua- ble as determining the market value of grain. It gives it greater baking value and it is accompanied with a greater increase of phosphate, which is an important element. It then refers to the changes brought about by climate and compares English wheat with that of continental Europe and western United States of America. Oceanic climate, however, will, if arid, act like inland climate. But in this work man may in part forestall nature by performing the labor of harvest when the grain is in the soft or doughy state. In this case the development of the seed is thus arrested before the internal part is crowded by starch gran- ules, and while the albuminoid substance, principally gluten, is at its maximum. The experiments of Dr. R. C. Kedzie, of Michigan Experiment Station, reported in bulletin 101, are full of interest and show this fact in a marked manner by means of diagrams. In this experiment wheat was cut daily during a period of forty-six days, beginning when it was in the milk very early, and closing when both the straw and the wheat were dead ripe and perfectly dry. Chemical analyses of each day's cutting of both wheat and straw were made. At first the albu- minoids were in excess, and the starch, fat, etc., called collectively carbohydrates, were low. In a few days there were rapid changes. ■98 Wheat and Some of Its Produets. The albumiuoids fell in the scale, while the other constituents rapidly increased. The relative yield of grain also increased. If then there comes very hot weather, accompainied by extreme drouth, during the early stage of ripening, it is hurtful, because it gives shrunken grain and poor yield in weight. The grain may, however, contain relatively a greater per cent of albuminoids. When we examine the flours we find the average dry gluten present, in Table VII, to be 12.71 per cent. The average of eighteen samples reported from ten states by Richardson (Nebraska not included) shows an average of 10.54 per cent. In this list the highest report was on Minnesota low grade flour, which contained 14.06 per cent of dry gluten. The lowest report was on Oregon New Process flour, which showed 6.75 per cent present. On this point the author says: The Minnesota low grade flour contains more gluten than any heretofore examined. This would not only be remarkable for any flour, but is still more so for one of low grade. The Oregon flour corresponds in composition to the Oregon wheat. It shows the smallest amount of gluten found in any of the analyses. Desiring in this connection to present the results of examinations of wheats from various parts of the world, and also of their flour, we quote from the results of McDougall Bros.' Experiments in London, England. In condensed form we present the results of their work. British India flour, 8 samples, average gluten 10.50 percent. Russian wheat flour, 4 samples, average gluten 19.63 per cent. English wheat flour, 2 samples, average gluten 11.00 per cent. Egyptian wheat flour, 4 samples, average gluten 6.60 per cent. Australian wheat flour, 2 samples, average gluten 11.90 per cent. New Zealand wheat flour, 2 samples, average gluten 9.60 per cent. California wheat flour, 2 samples, average gluten 9.60 per cent. American winter wheat flour, 2 samples, average gluten 11.35 per cent. American spring wheat flour, 2 samples, average gluten 14.95 per cent. There seems to be much difference in these flours as far as per cent of dry gluten is concerned, and we again ask the reader to consult Table VII for the results obtained from Nebraska wheats grown at our ex- periment station, when taken individually and collectively. Our flours, as examined by the chemist, show an average per cent of gluten ex- celled only by the flour of the Russian hard wheats, and the Correll wheat flour, with its 20.40 per cent of dry gluten leads them all. Wheat and Some of Its Products. 99 Finally, we wish to enquire how the five wheats sent out in the wheat distribution stood for production and quality. For this purpose we construct Table IX. Table IX. Wheat — variety. LaDdreth's White.. . Hickman Tuscan Island Bed. Extra Early Bed.... Ironclad Average.. Flour — color. 10 White 9 White 7 Slightly yellow. 8 White 8 Slightly yellow. Dry gluten — per cent. 11.20 11.33 11.14 11.02 12.27 11.39 Baker's gluten test. ..30 .o8.'J .473 .333 .40 .37S As will be seen, these varieties did not come up to the general average in gluten, either in the chemical or the baker's test; but by referring to Table II, it will be seen that these were the varieties which gave good yields per acre, and excellent results every way from the farmer's standpoint. The flour they produce, however, is simply good average flour from the baker's standpoint, with the color very good. Land- reth's White, which stands at the head, shows the best color of all. The wheats showing the greater per cent of gluten and the high bak- ing tests in their flours were not able to withstand the winter well, nor did they yield nearly so much wheat per acre. The five varieties shown in Table IX cost, delivered at the elevator in the city, an