ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY New York State Colleges OF Agriculture and Home Economics AT Cornell University Cornell University Library S 411.P44N 1890 The national cyclopedia:a dictionary of 3 1924 001 045 503 Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924001045503 TH]i NATIONAL CYCLOPEDIA: DICTIONARY OF USEFUL ANI) PRACTICAL INFORMATION yOK THE FARM, HOME AND SCHOOL. BY Hon. Jonathan Periam. Fob FontFT Tiubs a PRAOiiCAii Fabmeb ; Latb Bditob Pbaisie Fabmbk ; Associatb Bdhob Farm, Fiuls AHo Stockuak; ez-Mehbeb IXjUlsois Department ov AoRicni/mBB; Prohskob or HTaiBNE, ETC., Chicago Vetebinabt CoiiUEOE ; Honobabt Member IlXiVOIB VBTERINABY MEDICAIi ASBOCIATIOIT ; LIFE Member American PoMOLOGiCAii Society, etc.. etc. ILLUSTRATED. TOL. I. PHILADELPHIA: n. H. E^EiE.T© & GO. 1890. CopYBioaT,a883. OoPTSIGHTi 1890. ByB.S. Pbale & Co. TABLE OF CONTENTS OF PMNCIPAL SUBJECTS TREATED. jLOiaoULTlflUL lUFUmENTB AND Machibbs : Ancient Plows 16, 17 Bntter Workers 164 Cultivator 852 Dairy Fixtures 260—362 Fences and Fencing 83S— 340 Fish Spawning Bed ,850 Hatching Boxes andHouses 35S— 357 Harrow 468 Mower 469 Locust or Grasshoppei^ Catcher. 60S Orchard Ladder 689 Plows 741-748 Sawing! Timber -Steam Engine 8^ Seeder and Cultivator 847 Sheep Sipping 858 SilkEeels...: 876 Stirring Soil— Horse Hoe 912 Threshing- Steam Engine .945, 946 ▲BCHITSCriTKB, IHCLUDIKa AIiL Fabu Stbuctobsb: Architecture 69, 70 Barn 88—94 Horse-Stalls 92 Cow-Stalls 93 Barrow 94 Bay 95 Butter Factory, Creamery (see Dairy Bnlldings). Coffer Dam 2S7 Conservatory. 239, 240 Diiiry Buildings 260-262 Daily Fixtures 262 Dam 262" Fish Houses and Ponds 350, 851 Gates 389 Hog House . . .« 481 Hot Bed ' 511-513 . Ice House 518 Irrigation 530—532 Landscape Gardening 551—555 Stable 906, 907 Stall Feeding 908 Strength 917 Ventilation 1005, 10U6 Botant : Acacia ; 10 Acclimation of Pla-ts 10—18 Acer— Maple (see Maple) 13 Acorn 14 Age of Plants and Trees IS (Aflanthns 30 Alfalfa— Medioago, (see Lu- cerne) 35 Algse 35 Almond 88 Aloes 38 Alslke Clover 8» Apples 48-51 Apples, List of 64 Artichoke 71 Ash— Fraxinns 71—73 Asparagus 73, 74 Aster 75 Balsam— Impatlens 85 Barley Hordeum 86-58 Barren Flowers 94 Bean— Phaseolns 95, 96 Beech— Fagas 96, 97 Beet-Beta 1S3, 104 Bene— Sesamnm 105 'Bent Grass— Agrogtls 105 Bermuda Grass— C^odon 106 ' Botany— «o»K»a«(J. ■et.ev Birch-Betula 106—108 Blackberry— Bubus 112 Blue-Grass— Poa 182—124 Borecole— Brassica 126 Botany 127-133 Botany, Abbreviations and Signs 132 , Botany, Glossary 133 142 Broom Corn 153, 154 Buckwheat- Fagopyrum...l54, 155 .Bnrdock 160 Cabbage— Brassica 16.% 166 Cactus 168, 169 , Calla ...; 171 Campanula 172 Caper 1T5 Cardoon— Cynara 176 Carrot 178 Castor Oil Bean— Eicinus . . 177, 178 .Catalpa 178 Celery- Aplum 187 . Cellulose ........ i .. . 189-191 Cheirry-Fhinua 204 OherrieSj List of 204, 805 Chess-Bromus 206 Chestnut— Castanea ' 207 Chiecory -Cichorium .' 207, 208 Chocolate 211 Clematis 223 doner , 831-234 C.ifEee .,1 236, 237 Corn (seeMnlze). - - • Cotton— GoBMrnum- 248—245 Cottonvf bod— Popdlus .... 245 -Crabapple i... ; 245, 246 Cranberry— Vaccinium 246, 247 Cress 1 ...249 Cucumber ; . . . . 251 Culinary Yesetables 251 Currant— Ribes 254, 2 5 Cypress— Taxodium 25^, 257 Dandelion 263 Dock 276 Dogwood 276 Bag Plant— Solaunm 290 Ehn TJlmus 894 Endive -Cichorium 301 Eucalyptus 315, 316 Evergreens . 318 Fig - Ficus. . . .t 345 Fir-Pioea ' 3l9 Flax 358 361 * Floriculture 362,363 Flowers 3(13, 364 Forestry 367-i>70 Fox tail Grass 373 Fruit Trees 376 Fungns 376-3r<2 Gardening ; 386 388 Geranium 899 Germination 399 -401 Gooseberry 409 Grape 414-^0 Grasses 427 461 Grasses, Glossary of 461, 462 Gra^s, Ornamental 462 HehDtrope 475 Herbarium 476 Hickory 4*7 Honeysuckle 487 Hyacinth 514 Indigo— Indigof era 522,58! Juhiper --. 535 Jute .636— 638 Kentucky Coffee Tree— Gymno- cladus 5:38,539 Larqh^Larix.., 535, 536 BOTAsy— eonMnued. pass Larkspur— Delphinium . . . .656, 657 Lavender— Lavendula. : ; . . . 656 Life, Animal and Vegetable 574, 675 Lily 581,582 Linden— Tilia 684, 685 Liquorice- Glycyrrhiza. 688 Locust Tree^Eobinia 607 Lucerne— Medicago 608,609 LycopodiacesB ; 609 Madder 611, 612 Magnolia 612, 613 Mallow- Malvacete . j 617 Maple- Acer , 631 Marj orum - Origanum 638 Harsh-Mallow— Althaea 639 Marsh-Marigold- Calfha .. .639, 640 Melon 646 Mignonette -Reseda 649 Mbid— Fungi 655 M.sses 658 Malberry— Moms «o9 Mullein— Verbascnm 661 Mushroom— Fungi 662, 663- Edible Varieties of 663 Mustard 664 Nectarine 673 Nettle- TJrtica 673 Okra— Hibiscus 681 Oteanden— Nermm 681 Olive— Olea 684, 685 Olive, Varieties of 685, 686 Onion— Allium 6H6 Orange -Citrus 688 Orchid 692 Pampas Grass— Gynerium 700 Pansy— Viola 701 Parsley 702 Parsnip jpSi Pea— Pieum. 707 Peach 707-711 Peanut— Arachls 711-718 Pear 713-719 Pepper— Piper 720 Pepgermint— Mentha 720 Persimmon— Diospyros 721 Petunia 721 ■ Pigeonbeiry, Poke.Gargetweed, -rPhytohicca 723 Pine— PinuB ... 784 Pinks— DianthuB 724 Plant 725 Plantain— Plantago 725 Plants, etc., nsed in Medi- cine 1075—1078 Poplar— Populus 758 Poppy— Papaver 759 Potato— Solanum 761—763 Pumpkin,- Cucurbita 770 Purslane, Pursley- Portulacca. 771 Quince - Cydonia 772, 778 Radish— Eaphanua Tli Rape-Brassica 781,782 Eat" pberry — Eubua 788—784 Rhnbarb-Eheum 796 ■Rice 797-801 Eicinus 801,803 Rosaceae '888 Rose.:....: 824 Euta-Baga— Brassica 82S Eye^Secale 828 St. Johns Wort— Hypericum . . . *28 Sage— Salvia 829 S..lBify— Tragopogon 8 iO Sanfom— Hedygarnm 831 Sap... 832 Sassafras ^& SkunkCabbage— Symplocarpus 880 (V) yi CONTENTS. MofrAvr—eoMinaed. paob Sortel— Bumex 892 Sploacb- Spinacia 904 Spnmr- Speigula 906 Squaeii...:.. 906 fitrawberry— Pragaria 915, 916 Sumach— ferns 921, 983 Sunflower— HellantlinB 923 Sycantpre— Platanns .937 tfea^hea 989-934 Teasel -Dipsacae 934 Thiefle- Circlum 941 Tliora Apple— Datura 948 Thyme— Thymns 94'? Trees of the United States 965—977 Trembles 9t7, 978 Tulip 98T Tulip Tree, Whitewood— Llrio- , . dendron 988^ Turnip.. 990 Hmbelliierons Plants 992 Varieties in Vegetation . .999—1004 Vegetation 1004,1005 Verbena— Vervain 1006 Vitch— Vicia .1006 Virains Bower (see Clematis). Weeds 1030-1024 Wheat— Triticum 1026 Whortleberry, Huckleberry— Gaylnssacia 1031 Willow— Salix 1031 Wistaria 1038,1039 Yam, Iguame— Dioscorea 1043 Teast— Fungus 1044 Tellows in the Peach— Nsemas- pora ' 1045-1047 Zante Currant 1U48 k^HISTBY: Acids.... i 13, 14 Analysis 41-43 Atom 78 Bones 134-126 Brewing 163 Butter .160-^164 Carbon 175, 176 Caseine 177 Cellulose 189-191 Cheese 191-199 JEibemlstry, Agrlcaltnral. . .199—203 Chlorides 210 Circulation of the Sap 818- 231 gobeelon 837 ecomposition .'...,... 263 Deodorize 864 Xartb, Chemical iiSS rat 331 Fermentation 341 FerHlizers 342 344 Gallizing 383 C^Int^n 404 ton ; 530 Lime 583 Ilanure...: 623—631 Milk 651, 652 nitrogen..... 674, 675 Oil. 680 Oleomargarine 681— «84 Oxygen 699 Poisons affecting Plants. . .753-765 Potash 760 Poudrette 764 Putrefaction 771 Bennet 795, 796 Salt 831 Bap 838 BUex 873 So&p 881 Starch in Planta 908, 909 Sulphur 921 Tannin 929 frine... .' 993, 994 Vinegar j. 1013 Alcohol ; 1049 Digestion of Various Foods .... 1070 Disinfection .,...'. ,...., 1070 I'reezlng Points 1074 Kedifiinls, Active, Doses. 1074, 1076 AuRT Aim H^usxhold: Por Breeds of Dairy Cattle, see Live Stock... 33, 79, 483, 539, G68 Daibt Airb kotjsEHOLC— eon. paoi Brevring.u.' 152 Butter 160-^164 Caseine...!..:.'. 177 Cheese 191—199 Churning , 216 Curing Meats 254 DaiiTine 257-263 Dairy Buildings and Fix- tares..... 260-262 Gallizing 388 Garget 888 Measures 641 —645 Milk : 649-652 Milking 653, 654 Mold 655 Poisons and Antidotes 752 Pork ,..„ 757 Potting.Plants ^64 Poultice.... 765 Preserving Winter Fruits 786 Preserving Smoked Meats 769 Piitrefactibn 771 Bat....;...: 782 Bennett 795, 796 Boots and Vegetables, Pitting. 823 Sage 829 Soap 881,882 Sore Throat 885 fpaa 929—9:^4- Trichlni Spiraiis '. '. ". ". '. '. '. '. 978-980 Vinegar. 1013 Wine :: 10.3^1037 Window Gardenlrg. . ; . . . 1031, 108? Teast 1044 Beverages ' : 1049 C'alciminin'g 'and Painting 1050 Cooking and Kitchen An.l051— 1070 iDigestion.: 1070 Disinfectants 1070 Food 1070—1074 Fusing and Boiling Points 1074 Eecipes f orthe Hair 1074 Medicines, Doses....!... 1074, 1075 Perfumes 1075 Plbnts, etc., used in Medicine.. '^ • 1075-1078 . Poisoning 1078 Pbnltices 1079 Singing and Cage Birds. . 1079—1084 Vanons Beeipes 1084, 1085 £1 Bhtomoioot: Aphides 45, 46 Apple Leaf Crumpler 65 Apple Tree BOrer ....65, 66 ArmyWorm 70 Bee Moth 96-r98 Bees 98—103 Beetles ... J 104, 105 Bots ;... 143, 143 Bruchus— (Carcnlio) .. 154 Biig : .158, 159 Bupestris— (WoodBeetles).159j 160 Cabbage Butterfly 166—168 Canker Worm 178, 174 Cantharides— (Blister Beetles) 174 175 CaternlUnr. .179) 18?" Catydid (see Katydid). /Chinch Bug 208-210 Cicada : 216, 217 Clover Stalk Borer 230 Cockroach 235, 236 Cranberry Insects 347-849 Cricket 249, 250 Cucumber Beetle' 251 Curonllo 252—854 Currant Worm SS5 Cutworms 255,366 Blater. . : 290, 291 -Entomology : 304- 314 FallWeb-Worm .' B23 Flea Beetle 3B1 Fly 364 Gadfly ....:.. ,, 883 Gooseberry Saw Fly 409, 410 Grape Insects 422—427 Grapsbopper 462 Hickory Bark Borer 480 JuniperMoth : 635 Katydid 688 Lady Birds— (Coccinella).. 