The Method oj 
 
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 16378 
 

Cornell University Library 
 arV16378 
 
 The method of teaching modern languages 
 
 3 1924 031 422 862 
 olin.anx 
 
The original of tliis book is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031422862 
 
The Method of Teaching 
 Modern Languages in Germany 
 
 BEING 
 
 The Report presented to the Trustees of the 
 
 Gilchrist Educational Trust on a 
 
 visit to Germany in 1897, as 
 
 Gilchrist Travelling Scholar, 
 
 BY 
 MARY BREBNER, M.A. 
 
 LONDON (classics AND MODERN LANGUAGES). 
 
 SECOND EDITION 
 
 LONDON : 
 
 C. J. CLAY AND SONS, 
 
 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE, 
 
 AVE MARIA LANE. 
 
 GLASGOW: 263, ARGVLE STREET. 
 
 1899 
 [All Rights reserved.^ 
 
 K 
 
aonliott : C. J. CLAY and SONS, 
 
 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE, 
 
 AVE MARIA LANE. 
 
 OSIaBsofa: 263, ARGYLE STREET. 
 
 JLeipjig: F. A. BROCKHAUS. 
 i^eSBgorfe: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Preface ... iv 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 The New Method . .■ i 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 Grammar and Composition .... . . 17 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 The Use of Phonetics in Language Teaching . . 24 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Realien. The "Question of the Canon." International 
 
 School Correspondence 32 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 The " Gouin " System in Germany. Die Methode Haeusser. 
 
 The Berlitz Method. ^ The Jena School .... 40 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 The Prussian Lehrplane. German School Programmes. 
 
 Examinations 48 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 The Preparation of the Modern Language Teacher in 
 
 Germany ... 57 
 
 Bibliography 69 
 
 Appendix A. List of Schools visited and lessons heard . 73 
 
 Appendix B. Higher Schools in Germany ... 74 
 
 Appendix C. Table showing the number of French and 
 English lessons a week in the Prussian Schools with 
 nine years' course 75 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 THERE is every reason to believe that this is a time of 
 transition and reform in English Secondary Education 
 generally, and more especially in the teaching of Modern 
 Languages. It is true that complaints of the poor results 
 obtained, after long years spent on French and German at 
 school, are not of recent date only. New methods, too, and 
 royal roads have at all times been largely advertised. Yet it 
 is certainly a hopeful sign that educationists have begun to 
 put their finger on the weak points of our system, and to 
 look abroad for the solution of some of the most difficult 
 problems. Germany has, by common consent, been singled 
 out as the most likely to suggest the lines along which the 
 reform should take place. This is doubtless partly due to the 
 fact that the Germans possess a clearly defined system of 
 Secondary Education. But there is a special reason why we 
 should look to Germany for a solution of the Modern Language 
 problem. Not only are the Germans excellent linguists, by 
 the most impartial accounts, but they have recently passed 
 triumphantly through their period of transition. The system 
 of Modern Language teaching which they have worked out, 
 within the last twenty years, has been fully tested, and produces 
 results that are positively brilliant. I was to some extent aware 
 of the significance of the movement, to which my attention 
 
Preface. v 
 
 had been directed at a very early stage. It was therefore 
 a source of deep gratification to me when the Council of 
 the Cambridge Training College appointed me as Travelling 
 Gilchrist Scholar to study German methods. I gladly avail 
 myself of this occasion of expressing to the Trustees my 
 sense of obligation for the opportunity thus afforded me 
 of carrying out a long cherished wish, under exceptionally 
 favourable circumstances. As Gilchrist Scholar, and furnished 
 with letters from the Foreign Office, I had free access to 
 schools and educational authorities, and was everywhere 
 treated with kindness and courtesy. The German governments 
 afforded me every facility, except that Prussia courteously 
 but definitely refused to depart from its rule of not ad- 
 mitting women to the boys' schools. I owe the warmer 
 thanks to those educationalists who made good the loss to 
 me by their information and advice. Many Head Masters 
 in Prussia would have willingly admitted me to their schools, 
 had they been allowed to do so by the government. In 
 other parts of Germany, I not only had free access to the 
 boys' schools, but was treated with a delicate considerateness 
 which was most welcome in the somewhat novel position in 
 which I found myself, of being often the first woman who had 
 set foot in the class-rooms. The teachers also of the girls' 
 schools were very obliging. There are many to whom I feel 
 deeply indebted for kindness shown. I should like to express 
 my gratitude to each personally, but the list would be too long 
 for the pages of a Report like the present. The kindness I 
 experienced far surpassed my expectations, and made my 
 travels as pleasant as they were profitable. 
 
 A term spent at the Cambridge Training College im- 
 mediately before I started proved excellent preparation for the 
 work entrusted to me, especially as Miss E. P. Hughes kindly 
 put me in charge of the French teaching. Mr Sadler, Dr Breul, 
 Dr SchoUe, Dr Herford and others gave me valuable advice 
 
vi Preface. 
 
 and many useful introductions. I also received most helpful 
 suggestions from some of the foremost professors and teachers 
 of Modern Languages in Germany, including Professor Victor, 
 Direktor Franz Dorr, Direktor Max Walter, Professor Dr Kiihn, 
 Direktor Professor Dr E. Hausknecht and Dr H. Klinghardt. 
 
 I spent in Germany over six months in all. I visited 
 schools in the following towns : — Bremen, Hamburg, Berlin, 
 Leipzig, Halle, Eisenach, Giessen, Frankfort on the Main, 
 Darmstadt, Heidelberg, Karlsruhe and Freiburg im Breisgau. 
 I also spent a month at Marburg, and three weeks at Jena, 
 attending the holiday courses held in these towns. In Prussia 
 my attention was necessarily directed chiefly to girls' schools 
 and women's training colleges, although I was enabled, 
 indirectly, to gain considerable insight into the teaching in 
 boys' schools even there. Through the kindness of the 
 Professors, I heard several lectures at Berlin University and 
 was invited by Professor A. Brandl to visit the English Seminar. 
 Elsewhere in Germany I had the opportunity of visiting 
 Realschulen, Oberrealschukn, Realgymnasien and Gymnasien 
 as well as hbhere Mddchenschulen and Lehrerinnenseminare. 
 I visited in all forty-one educational institutions, and heard 
 about two hundred and sixty lessons'. 
 
 Many teachers and heads of schools were kind enough to 
 grant me special interviews, in which they freely discussed 
 their methods and the leading educational questions of the 
 day. Although my attention was chiefly directed to French 
 and English, I also heard a few good German lessons, two or 
 three interesting Italian ones and two excellent Classical ones. 
 
 In my Report I have aimed chiefly at giving a correct 
 general view of the methods adopted. I have abstained from 
 discussing points that seemed to me irrelevant or of minor 
 
 ' For complete statement of schpols visited and lessons heard, see 
 Appendix A. 
 
Preface. vii 
 
 importance. In my choice of lessons, I have been dominated 
 not only by their absolute merit, but also by their representa- 
 tive nature. Hence, while some of those given are among the 
 best I heard, I have nevertheless been obliged to pass over in 
 silence a very large number of exceedingly good lessons by 
 first-rate teachers'- I shall not have reason to regret this 
 self-imposed restraint, if it has enabled me to give a fairly 
 complete and well-balanced account of the Teaching of Modern 
 Languages in Germany at the present day. 
 
 I owe special thanks to Dr K. Breul for kindly revising 
 the Report, and making many useful suggestions. 
 
 1 For the description of a few of these, see the article on the 
 Teaching of Modern Languages in Germany in the forthcoming volume of 
 Mr Sadler's "■ Special Reports'''' (London, Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1898). 
 
 M.(;p. 
 
 May, 1898. 
 
IN the year 1890 the Gilchrist Trustees established a 
 Travelling Scholarship for Women Teachers, of the value 
 of ;^5o tenable for one year. The object of the Scholarship 
 was to enable the holder to spend three months in visiting 
 schools in France, Germany, Denmark, Holland, Belgium, 
 Sweden, or America, for the purpose of acquiring a knowledge 
 of the methods of instruction and of the system of education 
 adopted in those countries. The conditions to be fulfilled by 
 the candidate were : — To hold either the Teacher's Diploma of 
 the University of London, or the Certificate of the Syndicate 
 for the Training of Teachers of the University of Cambridge, 
 and have had at least two years' experience as a Teacher in a 
 Secondary School or as a member of the staff of any Training 
 College for Teachers of Elementary or Higher Schools. 
 
 The award of the Scholarship in 1897 was entrusted by the 
 Trustees to the Council of the Cambridge Training College for 
 Women Teachers, who appointed Miss Brebner, a former 
 student at the College. 
 
 In accordance with the regulations for the Scholarship, 
 Miss Brebner submitted a report to the Trustees, and they 
 generously offered to contribute a sum towards the expenses of 
 publication provided the Council of the Training College were 
 of opinion that Miss Brebner's report was worthy of being 
 published. 
 
 The Council having unanimously decided that the report 
 was, in their opinion, well worthy of being published, it is 
 now accordingly published. 
 
 CHARLES SMITH, 
 Chairman of the Council of the 
 Cambridge Training College. 
 
CHAPTER 1. 
 
 THE "NEW METHOD.'- 
 
 Almost everywhere in Germany the term " New Method " 
 is applied to the present system of Modern Language teaching 
 prevalent in all the more advanced Secondary schools. Yet 
 it is liable to a certain amount of ambiguity, as there are 
 many modifications of this method. Moreover, some of the 
 strongest advocates of the system in its newest form object 
 to the term " new " as being of necessity temporary, whereas 
 the method itself will be employed long after it has become 
 old. They would prefer an epithet at once more definite and 
 lasting. The terms "analytic," "direct" and "imitative'' stand 
 out among others that have been suggested and employed by 
 good authorities, but as yet there is none universally accepted. 
 I will accordingly, in the following pages, employ the popular 
 expression " new method," that being the one I heard used by 
 teachers all over Germany. It is strictly true at present, and 
 its very ambiguity is hardly a drawback, as all the modifica- 
 tions have many features in common. Certain other features 
 are still almost vehemently attacked in some quarters, more 
 especially the use of phonetics in teaching pronunciation. 
 But the main principles are practically recognized everywhere. 
 
 The movement which resulted in the establishment of 
 the new method on a firm basis is generally traced to the 
 
The Method of teaching 
 
 appearance, in 1882, of Professor Vietor's revolutionary little 
 pamphlet entitled, Der Sprachunterricht muss umkehreii^. 
 Strictly, of course, it can be traced in part to forces at work 
 much farther back — ^including the spread of the Herbartian 
 principle of "analysis" — as is clearly shown by the rapidity 
 with which the pamphlet did its .work. The small band of 
 energetic reformers, Vietor, Kiihn, Franke and others, carried 
 everything before them, in the face of very strenuous op- 
 position. By 1884, the new method had already begun to 
 find its way into the schools. In 1891, regulations were 
 drawn up by the Prussian educational ministry enforcing the 
 main principles of the Reform. Since 1892, therefore, exactly 
 ten years after the movement had become an active one, the 
 new teaching has been practically established by law. The 
 reformers are still busy : there seems reason to beUeve that 
 they will succeed in promoting yet farther the teaching of 
 Modern Languages, making it even more practical than 
 hitherto, and winning for phonetics their true place in lan- 
 guage teaching. 
 » The general characteristics of the new method may be \ 
 
 I summed up by reference to the three names mentioned above, 
 which have been suggested to designate it. It is at once 
 I analytical, direct and imitative. The reading-lesson is re- 
 garded as the centre of the whole teaching and has to be 
 analysed, or broken up, to furnish material for conversation, 
 composition and grammar. The foreign tongue is used to 
 express directly, without the intervention of the native lan- 
 guage or of grammar rules, the percepts, images and concepts 
 presented to the pupils' minds : the language is learnt from 
 itself. It is learnt by imitation : the teacher speaks and reads 
 to the pupils, whose duty it is to imitate him as well as they 
 can, just as he imitates the foreigners as accurately as possible. 
 It is more difficult to state absolutely and exhaustively 
 
 ' See Bibliography of the chief publications mentioned in the text. 
 
Modern Languages in Germany. 
 
 the special characteristics, because there is still considerable 
 difference of opinion on certain points, and a still greater 
 diversity in the prominence given to the different elements 
 that are considered essential by all. The question of phonetics 
 is at once so .much debated, and of such importance, that I 
 shall devote a separate chapter to it, not now including it 
 among the other essential features, which may be summed up 
 as follows : — i 
 
 , I. Reading forms the centre of instruction. 
 2. . Grammar is taught inductively. ■ 
 
 3. The foreign language is used as much as possible 
 throughout. 
 
 4. There are regular conversation exercises at every lesson. 
 
 5. The teaching is connected with the daily life of the 
 pupil. 
 
 6. Objects and pictures are used in the earlier stages. 
 
 7. Realien^ are extensively taught, especially in the later 
 stages. 
 
 8. Great attention is paid to pronunciation throughout, 
 but more particularly in the beginning. 
 
 9. Free composition is largely substituted for translation 
 into the foreign tongue. 
 
 10. Translation into the mother tongue is reduced to a 
 minimum. j 
 
 The above list may not be quite exhaustive, but I think 
 it includes all the most prominent tendencies of the new 
 school. They will be best understood and appreciated with, 
 the help of a few typical lessons. Before describing these in 
 detail, it may be well briefly to enumerate some of the cir- 
 cumstances under which Modern Languages are taught in 
 Germany. The teacher is almost invariably a German of wide 
 culture, who has received special training for his work, and 
 who has become familiar with the life and language of the 
 
 ' See Chapter IV, p. 32. 
 
The Method of teaching 
 
 foreign nation, by residence abroad and otherwise. Most 
 male teachers of modern foreign languages take both French 
 and English, many of them have undergone special phonetic 
 training, and all have studied literature and philology. 
 
 The following are, roughly speaking, the ages at which 
 pupils begin French and English respectively, at the different 
 kinds of secondary schools, with the number of lessons a week 
 spent on each^ 
 
 ' In the Oberreahchulen and hohere Mddchenschulen, French 
 is begun at 9 years of age, English about 12 or 13 : French has 
 from six to four lessons a week, English four. 
 
 In the Realgymnasien French is begun at 11, English at 12: 
 French has from six to four lessons, English three. 
 
 In the Gymnasien, French is begun at 11, with five or four 
 lessons a week the first year, and subsequently from three to 
 two. English is an optional subject, generally taught in the 
 two or three highest classes, with two lessons a week. 
 
 The Realschulen have a larger number of hours per week 
 spent on French and English than the Oberreahchulen even, 
 but the course is shorter. 
 
 It is worthy of note that, as a rule, the number of lessons 
 per week diminishes as the pupils rise in the school, the reason 
 being that it is far more difficult to gain a firm grasp of a 
 language, than to keep it up when acquired. 
 
 In most schools there is a. prqpmdeutic or preparatory course 
 of drill in pronunciation, with or without systematic phonetic 
 training. The earliest instruction generally takes the form of 
 talk on objects in the schoolroom, on matters connected with 
 the pupils' daily life, and on coloured pictures representing 
 everyday scenes. The pictures generally used are Holzel's 
 Wandtafeln of the four seasons, the farmyard, the forest, the 
 Alps and the town. To these have been recently added 
 pictures of Paris and London, the former very good of its 
 
 ^ For a tabulated list of hours in the Prussian schools, see Appendix C. 
 
Modern Languages in Germany. 
 
 kind. With the exception of the two last, the Holzel pictures 
 were not originally intended for foreign language teaching, and 
 have been criticized as representing German scenes, instead of 
 French and English ones. Moreover, they perhaps contain 
 almost too much subject-matter for talk. It is nevertheless 
 undeniable that the Holzelsche Wandtafeln have been found 
 invaluable in language teaching, particularly when used with 
 a text-book especially adapted to them. The one most fre- 
 quently employed is the Lehrbuch der franzdsischen Sprache by 
 Rossmann and Schmidt. The first seven lessons deal with 
 the schoolroom, schoolroom-objects and parts of the body, the 
 Spring picture being introduced at the eighth lesson. There 
 was no kind of lesson that I heard more frequently and 
 successfully given than those based on Rossmann-Schmidt, and 
 dealing with the schoolroom, the pictures, etc. The pupils 
 were always bright, eager and interested the whole time. 
 They never showed the least sign of mauvaise honte, or 
 unwillingness to speak a foreign tongue. On the contrary, 
 the fact that they were actually speaking French (or English) 
 added to their enjoyment. The following lesson is typical. 
 It was given at the Realschule in der Altstadt, Bremen, to 
 Class Vb, by their French teacher, Herr Miiller. There 
 were 35 boys present, about 10 years of age. They had been 
 learning French for one year, with eight lessons a week. 
 