average of 24.7 cents per bushel, practically, 25 cents in round numbers. The cost depends upon the yield very largely ; more so than upon any other single factor. These yielded well (from 26.66 to 40.75 bushels per acre), and gave promise of being strong growing varieties in all places and under all circumstances. Here are two things which seem somewhat incompatible, and it is one of the difficult problems to solve. We have opened the question well, with the assistance of the State Millers' Association. With their aid we hope to accomplish more in 1894. In order further to elucidate this subject a careful microscopical ex- amination of the structure of the wheat grain, together with its devel- opment, was suggested. Later on, a microscopical examination of the bran as a product of the milling was also suggested. The section upon these subjects has been prepared by Dr. Charles E. Bessey, botanist of the Experiment Station, assisted by Miss Edna Hyatt, who' has prepared the drawings from miscroscopic slides. 100 Wheat and Some of Its Products. THE STEUCTURE OF THE WHEAT GRAIN. By Charles E. Bkssky. The Young Ovary. — In order to understand the structure of the ma- ture grain of wheat, we must go back to the young ovary before the Fig. 1. — A young ovary of the wheat, magnified 15 times. Fig. 2. — Hairs upon the upper end of the wheat grain, magnified 75 times. flower has opened or fertilization has taken place. The ovary is con- sidered by morphologists to be biearpellary by reduction from the typical tricarpellary ovary of the lily type. It has two styles (Fig. 1), which arise at some distance from one another and whose upper portions are densely feathery-hairy. The ovary proper is nearly spherical in its young state and is covered with hairs over its upper surface. These hairs are one- celled, and later become thick walled and rigid (Fig. 2). They are persistent and may be seen upon the mature grain as a little tuft at its upper end. Although the ovary is compound, it produces but one ovule which arises upon the interior dorsdl Fig. 3. — Vertical sec- n • l i. j i .i i i tion through a young snriace, growing somewhat upward and then bend- ovary showing the ing downward. It has two thin coats, and the ovule. Highly mag- . i • i- . i i •, /-r-,. „> nified, and partly micropyle 18 directed downward (Fig. 3). diagrammatic. Wheat and Some of Its Products. 101 This young ovule is not at first as large as the cavity of the ovary, but it soon grows sufficiently to fill it, and long before the ripening of the grain it is quite difficult to make out the boundary line between the ovary- wall and the ovule. The Mature Grain. — The grain of wheat at maturity consists, as has been intimated, of a single seed enclosed in the tightly-fitting walls of its ovary. Technically it is is a caryopsis, — the characteristic seed and pod of the great grass family. During its growth from its spherical form when young, it gradually undergoes considerable changes in form. Instead of increasing in every direction it elongates and broadens, and its lateral portions fold inward, thus forming the well known furrow along its upper surface. If this folding were not to take place, a wheat grain would be flat, closely resembling a grain of corn. Externally, the surface of the grain is smooth, with the exception of the hairy tuft at the summit already re- ferred to. Under the mi- croscope the surface is seen to consist of elongated cells of pretty regular outline and having their walls thickened in a peculiarly irregular manner (Fig. 4). This epidermal layer cov- ers the whole grain, extend- ing to the bottom of the fur- row and emerging again on the other side. At the lower Fig. 4,- part of the rounded back of the grain is a flattening, or slight depression, which marks the posi- tion of the embryo. Immediately below this is the point of attach- ment of the grain to the axis of the spikelet, showing in many cases as a little scar upon the surface. Before leaving the examination of the exterior it may be well to di- rect attention to the fact that the spores of smut very commonly find -Epidermal cells of the wheat grain. Enlarged 225 times. 102 Wheat and Some of Its Products. lodgment in the furrow, from which it is very difficult to remove them by any mechanical means, as will readily be believed by anyone who will carefully inspect the cross-sections in Figs. 6, 9, 10, and 11. Spores of smut find lodgment, also^ in the tuft of hairs at the upper end of the grain, but from this they may be more easily removed. If we consider simply the easier prevention of the spread of smut in wheat, there can be no doubt that a grain destitute of the tuft of hairs is to be preferred, and also one in which the furrow is shallow and widely opened. A perfectly smooth, flat, furrowless grain would af- ford lodgment to few, if any, smut spores. Upon making a section of the grain at right angles to its longer axis and examining with a high power of the microscope, the internal structure may be made out as follows: Begin- ning at the surface, there are first three slightly irregular layers of cells (Fig. 5, 1), which constitute the walls of the ovary (the pericarp), then fol- low a layer of larger or longer transversely placed cells (II), and a second of smaller ones (III) — the outer, and the inner retlSeriYlw-r ?o?arrwTl! integument respectively, of the ovule, and together sometimes Fig. 5.