542, 643 Lice '. , 673 BiwoiioLOBT— «ffn«n««f. '**S Loenst 55-551 Maple Bark Lonse 6*1-^? Maple Borer .••• JSJ May Beetle flS' 5IJ Onion Insects 686, JBT Orange Tree Bark Lonse to* Oyster Shell Bark Louse. ..699, 70» Potato Beetle-(Colorado).,... m Predaceous Beetles ^'^' I"S Scab Insect on Sheep • ■ SOT ^Silkworm ^^'^ StagBeeaee 807.908 Strawberry Insects ^.■^- 917 Trichina Spiralis ^i®-??? TnssockMoth 991, 993 TwlgGirdler k--JS WebWorms 101«, 102O Tellow-necked Caterpillar, Gxoloot: Alluvium .". 35 — 3» Alumina 39; 49 Clay 22a, 223 Geol.iey 391—39* Gravel 46a Green Sand 464 Gypsum 465 Iron 530 Isomorphitm 538 Lime 582-584 Metals 64T Soil..... ssn-aas - - ' II HOKTIOnLTITHE : For -Trees, Plants, Vegetable, Physiology, etc., see Botany. Apple 48—80 List of Varieties of 50— '64 Bean. 95, 96 Blackberry ..........; 118 Cherryi 204 List of Varieties 204, SOS Circulation of Sap 218—221 Conservatory. 239, 240 Cranberry. 946,247 Cucumber 251 Cnlii ary Vegetables 251 Cultivation 2SS Evergreens 31S Ploriculture 362, 36S Flowers 36,3, 364 Forestry t 8B7-37* Gardening.. .; 386-888 Generation 390, SU Germination 399—401 Grafting 412—414 Grafting Wax 414 Grape 414— 48l> Grapes. List of 420, 421 . Green-House 46S Horticulture 506—611 Hot Bed 611— 51» Hybridization 514—516 Labels.. > 541 Landscape Gardening 551—655 Layering 569, ff!» Light 675—581 Manure 623—630 Mushroom 662, 66a Nursery 675—678 Orcharding 688-692 Pear :....7l8— 71» Plant Life in Winter 726, 727 Plants, Effect of Light and Air on ; :727,728 Poisons Affecting Plants.. 758— 7S& Potting - .'. ' 764 Pi >tting Plants.. 764 Easpberry 728 EelaUvfl Growth of Trees.. 794, 795 Bemovlng Trees 795 Boot Pruning 821, 82» Strawberry 914 Strawberry, Varieties of... 914, 915. Timber 94^-961 Timber Trees, Bange of . , .961-967 Tr*eB in Cities and Villages. .. 964 Trees of the Dulted States. :966, 966. Trees, List of 966—977 Varieties in Vegetation . .999—1004 Vegetation 1004, 1008. CONTENTS. ▼11 Ho]i'Hcui.Tuini— eon, is somewhat closely allied to the true acacia, is very ornamen- tal as a tree and useful for hedging. (See Lo- cust, and Honey Locust.) . ACABI. The family of mites, to which belong the scab, the mange, the itch, and other insects infesting the skin of animals. These will be treated of under the appropriate names as they •ccur, as in itch, mange, etc. , ACCIPITRES. The order of birds to which l)elong eagles, hawks, apd similar birds of prey. ACCLIMATE." To cause an animal or plant to remain healthy and ini sound condition ih a climate different- from its natural one. Plants can not be acclimated in climate's essentially dif- ferent from their native ones. . ACCLIMATION OF PLANTS/ It is a gen erally received opinion that a plant removed from s warmer to a colder climate gradually becomes changed so that it will stand a lower temperature than in its native habitat. Such, however, is not the fact. Its zero, that is, the temperature, at which it is killed, remains the same. The tem- perature at which a plant is destroypd, varies with each species. Indian corn, for instance, is certainly killed when the thermometer sinks to 32° Fahrenheit."* The cucumber is killed at 40° ;' the egg-plant at 45°. Celery, "on the other hand, will withstand a temperature of 20°, and cabbage 15° or less. Plants, however, are essentially modified by being removed to a climate more severe than is natural to them. They gradually become earlier in ripening. ^ Thus we see corn and potatoes, two of the pl&ts most widely dis- tributed as to latitude, broken up into a, great number of varieties, some of them remarkably early in ripening. , A contrit(utor in an extended article on the geography of plants, originally published in a report of the Department of Ag- riculture, holds the following language: We are apt to suppose that plants which grow in tropical countries must necessarily be tender, and adapted only to hot-house culture, not reflecting that they may have grown in very elevated and cold- re- gions in those countries. Such is the case with many species introduced from Japan, Chili and Nepal, which mlplf* to be hardy in England. Of the dahlia, .%4'i^eliotrope, the potato, and Lima bean, it may be said long culture has done nothing to increase their hardiness. Sound views respecting the geography of plants would correct the prevailing errors regarding accli- mation. The acclimatizing of plants, or, as it n supposed to be, inuring them to lower tem- peratures than those they have been accustomed to or have required in their native habitats, does not appear to be a possibility. It has been satis- factorily determined that a plant must receive the same amount of h^at for the proper perform- ance of certaiii processes necessary to the pro- duction of leaves, flowers and friiit, whether in places to which it is indigenous, or far removed therefrom in more northern latitudes The defi- nite degree which it has demanded during certain epochs of growth is still- required wherever it may grow; but the aggregate of heat may be re- deived during a shorter term in high latitudes be- cause of the greatly increased length of the day, and the processes be hastened and maturity at- tained, at ah earlier date. This is well illustrated in the growth of maize or Indian corn, which is said to. be Remarkably accommodating, though it must have a semi-tropical heat wherever grown, if only for a few weeks, and this heat it obtains even beyond the northern limits of the United States. , It^ is well known that the varieties of maize grown near the' northern limit of its cul- tivation ripen earlier than those which are es- teemed Valuable-further south. Man has applied to his purposes the property possessed by many plants of adapting themselves to the new coui dijions, and the many varieties of rnaize, wheat, etc., attest the possibility of change within cer- tain limits. The principle above enunciated is,, however, subject to some modifications as regards its application to certain physiplogica) changes which have been observed to result from long- continued efEorts to cultivate ptents under un- natural conditions. : Plants are, without doubt, capable of modification within certain, limits. \yitness the numberless varieties of grains and fruits, some of which appear to be more hardy tlian their progenitors. Many of these which ap- pear to, or really \do, thrive in more northern districts than those from which they were de- rived, have' merely acquired a greater suscepti- bility to the influences of light and heat,' and are thence aroused into earlier action, quickened in their vital functions, and mature under a lesser aggregate of heat as toeasured by the thermom- eter, though for the critical periods of their ej;- iste^ce they demand the same mean temperature as the original from which they were derived. It is in the power of man to fix these peculiarities when observed, and in a njeasure to produce them by the selec,tion of those which promise' well, and continuing the selection with adequate care through several generations. Vilmorin, by skillfully applying the principles which influence plants in their tendenpies to sport into new va- rieties and directing them into the desired chan- nel, hJis almost created a new race of beets con- taining twice as much sugar as their "ancestors, and promising to be readily perpetuated.! Ac- climating the tender plants of, the tropics, and inuring them to the cold seasons of the north or temperate latitudes, is, therefore, impossible, though some minor modifications upon those of short growth during the periods of fervid heat of the northern summer have been made. The olive and the orange have not been rendered more hardy, and the peach appears to be still en- dowed with the same tenderness of bud it has always shown. The difiiculties of acclimation may be illustrated by the fact that certain vege- table products can be grown in particular lati- tudes, while others, though they may attain con- siderable size, can not be grown with any useful ACCLIMATION OF PLANTS /(■suit. For instance, in England the vine will iitvor yield grapes capable of making wine even of a quality equal to champagne; nor will to- bacco ever acquire that peculiar principle which fives it, in the estimation of many, so great a value when grown in some other countries; and WIER S CUT-LEAVED SILVER MAPLE. yet both the vine and the tobacco plant flourif-h ni the soil of Knglaud. The botanist and the meteorologist can explain why this is so, and thus prevent tlie commencement of speculations 12 ACCLIMATION OF PLANTS which must end in loss and disappointment. It is of great importance to be able to define accu- rately when a plant may be said to suit a particu- lar climate. It is not enough that it live and send out leaves; it must be able to produce flowers and seeds and to elaborate the peculiar secretions and pro- ducts on which its qualities depend. Indian hemp has grown in England, even, to the height of ten feet, with thick stems, vig- orous leaves, and abundance of flow- ers, but it did not produce the resin- ous matter upon which its supposed value as a medicinal agent depends. The rhubarb of Turkey, i which, as regards size and vigor of the plant, thrives well in England, does not produce a