 A description of the schoolroom was first given in answer 
 to a rapid succession of questions from the teacher. Then the 
 boys had to substitute the indefinite for the definite article in 
 the phrases used. The naming of the parts of the body 
 introduced the singular and plural of nouns, e.g. 
 
 Qu'est-ce ? — C'est I'mil. 
 
 QUest-cei — C'est roreille. 
 
 Qu'est-ce que ce sont? — Ce sont les oreilles. 
 
 Sont-ce les oreilles 1 — I'Ton, monsieur, ce ne sont pas les 
 oreilles, ce sont les yeux. 
 
 The repetition of a short rhyme, with questions on it, was 
 
The Method of teaching 
 
 followed by a concrete grammar lesson on the possessive 
 adjectives. Herr Muller said to the three front boys on his 
 right, " Prends ton livre. — Prends le tien. — Prends le tien." To 
 the three on his left he said, " Prends deux plumes. — Et tot. — 
 Et tot." Then one boy said, " Void man livre " ; to his 
 neighbour, " Voild ton livre " ; of the third boy's book, " Fbil^ 
 son livre." Similarly in the case of the pens, " Void mes plumes," 
 "Voila tes plumes," "Voild ses plumes'' Again, one book was 
 given to three boys, and so with the pens, which led to the 
 appropriate use, in sentences, of notre, etc., nos, etc. 
 
 Various questions were asked on the Spring picture, among 
 others, — 
 
 Que reprksente ce tableau i 
 
 Qui est-cel 
 
 Qui sont-cel 
 
 Qu'est-ce ? 
 
 Qtiest-ce gu'un chevali 
 
 Combien y a-t-il d'animaux sur le tableau ? 
 
 Compte les moineaux. 
 
 Comfte les canetons. 
 
 At this point, Herr Muller introduced a great deal of 
 practice in the use of numerals with months, days, dates, etc. 
 From time to time he said, " Traduisez en allemand," to make 
 sure the pupils understood what they were saying; othenvise 
 nothing but French was used. Easy, concrete examples were 
 given in the four simple rules of arithmetic, written on the 
 blackboard by the teacher and worked orally by the pupils. 
 
 Then returning to the picture, the teacher bade the boys 
 name the different trees, distinguish between les arbres fruitiers 
 and les arbres forestiers, and mention the different kinds of 
 fruit the former bear, thus, Le cerisier porte des cerises, etc. 
 
 To revise the prepositions, besides making use of the 
 picture, Herr Miiller set a boy to ask, " Oii sont les livres ? " 
 having his books (i) in the bag, (2) on the bag, (3) under the 
 bag, (4) behind the bag. Then the teacher himself asked, "OH 
 
Modern Languages in Germany. 
 
 est le maitreV standing (i) before the desk, (2) behind the 
 desk, (3) beside the desk, etc. 
 
 Then followed practice in adjectives of colour, and in the 
 predicative and attributive use of adjectives. Montre, horloge 
 and pendule were concretely distinguished by reference to the 
 teacher's watch, the clock in the steeple, and a clock drawn 
 rapidly on the board. The hard and soft g was also ex- 
 plained. 
 
 Questions on the type of, '■^ Que fait leplreV were followed 
 up by the conjugation of the present of faire. Then, writing 
 on the blackboard the two answers to the question, ^^Que fait 
 le garfon ? " viz. : — le gar(on mange une beurrie 
 
 le garpn regarde les hirondelles, 
 Herr Miiller led the pupils to combine these, sentences in 
 three different ways, (i) with et, (2) with qui, (3) with en. 
 
 Some questions on the senses followed, and then the 
 home-work was given out. The class were required to write 
 short compositions on La cigogne and Le jardin. Headings 
 were given to guide them, and questions asked and answered 
 on each heading, by way of preparation for the exercise. The 
 lesson was brought to a close by the singing of a FrencH 
 song — a very common practice in German schopls. 
 
 English teachers are apt to be hopeless of producing such 
 good results as the Germans, even on the improved system, 
 when they compare the liberal number of hours allotted to 
 French and English in German schools with the scanty time 
 allowed for Modgf^xanguages in most of our schools. 
 
 It is very much to be regretted that so few hours a week 
 are usually spent on any given language in England. The 
 Germans believe very much in what they call the intensive 
 study of a language. It is an acknowledged fact that half the 
 number of years with double the number of lessons per week 
 produces immeasurably superior results. 
 
 In most Prussian Realgymnasien English is begun in 
 Untertertia, i.e., in the fourth school-year, at twelve or thirteen 
 
8 The Method of teaching 
 
 years of age, with three lessons a week. At present an experi- 
 ment is being made at many Reformschulen in Prussia and else- 
 where to test the advisability of beginning English two years 
 later, in Untersekunda, with six lessons a week. The following 
 lesson given by Direktor' Max Walter, the Head Master of 
 the Mustershule in Frankfort on the Main, will show with 
 what results. The class had been learning English for exactly 
 fourteen weeks. Throughout the lesson, I think the Direktor 
 used German only once, in reproving a boy for carelessness. 
 
 As he entered the room, he said to the boys, " Sit down." 
 They did so, saying, "We are sitting down." Then, without 
 another word, the Direktor went to his desk on the platform, 
 and, by simply looking at different boys, got the following 
 statements of his actions : — 
 
 You are standing on the platform. 
 You are going to your desk. 
 You are sitting down. 
 You are taking your pen. 
 You are writing your name. 
 
 Here followed a few English questions and answers about 
 an absentee ; then, as before : — 
 
 You are putting the pen on the table. 
 
 You are taking the blotting-paper. 
 
 You are putting the blotting-paper in the class-book. 
 
 You are rising up. 
 
 You are leaving your place. 
 
 Then a boy was called up arid told to go to the door. He 
 did so, saying, "I am going to the door," and different sections 
 of the class said to the boy, " You are going to the door," and 
 of him, " He is going to the door." The same procedure was 
 followed when the teacher said, 
 
 ^ Direktor is the title given to the head of a secondary school or college 
 almost everywhere in Germany. 
 
Modern Languages in Germany. 
 
 Open the door. 
 Shut the door. 
 Leave the room. 
 What have you done? 
 ■ Go to your place. 
 You will go to the cupboard. 
 Go to the cupboard. 
 Open the cupboard, etc. 
 
 After saying to a boy, "Take this book, and put it in the 
 cupboard," the teacher kept the book in his hand, so that the 
 pupil had to say, "Please give me. the book." Then the 
 teacher asked. 
 
 What are you going to do? 
 
 What are you doing now? 
 
 What have you just done? 
 
 As before, not only did the pupil himself answer each question 
 correctly, but others said, to him and of him, what he was 
 going to do, what he was actually doing, and what he had just 
 done. 
 
 After another boy had been called up and made to per- 
 form various actions in the same way, two other boys were 
 told to rise and walk round the room, sometimes at the same 
 rate, sometimes the one more quickly than the other. " You 
 must first see it," said Direktor Walter to the boys, " and then 
 speak about it.'' The talk took the form of the following 
 sentences which were duly practised : — 
 
 You are walking more quickly than your friend. 
 You are not walking so quickly as your friend. 
 You are walking as quickly as your friend. 
 
 Then the two boys were told to place themselves respec- 
 tively before and behind the teacher, suiting, as usual, word 
 to action. Then the teacher asked the class the following 
 questions : — 
 
lo The Method of teaching 
 
 Who is standing in the middle? 
 Who is standing before me? 
 Who is standing behind me? 
 
 These two boys, of unequal height, were placed side by side, 
 and the other pupils, in answer to the teacher's questions, 
 said, 
 
 Schmidt is taller than Fechner. 
 
 Fechner is not so tall as Schmidt. 
 
 Again the different persons of the verb were appropriately 
 used : — 
 
 I am not so tall as Schmidt. 
 
 You are not so tall as Schmidt. 
 
 He is not so tall as Schmidt. 
 
 I am taller than my friends. 
 You are taller than your friends. 
 He is taller than his friends. 
 
 The proverb about a friend, " A friend in need is a friend 
 indeed," was followed by the repetition of half-a-dozen other 
 English proverbs. " It is the work that crowns the day " con- 
 tained two difficult words, "work" and "crowns," which were 
 carefully practised and phonetically spelt from Vietor's Lauttafel 
 (Sound Chart). jWhen a boy made a mistake in pronunciation, 
 neither he nor any one else was allowed to say what mistake 
 he had made, but he had to show on the Lauttafel, first the 
 sound he had given, then the sound he ought to have given, 
 carefully repeating the right sound of the word. Similarly, 
 when the boys were made to correct each other, none ever 
 repeated the wrong pronunciation, but only gave the right 
 form, which was repeated by the pupil who had made the 
 mistake. \ 
 
 After the short digression about proverbs, the teacher 
 returned to the comparison of the two boys, and called out a 
 third of the same height as the shorter of the two. Thereupon, 
 
c 
 
 Modern Languages in Germany. \\ 
 
 the following remarks were made by the three boys, and 
 repeated, with appropriate changes of person, by their com- 
 rades : — 
 
 I am taller than my friends, 
 fl am not so tall as my friend Schmidt. 
 
 am as tall as my friend Schmaltz, 
 fl am as tall as my friend Fechner. 
 ^' |l am smaller than my friend Schmidt. 
 
 Here followed the repetition of a poem, "Work while you 
 work, and play while you play," the class being 'told to "keep 
 a look-out for faults," and correct at the end of each verse. A 
 mistake being made in the use of the demonstrative this, the 
 pupils were required to give sentences appropriately introducing 
 this and that, these and those. Similarly, examples were given 
 oiwho, whom, (i) used interrogatively, (2) used relatively. 
 
 At their lesson on the previous day the boys had had two 
 verses of "I remember, I remember the house where I was 
 born." They had been written in phonetic transcription {Laut- 
 schrifi) on one board, in ordinary writing on another. Both 
 these blackboards were now in front of the class. A pupil 
 was told to read the transcription, which he did correctly. 
 Then the teacher asked such questions as the following : — 
 
 What do you remember? 
 
 In what house were you born? 
 
 When were you born? 
 
 This last question was put to several boys, each of whom 
 gave in full the date of his birth. After one or two more 
 questions on the subject-matter of the poem, the mention of 
 the window led the teacher to speak about the windows of the 
 class-room, and of the house in the Spring picture. Going 
 back to the poem once more, he asked, 
 
 What came peeping in at morn? 
 Did the sun ever come too soon ? 
 
12 The Method of teaching 
 
 On getting the answer, "No, sir, he never came too soon,'' 
 Direktor Walter moved arms and legs, saying, "I am moving 
 my limbs," and had th£ word "limbs" spelt on the Lauttafel. 
 He then moved his eyelids up and down, saying, "I am 
 moving my eyelids — that is called a wink." He thereupon 
 repeated his original question, and now got the answer, "No, 
 sir, he never came a wink too soon." Here followed a little 
 practice in irregular verbs, and the reading of the verse from 
 the ordinary script. Then a boy was sent to wipe the black- 
 boards, saying, as usual, what he was doing, 
 
 I am standing up. 
 
 I am leaving my place. 
 
 I am going to the blackboard. 
 
 I am wiping the blackboard. 
 Four boys were set to write on the blackboards, three a 
 verse each of "Those evening bells," the fourth a description 
 of the Summer picture. Meanwhile other boys repeated, 
 "Those evening bells." Being told to give other poems 
 "expressing the love of English boys for their home and 
 country," they repeated, 
 
 God save the Queen. 
 Home, sweet home. 
 Our home is on the ocean. 
 "Home, sweet home" was sung, and sung remarkably well. 
 In the course of the repetition of these poems by different 
 boys, the Lauttafel was used, and the boys were set to correct 
 each other's pronunciation. On one occasion, when the /and 
 V sounds had been interchanged, the class were made to 
 practise the transition from the voiceless to the voiced spirants 
 and sibilants. 
 
 Just at this point, Direktor Walter was sent for on business. 
 Without a moment's hesitation, he handed the pointer to one 
 of the pupils, and told him to question the class on the 
 picture. The boy might have been the regular teacher, 
 question and answer went on so smoothly and promptly. The 
 
Modern Languages in Germany. 13 
 
 boys raised their hands and answered when named just in the 
 ordinary way. 
 
 On the Direktor's return, the hearing of poems was con- 
 tinued for a little, then the four boys who had been at the 
 blackboards were required to read what they had written. 
 One had mis-spelt splashes, whereupon other members of the 
 class were asked to mention different words in which the 
 sound sh occurred. 
 
 Next came the teaching of the new lesson, viz. : another 
 verse of "I remember, I remember." The teacher read it, and 
 put questions on what he had just read. Then a pupil 
 repeated the verse after him; another boy standing at the 
 Lauttafel showed the sounds, while the class uttered them ; and 
 meanwhile the teacher wrote the phonetic transcri])tion on the 
 board. At mention of "violets,'' a good deal of practice was 
 necessary, and other words with the i sound were given by the 
 boys. 
 
 The Serpentine being mentioned, the teacher turned to a 
 large map of London hanging on the wall, and bade a pupil 
 point out the Serpentine, asking what boys did on the Serpen- 
 tine in Winter. A short talk followed on the Albert Memorial, 
 the Albert Hall, "Albert the Good," etc. Alongside of the 
 phonetic transcription, the teacher now wrote the same verse 
 in the usual orthography, the boys spelling the words. The 
 words "made" and "light" led to the mention of other words 
 containing the a sound, and others with silent gh. The lesson 
 ended with the repetition, in character, of the Ninth Dialogue 
 from Dr E. Hausknecht's English Student. 
 
 For home-work, the class were told to write out and learn 
 the new verse of "I remember, I remember," and also to write 
 out and re-Iearn the Ninth Dialogue from the English Student. 
 
 In describing the above lesson I have gone into consider- 
 able detail, partly because I could not have conveyed an 
 adequate conception of the lesson otherwise, and partly 
 because it illustrates so many features of the new method. 
 
14 The Method of teaching 
 
 As I could not see all the processes in one lesson, Direktor 
 Walter kindly gave me a few details about his teaching of the 
 reading-lessons. He always first reads a new passage to the 
 boys, who listen with their books shut; he then asks them 
 questions on what he has just read, explaining any new words 
 that occur. He next gets some of the boys to give him the 
 substance of the passage in German. When they do open 
 their books, he always reads again himself before letting any 
 of the class read, during the first year at least'. 
 
 In not less than nine cases out of ten, German teachers 
 insist on complete answers from the pupils. The importance 
 of this in teaching foreign languages does not need to be 
 emphasized. I think the following reproduction of the pupils' 
 answers only at a lesson I heard in Hamburg will sufficiently 
 recommend the system, even apart from the greater practice it 
 affords. The answers are given exactly as I heard them. 
 (The rejected words and superfluous answers are bracketed.) 
 
 "Seven English sailors were captured by pirates. They 
 were transported to Algiers. Algiers is a town in the north of 
 Africa. Their fate was very hard. (They had to do the work 
 of slaves.) They were treated, not as prisoners, but as slaves. 
 They had to work very hard. (They resolved to make their 
 escape.) They resolved to make their escape, because there 
 was no hope to be set free. They had no hope of being 
 rescued by their friends. They (make) made a boat in a cellar 
 which belonged to the master of one sailor. The cellar was 
 usually used for storing up the goods of the master". 
 * *,* * # ^ ^ ^ 
 
 "When everything was ready, they carried the parts to a 
 quiet valley. The valley was half a mile from the sea-shore. 
 Then they carried it to the shore. When a boat is quite 
 finished, it is launched by the people. They were very much 
 
 1 This system closely resembles the one described by the late W. H. 
 
 Widgenr in T%e Teaching of Langtiages in Schools. (London, Nutt, 1888.) 
 
 "■■' Here followed an account of the construction of the parts of the boat. 
 
Modern Languages in Germany. 15 
 
 dismayed when they found that only five persons could find 
 (place) room in Yhe boat. Then they cast lots, to settle who 
 was to go in the boat, and who was to be left behind. When 
 the five sailors departed, they promised to tell the fate of their 
 comrades in England. They took with them two leather 
 bottles and a little bread." 
 