- grain, {pericarp); II, outer integument III, inner integument; IV, remains of nu- n j xi. j cellus; V, aleurone cells; VI, starch cells. caHed the spermoderm or epi- sperm. Within the integument cells is a layer of clear material, which on close examination is seen to consist of crushed and collapsed cells (IV), the cavities appearing as very narrow dark lines. These are the remains of the nucellar tissue — and properly called the perisperm — crowded into these narrow lim- its by the greatly developed endosperm (V and VI), in which we dis- tinguish a boundary layer of aleurone cells (V) — the so-called " gluten cells" of popular treatises — and, occupying tjie greater portion of the interior, the starch cells (VI), packed with granules of starch. In the dry mature grain the outer layers (I, II, III, and IV) become thinner Wheat and Some of Its Products. 103 'by the collapsing of the cells, but otherwise their appearance is as here described. The disposition of the starch cells inside of the grain may be made ■out from Fig. 6 (in which, however, but a small portion of the space is filled in). The figure shows also the aleurone cells, which completely Fig. 6. — Outline of a transverse section of a grain tbrongh g-h of Fig. 7. Enlarged 25 times. •enclose the mass of starch cells. If, now, we make a longitudinal sec- 1 tion through the furrow, avoiding the lateral portions, we find that from end to end it is composed of closely packed starch cells with the exception of the space near one end (in the head of wheat, the lower) which is occupied by the embryo (Fig. 7). The cubic contents of a wheat grain may be stated as from 20 to 30 cubic millimeters, of which fully thirteen-fourteenths are filled with starch cells, the embryo occu- pying no more than one-fourteenth of the space. The embryo consists of a shield-shaped cotyledon (co.) with its back in contact with the mass of starch cells, a number of young leaves, known as the plumule {pi.), the young stem to which the leaves are attached, and the rudiments of one ormoreroots (not shown in Fig. 7, but shown in the outline in Fig. 8). In germination, the main root (Fig. 8, r.) grows out first from the lower end of the embryo, but soon 104 Wheat and Some of Its Products. Wheat and Some of Its Products. 105 two or more lateral roots start out near the bases of the plumule leaves. The structure of the embryo is more fully illustrated by Fig. 9 which is a section through the grain at a-b of Fig. 7. Fig. 8 — Outline of embryo; co., the cotyledon; pi, plumule; r., root. The rudiments of lateral roots are shown m the section in Fig. 10, taken at e-d of Fig. 7. The main root is well shown in the next fig- ure (Fig. 11), taken at c-/ of Fig. 7. Fig. 9. — Transverse section through a-b of Fig. 7. Enlarged 25 times. Having now a general idea of the structure of the wheat grain, we may take up a little more in detail those parts which are of most im- portance from our present standpoint. The outer layers which are so distinctly seen in the unripe grain, and which are plainly seen in Fig. 106 Wheat and Some of Its Products. 5, become crushed and more or less obliterated as the grain ripens This is well shown in a cross section of a "bran scale" (Fig. 12). Fig. 10. — Transverse section thiongh c-d of Fig. 7. Enlarged 25 times. where the individual cells are made out with much difficulty. In fact at this stage the pericarp is little more than a hardened scale, with merely the remnants of the original cell cavities. The thick walls are Fig. 11. — Transverse section through e-/ of Fig. 7. Enlarged 25 times. Wheat and Some of Its Products. 107 much cuticularized and lignified, the whole forming au indigestible mass, with nothing nutritious remaining in it. The integuments (Fig. 12, II and III) are much crushed also, and are scarcely separable, so that the single term episperm, or spetinoderm, Pig. 12. — Cross section of a bran scale. I, the ovary wall, or pericarp ; II and III, the seed coats, "apermoilerm" or "epi- sperm"; IV, nncellar tissue, or "periderm"; V,aleurone cells. Enlarged 100 times. applied to them at this stage, is not at all inapplicable. In the young grain the outer integument is seen to be composed of a layer of elon- gated cells, placed transversely to the longer axis of the grain (Fig, 5, II), and at this stage the cells are thin walled and filled with a granu- lar matter closely resembling aleurone in appearance and in its deport- ment when treated with a solution of iodine. As the grain becomes older, these granular contents of the integument cells disappear en- tirely, or nearly so, leaving only a slight discoloration as shown in Fig. 12. The inner integument consists of thin-walled cells which are elon- gated and nearly but not quite parallel to the longer axis of the grain. When viewed under the microscope they appear to lie somewhat di- agonally, and in some cases a second layer or partial layer may be made out, the latter lying at a" slightly different angle still from the former. The nucellus of the ovule is at first relatively large as compared with the embryo sac and its contained endosperm, but as the ovule develops, the embryo sac and its contents encroach more and more upon the tissues of the nucellus until the latter are reduced to a thin layer of crushed cells, whose cavities have almost entirely disappeared (Fig. 5, IV). This layer marks the boundary of the ovule, as dis- tinguished from its integument. It may bear the name of " perisperm." 