root of any medicinal value, or of the same quality as that frown in Chinese 'artary, from which, though known as Turkey rhulaib, it is de- rived. The leaves of the tea plant are harmless, or but slightly stimulating in certain latitudes, while they become narcotic and md- wholesome in oth- ers. This fact can be explained by the study of the con- nection which ex- ists between climate and vegetation — a question to be solv- ed by the botanist and meteorologist. It is science only that can explain the failure of attempt* to cultivate the tea plant in Madeira and in the Indian Archipelago, while a variety of the Chi- nese plant is now cultivated in the up- per districts of In- dia with great suc- cess. In the United States we have so wide a range of lati- tude and so fervent a .simimer sun that many tropical plants, which mature in a single season, may be most success- fully raised liy means of some forcing in the spring. Witness the cullivatiou of the tomato ^CID8 13 ACIDS El egg plant in high latitudes'. These have n broken up into many vstrieties,' some of ich npen earlier than others, yet they he cer- [tainly killed with the same degree of .cold in one sjtuittion as they are in another, and there is no reason to suppose that these or other plants will ever become acclimated so as to resist a»greater degree of cold than would suffice to kill them in their native country. ACCOUNTS, FARM. (See Farm Accounts.) ACER. The gettesric name of the maple fam- ily of trees. The flowers are polygamous, calyx colored, five lobed or parted — rarely four to twelve lobed; petals either none or as many as the lobes of the Calyx; stamens four to twelve f, ovary two celled, with a pair of ovules in each; styles two, longand'slender; at the back of each ovary a wing is formed, the fruit being in pairs, and one-seeded, but which at length sbparates each keyed fruit byitself. The family contains both trees and shrujjs, with apparently palmated-lobed leaves and small flowers. The species of value for planting are: The sugar or rock maple, Acer sap- efnirinum; the -black sugar maple, A. nigrum; the white or silver maple, A. daspmrpuin;a,nd.the red or swamp maple, A. rubrwpi.oi th^ American species, and the Norway jmaple, A. plataiwides, a European species. Thei'e are now a nunjber of ornamental species, some of which are beautiful. We give an illustration of one of the best, origi- nated in Illinois and now widely planted east and west. It will serve as a type, of the ornamental weeping species. THfe illustration of the leaves re- duced will show the peetlliar toothed notches of the leaves. The shrubs or small trees belonging to the maple family are ^e striped maple^ or moosewood^ 4«f Penn»//lvdmcum, and the mountain maple, A. spicatian. JVegun- do acero'tfles, or .the ash-leaved maple, or box elder as it is called in the West, is cldsely allied. It is a fast- growing and hand- some ttee when voung, and attains a height of sixty feet. It will live fifty or six- ty years, and soon forms a pleasant and dense Shade; hence is mucji planted in the west. Its sap makes an excellent syrup, but no sugar. The flowers are dioecious, calyx minute, four to five cteft; petals, none; stamens, four to five. The leaflets are smbpthish when old, very veiny , ovate, pointed, toothed; the seed smooth, with large rather in-curved wings, and should be gathered and planted as soon as ripe, which occurs early hi summer. (See articles on the various species. ) ACETATES. Salts containing acetic acid. Sugar of lead is a combination of acetic acid uid lead, hence called acetate of lead, ACIDS. Generally sharp, sour substances, which redden litmus paper, and combine with metallic oxides pr bases to form salts. All acids, however, are not sour to the taste, since all oily UIATS9 OI" wieb's odt-leatbd MAPLE (BXDUCED). bodies contain one or more acids, and corn starch sugar is made by means of sulphuric acid. The inorganic acids are mineral ones. Those df inter- est in agriculture are, sulphuric, muriatic, silicic and phosphoric acids. Sulphuric acid is a com- ponent of gypsum, forming with the base sul- phate of lime. Muriatic acid occurs in salt, as cliloride of hydrogen, forming chloride of soda (common salt). Silicic acid occurs in quartz, or I'ock crystal (which forms so considerable a por- tion of the earth's surface, and so large' a portion of many sands), and is essentially silicic acid, b?- ing a conreoilnd of oxygen with a base, formirfg silicon. Phosphoric acid is contained in the bones of animals and man, in combination with lime, bein^ a salt of phosphoric acid. Phos- phites, again, are salts of phosphorous acid, con- taining less oxygen, than phosphoric acid. The highest degree of oxygenation is marked in bhemistry by the termination ic, and the salt thus formed terminates in /ite. Thus we have carbonate of lime from carbonic acid and a base. The termination ous, signifies a lower degree of oxygenation, and its compound terminates in ite. A still lower degree of oxygenation is termed hypo. Thus, in compounds of, nitrogen we have nitric acid, nitrous acid, and hypo-nitrous acid; the last containing the least oxygen, and the^ first the most. The important vegetable acids are, nitric, acetic, carbonic, tannic, gallic, prus- sic, humic, oxalic, tartaric, benzoic, citric and Jnalic acid. Nitric acid in a pure state is un- known ,; the strbngest contains oiie atom of acid to two of water, and, in this state; is extremely caustic, dissolving most metals. The pure aciS would consist of one atom of nitrogen with five of oxygen. Acetic acid is formed in vinegar by the second fermentation of wine, cider or beer; the flrst being the vikous fermentation. Acetic acid is . also a product of the combustion of wood, containing no resin, as in making charcoal, . combined with empyreumatic oils. When freed from fhese, it is Called pytolignteous acid. Acetic acid, in its most concentrated state, is extremely sour, acrid and pungent. The combinations of aCetic acid with various bases are termed acetates; thus we have the acetate of lead, cop'per, iron and alurnina. Carbonic acid is formed of one atbni of carbon and two of ' oxygen. The air contains from four to six parts in lOjOOO. Soils containing vegetable matter give it off during decay. From carboniq acid plants obtain their supply of carbon in the shape of starch, sugar, vegetable fiber, etc. Carbonip acids In plants is decomposed in the light, and aipart of its oxygen is tlirown out by the leaves, thus giving this im- portant element back to the air from whence it came. Tannic.; or gallic acid is a white astrin- gent' powder, 'with acid reaction. Tannin is the astringent principle of gfiUs, sumac, catechu, oak, hemlock, and other barks. Their value for tanning is reckoned according to the quantity of tannic acid they 'Contain. The following table, fr6m,DaVy, shows the amount of tannic acid c<*nl!athed!'iii various substances; . ' Pounds. Oakbark 29 Bpaniab chestnut .. .21 Leicester willow (large) . 83 Elm .. 13 Common willow (large) , 1 1 Ash 1« Beach 10 Horse chestnut . . , . 9 Sycamore . f 11 Pounds. Lombardy poplar 15 Biroh 8 Haifel 14 Blackthorn 16 Coppice oak 32 Inner rind of oak bark . 72 Oak cut in autumn ..21 Larch cut in autumn tJ- ACORN 14 Sicilian sumac contains about 78 parts in 480 parts. Nut ^alls 127 parts, and catechu 361 parts in 480. Prussic acid is a pellucid fluid of Strong odor, and is contained in numerous plants of the rosa- ceous family, especially in the almond and peach, from the seeds and blossoms of which it is distilled. It is composed of one equivalent of cyanogen and one of hydrogefi. It is one of the most deadly poisons known. Cyanogen is a gas which "burns with a blue flame. With oxygen it forms cyanic acid. ' The gas is poisonous, and forms cyanides by combimng with various met- als. Humic acid contains c^bon 64, hydrogen 4, and oxygen 33 parts in 100. By treating the humus of the soil (black hiimus) with carbonate of soda, by boiling a dilute solution of carbonate of soda and humus together, a dark brown liquid is obtained, which owes its color to the ulmatepf soda contained. By repeating the process with the humus, and with fresh quantities of the liq- uid carbonate, the fluid at last remains clear. Ulmic acid has passed 'into the solution, and ulmin remains undissolved in the residue mixed with earth, sand, and the other component parts of the humus'or peat.