 I think the above connected narrative not only does credit 
 to the answers of the pupils, but also to the questions of the 
 teacher, and the two years' teaching the class had had 
 previously. It was the Sekunda of the Realschule vor dem 
 Lubecker Thore, Hamburg. (Direktor Dr Rautenberg.) The 
 pupils, about 13 years of age, had been learning English two 
 years, with four lessons a week. Their teacher was Dr O. 
 Boensel, and the passage reproduced above was taken from his 
 Lesebuch fiir den englischen Unterricht, which contains a most 
 suitable selection of passages for boys. He had first of all 
 gone over the story with the class, explaining new words, then 
 he re-read it, the boys listening with closed books : from time 
 to time he recapitulated, putting questions and giving explana- 
 tions. Having gone over the whole passage in this way, he 
 put the series of questions which elicited the answers quoted. 
 
 No less interesting than the foregoing was a lesson given 
 to the highest class of the Dorotheenschule, a Girls' High 
 School' in Berlin, by the Direktor, Dr A. Hamann, formerly 
 Taylorian teacher of German at the University of Oxford. 
 This class had been learning English for two years, with four 
 lessons a week, and were just beginning to read Mrs Ewing's 
 fackanapes, edited by Dr Hamann. 
 
 " The teacher first read a paragraph in English. Then the 
 pupils translated as best they could, with help, taking note of 
 any words or phrases that were new to them. Great attention 
 was paid to the idiomatic rendering in German of idiomatic 
 English expressions. 
 
 After the first paragraph had been read by the teacher and 
 1 Hohere Madchenschule. 
 
1 6 Method of teaching Modern Languages in Germany. 
 
 translated by the pupils, it was read by a pupil. When several 
 paragraphs had been gone over in this way, Dr Hamann pro- 
 ceeded to ask questions on the passage, mostly in character. 
 He put the questions as if he were a stranger, asking his way 
 to Miss Jessamine's house, and the girls answered partly in 
 the character of the postman. This dramatic element added 
 considerable humour and interest to the conversation. The 
 girls entered into the spirit of it, and evidently enjoyed it. 
 The following questions will enable the reader to form an 
 estimate of this part of the lesson : 
 
 I say. Postman, where does Miss Jessamine live? 
 
 How can I get to the Green? 
 
 Do many people live round the Green? 
 
 What are the ordinary inhabitants of every village green 
 in England?' 
 
 How old is that gentleman I see crossing the Green? 
 
 Do people usually live to such an old age in the country ? 
 
 How do you account for it? 
 
 How old is Miss Jessamine ? ( — I do not know exactly ; 
 she makes a secret of her age.) 
 
 Do many people do that ? ( — Yes, Sir, especially old ladies.) 
 
 On this method the teacher can drop the assumed character 
 at will, without producing any mental confusion in the pupils' 
 minds. I have seen similar plans adopted by other teachers, 
 always with admirable effect. They have the additional 
 advantage of giving the pupils sufficient practice in all the 
 persons. " Make so-and-so speak " is a command that young 
 people always obey with pleasure, and with benefit to themselves. 
 
 This dramatic procedure, however, requires a skilful, sym- 
 pathetic and versatile teacher. Of it may be said with even 
 greater truth what I so often heard regarding the new method 
 even from its staunchest upholders; "It makes the pupils 
 brighter: they are happier and learn better, but it takes a 
 great deal out of the teacher." 
 
 ^ i.e. donkeys and geese 1 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION. 
 
 The attitude of the reformers towards Grammar and 
 Composition is considered by many to be more or less hostile. 
 This is due to a misunderstanding, which was perhaps in- 
 evitable under the circumstances. In most schools, Modern 
 Language teaching used to consist mainly of grammar and 
 composition. Grammar meant the committing of elaborate 
 rules, lists and exceptions to memory, and composition took 
 the form of translating sentences or passages into the foreign 
 language, with the help of these rules. Against this state of 
 matters the reformers were most vehement : language for them 
 meant infinitely more than rules and translation. Hence arose 
 the delusion that they were wholly averse to grammar teaching, 
 and now some people seem to think that the new school has 
 at last realized there is no getting on without grammar. But 
 all along the reformers have looked on grammar as a useful 
 means, only maintaining that it could not be systematically 
 taught till there was a certain amount of language-knowledge 
 to work upon. No separate grammar-lessons are now given in 
 the earlier stages. Less grammar is taught, but it is taught 
 inductively. Pupils cannot repeat rules so glibly, but they 
 are surer of their application. Compilers of grammars and 
 teachers of grammar now endeavour to restrict themselves to 
 what is normal and essential, dropping the exceptions and 
 
 E. 2 
 
1 8 The Method of teaching 
 
 niceties dear to examiners, but which are of no practical 
 utility even to the more advanced pupils. 
 
 Most reading books have a grammar section, or a special 
 grammar is meant to be used in connection with them. Fre- 
 quently the examples illustrating the rules are taken from the 
 reading lessons and precede the rules. Thus, in Dr Kiihn's 
 Franzosische Schulgrammatik, the rules for the use of the im- 
 perfect and "historical perfect" (preterite or past definite) 
 are preceded by a number of well-selected sentences from 
 two stories of his Franzosisches Lesebuch {Unterstufe) viz. 
 L anthropophage and Erreur d^un paysan. I do not remember 
 coming across a simpler, clearer explanation of that important 
 distinction, regarding which pupils are so liable to make 
 mistakes. 
 
 Due importance is everywhere attached to the verb, both 
 in the teaching and in the grammars. I rarely heard a French 
 lesson given to younger classes without a considerable amount 
 of verb practice. Dr Kuhn's grammar, to which I have just 
 referred, arid which numbers about 200 pages in all, devotes 
 85 to the verb alone. 
 
 Some of the older grammars have been re-written or 
 adapted to suit present requirements. The English grammar 
 of Gesenius, remodelled by Dr Kegel, and some of the French 
 books of Dr Karl Ploetz, transformed by his son, Dr Gustav 
 Ploetz, with the help of Dr Kares, are now as popular, with 
 the advocates of the vermittelnde Methode (method of com- 
 promise), as they were in their old form before the recent 
 movement began. 
 
 Dr Julius Bierbaum's Franzosische Lehrbucher are very 
 extensively used, in Berlin and elsewhere, in girls' schools. 
 They are not exactly representative books on the new method, 
 but Part I. is universally praised by the teachers who use it. 
 
 Rossmann-Schmidt is perhaps most widely diffused of all : 
 it has already reached its seventh or eighth edition since its 
 first appearance in 189 1. I heard it very highly praised on 
 
Modern Languages in Germany. 19 
 
 all hands, and repeatedly saw most admirable results of the 
 teaching in classes where it was used (z/. ante Chapter I.). 
 Such criticisms as I did hear cancelled each other : one 
 teacher complained that there is too little grammar, another 
 that there is too much. 
 
 Equally unanimous was the praise bestowed upon Dr Kiihn's 
 books, but I had not so often the privilege of being in schools 
 where they are used. His grammar is remarkable for clearness 
 and conciseness. The Lautlehre at the beginning is said to be 
 perfect, and it is almost a feat in itself to reduce all that is 
 essential in French grammar to a couple of hundred pages, 
 mostly in large print. 
 
 The most interesting English books that I have seen, 
 representative of the new method, are Viator and Dorr's 
 Englisches Lesebuch and Dr Hausknecht's English Student. 
 
 Some examples of the new method of teaching grammar 
 have already occurred in the lessons described in Chapter I. 
 A very few more will, I think, make this point quite clear. 
 
 The rules for the agreement of the past participle in 
 French are frequently taught in connection with objects in the 
 schoolroom or represented in the pictures used. I heard 
 Fraulein Zipfel {Victoriasckule, Berlin) give a lesson on 
 Holzel's Spring picture, in the course of which she asked 
 the following questions : — 
 
 Est-ce que la parte est ouverte ? 
 Est-ce que la parte de notre classe est ouverte ? 
 Les fenitres sont-elles ouvertes ? 
 Taking a book in her hand, she went on, 
 Ce livre est-il ouverti 
 Ce livre est-il ferm^? 
 Cette parte est-elle fermie ? 
 Then, Quelle est I'orthographe de "fermk"? And so with 
 livre, livres, fenUre, fenitres, the spelling oi ferm'e {-h, -te, -ks) 
 being required in each case. 
 
 The use of the relative pronoun governed by a preposition 
 
20 The Method of teaching 
 
 was taught by Dr Mann {Koniglkhes Gymnasium, Leipzig) as 
 follows. (He also was giving a lesson on the Spring picture.) 
 Writing up on the board three connected words 
 
 maison nid ferme 
 
 he formed a sample sentence, La maison, sur le toit de laquelle 
 se trouve un nid, est une ferme, and thereupon wrote other sets 
 of three connected words, bidding the pupils form sentences 
 with these, e.g. 
 
 kglise docker horloge 
 
 Uiglise, au docker de laquelle est une korloge, est grande. 
 
 After some practice of this kind, the boys were required 
 to form sentences independently, i.e. without the teacher's 
 suggesting connected words. Here are examples of the 
 sentences so formed: — 
 
 La maison, sur le seuil de laquelle est assise une grand' mire, 
 est jolie. 
 
 Le ruisseau, dans les eaux duquel il y a des canards, forme 
 une petite cascade. 
 
 La grand' mhre, sur les genoux de laquelle il y a un petit 
 etfant, est &gk. 
 
 When the tense of a verb is first taught, it is generally 
 conjugated throughout in the form of a sentence occurring in 
 conversation or in the reading lesson, but when revised it is 
 simply repeated, or translated from the German. 
 
 In the younger classes where verb-teaching begins, the 
 different tenses of the verb are made to refer to concrete 
 persons. For instance, Dr Wilke {Realgymnasium, Leipzig) 
 taught the present indicative of the verb montrer as follows. 
 He first said to a pupil, " Montre-moi la parte." The pupil did 
 so, saying, "_/« montre la parte." Other objects were treated 
 in the same way. Then two other boys were told to point 
 to various objects in the picture : as they did so, they said, 
 " Nous montrons la parte" etc. Here Dr Wilke wrote on the 
 blackboard, ^i? montre la parte, nous mantrans la parte, leaving a 
 space for the second and third persons. Tu montres la parte. 
 
Modern Languages in Germany. 21 
 
 etc., were taught in the same way, and duly written upon the 
 blackboard. Dr Wilke made use of my presence for the 
 feminine, by asking them what they would say if I pointed to 
 the door — elk montre la parte — and what it would be if there 
 were two ladies instead of one — elles montrent la parte. The 
 aim of all this was to associate in the boys' minds actual 
 persons and actions with the words and sentences employed. 
 
 At the grammar lessons, strictly so called and confined 
 to the upper classes, I was struck with the fact that they con- 
 ■sisted chiefly of composition. Indeed the grammar teaching 
 frequently takes place when the subject of the exercise is given 
 out, or when the exercises are given back or revised. This is 
 not, however, an essential part of the new method : it belongs 
 rather to the method of compromise. 
 
 The exercise still sometimes takes the form of translation 
 in most schools, although most of the reformers are entirely 
 opposed to this kind of composition. Many of the reading 
 books have Ubungsstiicke at the end, or else specially prepared 
 Ubungshiicher are used in connection with them. These are 
 collections of German passages adapted to the reading lessons 
 in such a way that the pupil can avail himself of words and 
 expressions with which he is already familiar. Most of these 
 exercises deal with some definite section of the grammar. 
 They are continuous passages as a rule, but sometimes consist 
 of sentences more or less loosely connected. 
 
 Rossmann and Schmidt entirely reject such Ubungsstiicke 
 and suggest an endless variety of grammatical exercises and 
 free compositions {freie Arbeiien) — dictations, questions, de- 
 scriptions, short essays, adaptations, etc. — all based on lessons 
 already learnt. For instance, after the story of Le trisarier 
 et le rat (pp. 89, 90 of the Lehrbiuh), the following suggestions 
 are made for the schriftliche Ubung (written exercise) : 
 
 1. Der Konig erzdhlt die Geschichte. 
 
 2. Der erste Teil wird im Prdsens erzdhlt. 
 
 I often heard teachers give out such adaptations as exercises. 
 
22 The Method of teaching 
 
 and sometimes saw them written. Perhaps the most pleasing 
 example occurred at the Oberreahchule, Heidelberg, where a 
 class of little boys, after learning the fable of the Hare 
 and the Tortoise, were set to write the story in the person 
 of the hare. 
 
 Although translation into the foreign tongue is still re- 
 tained in most schools, it forms only part, and the minor part, 
 of the composition. 
 
 The following is, I believe, an almost complete list of the 
 kinds of exercises given in addition to translation or instead 
 of it. 
 
 (A very few are confined to the lowest stage or the highest ; 
 the majority belong to all the intervening stages.) 
 
 1. Copying. 
 
 2. Writing from memory. 
 
 3. Sentences describing the picture. 
 
 4. Sentences illustrating grammar rules, or introducing 
 given words and expressions. 
 
 5. Answering questions. 
 
 6. Putting questions on a given passage. 
 
 7. Reproducing a description or story previously learnt 
 or just heard. 
 
 8. Writing out a story with change of person or tense. 
 
 9. Reproducing the substance, or writing the summary, 
 of a chapter or passage learnt. 
 
 10. Describing occurrences of daily life, e.g. 
 
 (a) The time-table of a given day. 
 
 (b) The diflferent meals. 
 
 (c) Daily actions, such as getting up, etc. 
 
 (d) Special events, such as walks, expeditions, etc. 
 
 11. Letters. 
 
 12. Short essays, mostly on concrete subjects. 
 
 13. Literary estimates of books read. 
 
 14.' Critical discussions of the character, episodes, etc., in 
 a given book. 
 
Modern Languages in Germany. 23 
 
 15. Biographies and historical sketches. 
 
 Much attention is paid to dictation throughout, but at first 
 the dictations are always taken from passages already learnt, 
 with perhaps slight changes introduced. Even later, if unseen 
 passages are dictated, special help is considered necessary. 
 Indeed much help is always given in preparation for all 
 written work in the earlier stages. Great care is taken to 
 avoid the occurrence of mistakes as far as possible. Neverthe- 
 less, considerable freedom of expression and treatment is 
 permitted. I saw very many freie Arbeiten, both before and 
 after correction, by good pupils and by indifferent ones. The 
 exercises differed greatly from each other, but the mistakes 
 were, as a rule, comparatively few. I found no trace of a 
 desire to shirk or shorten the work. Often, where one 
 sentence had been required, two or three were given, rolled 
 into one. Everything I saw and heard revealed an interest in 
 the freie Arbeiten, for which there is no counterpart in schools 
 where the written translation of exercises is still the prevalent 
 form of composition. 
 
 Summing up the tendencies of the Reform with regard to 
 grammar and composition, I should say that less grammar 
 is taught, but taught at once more rationally, more attractively 
 and more thoroughly ; that translation into the foreign tongue 
 is rapidly giving place to free composition, which is found to 
 be easier, more interesting and more useful to the pupils. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE USE OF PHONETICS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING. 
 