108 Wheat and Some of Its Products. Fig. 13. ularly The outermost layer of the tis- sue which grows up in the em- bryo sac is composed of massive cells, quadrate and regular in outline when seen in a cross sec- tion of the grain (Fig. 5, V; Fig. 12, V), but when the layer is peeled off and examined ex- ternally or internally, the ceils are found to be quite irregular in shape and to differ much in size (Fig. 13). The aleurone which fills these cells is granular,' and, upon application of iodine, turns — Aleurone cells, viewed perpendic- ,, ,, . i i ., to the surface; enlarged 300 times, yellow or yellowish-brown ; thus FlO. 14. — Three layers of a wheat grain. II, the outer integument; III, inner integument; V, aleurone layer; magnided 300 times. Wheat and Some of Its Products. 109 being distinguished from starch, which turns blue or purple. In •water it softens into a sticky, nearly transparent mass, and this quality has given it its more common name of "gluten," and to the cells the name of "gluten cells "or the "gluten layer." Aleurone is rich in nitrogen and phosphorus, and contains much oil. Recent investiga- tions by Mr. Percy Groom, of Oxford University, England, show- that aleurone contains also a considerable amount of magnesia, with small quantities of lime, silica, and iron. The relation of the foregoing layers to one another is well shown in the accompanying figure (Fig. 14), where the outer integument, com- posed of transversely placed cells, is shown at II, the inner integument of longitudinally placed cells at III, and the aleurone layer at V. The periderm, which lies between' III and "V, is transparent in this view and is therefore not visible. The figure shows the layers as they may be seen in the full grown but unripe grain, viewed from the outside ; the grain being in a vertical position. Inside of the aleurone layer lies the ^ r\Q a Oi mass of starch cells, in which the walls oO"^"^?-^ ^/ — N ^ P) O o are so thin and the cell cavities so ^/^'^\q1Jv Jr^^^ %» densely filled that it is with the great- 0( J <^^^ o 0('~~^Qa est difficulty that the cellular structure rsQ^^^f^^Q Cv^ r^'^^-^JC) can be made out. The cells are elou- Q =iPoCjC\Oo gated and are usually placed with their CVr^*^ r\^Np OV-^ rP longer axes at right angles to the sur- ^^O °'^^^'^CD ^— v-V^ face of the grain, well shown in Fig- ( N C^rNTv-OQ '^'An "^ ures 5, 6, and 7. In unripe wheat, ^^-~-A-— v\jipo oovJ ^<^ protoplasmic matter (gluten) may be o^-5<> — ©cS of) "tnC ^'^ detected very easily in the cells along ^ — with the starch, but when ripe it is ^^«- ^^--ISi^Ws"' "'''*' with difficulty that the presence of anything but starch can be demonstrated, although it has been shown that even here there is a small quanty of nitrogenous matter. The starch granules of wheat (Fig. 15) vary in size and form, but when full grown they are rounded or oval in shape and reach a diameter of thirty-seven micromillimeters {^^ inch). Popular Summary. — The wheat grain consists of the following parts : 1. The outer skin (pericarp), which is the coarsest part of the bran. 110 Wheat and Some of lis Products: 2. An inner double skin (episperm), also a constituent of the coarse bran and not readily separated from it. 3. A third, thin, and transparent, but hard skin (perisperm), con- taining no nutritious matter whatever. 4. A gluten layer, which is made up of cells closely filled with a very nutritious substance (aleurone), nearly all of which remains in the bran. In "graham bread" and "bran bread" much of this is saved and used as human food, but commonly our domestic animals get the whole benefit of it. 5. The great mass of flour {starch cells), composing the bulk of the grain ; but even of this a considerable portion adjoining the gluten layer is lost in the bran. 6. The germ (embryo), composed of cells rich in nutritious matter. This, however, is usually separated from the flour and finds its way to the bran and middlings. THE STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BRAN. General Structure of the Wheat Kernel. — At the outset it will be well to make a cursory examination of the whole wheat grain in or- der that we may more clearly understand what bran is, and what its relations are to the other parts of the kernel. In the first place it must be remembered that a wheat grain is not a seed alone, but in reality a seed-pod containing one tightly