^ Humic acid may also be obtained by the action of strong hydrochloric acid, of sulphuric acid, and of alkalies upon su- gar and other substances containing cellulose. Oxalic acid is found in its free state in the hairs of the chick pea (eicer arte inum). In combina- tion with potash it is found in rhujbarb, sor- rels and docks, and in combination with lime in lichens. When pure, it is a very soluble crystal- line, colorless, solid; intensely sour, and fatally poisonous. Benzoic acid gives aroma to many balsams, and sweet-scented grasses arid other plants. Citric acid is the sour principle of cher- ries, cranberries, gooseberries, lemons and other fruits. Malic fl,cid isthe aicid principle of apples, pears, plums, etc. Tartaric acid, combined with .potash, is contained in the juice of the grape, in tamarinds, bilberries, etc. "As food ihe acids are not of value. They are, however, grateful to most palates. They are cooling, and are said to furnish carbon in some degree in respiration. . ACORN. The fruit of the oaks, in common with other nuts, is called mast, and is much re- lied on in timbered countries as food for swine in autumn. The fruit of the live oak is sweet and edible, and is used as food by savages. In all ages savage tribes have used some species of acorns as food. The ancient Greeks and other savage nations so used them before tb^ir civilized era, as do the Indians of Californisfc at this day. The Indians pound the dry acorns into meal, leach the acridity out by laying the meal on a sand bed and pouring on water, heated with red- hot stones in watertight baskets. It is then formed into a mass by taking up on the palni of the Jiand and washing oflE as much of the sand as will readily drop, then rolled in leaves and frass and baked in a hole in the ground covered y hot embers. The taste is horrible, pven to a hungry man, and the smell of the compound, filthily prepared, such as no civilized sense can bear. Yet the Indians consider it nice and fatten on this food. Acorns are the food of quite a pumber of herb-eating animals, including the deer. The ancient Bntons certainly ate them. »nd the Druids (aught that everything produced on the oak, even the mistletoe, was of Divine origin. In the seventh century Ina, the Saxon king, made a lavi^ in relatipn to the fattening of ACRE -swine on them in the forests. This Jaw was called a pawnajge or pannage. Turner, the ear- liest English writer who has written on acorns aa food, says : ' ' Oke, whose fruit we call na/pi, or an eyeorn (that 'is, the corn or fruit of an eyke), is hard of digestion, and nourish very much, but they make raw humores. Wherefore we forbid the use of th'ein for meates." In relation to the superstition of the Divine origin of the oak, the Greeks bejieved it was the first created tree. The Persians and other Oriental nations held it td be of Divine origin, and the Jews held it in great reverence. This unit^ of sentiment among say- ages is undoubtedly due to the fact that its mast, furnished food and its wood strong clubs for primitive warfare, and later, as civilization ad- vanced, the value of its timber kept the traditioi Fig 1. Acorn, seed of the oak, cut open, Bhowlng c t the cotyledons: r, the radicle, at the pointed end. Other figures show the progress of germination: r, radicle: >. plumule. '^' alive. - Above we give cut showing an acorn in the process of germination Unlike the bean, the two halves of the seed do not form the first seed leaves, but these, nevertheless, serve to nourish the plumule, as the young shoots and leaver of ja plant are called, the radicle being the young root. ACRE. A name common to all European languages, and derived from Oriental sources We use it to designate a measure'of land " The |i.GE OF ANIMALS i)English acre contains 160 square rods, 4,840 square yards, 43,560 square feet or 174,340 squares of six inches (thirty-six inches) each, or ^6,372,640 square inches. The Irish acre is 7,840 ' square yards, and is equal to one acre, two roods and nineteen poles nearly, English measure. The Scotch acre contains 5,760 square Scotch ells, and is equal to one acre, one rood and two poles nearly, English measure. The French arpent or acre is equal to 51,690 square feet, English, or nearly one acre and three-quarters of a rood En- flish. The Strasburg acre is about half an Inglish acre. The word acre, agr, akora, and akkoran, respectively Hebrew, Syriac, and Ara- bic, denotes a field and a husbandman. The Saxon aeccerman signifies a husbandman, and Wachter, in his Glossary, gives the word aker- man as signifying a day laborer. AERATION. That quality in soils which renders it porous and capable of taking up and holding air, is one of the indispensable qualities of all good soils, since such soils are readily aerated, or capable of receiving and holding air. Hence the quality of being aerated, or of imbib- ing air, also renders soils capable of readily taking and holding water and the gases, and if in parting with moisture they do not become too compact, they are called arable land — that is, capable of bemg plowed and cultivated in crops. (See Air and the Growth of Plants.) AFTERBIRTH, RETENTIOS OF. This distressing disability is not infrequent, and may be produced by a variety of causes — poor condi- tion and hurried delivery being the most usual. It should never be left to putrefy, as too many indifferent masters allow. It is disgraceful, poisons the blood, and is a fertile means of abor- tion in other animals. If the after-birth does not come away during twelve hours after calving, hang a weight of about four pounds to the visi- ble mass. If this do not bring relief in twenty- four hours more, introduce the hand carefully, and gradually peel it from the womb with the finger nail, having an assistant pulling constantly with a firm and steady but not strong pull. When brought away, syringe the vagina thor- oughly with an ounce of chloride of lime in a quart of water If there is considerable bleed- ing, give a full dose of ergot of rye — 3 ounces — and if necessary, move the bowels with a light purgative — say 1 pound of glauber salts. AFTERMATH. The second crop, or after- growth of grass and clover after being mowed for hay. The aftermath, in ordinary seasons, contains from one-third to two-thifds of the nutri- ment of the first crop, according to the variety of grass. It used to be the rule to carefully mow the aftermath, but of late years, and especially in the present, this has given place to pasturing the meadows at such times as they may not be punched by the hoofs of the stock. If properly cured, it makes the best of hay for calves and colts, and if the aftergrowth of grass is heavy it should be cut or fed off, since otherwise it will interfere with gathering the successive crops of hay. AG-VTE. The Mexican aloe. The juice yields pulque, and a good hemp is made from the leaves. AGE OF ANIMALS. The age of domestic animals is most accurately known by their teeth, and by various indications that may assist proxi- mately in determining age, as more or less gray 15 AGE OF PLANTS AND TREES hairs in horses, and the appearance of the eye. In all horned stock the ej^e and the rings or cor- rugations on the horns give some indication of age, and in swine the tusks also assist. The teeth, however, give the only true indication of the true age of animals. (See articles, Horse, Cattle, Sheep, Swine, etc.) AGE OF PLANTS AND TREES. Plants are designated as, annual, those which die at the end of a season of growth; biennial, those which live two years, and perennial, those which live and grow from year to year. As a rule with plants as with animals, when young they are more succulent than when at full maturity. When in full vigor their vessels are filled with juices elaborated by the leaves, but as age in- creases their powers of assimilation grow less and less, until at length they die and decay. The age of trees may be determined with consid- erable certainty by cutting a cross section of the stem or trunk and counting the annular growths or rings. Yet in the case of very old trees much difficulty is experienced; so that here again, as with very old animals, the age can only be approximately ascertained. In animal life, the individual retains vigor for about three times the period required for it to attain maturity. Thus the sheep naturally lives about ten years, swine about the same, cattle fifteen years, and the horse eighteen to twenty years. Yet individ- uals, in exceptional cases, attain far greater ages, as we see in man, who should retain vigor until the age of sixty, and yet in some cases attains the age of more than 100 years. So horses some- times attain the extreme age of forty years, but always lose vigor when beyond twenty years, and generally, through abuse, before the age of twelve years. To return to trees, the oak begins to lose extreme vigor of grawth after about sixty years, the elm at fifty, the spruce at forty. Thus at these ages, or younger, it may be taken as being the most profitable time to cut such trees. Again, it has been said that the fastest growing trees are the shortest lived. This, however, is not true. The cottonwood, for instance, is an extremely fast-growing tree while young, and yet it is one of the monarchs of the western allu- vial bottom lands, and lives to a great age. The locust, pseud-acacia, is a fast-growing tree, and its timber is one of the most lasting known. The age of historical trees is interesting. The oak at Langton Wood, England, was credited with being 1,000 years old. In England there are yew trees that are older than the time of King John, and the chestnut of Yarmouth is said to have been growing there in the time of William the Conqueror. There is a lime tree at Trons, in the Grisons, 600 years old. In the palace gardens in Grenada, Spain, were cypresses thought to be 900 years old. Those growing at Chapultepec are over 5,000 years old. The Baobab trees of Africa are as old as this, and the giant red woods of