 By far the greater number even of the schwebende Fragen . 
 (unsettled questions) have already been settled in principle. 
 The differences of opinion are relative rather than absolute. 
 Everyone is in favour of teaching grammar inductively, the ' 
 only question is how much grammar should be systematically 
 taught. AU would put translation into the mother tongue in 
 the background, while few would reject it altogether! Even 
 those who still retain translation into the foreign language 
 consider that it should form only part of the composition 
 work. But there is still one important question on which 
 agreement is by no means general as yet, namely the question 
 of phonetics. It would, indeed, almost seem as if the battle 
 of reform were now concentrated on that one point. The 
 Prussian Lehrpliine discourage the systematic teaching of 
 phonetics, which accounts for the indifference manifested in 
 Berlin and elsewhere. Wherever I heard vehement antagonism 
 expressed, I always asked what grounds there were for it, and 
 invariably found that the most strenuous opponents were either 
 ignorant of phonetics, or had not had an opportunity of seeing 
 the use made of them in teaching. One or two well-known 
 Neuphilologen, who expressed doubt as to the advantage of 
 teaching pronunciation phonetically, regretted that they had 
 not yet sufficient data to go upon, and asked me with evident 
 
Method of teaching Modem Languages in Germany. 25 
 
 interest about certain lessons I had seen given by a prominent 
 phonetician. That phonetic teaching is difficult and arduous 
 there is no doubt, especially in large classes of young pupils. 
 From what I saw, I am inclined to question the advisability of 
 letting big classes of little boys copy the phonetic transcription 
 into their note-books, as these would have to be constantly 
 checked, a labour almost too great for even an enthusiastic 
 Phonetiker to undertake. There is no such objection to tran- 
 scription (i) on the blackboard by the teacher, or (2) in the 
 case of older pupils and smaller classes. I saw several 
 phonetic lessons given to boys of nine, but the circumstances 
 were not altogether favourable, and these can hardly be used 
 as sample lessons of phonetic teaching: that the boys' pro- 
 nunciation benefited there was not the smallest doubt. In 
 one instance, where the lesson itself had seemed less satis- 
 factory to me than others I had heard, not only the teacher 
 himself, but the Head Master also, assured me that a class so 
 taught the year before pronounced better than any other class 
 had ever done. I am fully persuaded, by all that I saw and 
 heard, that phonetic drill is invaluable for giving the pupils a 
 good pronunciation from the start. In English, which is begun 
 later than French as a rule, the phonetic teaching was invariably 
 successful, and I often marvelled at the sure, unhesitating way 
 in which the pupils had mastered the English sounds. It is 
 absolutely indispensJable, on this system also, that the teacher's 
 own pronunciation should be as perfect as possible. This was 
 the case with the two gentlemen who were kind enough to give 
 me the fullest insight into their methods of phonetic teaching- 
 Professor Wendt of Hamburg and Direktor Wittmann of 
 Heidelberg. Although I had the pleasure of hearing both 
 French and English lessons \taught by Professor Wendt, he 
 gave me most detail aboutjjae^-of his French classes. He 
 begins by teaching the vowel sounds, making use of the 
 phonetic triangle. Starting from the primary vowels i, a, «', 
 ^ Representing the German sounds associated with these letters. 
 
26 The Method of teaching 
 
 the pupils are led to find the intermediate ones, close and open 
 e between / and a, open and close o between a and «, ii between 
 u and i, etc. These vowels are carefully practised in groups 
 and throughout the whole range, with considerable variety in 
 the order and form of practising. The modified and nasal 
 vowels are specially practised ; the latter are sung. Professor 
 Wendt pointed out to me that the purest nasal can be produced 
 in singing. The sounds are written in phonetic alphabet on 
 the blackboard and read by the class. Transition from one 
 sound to another is carefully practised. The position of the 
 organs of speech and the right way of producing sounds are 
 also explained. During the first five weeks, the class had 
 learnt, orally and in Lautschrift, 
 (i) The vowel sounds. 
 
 (2) A little Amusette {Chat vit rdt). 
 
 (3) Two verses of a song, J' aval's un camarade^. 
 
 (4) The present indicative of avoir. 
 
 The so-called propedeutic or preparatory course on pro- 
 nunciation is not confined to phonetic teaching. It is enjoined 
 by the Prussian Lehrpldne, and is, in one form or another, 
 universal all over Germany. It generally lasts three or four 
 weeks, but some think it ought to be longer. The methods 
 employed in this preparatory course vary considerably : all 
 must be, in the wider sense, phonetic, i.e., must aim at 
 teaching the sounds as sounds, not as written or printed 
 words. Many teacheifs do teach phonetically in the stricter 
 sense, even when prohibited from using a phonetic alphabet 
 or phonetic terms in a systematic way. 
 
 One of the most successful lessons of this kind I heard 
 was given by Fraulein Herrmann (Augustaschule, Berlin) to 
 Class III. The girls were about twelve years of age, and 
 
 1 A French translation of the popular German song by Uhland, Ich 
 hatf einen Kameraden, sung to the German air. The singing of such 
 translations is very common in German schools. 
 
Modern Languages in Germany. 27 
 
 had just had three English lessons. The teacher wrote up the 
 
 ^ voiceless apd voiced consonants in two columns on the board 
 and askgd the pupils on what principle she had grouped them. 
 The class then read from the board, repeatedly practising the 
 difficult sounds. The voiced th naturally gave a good deal of 
 trouble, and it was some little time before a buzzing z ac- 
 companiment altogether disappeared. A pupil was required to 
 describe exactly how she placed her speech organs in order to 
 produce the voiceless th. The class were told to test their 
 
 ^ production of the voiced consonants by placing both hands on 
 their ears'. Then they were asked to re-read the consonants, 
 
 ' passing from the voiceless to the voiced. This was impossible 
 with the p, t, k, group : so the pupils had to explain that 
 the Verschlusslaute (stops) are Augenblickslaute (momentary 
 sounds). 
 
 Fraulein Herrmann next proceeded to read the following 
 words to the class, who repeated them very carefully after her : 
 thorn, thief, theft, three etc. ; thou, thee, they, there etc. 
 
 This was the first phonetic lesson I had heard and it 
 strongly prepossessed me in favour of this kind of teaching. 
 
 •I was specially struck with the interest the pupils showed in 
 what looks dry enough on paper. But my experience was the 
 same everywhere. I rarely found interest flag at any phonetic 
 lesson : this was due, I think, to the constant activity on the 
 part of the pupils, coupled with a clear conception of what they 
 had to do, and why : eye, ear and active touch are all called 
 into play in the proper production of sounds on this system. 
 The phonetic method makes great demands on the pupils 
 
 - as well as the teacher, in this respect differing a Uttle from the 
 
 Anschauungsmethode', which is a strain on the teacher only. 
 
 'But the results, as shown in the pupils' mastery of difficult and 
 
 ' Other external tests in common use are (i) placing the finger on the 
 larynx, (2) laying the hand on the top of the head. The vibration of the 
 vocal chords is felt in each case. 
 
 * The method of teaching by means of pictures and objecfts. 
 
28 The Metliod of teaching 
 
 unfamiliar sounds, seemed fully to justify the increased expen- 
 diture of energy. The only time I saw a teacher pause to give 
 the pupils a rest, was at a phonetic lesson. This would almost 
 seem to suggest the desirability of mingling the hard phonetic 
 drill with something easier, e.g., the committing of a poem to 
 memory. This, indeed, is very frequently done. I was several 
 times assured by teachers that German children (especially in 
 the North where the dialect, Platt-deutsch, closely resembles 
 English) know a good deal of English before learning a word, 
 and with very little help understand an English poem repeated 
 to them'. 
 
 The most systematic phonetic teaching I heard was at the 
 Oberrealschule in Heidelberg where I spent four days. I heard 
 several lessons given by the Head Master, Direktor Wittmann; 
 I cannot do better than describe in detail one of these, given 
 to Class U III {Uniertertia), who were just beginning English. 
 At the previous lesson they had revised the speech organs, and 
 the production of the different sounds. The teacher now gave 
 a recapitulary explanation of the Lauttafel, and proceeded to 
 deal in detail with the voiced and voiceless consonants, as 
 presenting special difficulties to South German boys. His 
 manner of dealing with them differed to some extent from 
 Fraulein Herrmann's. He wrote on the blackboard in phonetic 
 transcription two sets of words in pairs : each pair of the first 
 group began with a voiceless and voiced consonant respectively, 
 but were otherwise identical, e.g., pull, bull; each pair of the 
 second group, otherwise identical, terminated in a voiceless 
 and voiced consonant respectively, e.g., hop, hob. There 
 were five such groups consisting of from six to eight words 
 each, all carefully arranged. The pupils were made to practise 
 these, group by group, over and over again (all together, in 
 class sections and individually). Direktor Wittmann contented 
 
 ' Fraulein Herrmann followed up the above phonetic drill with the verse 
 of a poem, which the girls mastered easily. 
 
Modern Languages in Germany. 29 
 
 himself with stating the German for the word, and then took 
 no farther notice of anything but the correct production of the 
 English sound. From time to time he required the boys to 
 state the exact position of the organs necessary to produce a 
 given sound, and the change of position in passing from one 
 to another. He also now and then called a boy out, made him 
 face the class, and gave him minute instructions how to place 
 his organs of speech. From time to time a touch of humour 
 on the part of the teacher would relieve the seriousness of the 
 lesson, as when he bade a boy imagine he had a tremendous 
 slice of his favourite plum-cake to demolish — this with a view 
 to induce him to utter a good open ah I The voiceless and 
 'voiced th g^ve a good deal of trouble here also : Direktor 
 Wittmann heard each individual boy separately, and bade 
 those he had already heard go on practising, so that the room 
 was soon filled with a sound as of busy bees. But there was 
 no thoughtlessness or disorder over it, and each boy seemed to 
 be trying' his best. 
 
 Various devices are adopted to introduce a certain con- 
 tinuity in teaching pronunciation according to this method. 
 Numbering is found to be a very good one. An experiment 
 which Direktor Wittmann tried in my presence seemed to 
 answer very well. He pinned coloured papers on the board, 
 pointed to the colour, pronounced the word, the class pronoun- 
 cing it after him and one boy showing the sounds on the 
 Lauttafel. The names of colours introduce all the English 
 vowel sounds except the open a. The boys were advised to 
 do their home practice in pairs if possible. Others suggest 
 the use of a mirror. So much is the eye necessary in this 
 purely oral teaching! 
 
 On the whole, the use of sample words seems the most 
 prevalent and most approved plan. 
 
 In the account I gave of Direktor Walter's lesson at the 
 Musterschuk, I mentioned his way of using transcription. I 
 had also an opportunity of witnessing the interest older boys 
 
30 The Method of teaching 
 
 take in making their own transcription. At Hamburg, Profes- 
 sor Wendt dictated the poem Ma Normandie to a class of 
 youths about seventeen years of age. They had not had the 
 poem before. It was dictated -line by line, one pupil writing 
 the transcription on the blackboard, the others in their note- 
 books. Few mistakes were made, except by a youth who 
 pronounced badly. The mistakes that most frequently oc- 
 curred were the substitution of the close for the open a, of the 
 close for the open e, and vice versA. After the whole had been 
 written up, the class read it from the blackboard, and were told 
 to write it out at home. It is by no means difficult to learn a 
 simple phonetic alphabet. This class had not had any phonetic 
 teaching previously and had been with Professor Wendt only 
 for a very few weeks, yet the mistakes they made in the above 
 dictation were entirely faults of hearing : they used the alphabet 
 quite easily. Direktor Hausknecht of Berlin, who does not 
 attach so much importance to phonetic transcription, has yet 
 introduced it into his English Student. He also told me that 
 the boys pick it up quite easily. 
 
 It is found to be a great drawback that there is no phonetic 
 alphabet universally accepted even among phoneticians. Sweet, 
 Vietor, Passy all employed different ones, but Professor Vietor 
 has recently adopted the alphabet used in Le Mattre phonHique, 
 to which M. Passy had previously adapted his. On the whole, 
 therefore, the one most practically useful for Englishmen is 
 that of Le Mattre phonktique. 
 
 Even after the difficulty of alphabet has been settled, there 
 remains the difficulty of pronunciation, which varies very con- 
 siderably in different parts of Germany. Professor Vietor, 
 however, is doing his very best to get the BUhnensprache 
 (stage language) recognized as the standard. The benefit of 
 this would be incalculable for us foreigners, who often do not 
 know what German to learn. 
 
 Some reformers would have phonetic drill begun much 
 lower down in the school, with German. This would not 
 
Modern Languag'es in Germany. 31 
 
 only tend to diminish differences of pronunciation, but would 
 greatly lessen the difficulty of mastering the foreign sounds 
 later. As far as I know, however, this has been nowhere 
 introduced as yet, and is only advocated by a section of the 
 most advanced educationists^. 
 
 Closely allied to the above difficulty, and most fitly discus- 
 sed here, is the question whether the language taught to the' 
 pupils ought to be familiar and colloquial, or refined and 
 literary. This affects pronunciation, words and turns, and 
 perhaps intonation as well. There has been recently a strong 
 tendency in favour of the familiar and colloquial, which, again, 
 seems to be provoking a desirable reaction. Some of the 
 English expressions I occasionally heard in German schools 
 were a little too colloquial, and would not have been per- 
 mitted in English schools. Moreover, it seems a mistake to 
 read as carelessly as one talks : yet that is almost encouraged 
 in certain quarters. I think Professor Rousselot put the argu- 
 ment for " /« beau fran^ais" well, when he said", "Always 
 intend to speak correctly, and if in the animation of the 
 moment you slur over a syllable, well. But do not try to say 
 /', put] gue'que etc." He told us one or two good stories to 
 illustrate his point, among others a very amusing one about 
 M. Frdd^ric Passy's once dropping the / sound in Us, in his 
 eagerness to have it retained. My own experience in Germany 
 makes me unhesitatingly subscribe to Professor Rousselot's 
 statement that people are far better pleased to hear their 
 ■language spoken too carefully by foreigners than with studied 
 familiarity. 
 
 1 The late Miss Laura Soames worked out a complete practical system 
 for teacliing English reading on phonetic principles. Her Teacher's 
 Phonetic Manual (Swan, Sonnenschein & Co.) has been edited by 
 Professor Vietor. G. Philip & Son (32, Fleet Street, London) are now 
 bringing out her Scheme of English Sounds in the form of a chart 
 for use in class. 
 
 2 To the students of the Marburg holiday course. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 REALIEN — THE "QUESTION OF THE CANON." 
 INTERNATIONAL CORRESPONDENCE. 
 
 In Chapters I. and II., I attempted to show the immediate 
 object of the newer teaching, viz. the acquisition of a practi- 
 cal knowledge of foreign languages, and the means adopted to 
 attain that end. There is another object, however, no less 
 important, though more remote, which is well expressed in 
 Friedrich Riickert's line. 
 
 Den Menschen zu verstehen dient seiner SpracK Erlernung, 
 as well as in the common statement that all language-teaching 
 (Sprachunterricht) ought at the same time to be teaching of 
 facts {Sachunterricht). The language-teaching of the lower and 
 middle classes of a school is in some sort considered as a pre- 
 paration for the Sachunterricht or teaching of Realien, which 
 belongs indeed to the whole course, but is chiefly carried on in 
 the upper classes. 
 
 I The word Realien (real things or realities) is somewhat 
 /vague and comprehensive. It covers everything that is illus- 
 trative of a nation's real life and thought — its literature, history 
 and geography, its institutions, manners and customs. Till 
 recently, even in Germany, the teaching of Realien, in con- 
 nection with languages, was mainly confined to literature : 
 now, however, we can everywhere trace, in text-books and in 
 teaching, the importance attached to the knowledge of the 
 
Method of teaching Modern Languages in Germany. 33 
 
 country and the people in almost every aspect. Take for 
 instance Dr Kiihn's Franzosisches Lesebuch, Mittel- und Oberstufe. 
 The first part contains numerous interesting passages illustrating 
 the historical development of the French nation. But the bulk 
 of the volume is devoted to la France contemporaine, including 
 descriptions of Paris and the provinces, of the national indus- 
 tries and the habits of the people. It is illustrated by numerous 
 woodcuts of vyell-known places and people. Even an adult, 
 already acquainted with French life and literature, will gain 
 from this book a more complete picture of France and the 
 French than he had before. Its whole tone, too, is eminently 
 broad-minded and conciliatory. Again, Dr Hausknecht's 
 English Student is a very good example of the method now 
 adopted to teach German boys about England and English 
 Ufe. The first part represents two Charterhouse boys having 
 talks with each other in bedroom, schoolroom, study, etc.; 
 these are carried on in schoolboy language and discuss the 
 daily incidents of school-life. Letters and school-trips are 
 ingeniously interwoven, introducing the reader to London, 
 Portsmouth, etc. The second part contains various historical 
 and biographical sketches, not omitting the Queen's Jubilee. 
 This book also, like Dr Kiihn's Lesebuch, is attractively illus- 
 trated with suitable woodcuts. 
 
 There is naturally a strong tendency to illustrate the Realien 
 in various ways. So much is this the case that at first one is 
 liable to be misled into the supposition that Realien are the 
 illustrations used to make the life and habits of the foreign 
 nation more real to the pupils. Realien do not, however, consist 
 in objects, maps, pictures, etc. They are rather the national 
 facts or "realities" which these illustrate. Dr Breul, in a lecture 
 on the Training of Teachers of Modern Foreign Languages, 
 delivered to the College of Preceptors (nth April, 1894)', 
 
 ' Reprinted, by Professor Vietor's special request, in Die Neueren 
 Sprachen, Band II. pp. 424 sqq. and 585 sqq. having already appeared in 
 the Educational Times, May 1, 1894. 
 