fitting seed. We may com- pare it to a bean pod with but one seed in it, and that seed so large that it fills up the whole cavity of the pod. l^he Several Coats of the Wheat Kernel. — From what has been said it will readily be seen that the outer coat or skin of the wheat kernel must belong to the pod. If we soak a kernel for some time and then •carefully remove the outer skin, we are simply " shelling the seed " from the one-seeded pod. This outer coat is hard and tough, and ■when the kernel is dry, quite strong and woody. The seed so shelled out from the pod is covered by two rather thin coats, which may be removed with care and the exercise of some skill. These two coats in the mature kernel are hard and resisting, and aid in protecting the contents of the seed. There are thus three coats to each wheat ker- Wheat and Some of Its Products. Ill nel, viz.: (1) the thick pod called the pericarp, (2) the two seed-coats which stick so firmly together that they may be treated as one, and bear the single name episperm. When we examine the naked seed,, thus stripped of its three coverings, we find that the whole is still sur- rounded by a transparent pellicle, composed of crushed cells, and known by millers as the perisperm. While this is not a proper coat in the same sense as the preceding, it may for our present purpose be spoken of as the fourth coat, and like those already spoken of it is composed of woody and nearly indigestible matter. The foregoing coats constitute about five per cent of the whole kernel. The Gluten Layet\ — Just within the pei-isperm lies a single layer of rather large cells, completely surrounding the wheat kernel, and con- taining a highly nutritious substance known as gluten or aleurone. This varies somewhat in diiferent varieties of wheat, but may be stated as constituting about three or four per cent of the weight of the kernel. The Floury Portion. — The bulk of the kernel is composed of flour cells, or as the botanist and the chemist say, of " starch cells," The cells here are so closely packed with pure starch that the whole has the familiar white appearance due to the presence of this great amount of starch. This portion constitutes from eighty-two to eighty-six per- cent of the whole kernel. The Germ. — At the lower end of the rounded back of the kernel lies the germ or embryo plant. It is highly nutritious and contains some phosphorus as well as other useful food constituents. About six per cent of the weight of each kernel is found in the germ. With the foregoing summary statement of the structure of the wheat kernel before us, we may now proceed to the particular exami- nation of the bran itself. A cursory glance shows that bran is sepa- rable into three components, viz.: (1) the scales, (2) small masses of flour, — middlings, (3) the germs. The Bran Scales. — The scales of bran vary in size, from micro- scopic portions so small that they cannot be seen by the naked eye to those a quarter of an inch across. They are brown on one side and white or whitish on the other. The Masses of Flour or Middlings. — These vary in size, from large portions nearly half as large as a kernel to those so minute as to ap- pear as the finest dust. These are simply the unground flour cells which escaped the crushing action of the rollers or stones. 112 Wheat and Some of Its Products. The Germ or Embryo. — Mingled with the foregoing there may be found many more or less crushed germs, which have been separated from the rest of the contents of the kernels by the crushing action of the rollers or millstones. They are of a pale amber color and are of rather tough consistence. MICEOSCOPICAL 8TEUCTUEE OP THE BEAN SCALE. In order to understand the composition of bran scales, it is necessary to examine them critically under a high power of the microscope. Upon making a very thin cross-section of a scale we find on the outer side a thickish, hard layer consisting of about three layers of cells with very thick walls. This is the coarsest part of the coarse bran and is wholly indigestible. In the books on milling this layer is called the pericarp. We find next to the pericarp a layer of elon- gated cells, each marked by peculiar transverse bands, and within this another layer of very small, thin walled cells of a brown- ish color. These two con- stitute the episperm, and like the pericarp this part of the bran scale is also indi- gestible. There is still an- other layer of indigestible material lying immediately beneath the episperm. It is woody in consistence and composed of a mass of crushed cells whose cavities have been almost obliter- ated by the pressure of the internal cells acting against the episperm and the peri- carp. This layer is the perisperm of the vegetable Stkuctuek OF Bran.— Upper figure a cross sec- ,;. -vr , x ^y^ tion of a bran scale, somewhat magnified, in anatomists.^ XNext to tne the lower figure, I is the pericarp, II the outer perisperm is found a layer integument, III the inner integument, II and « , in /m j III constitute the episperm, IV the perisperm, V O* 'arge regular cells filled the gluten layer, VI the starch or fiour cells, with a granular matter. Magnified 215 times. ^?