Cali- fornia and some trees in Australia have been thought the oldest trees living, as they are the largest. Our American horticultural poet, Hemp- stead, thus chastely describes these sylvan mon- archs of California: They were green when in the rushes lay and moaned the Hebrew child ; They were growing when the granite of the Pyramids were piled; Green when Punic hosts at Cannae bound the victor's gory sheaves. And their grim and mangled bodies lay around like au- tumn leaves; AGRICULTURE 16 AGRICULTURE From their topp the crows were calling when the streets of Rome were grass. And the brave.Turee Hundred with their bodies blocked the rocky pass ; In their boughs the owl was hooting when upon the Hill of Mare Paul rung out the coming judgment, pointing upward to the stars; Here, with loving hand transplanted, in the noonday breeze they wave, And by night, in silent seas of silver, arrowed moonbeams > lave. AGI, or A6T. Chilian pepper, Capsicum baccatum. AGISTMENT. Payment for pasturage on another's lands. AGRICULTCEE. Agriciilture, in some of its subdivisions, has engaged the attention of man from the earliest ages. Even the most sav- age tribes, gather seeds and^ nuts for food, and soon learn to till the soil for the production of roots and grain in a crude way. Animals are at length caught and domesticated; from savage- ism man emerges into barbarism, and possesses flbcks and herds. At length semi-civilization, brings some of' the crude arts, and civilization" and enlightenment the higher arts an^ sciences. As showing, the progress of ^grjculture^in Eng- land in the fourteenth century, we give a cut ttproduced from an old Saxon calendar, illus- trating plowing and sowing between the centuries 1300 and~ 1400. In its broad sense, agriculture embraces all that pertains to the workmg of the soil and obtaining sustenance and clothing there- from, whether it be from the cereal grains, past- urage, hay, the herding, feeding and fattening of animals — all that relates to the making and applying of manures, the draining, and in feet to all which goes to increase the productive capacity of the soil. Agriculture is divided into two grand subdivisions: 1, That which relates to the farm proper; 3, that which relates to the forest, the orchard and garden. The first is called hus- bandry, the second horticulture. Husbandry, AMOIBHT SOMAN PLOW AND PLOWhIn. again, is divided into the cultivation of farm crops, as grain, grass, fiber and other useful spe- cial plants, stock breeding and feeding, and dairying. Of late years these subdivisions of husbandry have been more and more separated. Thus, large farms are used almost or quite ex- clusively for the cultivation of grain; great estates are devoted almost entirely to the grazing of cattle: other extensive farms are devoted to the breeding of animals; others, again, are em- ployed exclusivelyin dairying; still another class liave grown prominent within the last fifteen yepB, — feeders owning but little land,— who buy up cattle and hogs in the autumn, and buy corn in the field with wliich to fatten them. The grain farmer may not be a breeder or feeder of stock for market, except to a limited extent. He may eniploy his energies almost exclusively in grain, as is often done in the settlement of new countries. So the feeder will confine himself often almost entirely to pasturage and hky, de- pending upon buying much of his grain. T^he dairyman will also bend his best energies in the direction of pasturage and hay, raising perhaps comparatively little grain. The breeder, how- ever, to be successful, must raise not only pas- turage and hay, but also grain. This gives a succession of crops, and also enables an econom- ical rotation to be carried out, thus not only keeping the fertility of the farm intact, but, un- der proper management, increasing its fertility from year to year. Thus, as a country becomes settled up, we see the more sagacious farmers combine all the arts of husbandry, to a greater or less extent, and with profit. Or, again, the prin- cipal industry to whieh the soil is ad'apteii will be pursued to the full- est ejrtent possi- ble, arid the other branches carried' forward as far as practical experi- ence shows them to be warranted. Horticulture, the second great division of agriculture, embraces pomology, or all that relates to the orchard; arboricultufe, or that which pertains to the planting and care of trees, and the rearilig and care of groves, forests and, wind-breaks; vege- ,table galrdening, or the cultivation of plants fbr culinary use; floriculture, or the cultivation and care of flowers in the garden, conservatory, green-house and hot-house; landscape gardening, or all that pertains to the ornamentation of the home, public and private parks and landed es- tates, in all enlightened countries, is one of the most important — the landscape gardener alone being obliged to deal with all the branches of horticulture. To return to ancient agriculture. Some years ago the editor, in preparing a work-r- The Groundswell — on agriculture and coopera- tive effort thereon, wrote upon ancient agricult- ure_ as follows; It is well known that, at some periods of ancient times, and in some countries, agriculture was held to be an honorable calling, and kings, princes and statesmen did not disdain to till the soil with their own hands. In ancient Egypt, Where labored ,the men who reared the mighty pyramids, the priests and soldiers ovraed the lands— about ^ix acres of the Delta of the Nile being allotted to each warrior. At war's alarm they sprang forth ready armed to fight for their estates and homes. In times, of peace they grew and spun flax, and with the roots, herbs, wheat, and leguminous fruits which they raised they supplied food for a large portion of the then known civilized earth. The Carthaginians con- •t' H «3 «s "^ , ■^^ M o _ ^ °p ■)^, * ' ■^ oa 1 So ' = 1 • 09 ef 1 g 1 — 1 « 1 £ "III ' — ' S 2 § ^ « od > OS a rd .■w .1 $ > ^ 1- P ' "d ft i CD cq ' f PROPER iious of the o Q g 1' 111 a. O CC a. ^ 1 1 s D 1 r 1 6 .S M ' ^ 1- § ■" § 1 Ul -rt m 00 •S! m T-f tl ESSEOVALU eographicalX) § to CO Ul Q Ul < V) EC p V 1 Million 1 1 46 le States 1^ 1 ASS Of Five G lO 1 to 0' 5a t-^ Cs -K, «0 CO q> 00 p a: 1 S 1 m 1 1, ,„ **• 'm AGRICULTUUE sidered agriculture to be of all callings the most aristocratic, and the kings, princes and nobles were among the most active cultivators of the soil. When the Romans finally subdued and laid waste the land, the only books which they deemed worthy of being carried away, it is said, were twenty-eight volumes of manuscripts relat- ing to agriculture. The Chinese, who have bridges constructed 3,000 years ago, still con- sider agriculture so noble an art that a solemn ceremony is each year performed at which the emperor is required to turn the soil. This na- tion fed silk-worms before Solomon reared his temple. They built the great wall around the empire while Europe was yet wrapped in the gloom of the Dark Ages. They cultivated cotton centuries before the discovery of Amer- ica. In many respects, their knowledge and practice concerning the careful tilling of the soil is to-day superior to ours, with all our boasted enlightenment. A tract of fifty square miles about Shanghai is called the Garden of China; and while we of the United States are lamenting our w^rn-out farms, and talking about emigrating to virgin lands, this people, for count- less generations, have tilled the same soil, and under thmr management, it is to-day as productive as ever. Some of the States of ancient Greece es- teemed agriculture as the mother of arts, and their agricultural products were exhibited at the Olym- pic games. With the Spartans, however, agricult- ure was- contemned. It was left to the Helots, their slaves, whom they thought fit only to culti- vate the soil. It is not strange, therefore, that they should have been obliged to sup black broth (whatever that may have been). Nor is it strange that they took a distaste to their wretched fare, and finally rivaled even the Athenians in luxury, the laws of Lycurgus to the contrary notwith- standing. The earliest recorded history of agri- culture is fj-om inscriptions and hieroglyphics on the monuments and other works of stone that have come down to us. The following is a copy of one of the Egyptian plows, at a time very ancient but yet when civilization was very con - Hderable. It is more than probable, however, ir AGRICULTURE where they have not come in direct contact with the civilization of Eurojje and America, still/use the crudest forms imaginable. Of ancient ag- riculture one really knows but very little. From both sacred and profane history we know that Egypt was richin grain. The paintings and in- scriptions of ancient Bgjrpt show that they had carried the cultivation of the soil to a high state ANCIENT BBYPTIAN PLOWINO. that Egypt received the rudiments of her civili- zation from China, since the oldest of her in- scriptions seem to point that way. An ancient monument in Asia Minor shows a plow and yoke, supposed to be the oldest known, made wholly of wood, the natural crooks of a tree. Kg. 1 shows the plow, and Pig. 3 the yoke, both the crudest imaginable. Yet at this