 B. 3 
 
34 The Method of teaching 
 
 defines Realien as " illustrative facts and studies, comprising a 
 study of foreign life and thought, customs and institutions at 
 different periods, to be partly acquired abroad by personal ex-, 
 amination. The chief auxiliary studies are: history, geography." \y 
 
 There is no doubt as to the importance and utility of this 
 Sachunterricht, but I more than once heard German teachers 
 express the opinion that it is a little over-done now-a-days. 
 " What do German boys want to know about Enghsh football, 
 etc.?" And, indeed, I found that Tom Brown's Schooldays is 
 not so well known in German schools as St Winifred' s. Never- 
 theless, wherevei; I came across the teaching of Realien, I 
 always noticed that it increased the interest and zeal of teacher 
 and pupils alike. In many schools they have ample means of 
 teaching English Realien at least. This I believe is largely 
 due to Professor Wendt of Hamburg. When the Neuphilolo- 
 gentag was held there in 1896, he had gathered together a most 
 useful and interesting collection of English books, illustrations, 
 etc. No pains or expense had been spared. One of the most 
 enthusiastic advocates of Realien teaching that I met. Professor 
 Heim of the Viktoriaschule, Darmstadt, told me how Professor 
 Wendt had set about making his collection as complete and 
 representative as he could. He first drew up a provisional 
 catalogue, and sent 150 copies to modem language teachers 
 in different parts of Germany and in England, requesting them 
 to make such additions as they thought desirable. Then, with 
 his catalogue thus enlarged, he went to England and called on 
 all the best publishers, who naturally found it in their interest 
 to send the desired specimens to the Hamburg exhibition 
 gratis, or for a nominal figure. When I heard this, and saw 
 the catalogue, I understood better how German teachers of 
 English seemed so well acquainted with our leading periodicals, 
 and were so well provided with good illustrations of English 
 Realien. 
 
 Professor Heim kindly let me see his method of dealing 
 with these. At one lesson, with the help of pictures drawn 
 
Modern Languages in Germany. 35 
 
 by some of their number, the students gave descriptions (in 
 English) of English houses and fireplaces. The Professor 
 then read amusing extracts from what he called the first 
 English book of Realien, viz. : Comenius' Janua linguarum 
 reserata, from time to time putting questions and giving ex- 
 planations. At the end of that lesson, he recommended to 
 the use of the students the "most recent book on English 
 Realien," viz.: Dr Kron's Little Londoner^, which had just 
 appeared. 
 
 On another occasion he showed the class different English 
 coins, asking various questions about their value, appearance, 
 etc. The difference between the old and new " pennies " led 
 to the description of Britannia and the Union Jack, and 
 the different flags that had been united to form the latter. 
 Questions were asked, in this connection, about the dates of 
 the union of England with Ireland and Scotland respectively. 
 The continuation of this lesson, dealing with nursery rhymes 
 and conundrums, was very pleasing, but does not come strictly 
 under the head of Realien. The students were interested and 
 animated throughout. At the close of the lesson, Professpr 
 Heim asked me to read a few lines (i) as a London cockney 
 would read, (2) as a Scotch person would. 
 
 Still more instructive was a lesson he gave the students 
 on how to teach a reading lesson with blackboard illustration. 
 The passage chosen was from Dr Deutschbein's Englische Kon- 
 versationsschule"^. It described house-hunting in London. As 
 the students read. Professor Heim drew a rough diagram on 
 the board, showing the position of the different streets and 
 buildings mentioned in the course of the narrative. To let 
 the students see what an English policeman was like, he made 
 use of a Jubilee periodical showing the policeman as he was at 
 the beginning of Victoria's reign (from Punch), and as he is 
 now. 
 
 ' Karlsruhe. Bielefeld, 1897. 
 "^ Cothen. Otto Schulze, 1895. 
 
36 The Method of teaching 
 
 In an edition of Dickens' Christmas Carol, which he has 
 published, Professor Heim has introduced illustrations of such 
 things as a hansom cab, a plum-pudding, etc. Space would 
 fail me to tell of all the means he adopts to obtain illustrations 
 of Realien. Like many others I met, he makes a point of 
 always looking at the Graphic and other English periodicals, 
 procuring a copy whenever it contains anything useful for his 
 teaching. He showed me many drawings his students had 
 made, including, besides the houses and fireplaces mentioned 
 above, Tower Bridge and the Vale of the White Horse, the 
 latter illustrating " Tom Brown." A large portfolio of pictures 
 for school use contained no less than sixteen English scenes, 
 such as, the County of Cambridge, an Enghsh Village, a Scotch 
 Inn, a Farm near Guildford, the Isle of Wight. 
 
 In the course of last Summer (1897) it was natural that 
 the Queen's Jubilee should excite a great deal of attention, 
 and be largely turned to account for school purposes. Current 
 events occupy a prominent place in this sort of teaching. But 
 these again are frequently associated with general customs and 
 with past history. The most interesting book on the subject 
 I have read is Drei weitere Jahre Erfahrungen mit der imita- 
 tiven Methode^, by Dr Klinghardt, who strongly recommends 
 the reading of good English novels as one of the best means of 
 teaching English Realien. Modern English novels and tales 
 are much more frequently read in schools now than formerly. 
 Mrs Ewing's stories are favourites in girls' schools, and are 
 very suitable in this respect, with their charming sketches of 
 military and country life. Dickens is a still greater favourite, 
 and is very much read, both in boys' and girls' schools. 
 
 Of all French authors, Daudet is perhaps most widely read 
 and appreciated. Erckmann-Chatrian, Mdrimee, Souvestre, 
 Bruno, Theuriet, Sandeau, Scribe and Copp^e occur also very 
 often in the school programmes. The great classics are still 
 
 ^ See Bibliography, p. 69. 
 
Modern Languages in Germany. 37 
 
 extensively read in the higher forms, but more attention is 
 being paid to 19th century writers than formerly. 
 
 At the last Neuphilologentag, a committee was appointed to 
 draw up a "canon" of French and English authors suitable 
 for school use. The texts must satisfy the highest hygienic 
 requirements in the matter of paper, print, etc., the authors in 
 question must exercise an absolutely sound moral influence on 
 the pupils, the language must be correct and suitable. But, 
 in the conditions laid down for the choice of school authors 
 and texts, by far the greatest stress is laid on their usefulness 
 for teaching the Realien. They must afford insight into the 
 history and civilization, the public and private life, and the 
 distinctive genius of the nation in question. The pupils' 
 school-reading should make them acquainted, not only with 
 the most famous men, but also with all the " best and noblest 
 productions of the nation, in literature and art, in trade and 
 industry; its most notable achievements in peace and war, in 
 political and social life.'' 
 
 The canon drawn up on these principles will be submitted 
 at the Neuphilologentag^ this year (1898). It will be scanned 
 with great interest by German teachers, and ought to be very 
 suggestive to French- and English teachers also. 
 
 Even such a short account of Realien teaching as the 
 present would not be complete, without reference to the inter- 
 national school correspondence which has been so much talked 
 of lately, even in England. It has, indeed, other objects, 
 besides the spread of international knowledge and sympathy, 
 but that is one of its strongest recommendations. A circular 
 letter was issued by the committee of the Saxon Modern 
 Language Association on the 29th May, 1897, drawing attention 
 to their central bureau for establishing international corres- 
 pondence between the students of German, French and English. 
 After explaining the method of carrying on the correspondence, 
 
 ^ To be held in Whitsuntide at Vienna. 
 
38 The Method of teaching 
 
 and the special advantage to the pupils, the letter goes on to 
 say, " Not only would the cause of modern language teaching 
 be materially advanced thereby, but also the cause of our 
 common civihzation. The more the political press is, unfortu- 
 nately, too often disposed to emphasize what separates the 
 nations, so much the more necessary is it to establish a 
 counterpoise in the interest of peaceful development." Such a 
 counterpoise would, it is believed, be found in extensive inter- 
 national intercourse and correspondence among Neuphilologen, 
 which the scheme in question would do much to foster. 
 
 Saxony is one of the most active centres for propagating 
 international correspondence, owing to the energy and enthu- 
 siasm of Dr K. A. Martin Hartmann, modern language teacher 
 at the Konigliches Gymnasium, Leipzig. About sixty pupils 
 of the school take an active part in the international corres- 
 pondence, only the better pupils of each class being encouraged 
 to do so ; but the others get the benefit of the French talk on 
 the letters received, and of the preparation for the writing of 
 the answers. The following summary of part of a lesson I 
 heard Dr Hartmann give to Untertertia will show how the 
 correspondence is treated in class. There were thirty-six 
 pupils in all ; of these seventeen were corresponding with 
 schoolboys in different towns in France. At the beginning of 
 the lesson Dr Hartmann put questions on what the French 
 boys had spoken about in their letters — the towns they lived 
 in, the schools they attended, etc. 
 
 Later on in the same lesson a boy was asked to describe 
 the preliminaries to writing a letter. This was done almost 
 in the words of the corresponding "Gouin" serie§. (Like 
 many other thoughtful German teachers, Dr Hartmann is a 
 qualified believer in Gouin'.) Then the boys were led to 
 suggest different formulae for the beginning and end of a 
 French letter, after which an actual letter was composed by 
 
 1 Cf. Chapter V. 
 
Modern Languages in Germany. 39 
 
 the class, the teacher from time to time making suggestions. 
 The Whitsuntide holidays were just then commencing — " encore 
 quatre lefons, ei nous serons litres "—which naturally led to the 
 comparison of French and German holidays, and the enumera- 
 tion of the four vacations — les vacances de Pdques, de Pentecote, 
 de la Saint-Michel, de Noel. Then Dr Hartmann proposed 
 that they should describe a holiday trip, say to Dresden. It 
 happened that one of the boys was actually going to Dresden 
 during the vacation. Accordingly a description of Dresden, 
 "/a capitale de la Saxe," was given — les musees, la galerie de 
 tableaux, le grand jar din, les iglises, la gare, etc. No word of 
 German was spoken throughout. Dr Hartmann himself is an 
 admirable French Scholar. 
 
 The French boys write in German, and the German boys 
 in French, the letters being sent back corrected. At stated 
 intervals, however, the boys write in their own language, to 
 give their correspondents model letters, so to speak. The 
 French and German teachers are mutually responsible for the 
 corrections and the model letters. All the letters pass through 
 their hands. Dr Hartmann allowed that it entails a great 
 deal of extra labour, but said it is of great benefit and interest 
 to the teacher himself, apart from the good it does the boys to 
 be brought thus into personal relations with the schoolboys of 
 other nations. 
 
 Teachers wishing to have German correspondents for their pupils could 
 not do better than apply to Prof. Dr K. A. Martin Hartmann (Leipzig- 
 Gohlis, Wiesenstrasse 2). 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE GOUIN SYSTEM IN GERMANY. 
 
 THE 'METHODE HAEUSSER.' — THE BERLITZ METHOD. 
 
 THE JENA SCHOOL. 
 
 German teachers sometimes asked me whether the Gouin 
 system were not our form of the New Method in England. 
 In spite of its over-elaboration in detail, the ' series ' method 
 has, indeed, much in common with ,the German teaching, and 
 the Germans have paid considerable attention to it., I some- 
 times could trace its influence on the teaching of those who 
 had made a study of it. 
 
 I only saw one so-called ' Series ' lesson given all the time 
 I was in Germany, and even that was handled with considerable 
 freedom : it is the principles, rather than the detailed working 
 out of the system, that excite the interest of educationists. 
 Dr von Sallwiirk (Geheimer Oberschulrat^), who has raised 
 the modern language teaching in the Grand Duchy of Baden 
 to a very high level, was deeply interested in M. Gouin's book, 
 and encourages the Baden teachers to make a practical study 
 of the method. Gouin lessons are also given at the Twelfth 
 Reahchuk in Berlin, and, in Hamburg, several teachers have 
 studied the system, and apply it more or less in their teaching. 
 
 ' Chief Government inspector of secondary schools. 
 
Metho,d of teaching Modern Languages in Germany. 41 
 
 Even among those who frankly avow their interest in it, and 
 admit the soundness of the principles on which it is based, few 
 or none have adopted it entirely. They find the hard and fast 
 rules of application to be somewhat cramping, and some of the 
 s series unsuitable. They very strongly approve of the promi- 
 nence given to the verb, however, and also praise the many 
 ingenious grammatical devices. The principle of grouping 
 series of actions is thoroughly recognized in Germany, but 
 had often been adopted independently of Gouin, though not 
 to the same extent. Action and gesture are used instinctively 
 by most good teachers of the young, but I think they were 
 used more, and with better effect, by those who had made a 
 special study of this system. It is, however, an essential 
 feature of the German method, to associate words as much 
 as possible with things and actions instead of equivalent 
 words. What the Germans really most object to in the 
 'Gouin' method is its absolute exclusion of objects and 
 pictures. The rule with them is to inake the children speak 
 first about actual objects before their eyes — the schoolroom, 
 its furniture, themselves and their belongings ; then about 
 objects represented in pictures or recalled from their daily 
 experience. Pictures are used at all stages to help the pupils 
 to realize what they have never seen. The German practice 
 is thus entirely opposed to the exclusive appeal to the pupils' 
 imagination, cf. their extensive use of plans, maps, pictures, 
 poi-traits, etc., wherever these are available, to illustrate even 
 the higher teaching about Land und Leute (country and 
 people). 
 
 There is one point, however, on which I am inclined to 
 think even the admirers of the Gouin system in Germany 
 do not do it full justice. Great stress is laid by Mr Swan 
 on the importance of not "changing the picture" in the 
 objective part of a Gouin lesson, although it may and should 
 be changed often in' dealing^ with the subjective language 
 (exclamations, expressions of pleasure, admiration, and the 
 
42 The Method of teaching 
 
 like). This rule seems to me to rest on a thoroughly sound 
 psychological basis, and yet it was constantly violated in the 
 one 'Series' lesson I heard in Germany. It was in other 
 respects an exceedingly good lesson. The teacher was an 
 accomplished English scholar, who had studied "Gouin" in 
 England. The class consisted of Seminar students. They 
 were 'told to suppose they were going to visit -at an English 
 house. They had to describe the garden, th€ house, the 
 door, the maid, the hall, etc. The girls began with some 
 zest, 'ya. the dramatic way young people of all ages enjoy, 
 then some alternative would be suggested at every turn, and 
 the interest visibly flagged. Now the house in question was 
 a pretty cottage, again it was a villa or mansion, first the 
 door was furnished with a knocker, then with a bell, the maid 
 was Susan, or Jane or Mary, and so on. The result on myself 
 was a certain amount of mental confusion, although in other 
 respects the lesson was a charming one. Dr Kron's admirable 
 little books Le Petit Parisien} and The Little Londoner also 
 give a variety of alternatives : this is an advantage for the 
 teacher and the adult student, but , almost precludes their 
 being available as class-books, except in the hands of an 
 exceptionally skilful teacher. Dr Kron 's book on the Gouin 
 system is excellent". He has also taken part in the working 
 out of another method that took its rise in Germany quite 
 recently (1889-93) and which is highly praised, viz. the Methode 
 Haeusser . Little need be said of it here, as it is intended 
 for private study (Selbstunter'richi): it is considered the best 
 plan yet devised for learning a language without a master. 
 Three of its most prominent characteristics are : 
 
 (i) Careful figuring of the pronunciation, by means of 
 the ordinary German alphabet, with the addition of a few 
 signs. 
 
 (2) Numerous dialogues on each reading lesson. 
 
 1 Karlsruhe. Bielefeld, 1897 (3rd Ed.). 
 
 2 Die Methode Gouin. Von Dr R. Kron. Marburg, Elwert, 1896. 
 
Modem Languages in Germany. 43 
 
 (3) The importance attached to the repetition of each 
 question before the answer is given. 
 
 The drawbacks to the Methode Haeusser are those at- 
 tendant, of necessity, on every method of self-instruction. 
 Pronunciation cannot be properly taught from a book alone : 
 useful as phonetic symbols are, they can never be an adequate 
 substitute for the living voice of the teacher. Moreover, no 
 system of this kind can help violating one of the elementary 
 laws of language teaching, viz. First the ear, then the eye. 
 
 The Methode Haeusser, however, like the Gouin method, 
 has many points in its favour and much in common with other 
 new methods. It, too, deals with the things of everyday life. 
 It treats each reading lesson analytically. It dispenses with 
 translation as much as possible, and by judicious repetition, 
 with variations, makes sure that the conscientious student will 
 really master all difficulties. I believe that, with a very few 
 pronunciation lessons to start with, a propaedeutic course in 
 fact, any earnest, intelligent student could really learn a lan- 
 guage well on this system, especially if he associated with 
 himself one or two fellow-students. The Methode Haeusser 
 is an improvement on the Toussaint-Langenscheidt Method, 
 which was considered the best and most conscientious system 
 of the kind before. 
 