^S^^^^^^3^^^5^ Wheat and Some of Its Produets. 113 These are the gluten cells, and the granules are known as gluten or aleurone. This material is quite digestible and is highly nutritious. In an examination of many bran scales I have found that the gluten layer is invariably attached, thus assuring much of nutritiousness to even this coarsest part of the bran. Beneath the gluten layer we find attached to every bran scale a greater or less thickness of floury matter. Even the scales which seem to be free from any floury attachment, when examined under the microscope, show a considerable amount still adhering to them. I need say nothing about the digest- ibility of this floury part. It is both digestible and nutritious. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OP THE PARTS OF THE BRAN SCALE. The pericarp is mainly cellulose, which has undergone a consider- able amount of lignification. That is, the cellulose, which is an innu- tritions and indigestible material, has been rendered still more so, if possible, by a change of substance rendering it more woody. This part is, therefore, of no more food value than so much woody fiber or an equal weight of dry wood shavings. The episperm cells are com- posed of cellulose, and here again there has been some lignification, but this has not proceeded as far as in the ease of the pericarp. Tlie perisperm was originally composed of cellulose, but the cells have under- gone some lignification. These three layers are thus much alike in their chemical composition. They are composed originally of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in proportions represented by the formula CgHj„ O5, and to this has been added in the process of lignification a number of other substances which increase its density and imper- meability to moisture. The gluten of the gluten layer is an albuminoid substance which is rich in some materials not found in other parts of the grain. The chemists have not yet been able to agree upon the exact composition of the gluten, on account of the great difficulty of making analyses, but it is known to contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulphur. The percentages of these components are about as follows : , carbon, 53; hydrogen, 7; oxygen, 21; nitrogen, 17; and sulphur, 1|. Phosphorus is, also, said to be a constituent of the gluten of this layer. The floury layer of the bran has the composition of starch, since it is almost pure starch, namely, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in propor- tions indicated by the formula CgH^pOj. It will be noticed that 114 Wheat and Some of Its Products. this formula is precisely that of cellulose, but while starch and cellu- lose are the same in ultimate chemical composition, they differ very greatly in their physical properties. Starch readily undergoes chem- ical changes which render it soluble, while cellulose does not. What has been said of the floury layer attached to the bran scale holds true of the little masses of uncrushed flour cells, the middlings to be found in the bran. This constituent of bran is the most varia- ble part, there being less or more just as the grinding has been more or less thoroughly done. If the middlings have been pretty carefully separated from the other parts of the bran, the result is a bran poorer in starchy matter, while if the middlings have not been so carefully separated it is correspondingly richer in starch. Since starch is a fat- forming food for animals its importance in this connection is obvious. The germ is rich in albuminoids and resembles in chemical composi- tion the gluten cells described above. We find here carbou, hydro- gen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, and probably also phosphorus, and a number of the earthy substances, as lime, iron, etc. There can be no question as to the high food value of the germ. Its presence in the bran adds greatly to its value as food for domestic animals. I may close this brief examination of bran by quoting some careful analyses of the whole wheat kernel, the flour alone, and the bran. You will see from these at once that bran must take high rank a-t food and that it is, weight for weight, very nearly as valuable as the wliole wheat. Albu- minoids. Nitrogen- free extract. Fat. , Ash. Fiber. Wheat (per cent) Wheat flour (per cent) Wheat bran (per cent) 13.3 12.3 17.4 80.4 85.8 61.3 2.3 1.2 4.5 2.0 0.5 6.6 2.0 0.2 10.2 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION NEBRASKA. C. L. INGEESOLL, M. Sc., Director. J. STUART DALES, Treaswer. C. y. SMITH, Executive Clerk. Httdson H. Nicholson, M. A. , Chemist. Chaeles E. Bessby, Ph. D., Botanist. DbWitt B. Beace, Ph. D., Phyaieist. Laweekce BBlTirEB, Entomologist. Chaeles L. Ingeesoll, M. So., Agriculturist. Feed W. Caed, M. So., Horticulturist. E. H. Baeboue, Ph. D., Oeolq^si. , John "White, Ph. D., Assistant Chemi^. A. M. Teoybe, B. Sc, Assistant Agriculturist. Haeey G. Baebee, Assistant Entomologist. 8. W. Pkein, ForeTnam of Farm. r^