day the (/hinese, and indeed all the Oriental nations, MOST ANCIENT PLOW AND TOKE (1,200 TEABS B. C.) of perfection. They understood the art of ma- nuring, the value of rotation. Gardens, orchards, fish-ponds, and preserves of game were part and portion of ancient Egyptian villas. A steward directed the operations of the farm, superintend- ing the laborers, and kept the accounts. Agri- culture from the fall of Rome to the beginning of the present century has been summed up as follows: In the ages of anarchy and barbarism which succeeded the fall of the Roman empire, agriculture was almost wholly abandoned. Pas- turage was preferred to tillage, because of the facility with which sheep, oxen, etc., could be driven away or concealed on the approach of an enemy. The conquest of England by the Nor- mans contributed to the improvement of agri- culture in Great Britain, Owing to that event, many thousands of husbandmen, from the fertile and well-cultivat6d plains of Flanders and Nor- mandy, settled in Great Britain, obtained farms, and employed the same methods in cultivating them, which they had been accustomed to use in their native countries. Some of the Norman barons were great improvers of their lands, and were celebrated in history for their skill in agri- culture The Norman clergy, and especially the monks, did still more in this way than the nobility. The monks of every monastery retained such of their lands as they could most conveniently take charge of, and these they cultivated with great care under their own inspection, and frequently with their own hands. The famous Thomas 3, Becket, after he was Archbishop of Canterbury, used to go out ihto the field with the monks of the monastery where he happened to reside, and join with them in reaping their com and making their hay. The implements of agriculture at this period were similar to those in common use in more modern times. The various operations of husbandry, such as manuring, plowing, sowing, harrowing, reaping, threshing, winnowing, etc., are incidentally mentioned by the writers of those days, but it is impossible to collect from them a definite account of the manner in which those operations were performed. The first En- glish treatise on husbandry was published in the reign of Henry VIII., by Sir A. Pitzherbert, AGRICULTURE 18 Judge of the Common Pleas. It m entitled the Book of Husbandry, and contains directions for draining, clearing and inclosing a farm, for enriching the soil and rendering it fit for till- age. Lime, marl and fallowing are strongly- recommended. The author of the Book of Hus- bandry, says Mr. Loudon, writes from his own experience of more than forty years, and, if we except his biblical allusions, and some ves- tiges of the superstition of the Roman writers about the influences of the moon, there is very little of his work which should be omitted, and not a great deal that need be added, in so far as respects simple culture, in a manual of hus- bandry adapted to the present time. Agriculture attained some eminence during the reign of Eliz- abeth. The principal writers of that period were Tusser, Googe and Sir Hugh Piatt. Tusser's Five Hundred Points of Husbandry was pub- lished in 1563, and conveys much useful instruc- tion in metre. The treatise of Barnaby Googe, entitled Whole Art of Husbandry, was printed in 1558. Sir Hugh Piatt's work was entitled Jewel Houses of Art and Nature, and was printed in 1594. In the former work, says Loudon, are many valuable hints on the progress of hus- bandry in the early part of the reign of Eliza- beth. Among other curious things, he asserts that the Spanish or Merino sheep was originally derived from England From the Restoration down to the middle of the eighteenth century, agriculture remained almost stationary. Imme- diately after that period, considerable improve- ment in the process of culture was introduced by Jethro Tull, a gentleman of Berkshire, who be- gan to drill wheat and other crops about the year 1701, and whose Horse-hoeing Husbandry was published in 1731. Though this writer's theories were in some respects erroneous, yet even his er- rors were of service, by exciting inquiry and calling the attention' of husbandmen to important objects. His hostility to manures, and attempt- ing in all cases to substitute additional tillage in their place, were prominent defects in his sys- tem. After the time of' TuU's publication, no great alteration in British agriculture took place, till Robert Bakewell and others effected some im- portant improvements in the breed of cattle, sheep and swine. By skillful selection at first, and constant care afterwards, to breed from the best animals, Bakewell at last obtained a variety of sheep, which, for early maturity and the prop- erty of returning a great quantity of mutton for the food which they consume, as well as for the small proportion which the weight of the offal bears to the four quarters, were without prece- dent. CuUey, Cline, Lord Somerville, Sir J. S. Sebright, Darwin, Hunt, Hunter, Young; these have all contributed to the improvement of do- mestic animals, and have left little to be de- sired in that branch of rural economy. Among other works on agriculture, of distinguished merit, may be mentioned Ijhe Farmer's Letters, Tour in France, Annals Of Agriculture, etc., by the celebrated Arthur Young; Marshall's nu- merous and excellent works, commencing with Minutes of Apiculture, published in 1787, and ending with his Review of the Agricultural Re- ports in 1816; Practical Agriculture, by Dr. R W. Dickson, and also the writings of Kames, Anderson and Sinclair exhibit a union of philo- sophical sagacity and patient experiment, which have produced results of great importance to the AGRICULTURE British nation and to the worid. To ttiese we need only add the name of John Loudon, J*. U. a H S whose elaborate Encyclopsedia of Gar- dening and Encyclopsedia of Agriculture have probably never been surpassed by. any similar works in any language. ; The establishment of a National Board of Agriculture was of very great service to British husbandry. Hartlib a century befoVe, and Lord Kames, in his Gentleman far- mer, had pointed out the utility of such an in- stitution, but it was left to Sir John Sinclair to carry their ideas into execution To the inde- fatiga;ble exertions of that worthy and eminent man the British public are indebted for an insti- tution whose services can not be too highly ap- preciated It made farmers, residing in different parts of the kingdom, acquainted with one an- . other, and caused a rapid dissetnination of knowl- ; ■ edge amongst the whole profession. The art of j agriculture was brought into fashion, old prac- tices were amended, new ones introduced, and a degree of exertion called forth heretofore unex- ampled among the farmers of Great Britain. Of some of the more important ancient nations we find that the nomads of the patriarchal ages, like the Tartar, and perhaps some of the Moorish tribes of our own, whilst mainly dependent upon their flocks and herds, practised also agriculture proper. The vast tracts over which they roamed were in ordinary circumstances common to all shepherds alike. During the summer they fre- quented the mountainous districts, and retired to the valleys in the winter. Vast flocks of sheep and of ^oats constituted the chief wealth of the nomads, although they also possessed animals of the ox kind When these last were possessed in abundance, it seems to be an indication that tillage was practised. We learn that Job, be- sides immense possessions in flocks and herds, had 500 yoke of oxen, which he employed in plowing, and a very great husbandry. Isaac^ too, conjoined tillage with pastoral husbandry, and that with succesk, for we read that he sowed in the land Gerar, and reaped an hundred fold — a return which, it would appear, in some fa- vored region^, occasionally rewarded the labor of the husbandman. Along with the Babylo- nians, Egyptians and Romans, the Israelites are classed as one of the great agricultural nations of antiquity. The sojourn of the Israelites in Egypt trained them for the more purely agricult- ural life that awaited them on their return ta take possession of Canaan. Nearly the whole population were virtually husbandmen, and per- sonally engaged in its pursuits. Upon their en- trance into Canaan, they found the country oc- cupied by a dense population possessed of walled cities and innumerable villages, masters of great accumulated wealth, and subsisting on the pro- duce of their highly cultivated soil, which abounded with vineyards and olive-yards. It was so rich in grain that the invading army, numbering 601,730 able-bodied men, with their wives and children and a mixed multitude of camp-followers, found old corn in the land suffi- cient to maintain them from the day they passed the Jordan. The Mosaic Institute contained an agrarian law, based upon an equal division of the soil amongst adult males, a census of whom was taken just before their entrance into Canaan. This land, held in direct tenure from Jehovah, their Sovereign, was strictly inalienable. The accumulation of debt upon- it was prevented by AGKICULTUKB the prohibition of