 The Berlitz Schools of Modern Languages are far more 
 ~ numerous in Germany than in all the rest of Europe; there 
 are rather more than in America, even, where the system took 
 its rise, founded in 1878 by the German American, Mr;BerHtz. 
 Its chief head-quarters in Germany are at Berlin, and it is 
 there alone that teachers are allowed to visit the classes 
 gratis'. The schools are all private, and the number in 
 any class does not exceed eight. This method was originally 
 
 ^ I mention this because the preface to the Berlitz text-books is mis- 
 leading. I applied for permission to visit the school at Frankfort on the 
 Main, and found that the only way open to me of obtaining insight into the 
 teaching was to take lessons myself. 
 
44 The M^ethod of teaching 
 
 intended for adults, but some of the text-books have been 
 adapted for younger pupils. 
 
 In its principles and practice the Berlitz school also coin- 
 cides in many respects with the Reform. Its distinctive 
 feature is the absolute exclusion of the pupils' mother tongue, 
 even from the very beginning. This seems to involve loss of 
 tiiile, and a certain amount of unnecessary confusion. The 
 pupil remains for some time in uncertainty regarding the exact 
 meaning of words and sentences, and is also liable to mis- 
 understand grammatical inflections. Most advocates of the 
 new method insist only on using the pupil's mother tongue as 
 little as possible. 
 
 Like the Methode Haeiisser, too, though not to the same 
 extent, the Berlitz method seems to fall short of the phonetic 
 method in the matter of pronunciation. No attempt is made 
 to show the pupil how to pronounce : he is expected to " pick 
 up " the pronunciation, in time, with constant practice. This 
 mistake seems all the more serious, because the system is 
 primarily intended for adults, whose speech-organs have lost 
 their flexibility. 
 
 In other respects the Berlitz Method systematically follows 
 the principles of the new method. It is entirely opposed to 
 translation and to mere word-teaching. Constant use is made 
 of question and answer. The first eight lessons are purely 
 oral. The pupils learn exclusively by imitation. The reading 
 lesson is treated in a way very similar to that described in 
 Chapter I., the teacher always reading first, putting questions 
 on the passage read, and explaining new words by introducing 
 them into a familiar setting. The exercises take the form of 
 answering or putting questions on the reading lessons, rewriting 
 a passage with change of person or tense, and similar varia- 
 tions. 'T- 
 
 The so-called Jena School resembles the Berlitz Method in 
 absolutely excluding the use of the pupil's own language. Here 
 also, it seemed to me, that even in the hands of an able teacher a 
 
Modern Languages, in Germany. 45 
 
 little time is wasted, and the pupils remain needlessly uncertain 
 of the meaning of words and sentences used. There is no 
 doubt, however, that the pupil's interest is stimulated by 
 finding himself constantly compelled to understand and answer 
 in the foreign language. I will try and give a summary of 
 Herr Oberlehrer Lehmensick's excellent course of lessons to 
 the students of the Jena holiday course. His pupils were 
 almost all adults, and of different nationalities. V^ 
 
 A map of Jena and its neighbourhood was placed before 
 the class. With the help of the map the teacher described 
 Jena and its surroundings in short sentences, which were 
 reproduced by the pupils in answer to questions. Words 
 were written on the blackboard from time to time, but always 
 after they had been pronounced. A printed description of 
 Jena was next put into the pupils' hands, and they were asked 
 to read it, first to themselves, then aloud. The papers being 
 laid aside, an oral description of Jena was given, with the help 
 of suggestions and questions on the part of the teacher. 
 Finally the latter put questions orally, which the pupils 
 answered in writing. They then read and corrected their 
 answers in class, and wrote them out again at home. 
 
 The same lesson was continued on the following day. 
 Meanwhile the class had taken a walk in the neighbourhood 
 of Jena with their teacher to see and talk about Jena and its 
 neighbourhood. Similar walks took place in connection with 
 the lessons that followed, on the Battle of Jena, Schiller in 
 Jena, the Song of the Bell, the Erlkonig, and Luther in Jena. 
 Alongside of the reading-lessons, there were grammar lessons 
 on the use of the prepositions, etc. Special practice was given 
 in the use of verbs with the help of interesting little books by 
 J. Egli', in which series of actions are represented by a 
 succession of pictures. In dealing with these, and also with 
 
 ^ Bildersaal fur den Sfrachenunterricht. Von G. Egli. Heft VII. 
 Aufsdtze fur den Unterricht in der Muttersprache, Zurich, Art. Institut 
 Orell FUssIi. 
 
46. The Method of teaching 
 
 the reading-lessons, considerable interest and vividness were 
 added by the frequent injunction to make the different cha- 
 racters speak for themselves. Thus, in the imaginary account 
 of the events on which the story of the Erlkonig was based, 
 the father and mother, the boy himself, the physician and the 
 innkeeper were all made to speak in their own persons. 
 
 Particularly interesting were the lessons on Schiller's Song 
 of the Bell. A few general remarks on the poem were followed 
 by the teacher's description of Schiller's visit to the bell foundry, 
 and of what he would see there. An accurate account of the 
 various processes was accompanied by the drawing of a rough 
 diagram on the board illustrating each. Then Schiller's other 
 sources of information were discussed. 
 
 The leading thought of the poem was brought out by 
 reference to the motto, taken from the inscription on the 
 bell in the Strassburg Cathedral — Vivos voco, mortuos plango, 
 fulgurafrango. This "Introduction" was subsequently treated 
 as a reading-lesson, and two extracts from the Song of the Bell 
 were taught most skilfully. All figures and metaphors were 
 explained by reference to their literal, physical meaning, the 
 illustrations given being of the most simple and concrete kind. 
 
 The following is a good example of Herr Lehmensick's way 
 of explaining an unknown expressio'n. It occurred in one of 
 the grammar lessons. One of the students did not understand 
 Die Soldaten handelten dem Befehl entgegen. Among other 
 illustrations of .disobedience to commands, Herr Lehmensick 
 wiped the blackboard, when a lady student told him not to, 
 and got a student to pick up a piece of paper he had told him 
 to leave on the floor, saying on each occasion, Ich handle— 
 Sie handeln — dem Befehl entgegen. This explanation took up 
 a good deal of time, but certainly tended to enliven the 
 lesson. 
 
 In teaching the pronunciation, Herr Lehmensick made use 
 of an ingenious table indicating the position of the mouth in 
 producing the vowel sounds. A small circle represented the u 
 
Modern Languages in Germany. 47 
 
 sound, a larger the open o sound, a figure resembling a wide 
 open mouth the a sound, etc. 
 
 I subsequently saw somewhat similar lessons given at the 
 Hohere Mddchenschule at Eisenach, where the teaching is 
 conducted on the Herbartian principles so ably advocated 
 by Professor Rein. These principles have, however, been 
 more fully worked out with reference to the mother tongue, 
 history and literature. As far as I could judge, there is no 
 substantial difference between the teaching of modern lan- 
 guages on this plan, and the method advocated by the 
 Reform:. Due importance is everywhere given to the rousing 
 of interest in the pupils, and stimulating the desire for more 
 knowledge. 
 
 Opinions are divided as to the advisability' of introducing 
 the funf formale Stufen of the Herbart-Ziller school into the 
 foreign language teaching. Even those who taught on that 
 system told me that it was a little difficult always to take the 
 several steps in the required order, i.e. 
 
 Preparation for the lesson. 
 
 Actual teaching of the lesson. 
 
 Connecting it with other le'ssons. 
 
 Grammar teaching. 
 
 Application, in the form of exercises. 
 
 It seems almost a pity to cramp modern language teaching 
 by laying down hard and fast lines. I also cannot but think 
 that it would be a still greater mistake to force any close, 
 immediate connection between the modern language lessons 
 and the other lessons going on in the school at the same 
 time. But anything like dogmatic criticism would be ill-timed 
 and out of place here; Professor Rein himself informed me 
 that the teaching of foreign languages has not yet been fully 
 worked into his scheme, which primarily affects the teaching 
 in the Volksschule. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE PRUSSIAN ' LEHRPLANE.' 
 GERMAN SCHOOL PROGRAMMES. EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 An official memorial on the " historical development of the 
 revision of the curricula and examinational regulations for 
 secondary schools" (1892) opens with the following words : — 
 
 "The present organization of our secondary schools is 
 based on the curricula and examinational regulations as 
 introduced by the circular enactments of the 31st March 
 and 27th May, 1882. Albeit many of the well-grounded 
 claims of the experts (Fachmdnner) were satisfied on the 
 occasion of the revision that then took place, nevertheless a 
 movement sprang up, in the years immediately following, 
 with reference to the system of secondary education. Starting 
 from the alleged overwork of the pupils at our secondary 
 schools, it spread more and more, until it gradually called 
 in question the foundations of the traditional organization in 
 this department. All that was claimed at first was a relaxation 
 of the mental strain in school and at home, in favour of the 
 physical development of the rising generation, and a greater 
 amount of bodily exercise, as also a greater attention to 
 considerations of health. Very soon, however, other questions 
 came to the front, viz., the establishment of a uniform 
 secondary school {hohere Einheitsschule), a uniform non-Latin 
 
Method of teaching Modern Languages in Germaay. 49 
 
 basis for all kinds of secondary schools, the remodelling of 
 the curriculum of the Gymnasien, the granting of equal privi- 
 leges to Realgytnnasieti as to Gymnasien regarding admission 
 to University studies, the readjustment of the system of rights 
 and privileges generally ; also, farther, the method of teaching, 
 the theoretical and practical training of teachers, and their 
 external status. People did not coniine themselves to negative 
 criticism, but went on to make positive suggestions, which, as 
 early as the year 1888, were reckoned at 344, and have since 
 considerably increased in number." 
 
 The memorial proceeds to discuss the claims that have 
 been met, and the reason why others could not be conceded. 
 It is but fair, however, to mention with reference to the 
 foregoing statements, that Professor Victor's pamphlet of 1882, 
 which gave the active impulse to the whole movement referred 
 to above, while nominally a "contribution to the question 
 of an overburdened curriculum" {Uberbiirdungsfrage), most 
 emphatically called for reform in the method of teaching, 
 advocated the non-Latin basis of all secondary instruction, 
 etc., and cannot therefore truly be said to have claimed only 
 relaxation of overstrain and increase of physical exercise. It 
 would be more correct to say that the movement spread from 
 a small body of enlightened men to the educational world at 
 large. 
 
 It is not my duty here to enter into the relative merits of 
 the various questions discussed in the memorial. In the 
 revision of the curricula that took place in 1891, and came 
 into force in 1892, the following points have been conceded: — 
 
 (i) Additional privileges are granted to the Realgymnasien 
 and Oberrealschulen regarding admission to the universities. 
 
 (2) The Muster schule, a Realgymnasium at Frankfort on 
 the Main, has been permitted to make a trial with the non- 
 Latin (i.e. French) basis of foreign language teaching. 
 
 (3) An alternative curriculum for the Realschiile has been 
 B. 4 
 
50 The Method of teaching 
 
 introduced, giving more time to German than the first six years 
 of the Oberreahchule. 
 
 (4) The number of lessons per week at the Gymnasien, 
 Realgymnasien and Oberrealschulen has been reduced by 16, 
 21 and 18, respectively. Also there are 9 additional hours for 
 gymnastics at all these schools, and special attention is paid 
 to health. 
 
 (5) The amount of matter to be committed to memory 
 has ■ been greatly diminished. 
 
 (6) More German and drawing are taught at the Gym- 
 nasien, and English is taken up as an optional subject in the 
 three highest classes. Less time is given to Latin, both at 
 Gymnasien and Realgymnasien. 
 
 (7) Practical knowledge is now considered the main 
 object in modern language teaching. This aim is to be 
 kept in view in the training of modern language teachers, 
 and their residence abroad is to be encouraged to the 
 utmost. 
 
 Some farther concessions are enumerated, but these do not 
 directly affect modern language teaching. 
 
 The Lehrpldne of 1892 for boys' schools were followed, in 
 1894, by similar Bestintmungen for girls' schools. 
 
 These make one very serious retrograde step in lowering 
 the age at which girls finish their regular school course from 
 sixteen to fifteen. This seems wholly unjustifiable, not only 
 in the eyes of English teachers, but also in the eyes of every 
 German teacher I talked with on the Subject. As a matter 
 of fact, however, thanks to a provision permitting already 
 established schools to retain their ten years' course, most 
 secondary girls' schools in Prussia, as in the rest of Germany, 
 do actually keep their pupils "from six to sixteen." 
 
 In other respects these Bestimmungen are well drawn up, 
 and are, in the main, progressive. I will quote a few of the 
 regulations concerning the teaching of French and English. 
 
Modern Languages in Germany. 51 
 
 "General aim of both Foreign Languages. 
 
 " The direct object of instruction in foreign languages is to 
 enable the pupils to understand fairly easy French and English 
 authors, and to comprehend spoken English and French, also 
 to use with a certain amount of fluency the simple forms of 
 daily intercourse both orally and in writing. Its indirect object 
 is to open up to the pupils' minds, as far as possible, the 
 culture and civilization, the life and customs of both foreign 
 nations. 
 
 Lehraufgabe (Pensum). 
 
 "French. Middle School (VI.— IV.). 
 
 " The first aim is the acquisition of a correct pronunciation 
 by careful systematic practice of the foreign sounds, primarily 
 in a short preparatory (propaedeutic) course (4 — 6 weeks), 
 excluding theoretical rules on sound-formation and pronun- 
 ciation and so-called phonetic transcription (Lautschrift). It 
 is always the sound and not the written symbol that must be 
 made the basis of these lessons in pronunciation. * * * 
 
 " The knowledge of the regular accidence, of the auxiliary 
 verbs and the simple order of words in a sentence is to be 
 gradually acquired in connection with a reading and lesson- 
 book {Lese- und LehrbucK) which from the first makes reading 
 the centre of instruction, and admits of elementary gram- 
 matical knowledge, a small, available vocabulary, as well as 
 oral and written exercises, being based on the reading lessons 
 as far as possible. * * * 
 
 "The conversational practice on which stress is to be laid 
 from the very first day, is to be carried on partly in connection 
 with the reading lessons, partly with concrete objects, events 
 ot school life, and pictures of scenes from daily life, not 
 overladen with subject-matter. So-called Questionnaires are 
 not to be commended. 
 
 * ^ % * * * 1l! 
 
 4—2 
 
52 The Method of teaching 
 
 " Weekly dictation of short French passages already learnt 
 or gone over, to practise the ear and associate the sound with 
 its traditional symbol. 
 
 ******* 
 
 (2) Upper School. (III.— I.) 
 
 " Reading and grammar are treated separately but grammar 
 must always be the handmaid'. * * * The history, novels and 
 poetry of the 19th century are the most suitable literature. 
 * * * Grammar is everywhere to be restricted to the essential 
 and normal, and treated inductively. 
 
 ******* 
 
 " Continued dictation of easy French passages, gradually 
 also of such as are new to the pupils. Oral and written 
 transformations (Umbildungen) of given French passages be- 
 coming gradually freer, simple letters, oral reproductions into 
 French. 
 
 " No lesson, that is not entirely devoted to written work, 
 should pass without French conversation ; only grammar is to 
 be taught everywhere in the German language. The gramma- 
 tical terminology should be as much as possible identical for 
 German, French and English." 
 
 ******# 
 
 English is begun three years later than French in the 
 Secondary girls' schools ThvPrussia. The detailed instructions 
 laid down are similar in character to those for French. 
 
 A few general remarks on method follow, revealing the 
 importance attached to the teacher's pronunciation, phonetic 
 training, and power of expressing himself in the foreign tongue. 
 
 " Instruction in French and English according to the 
 principles indicated above requires a teacher who can use the 
 language with the utmost ease and precision. * * * The most 
 difficult part of the teaching falls in the first year; what is 
 
 1 hhibt die Dienerin, 
 
Modern Languages in Germany. 53 
 
 neglected then can hardly ever be made good. The teacher 
 himself must be so well trained phonetically as to be able 
 independently to discover , and apply the help that must be 
 given to a child when first learning to pronounce foreign 
 sounds and sound-combinations. * * * In the lower classes 
 systematic drill in articulation is to be commended, including 
 the uttering and singing in chorus of individual sounds and 
 sound-combinations. * * * in estimating a pupil's work, faults 
 of pronunciation are to be put on a par with faults of spelling 
 and grammar in the written exercises. 
 
 * It * * % % ^ 
 
 " The more pupils are accustomed from the very beginning 
 to the thought that French and English are to be learned less 
 from book than from the mouth of the teacher, the more 
 quickly will intercourse between teacher and pupils in the 
 foreign language be attainable, and the pupils' shyness of 
 expressing themselves in the foreign tongue disappear." 
 
 The above quotations show to what extent the Prussian 
 educational ministry has already adopted the views of the 
 reformers. There seems every reason to believe that in due 
 time teachers will be given a free hand to use their phonetic 
 knowledge as they see fit, that translation will be still farther 
 discouraged, and the examinations in the boys' schools adapted 
 to the new requirements. 
 
 In addition to the regulations issued by the Government, 
 a detailed syllabus of work is printed in every school pro- 
 gramme. The instructions are very minute, as will be seen by 
 the following extracts from the programme of the Dorotheen- 
 schule in Berlin, stating the French work to be got through in 
 a given year (1896 — 97) in Classes VI. and II. 
 
 " Class VI. five lessons. Drill in pronunciation with sample 
 words, according to Bierbaum's Pronunciation tables. Conver- 
 sation in short sentences on school and home, partly with the 
 help of pictures. In connection with these, demonstration 
 (Darstellung) and drill (Einiiiung) in the simplest grammatical 
 
54 The Method of teaching 
 
 forms : present, imperative, past indefinite, imperfect, and 
 past definite of avoir., itre and donner, in affirmative, inter- 
 rogative, negative and negative-interrogative form. Declension 
 of substantives and the formation of the plural, agreement and 
 comparison of adjectives; personal, possessive, interrogative 
 and demonstrative pronouns ; numerals up to 20. Committing 
 to memory and singing short poems and children's songs. 
 An exercise to be corrected weekly. 
 
 " Class-book: Bierbaum, Lehrbuch der franzosischen Sprache. 
 Part I. 
 
 " Class II. four lessons. Continued practice in irregular 
 verbs, syntax of pronouns and adverbs according to Bierbaum, 
 III. Conversation on the reading-lessons about Paris, in the 
 class-book, and on the other reading-lessons. Practice in 
 narration. Poems from Gropp und Hausknecht. Reading- 
 books : in Summer, Daudet, La belle Nivernaise ; in Winter, 
 Theuriet, Za Frincesse Verte. An exercise or dictation "once 
 a week ; easy letters from Ritter : Anleitung zur Abfassung 
 franzosiscker Briefe" 
 
 Besides a great deal of miscellaneous information and 
 detail, varying to some extent according to the school, every 
 programme contains a full syllabus of work for each class in 
 each subject, the weekly number of lessons in each, the books 
 used, and the respective teachers. An extensive interchange 
 of programmes goes on between the different schools; at 
 Easter, the beginning of the German school-year, I sometimes 
 saw numerous programmes from other schools in the Head 
 Masters' or teachers' rooms. They are issued by all state and 
 municipal schools and also by most private schools. We have 
 nothing corresponding to them in England, as they have little 
 in common with the ordinary school prospectus. They are 
 valuable documents for the study of Secondary Education in 
 Germany. The heads of schools willingly give copies of their 
 school programmes to visitors, and I found the concise, 
 
 y 
 
Modem Languages in Germany. 55 
 
 tabulated information they contained very useful for the 
 purposes of my inquiry. 
 
 Most German examinations are oral as well as written. In 
 girls' schools they have been practically abolished. The 
 pupils are moved up or "remain sitting," according to the 
 decision of the staff, with or without a formal examination by 
 the Head Master, or by the class teachers in his presence. 
 In all cases, even where examinations are held, it is the year's 
 work that counts most. Comparatively few are left behind. 
 
 There are two very important examinations at secondary 
 boys' schools, viz.: the Reifeprufungz.-D.ii the Abschlusspricfung. 
 The Reifeprufung {Maturitatsprufung or Abiturientenprufung) 
 takes place at the end of a nine years' course in a Gymnasium, 
 Realgymnasium or Oberrealschule, and, among many other 
 privileges, entitles the successful candidate to enter the 
 University. The Abschlussprtifung is held at the end of a 
 six years' course at a Realschuk, Progymnasium or Realpro- 
 gymnasium^. It entitles the successful candidate to a single 
 year's military service instead of two, besides admitting him to 
 subordinate appointments in the civil service. 
 
 The requirements for modern languages naturally vary 
 according to the kind of school in connection with which the 
 examination is held. The work set is not difficult, as a rule, 
 but the standard is high. I saw some written translations into 
 French and English done at the Abschlusspriifung of a 
 Realschule : the faults under each heading (grammatische, 
 orthographische, etc.,) varied from o to 6, the average being 
 about 2. At the Gymnasien the only written work required in 
 modern languages is a translation from French into German, 
 and that with the help of a dictionary ! There is no oral work. 
 The examination at the Realgymnasien is both written and oral, 
 and an essay in the foreign language is required. Still more, 
 naturally, is expected from the pupils of the Oberrealschulen. 
 
 ' Also at the end of the sixth year in Prussian schools with a nine 
 years' course. 
 
56 Method of teaching Modern Languages in Germany. 
 
 On the whole, even in boys' schools, examinations do not 
 affect the teaching in Germany to nearly the same extent as in 
 England. As far as modern languages are concerned, the 
 fact that there is generally an oral examination, as well as a 
 written one, has really a beneficial influence on the teaching. 
 The examination is not an aim; it is merely a test, and its 
 results are checked by the year's work always being taken into 
 account. In England, on the contrary, our elaborate and 
 often irrational examination system materially interferes with 
 the practical realization of the views of enlightened reformers. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE PREPARATION OF THE MODERN LANGUAGE 
 TEACHER IN GERMANY. 
 
 There are two facts that specially strike the foreigner in 
 his intercourse with the teachers of modern languages in 
 Germany : one is that they are nearly all Germans, the other, 
 that they are as a rule remarkably well equipped for their 
 work. Although I came across from one hundred to two 
 hundred teachers, I do not remember meeting more than five 
 foreigners among them. Of these, two had been in Germany 
 fifteen and twenty years respectively, two were lady visiting 
 teachers at private girls' schools, only one was employed at 
 a public girls' school. Her Head Master, Direktor Dr Zahn 
 (Hamburg), told me that the appointment had attracted a good 
 deal of attention, but he was satisfied with the result of the 
 experiment. 
 
 I believe one reason why the Germans are so unwilling to 
 employ English teachers in their schools is because so few or 
 those that have been thoroughly trained go abroad. Now, all 
 German teachers, in the secondary no less than in the 
 elementary schools, have undergone a careful, systematic 
 training. There exists, it is true, considerable diiference in 
 training between elementary and secondary teachers, as well 
 
S8 The Method of teaching 
 
 as between men and women. Nevertheless, in Germany, no 
 university man is supposed to be fit for teaching without 
 having been trained as a teacher. A certain amount of actual 
 teaching under proper supervision is deemed indispensable 
 for all. Still more marked is the importance attached to 
 hospitieren, as it is called, i.e., the visiting of schools, and 
 being present at lessons by experienced teachers. It forms 
 a regular and prominent part of the German system of 
 training. 
 
 I was not admitted to the regular men's training colleges, 
 but I visited two Gymnasien with training departments (Semi- 
 nare). These Seminare in connection with secondary boys' 
 schools are a more recent and interesting institution than 
 the regular training colleges. 
 
 I visited several women's training colleges, and heard 
 lessons given to and by the students. By far the greater 
 number of women's training colleges are in connection with 
 girls' schools, the Head Master of the girls' school being at the 
 same time head of the training college. 
 
 The Prussian regulations practically exclude all foreign 
 teachers from Prussian state schools. Tlie appointment of 
 really inefficient teachers is also virtually all but impossible. 
 
 For admission to any state university every student of 
 modern languages must produce a Certificate of matriculation 
 (Reifezeugnis) gained at a Gymnasiutn or a Realgymnasium. 
 The intending teacher must spend at least three years at a 
 university. In the case of modern language teachers this 
 regulation is relaxed a little j they are allowed to spend part 
 of the time at other colleges in Germany or abroad where 
 modern language lectures are held. I was led to understand 
 that, as a matter of fact, most Neuphilologen spend from four 
 to five years on their university training. 
 
 While at the university all must study philosophy, peda- 
 gogy, German language and literature. Religious knowledge 
 is also included among the general subjects. In addition to 
 
Modern Languages in Germany. 59 
 
 these, each student aiming at the Oberkhrerzeugnis^ must take 
 up two subjects as Hauptfdcher, and two as Nebenfdcher. The 
 Hauptfacher, or chief subjects, must be mastered up to the 
 standard necessary for teaching in all classes, the Nebenfdcher, 
 or additional subjects,. to the standard required for teaching in 
 the Middle School (Mittelstufe). For the simple Lehrerzeugnis 
 (teacher's certificate) an equal number of subjects are required, 
 but the standard is not so high. 
 
 Any student taking French or English as one of his 
 Hauptfacher must take Latin as one of his Nebenfdcher, but 
 only up to the standard necessary for the Lower School 
 ( Uniershefe). As a rule, modern language teachers in Germany 
 teach both French and English, therefore these would usually 
 constitute their Hauptfdcher at a university, although I believe 
 it is not unusual to combine German and English. 
 
 The requirements for the highest stage {Obersiufe), both of 
 French and English, include, in addition to all-round theoretical 
 knowledge of the language and literature, idiomatic, colloquial 
 familiarity with the language. Nothing perhaps would surprise 
 the average Englishman more than the stress laid by the 
 Germans on the oral and practical side of language learning 
 and teaching. For the lower and middle stages of French, 
 and the middle stage of English, correctness of pronunciation 
 and fldency in speaking the language are indispensable. Not 
 only are these expressly stated in the regulations, but there 
 is an after-note to the following effect : — 
 
 "To obtain complete teaching qualifications a thorough 
 knowledge of the current language, sure mastery of it for use 
 in writing and speaking, and a certain amount of personal 
 acquaintance with its literature are of paramount importance. 
 Success in modern language teaching depends upon strict 
 adherence to these requirements, which practically secure it ; 
 whereas success in teaching would be seriously impaired, if the 
 
 ' The certificate of an Oberlehrer or " upper teacher." 
 
6o The Method of teaching 
 
 evidence of knowledge concerning the historical development 
 of the language should be in any way accepted as an equivalent 
 for the mastery of the current language." 
 
 When a student has successfully passed his teacher's exami- 
 nation {Staatsexamen), after four or five years of university 
 training, two or three years more must elapse before he is. 
 considered in a position to receive a permanent appointment 
 as teacher. He must spend two years on his professional 
 training, a Seminarjahr and a Probejahr. The word Seminar 
 is a little misleading, as it is applied to three distinct kinds of 
 institutions : 
 
 (i) In its ordinary acceptation it is equivalent to our 
 training college, whether for men or women. 
 
 (2) It is applied to the training department in connection 
 with a secondary boys' school. 
 
 (3) The Seminar attached to a university is intended for 
 the encouragement of independent, practical research on the 
 part of the more advanced students. 
 
 This university Seminar has nothing to do with the 
 students' professional training : they attend it before passing 
 their Oberlehrerprufung (Staatsexamen). By the kindness of 
 Professor A. Brandl, I was pennitted to visit the English 
 Seminar at the University of Berlin. It was crowded with 
 students, who were at the time studying Old English Ballads, 
 with scholarly thoroughness, under the able, sympathetic 
 guidance of the Professor. 
 
 It is the second kind of Seminar that is most important 
 from a professional point of view. It was instituted in Prussia 
 as recently as 1890. There are 32 of these " pddagogische 
 Seminare " in connection with different Gymnasien and Real- 
 g)imnasien throughout the kingdom. In Hesse there are two 
 excellent institutions of the kind, one at the Gymnasium in 
 Giessen, and one at the Neues Gymnasium in Darmstadt. I 
 enjoyed the valued privilege of hearing modern language 
 lessons at both those schools given in the presence of several 
 
Modern Languages in Germany. 6i 
 
 Seminarisien. Herr Nodnagel, the Direktor of the Neues 
 Gymnasium in Darmstadt, himself a most able teacher, was 
 kind enough to give me some details of his method of dealing 
 with the Seminarisien. He devotes two afternoons a week to 
 them, giving them lectures, or discussing educational questions 
 with them. He guides them in their reading, and by getting 
 different students to read up and discuss different subjects, 
 enables the Seminar, as a whole, to go over a larger field of 
 educational investigation than would otherwise be possible. 
 Each Seminarist has to give in one elaborate educational 
 treatise, the Direktor, if necessary, suggesting the subject to 
 be treated and the books to be read. In this way some really 
 valuable work is sometimes done. Of special methods, German 
 and geography are always taken up, these being looked upon 
 as the most fundamental school subjects. Other special 
 methods are discussed if there is time. Meanwhile the 
 Seminarisien attend the- lessons of the specialist teachers, 
 who explain their methods and point out illustrations of 
 important pedagogical principles occurring in the lessons. 
 Finally, Criticism Lessons (JProbekktionen) are given in the 
 presence of the Head Master, the regular teacher, other 
 members of the staff and the rest of the Seminarisien. The 
 lesson is fully discussed subsequently, all present being invited 
 to speak, and the Head Master summing up. 
 
 Professor Lenz, modern language teacher at the above 
 Gymnasium, very kindly allowed me to be present at his 
 private talk with the Seminarisien after giving a lesson in 
 their presence. He drew attention to what he considered 
 the important points of the lesson, and emphasized one or two 
 principles of method. At some schools the Seminarisien are 
 encouraged to criticize the regular teacher, but I do not think 
 this is done habitually. 
 
 The number of students admitted to one school is strictly 
 limited. There were not more than four present at any of the 
 lessons I heard. The number fixed by the Prussian regulations 
 
62 The Method of teaching 
 
 is a yearly average of six. Students are admitted to these 
 Seminare at Easter and Michaelmas, but it is not considered 
 advisable to admit two sets of students in the same year to the 
 same school, as that greatly increases the labour of the Head 
 Master and the other members of the staff concerned. The 
 Seminaristen are expected to be present at school examinations, 
 teachers' conferences, school excursions, and generally to take 
 part in the common life of the place. 
 
 During the Probejahr the teachers in training must give 
 from eight to ten lessons a week, and may give as many as 
 twenty. In the latter case, they receive a small salary. They 
 are now in a more responsible position, but they still attend 
 the lessons of other teachers, and continue to be more or less 
 under supervision. There must not be more than two or three 
 at the same establishment. 
 
 This Probejahr, which is really a second, less important, 
 Seminarjahr, is considered by many to be superfluous and 
 burdensome, especially as the year of military service also falls 
 about the same time. A German youth is generally eighteen 
 or nineteen years of age on leaving school. Four or five years 
 at the University, two years' training and one year's military 
 service bring his age up to about twenty-six, before he can 
 begin his life's work. This is undoubtedly vastly preferable 
 to the opposite extreme, but many feel that the Probejahr 
 might be dropped altogether, or spent in a manner that would 
 be more profitable to the teacher himself. He might be 
 allowed to do regular paid work in Germany or abroad, before 
 being definitely appointed to a permanent post. 
 
 At the present time some of the foremost educationalists 
 are strongly advocating various reforms in the training of 
 teachers. Full information on the subject wUl be found in 
 Die Neueren Sprachen IV. 2, 3, 4 (May to July, 1896). I will 
 only mention a few of the points that have been brought most 
 prominently under my notice. 
 
 Whereas the older English Universities and the Scotch 
 
Modern Languages in Germany. 63 
 
 Universities have as yet no regular chairs for modern languages, 
 in all the best German Universities there is a fully qualified 
 professor for each language, and a Lektor, i.e. a native French- 
 man or Englishman who lectures to the students in the foreign 
 language'. Nevertheless, there is an agitation now going on 
 to have a second fully qualified professor for each language", 
 while retaining the Lektor. 
 
 Another important point is the demand for increased 
 facilities to study the foreign language and customs abroad. 
 The student should not only be allowed to take part of his 
 university course abroad, and spend his Probejahr at a foreign . 
 school, but, wherever necessary, he should have pecuniary aid 
 enabling him to do so. At intervals of not more than five 
 years, modern language teachers should have leave of absence 
 to revisit foreign countries and so renew their familiarity with 
 the language and life, not only not forfeiting their salary 
 meanwhile, but receiving a travelling scholarship (Reisestipen- 
 dium) for the purpose. 
 