interest, the release of debts «very seventh year, and the reversion of the land to the proprietor, or his heirs, at each return of the year of jubilee. The owners of these small farms cultivated them with much care, and ren- dered them highly productive. They were fa- vored with a soil extremely fertile, and one which their skill and diligence kept in good condition. The stones were carefully cleared from the fields, which were also watered from canals and con- duits communicating with the brooks and streams with which the country was "well watered everywhere, and enriched ,by the appli- cation of, manures. The seventh year's fallow prevented the exhaustion of the soil, which was further enriched by the burning of the mass of spontaneous growth of the Sabbatical year. The crops chiefly cultivated were wheat, millet, barley, beans and lentiles, to which it is sup- phosed, on grounds not improbable, may be added rice and cotton. The ox and the ass w;ere used for labor. The word "oxen," which occurs in our version of the Scriptures, as well as in the Septuagint and Vulgate, denotes the species rather than the sex. As the Hebrews did not mutilate any of their animals, bulls were in common use. The quantity of land plowed by a yoke of oxen in one day was called a yoke, of acre. The slopes of the hills were carefully ter- raced and irrigated wherever practicable, and on these slopes the vine and olive were cultivated with great success. At the same time the hill districts and neighboring deserts afforded pas- turage for numerous flocks and herds, and thus admitted of the benefits of a mixed husbandry. Witli such political and social arrangements, and under the peculiar felicitous climate of Judea, the country as a whole, and at the more prosper- ous periods of the commonwealth, must have ex- hibited such an example of high cultivation, rich and varied produce, and wide-spread plenty and contentment as the world has seldom elsewhere produced on an equally extensive scale. The unrivaled literature of Greece affords us little in- formation regarding the practical details of her husbandry. The people who, by what remains to us of their poetry, philosophy, history, and fine arts, still exert such an influence in guiding our intellectual efforts, in regulating taste, and in molding our institutions, were originally the invaders and conquerors of the territory which they have rendered so famous. Having reduced the aboriginal tribes to bondage, they imposed upon them the labor of cultivating the soil, and hence both the occupation and those engaged in it were regarded conteijiptuously by the dominant race, who addicted themselves to what they re- garded as nobler pursuits. With the exceptions of certain districts, such as Bceotia, the country was naturally unfavorable to agriculture. When we find, however, that valleys were freed from lakes and morasses by drainage; that rocky surfaces were sometimes covered with transportable soil, »nd that they possessed excellent breeds of the domesticated animals, which were reared in vast numbers, we infer that agriculture was better un- derstood and more carefully practised than the allusions to it in their literature would seem to warrant. Amongst the ancient Romans agricult- ure was highly esteemed, and pursued with earnest love and devoted attention. In all their foreign enterprises, even in earliest times, as Schlegel re- marks, they were exceedingly fcovetous of gain, 19 AGRICULTURE or rather of land ; for it was in land, and in the produce of the soil, that their principal and almost only wealth consisted. They were a thor- oughly agricultural people, and it was only at a later period that commerce, trades, and arts were introduced among them, and even then they oc- cupied but a subordinate place. Their passion •for agriculture survived very long; and when at length their boundless conquest introduced an unheard of luxury and corruption of morals, the noblest minds amongst them were strongly at- tracted towards the ancient virtues of the purer and simpler agricultural tiroes. Several facts in Roman history afford convincing proof, if it were' required, of the devotion of this ancient people to agriculture in their ^best and happiest times. Whilst their arts and sciences and gen- eral literature were borrowed from the Greeks, they created an original literature of their own, of which rural affairs formed the substance and inspiration. Schlegel and Mr. Hoskyn noticed, also,- the striking fact that, whilst among the Greeks the names of their illustrious families are borrowed from the heroes and gods of their my- thology, the most famous houses ambngst the ancient Romans, such as the Pisones, Fabii, Lentuli, etc., have taken their names from their favorite crops and vegetables. Perhaps it is not much to assert that many of those qualities that fitted them for conquering the world and per- fecting their so celebrated jurisprudence, were acquired, or at all events nourished and matured, by the skill, foresight, and persevering industry so needful for the intelligent and successful cul- tivation of the soil. The words which Cicero puts into the mouth of Cato give a fine picture of the ancient Roman enthusiasm ih agriculture: I come now to the pleasures of husbandry in which I vastly delight. They are not inter-' rupted by old age, and they seem to me to be pursuits in which a wise man's life should be spent. The earth does not rebel against author- ity; it never gives back but with usury what it receives. The gains of husbandry are not what exclusively commend it. I am charmed with the nature and productive virtues of the soil. Can those old men be called unhappy who de- light in the cultivation of the soil? In my opin- ion there can be no happier life, not only because the tillage of the earth is salutary to all, but from the pleasures it yields. The whole estab- lishment of a good arid assiduous husbandman ' is stored with wealth ; it abounds in pigs, in kids, in lambs, in poultry, in milk, in cheese, in honey. Nothing can be more profitable, nothing more beautiful, than a well-cultivated, farm. In an- cient Rome each citizen received, at first, an allotment of about two English acres. After the expulsion of the kings, this allotment was increased to about six acres. These small inher- itances must, of course, have been cultivated by hard labor. On the increase of the Roman ter- ritory the allotment was increased to fifty, and afterwards even to 500 acres. Many glimpses into their methods of cultivation are found in those works, of the Roman authors which have survived the ravages of time. Cato speaks of irrigation, frequent tillage and manuring, aa means of fertilizing the soil. Mr. Hoskyn, and others from whose contribution to tlie History of Agriculture we have drawn freely in this histor- ical summary, quotes the following interesting passage from Pliny, commenting on Virgil: Our AGRICULTURE 20 poet is of opinion tliat alternate fallows should he made, and that the land should rest entirely every second year. And this is, indeed, both true and profitable, provided a man has land enough to give the soil this repose. But how, if Ms extent be not sufficient? Let him, in that case, help himself thus: Let him sow next year's wheat-crop on the field where he has just gath- ered his beans, vetches, or lupines, or such other crop as enriches the ground. For, indeed, it is worth notice that some crops are sown for no Other purpose but as for good for others ; a poor practice, in my estimation. In another place he tells us; Wheat, the later it is reaped, the better it casts; but the sooner it is reaped, the fairer the sample. The best rule is to cut it down be- fore the grain is got hard, when the ear begins to have a reddish-brown appearance. Better two days too soon than as many too late, is a good old maxim, and might pass for an oracle. The following quotation from the same author is ex- cellent • Cato would have this point especially to be considered, that the soil of a farm be good and fertile ; also, that near it there be plenty of laborers, and that it be not far from a large town; moreover, that it have sufficient means for transporting its produce, either by water or land; and, also, that the house be well built, and the laud about it as well managed. But I ob- serve a great error and self-deception which many men commit, who hold opinion that the negligences and ill-husbandry of the former owner is good for his success or after-pur- chaser: Now, I say, there is nothing more dan- gerous and disadvantageous to the buyer than land so left waste and out of heart; and there- fore Cato counsels well to purchase land of one who has managed it well, and not rashly and hand-over-head to despise and make light of the skill and knowledge of another. He says, too, that as well land as men, which are of great charge and expense, how gainful soever they may seem to be, yield little profit in the end, when all reckonings are made. The same Cato, being asked, what was the most assured profit rising out of land? made this answer: To feed stock well. Being asked again, what was the next? he answered: To feed with moderation. By which answer he would seem to