 Yet, in that respect also, the Germans are considerably 
 ahead of us. Whereas in England there are few Travelling 
 Scholarships except from private donors, as in the^case of the 
 Gilchrist Trust, the German Governments and municipalities 
 set aside so much a year for this purpose : I understand that 
 Prussia, Saxony and the Grand Duchy of Baden have been 
 foremost in assigning Travelling Scholarships or bursaries. 
 Prussia gives from three to six per annum. Nor is that all. 
 Small bursaries are sometimes given to enable teachers to 
 attend Holiday Courses. There are several such held in 
 Germany every year. I attended two of these Ferienkurse 
 
 1 There are regular professors in Wales, London, and the Victoria 
 University, but in Cambridge and Scotland the Modern Language professors, 
 though fully qualified, are called " lecturers " and have not the status and 
 salary of other professors. 
 
 * Not merely a lecturer recognized by the University or Privatdozent, 
 as in some Universities at present. 
 
64 The Method of teaching 
 
 last Summer, one at Marburg (four weeks) and one at Jena 
 (three weeks). At Marburg' we had courses of lectures, in 
 French and German, on Phonetics, Literature, Philosophy, 
 Pedagogy, &c., most of them exceedingly good and interesting. 
 We had as lecturers Professors Vietor, Koschwitz, Rousselot, 
 Natorp, Doctors Kiihnemann and Finck, MM. Lescoeur, 
 Mercier and Doutrepont. I cannot too warmly express my 
 appreciation of the excellence of the lectures given by Pro- 
 fessors Vietor and Rousselot, Dr Kiihnemann and M. Mercier, 
 and several of the other lecturers were no less appreciated by 
 those who heard them. We had also elocution and pronuncia- 
 tion lessons with private help for those who wished it. There 
 were German Gruppen and French Cercles, which met two or 
 three times a week for practice in conversation. These were 
 as pleasant socially as they were linguistically beneficial It 
 is less than the truth to say that for my own part, I learnt 
 more in that one month, than in three ordinary months of 
 foreign travel or residence abroad. This was undoubtedly due 
 in great measure to the admirably conducted social intercourse, 
 but also, and perhaps still more, to the phonetic teaching by 
 first-rate E^onetiker. This leads me to another important 
 reform advocated by the Neuphilologen: they wish to have a 
 regular chair for phonetics established at every University, a 
 reform which will naturally go hand in hand with the increased 
 use of phonetics in language teaching. 
 
 The Lehrerinnenprilfung is of two grades, (i) for elementary 
 schools, (2) for secondary schools. Till quite recently (1894), 
 no women-teachers took part in the higher instruction in 
 public girls' schools : their activity was restricted to general 
 subjects in the lower classes, and sewing, drawing and drill 
 throughout the school. Hence many teachers preferred posts 
 
 1 The Jena course was also very good and very well managed, but I 
 have preferred to describe the Marburg one as being more especially useful 
 for Neuphilologen and not so well known in England. 
 
Modern Languages in Germany. 65 
 
 in private schools. An Oberlehrerinnenprufung, however, or 
 Wissenschqftliche Priifung der Lehrerinnen has been recently 
 instituted (1894), which is being eagerly and extensively taken 
 advantage of. All women teachers must pass the Lehrerinnen- 
 priifung, and after a certain period of professional activity 
 (in Prussia five years), they are permitted to undergo the 
 Oberlehrerinnenprufung. The latter is not unlike the Ober- 
 lehrerprUfung, though the subjects are fewer, two in all'. The 
 Viktoria-Lyceum in Berlin is at present the most important 
 establishment for preparing women to pass this examination. 
 Until the Frauengymnasium was started by Fraulein Helene 
 Lange, and women were admitted to the University, the 
 Viktoria-Lyceum was the only institution in Berlin that offered 
 women an opportunity of higher education. The curriculum 
 was modified to meet the requirements of the Oberlehrerin- 
 nenprufung, but it had been doing good work before. I 
 spent eight hours in all at the Viktoria-Lyceum, and was 
 amazed at the thorough and scientific nature of the work done. 
 As I listened to a student's lecfure on the French pronouns, 
 which lasted quite an hour and a half, I was almost inclined to 
 think they perhaps overdo the thoroughness a little. Another 
 student gave an interesting lecture on Milton, in English, and 
 was well criticized by the Professor, Dr Penner. The Chanson 
 de Roland was read and interpreted with extraordinary accuracy 
 of detail, each old French word being traced through all its 
 different forms and inflections. Certainly, whatever faults 
 might be found with that course, superficiality would not be 
 one of them. The students, some of them middle-aged 
 women, showed a most praiseworthy enthusiasm over their 
 work, which surprised me under the circumstances. Many of 
 them come to these classes, two hours every evening, after a 
 hard day's work of teaching. Two of the very few women 
 engaged in higher teaching in the Berlin public schools, 
 
 ^ The Lehrerinnenpriifung and Ob rlehnrinnenpriifung are together 
 equivalent to the Oberlehrerpriifung. 
 
66 The Method of teaching 
 
 Fraulein Pufahl (Dorotheenschiile) and Fraulein Oldorp (Vic- 
 toriaschule), had been English students at the Lyceum when 
 Dr Emil Hausknecht was Professor there, and both of them 
 spoke in the very warmest terms of the good his teaching had 
 done them. The courses are arranged for two years, but there 
 is no restriction as to time and manner of preparation. Some 
 women attend the University Seminar, previously mentioned, 
 and students of the Viktoria-Lyceum may also attend Uni- 
 versity lectures, but are advised not to let these interfere with 
 the full, regular course at the Lyceum. For the Oberlehrer- 
 innenprufung, students must choose one of the following four 
 subjects: — Religion, German, French or English. As their 
 second subject they may choose one of the remaining three, or 
 one from a second group. The regulations for the Ober- 
 lehrerinnenpriifung only came into force in January, 1895, and 
 are not yet as detailed as for other examinations. 
 
 The requirements for Modern Languages at the Lehrer- 
 innenprvfung are as follows : — " Correct pronunciation, know- 
 ledge of the gramrnar, and unerring application thereof; the 
 capacity to translate, without preparation, the foreign authors 
 used in girls' schools, and to give a substantially correct 
 reproduction of easy passages, both orally and in writing. 
 General knowledge of the history of the literature." 
 
 There is a special examination, in French and English only, 
 which even foreigners must pass who aspire to teach in the 
 private girls' schools of Prussia. Although the requirements 
 in modern languages for this examination are considerably 
 higher than for the general examination, it is not popular with 
 German women, partly because, where available, foreigners 
 who have taken it are preferred, and also because the lack of 
 general subjects is a great drawback to obtaining an appoint- 
 ment. 
 
 There is yet another examination for women-teachers, 
 namely, that entitling them to become heads of schools, but 
 modern languages form no part of it. 
 
Modern Languages in Germany. 6^ 
 
 The number of years women spend on training as teachers 
 varies considerably in different parts of Germany. Leaving 
 school at the age of fifteen or sixteen, German girls wishing to 
 continue their education generally attend a sort of outsiders' 
 class, called Selekta, or enter a training college. French and 
 English are always included in the subjects taught in Selekta, 
 but, owing to external circumstances, do not as a rule show 
 such good results as in the regular school course. Some 
 training colleges have a preparatory class extending over one 
 or two years. The usual time of training is from sixteen or 
 seventeen to nineteen years of age'. Whether the course lasts 
 for two or three years, the students rarely begin to teach till 
 the second year. The first year is wholly spent in study and 
 in being present at lessons. In many of the colleges the 
 amount of actual practice in teaching is considerably less than 
 at the ordinary women's training college in England. At one 
 college I visited, the students actually get no opportunity 
 of teaching real children : their fellow-students constitute 
 their sole practising school. Most women's colleges, however, 
 being connected with a hohere Mddchenschule, the students of 
 the college teach in certain classes of the school, always under 
 supervision. 
 
 The provisions made for the preparation of women teachers 
 seemed to me inferior, in some respects, to those for the men. 
 There has, however, been a marked improvement of late in 
 the attention paid to women's education and training, as shown 
 by the increasing number of Mddchengymnasien, the admission 
 of women to the Universities, and the institution of the 
 Oberlehrerinnenprufung. 
 
 i The age at which a. student may undergo the Lehrerinnenpriifung 
 has recently "been raised from i8 to 19. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
 
 Note. — In the following list I have restricted myself to those 
 books with which I am personally acquainted, and, 
 among these, to a very few of the most representative'. 
 
 I. PERIODICALS. 
 
 Die Neueren Sprachen, herausgegeben von Wilhelm Viator unter 
 
 Mitarbeitung von Franz Dorr und Adolph Rambeau. Marburg. 
 
 Elwert. 
 Die Zeitschrift fiir neufranzSsische Sfrache und Litteratur, 
 
 herausgegeben von Dr D. Behrens unter Mitarbeitung von 
 
 G. Korting. Berlin. Gronau. 
 
 2. THEORETICAL WORKS^. 
 
 Der Sprachunterricht muss umkehren. Von Wilhelm Viator 
 (" Quousque Tandem "). Heilbronn. Gebr. Hanningar. (Re- 
 print) 1886. 
 
 Ein Jahr Erfahrungen mitder neuen Meihode. Von H. Klinghardt. 
 Marburg. Elwert. 1888. 
 
 Drei weitere Jahre Erfahrungen mit der imitativen Methode. Von 
 H. Klinghardt. Marburg. Elwert. i888. 
 
 ^ Fuller Bibliographies will be found in several of the books mentioned 
 below, and also in an article by Dr Breul in the Zeitschrift fUr den 
 deutschen Unterricht 8. Jahrgang, 1894. Heft 3. 
 
 ''■ An admirable English summary of the New Method will be found 
 in Chapter III. of Professor Spencer's Aims and Practice of Teaching 
 (Cambridge University Press, 1897). 
 
70 Bibliography. 
 
 Der franzosische Klassenunterricht, I. Unterstufe. Von Max 
 Walter. Marburg. Elwert. 1888. 
 
 Geloste nnd ungelosie Fragen der Methodik. Von Dr W. Mangold. 
 Berlin. Springer. 1892. 
 
 Handbuch der Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre fur h'ohere 
 Schulen, herausgegeben von Dr A. Baumeister. (This 
 work contains, among other important articles, Didaktik 
 und Methodik des franzosischen und englischen Unterrichts, 
 by Dr Miinch and Dr Glauning, Vol. ill., 2, and Die Orga- 
 nisation des hoheren Unterrichts in Grossbritannien, by 
 Dr Breul, Vol. I., 2, both of which have been separately pub- 
 lished.) Miinchen. Beck. 
 
 Kritischer Jahresbericht Uber die Fortschritte der Romanischen 
 Pkilologie, herausgegeben von Karl VoUmoUer. Leipzig. 
 Renger. 1896-97. 
 
 Reiseeindriicke und Beobachtungen eines deutschen Neuphilologen 
 in der Schweiz und in Frattkreich. Von K. A. Martin 
 Hartmann. Leipzig. Stolte. 1897. 
 
 Die Anschauung im neusprachlichen Unterricht. Von Dr K. A. 
 Martin Hartmann. Wien. Holzel. 1895. 
 
 Handbuch des hoheren Mddchenschulwesens, herausgegeben von 
 Dr J. Wychgram. Leipzig. Voigtlander. 1897. 
 
 3. OFFICIAL PRUSSIAN PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 Denkschrift betreffend die g'eschichtliche Entwickelung der Revision 
 
 der Lehrpldne und Priifungsordnungen fiir h'ohere Schulen. 
 
 Berlin. Hertz. 1892. 
 Lehrpldtie und Lehraufgaben fiir die hoheren Schulen. Berlin. 
 
 Hertz. 1896. 
 Bestimmungen Uber das Mddchenschulwesen, die Lehrerinnen- 
 
 bildung und die Lehrerinnenprufuiigen vom 31. Mai 1894. 
 
 Berlin. Hertz. 1896. 
 Ordnung der Reifepriifungen und Ordnung der Abschlussprii- 
 
 fungen. Berlin. Hertz. 1897. 
 Priifungsordnung fiir die Kandidaten des hoheren Lehramts vom 
 
 5. Februar 1887. Berlin. Weidmann. 1896. 
 Statistisches Jahrbuch der hoheren Schulen. (Published yearly.) 
 
 Leipzig. Teubner. 
 
Bibliography. 7 1 
 
 4. PHONETIC PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 Artikulations- und Horiibungen. Von H. Klinghardt. Cothen. 
 
 Schulze. 1897. 
 Kleine Phonetik des Deutschen, EngHschen und Franzbsischen. 
 
 (An Abridgement of the Elemente der Phonetik des Deutschen, 
 
 EngHschen und Franzbsischen.) Von Wilhelm Vietor. Leipzig. 
 
 Reisland. 1897. 
 Die Aussprache des Schriftdeutschen. Von Wilhelm Vietor. 
 
 Leipzig. Reisland. 1895. 
 Deutsche, englische und franzbsische Lauttafel. Von Wilhelm 
 
 Vietor. Marburg. Elwert. 1893. 
 Le Mattre phonHique, Organe de r Association phondtique inter- 
 
 nationale. Edited by Paul Passy. Bourg-la-Reine. Seine. 
 
 5. CLASS BOOKSi. 
 
 Lehrbuch der franzbsischen Sprache auf Grund der Anschauung. 
 
 Von Dr Ph. Rossmann und Dr F. Schmidt. Bielefeld und 
 
 Leipzig. Velhagen and Klasing. 1896. 
 Wandbilder fUr den Anschauungs- und Sprachunterricht. (10 
 
 pictures.) Wien. Holzel. 
 Franzbsische Schulgrammatik. Von Dr Karl Kiihn. Bielefeld 
 
 und Leipzig. Velhagen and Klasing. 1896. 
 Franzbsisches Lesebuch. Unterstufe. Von Dr Karl Kiihn. Bielefeld 
 
 und Leipzig. Velhagen and Klasing. 1897. 
 Franzbsisches Lesebuch. Mittel- und Oberstufe. Von Dr Karl 
 
 Kiihn. Bielefeld und Leipzig. Velhagen and Klasing. 1896. 
 Englisches Lesebuch. Von W. Vietor und F. Dorr. Leipzig. 
 
 Teubner. 1895. 
 The English Student. Von Professor Dr Emil Hausknecht. 
 
 Berlin. Wiegandt and Grieben. 1896. 
 
 ^ Otto Siepmann's Public School German Primer (Macmillan and Co. , 
 1896) is perhaps the nearest approach we have in England to a class- 
 book on the lines of the German Reform. 
 
APPENDIX A. 
 
 LIST OF SCHOOLS VISITED AND LESSONS HEARD. 
 
 SCHOOLS 
 
 22 Higher Schools for Girls, 8 being combined 
 with Training Colleges 
 I Separate Women's Training College 
 I Girls' Continuation School 
 
 I Mddchengymnasium 
 
 I Women's College (Viktoria-Lyceuni) 
 
 1 Berlitz School 
 
 4 Reahchulen 
 
 2 Oberrealschulen 
 
 4 Realgymnasien 
 
 3 Gymnasien, 2 being combined with Training 
 
 Departments 
 
 I University 
 
 41 Schools etc. 
 
 163 
 
 4 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 21 
 22 
 24 
 
 17 
 6 
 
 268 Lessons 
 
 Also 2 Holiday Courses. 
 
APPENDIX B. 
 
 HIGHER SCHOOLS IN GERMANY. 
 
 SCHOOL 
 
 Gymnasium* 
 Progymnasium 
 
 Realgymnasium 
 Realprogymnasium 
 
 Oberrealschule 
 Realschule 
 
 I. Boys' Schools. 
 
 9-18I 
 
 9-1 si 
 
 9-18 1 
 9-15 J 
 
 9-181 
 9-isJ 
 
 FOREIGN LANGUAGES TAUGHT 
 
 Latin, Greek, French. 
 Latin, French, English. 
 French, English. 
 
 Note. — From the age of 6 to g, boys attend a Volksschule, or a 
 Vorschule immediately connected with the higher school. 
 
 2. Girls' Schools. 
 
 SCHOOL AGE FOREIGN LANGUAGES TAUGHT 
 
 Hohere Madchenschule 6-i6t French, English. 
 
 Madchengymnasium* 16-19 § Latin, Greek, French. 
 
 * In the Gymnasium and Madchengymnasium, English is an optional 
 subject. 
 
 t Sometimes 6-15. 
 
 § So the Berlin course. Leipzig, 16-18. Carlsruhe, n-i8. Munich, 
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