conclude that the most certain and sure revenue was a low cost of production. To the same point is to be referred another speech of his r That a good hus- bandman ought to be a seller rather than a buyer ; also, that a man should stock his ground early and well, but take long time and leisure before he be a builder; for it is the best thing in the world, according to the proverb, to make use, and derive profit, from other men's follies. Still when there is a good and convenient house on the farm, the master will be closer occupied, and take the more pleasure in it ; and truly it is a good saying, that the master's eye is better than his heel. In relation to the improvement of ag- riculture in Great Britain during the last cen- tury, it Is undoubtedly true that this country is more indebted to Lord Bacon than to any of his contemporaries for the impetus which agricult- ure received in his day. This great philosopher taught men, by the inductive method, to inquire into and to discover by experiment, step by step, throtigh the great alphabet of nature — soils, gases, elements, etc. — the true relation which each bears to each. If all the votaries of agri- AGRICULTURE culture had followed this great man's teachings,' we should have heard less of that myth— the- Science of Agriculture. It might more truly be called the sum of all sciences, since, though it is made up of something of all sciences, neverthe- less, it will never, in the nature of things, become in itself a true science. Early in the eighteenth century, Jethro Tull, one of the earliest and one of the'best writers on agriculture that England ever had, did much, through the record of his ex- periments in new and improved modes of cult- ure to advance the customary system of till- age, and to reduce it to rule. Tull was the father of drill husbandry, and the inventor of the horse-shoe. He also invented, but failed to perfect, the threshing-machine, leaving the_ final triumph in this direction for American genius to achieve, more than a century later Arthur Young is also justly celebrated for his labors in behalf of agriculture. He traveled extensively over Europe, to observe the various methods of tillage which prevailed, and is said to have edited nearly one hundred volumes relating to the pro- fession. In Scotland, Lord Kames, and still more. Sir John Sinclair, were earnest and per- severing patrons of agriculture. To the latter gentleman, Scotland is indebted for a complete agi-icultural survey of the country, with statis- tical accounts relating to it. The publication of the fruits of his labors had the important result, among others, of leading to the establishment of the Board of Agriculture, in 1793, by Mr. Pitt. Sir Humphrey Davy was another benefactor of husbandry, deserving prominent mention. It was the result of his experiments which led to the establishment of Agricultural Chemistry as a recognized branch of modern science; and this is truly the corner-stone of agricultiire. Recogniz- ing a plant as a living thing, he Brad that the laws of their existence must be studied in order to develop the most perfect growth. By experi- ments, and in his lectures, he demonstrated that plants derive their component parts either from the atmosphere by which they are sur- rounded, or from the soil in which they grow. These elements being principally carbon, nitro- gen, oxygen and hydrogen ; he showed by analy- sis of soils and plants the relative nature of each, and the conditions necessary to best furnish the elements for growth, and proved that the process of vegetation depends upon their constant assimilation by the organs of plants, by means of moisture, light and heat. Coming to American agriculture, what a change has been wrought in the last forty years. Indeed, from the dark ages until the beginning of the nineteenth century there was no great and general advance in agriculture. Atthe close of the seventeenth century, England, then just beginning to obtain the mastery of the seas, had but one-half the area of that country in arable and pasture lands, the remainder being moor, forest and fen. As late as the begin- ning of the nineteenth century much of the land in England either remained in forest or else was exhausted of its fertility. But all this is changed, and now, as Macaulay remarks, a hundred acres, which under the old system, produced annually, as food for cattle and manures, not more than forty tons, under improved culture yields the vast increase of 577 tens. At the close of the seventeenth century, America was only just beginning to be settled by colonies, widely sepa- rated along the Atlantic coast. The interior was AGRICULTURE one unbroken primeval forest, until the great prairie region of tlie "West was reached, which, after passing w^st of the Mississippi river, grad- ually merged itself into what is now known as the great plains, east of the Rocky mountains. All this great country was then, and continued to be until long after the revolutionary war, in- habited by wild Indians, more savage and cruel than the wild beasts. But the fertile soil and the great diversity ot climate and its great natural water systems, soon attracted emigration from all parts pf the civilized world. They hav-j con- tinued to flock iii from year to year, until now they have occupied much of the available land- in connection with our own hardy pioneers — from the Atlantic to the Paciflc. , It is true that many large and fertile tracts are yet remaining, b^it a very few years more will find these all settled. Of the agriculture of the early part of the present cen- tury we find the agricultural implements and farming operations of the United States, in most particulars, were very similar to those of Great Britain. Circumstances, however, required, vari- ations, which the sagacity of the American culti- vator caused him to adopt, often in contradiction to the opinions of those who understand the science better than the practice of husbandry. In Europe, land was dear and labor cheap ; in the United States, the reverse was the case. The European cultivator was led, by a regard to his own interest, to endeavor to make the most of his land ; the American cultivator has the same inducement to make the most of his labor. Per- haps, however, this principle, in America, was generally carried to an unprofitable extreme, and the farmers might have derived more benefit from their land, if they had to limit their operations to such parts of their possession^ as they could afford to till thoroughly and manure abundantly. A man may possess a large landed estate, without being called on by good hus- bandry to hack and scratch over the whole, as evidence of his title. He may. cultivate well those parts which are naturally most fertile, and suffer the rest to remain wild, or, having cleared a part, lay it down to permanent pasture, which will' yield him an annua! profit, without requiring much labor. The climate and soil of the United States are adapted to the cultivation of Indian corn, which the climate of Great Britain is not. This entirely and very advantageously supersedes the field culture of the horse-bean, one of the most common fallow crj^ps in that island. Root husbandry, or the raising, of roots for the pur- pose of feeding cattle, is likewise of less importance in the United States than in Great Britain. The winters are so severe in the northern section of the Union, that turnips pan rarely be fed on the ground, and all softs of roots are with more dilBculty preserved and dealt out to stock, in this country, than in those which possess a milder climate. Besides, hay is more easily made from grass in the United States than in Great Britain, pwing to the season for hay-making being gener- ally more dry, and the sun more powerful. There are many other circumstances which favor the American farmer, and render his situation more eligible than that of the European. He is generally the owner as well as the occupier of the soil which he cultivates ; is not burthened with tithes; his taxes are lightj. and the product of his labors will command more of the necessaries, comforts and innocent luxuries of life. In 21 AGRICULTURE the early part of the century, a periodical pub- cation, the American Parmer, was established at Baltimore, and still another, the New England Parmer, in Boston. Men of talent, wealth and enterprise have distinguished themselves by their laborious and liberal efforts for the improvement of Americaji husbandry. Merino sheep 'were imported, as well as the most celebrated breeds of British cattle, and there prevailed a general disposition among all men of intelligence and high standing in the community, to promote the prosperity of American agriculture. We shall conclude with a few brief notices of prppi- inent benefits and improvements which modern science has contributed to American agriculture in the early part of the century, which will not be uninteresting. The husbandmen of anti- quity, as well as those of the middle ages, were destitute of many advantages enjoyed by the modern cultivator. Neither the practical nor the theoretical agriculturists of those periods had any correct knowledge of geology, milieralogy, chem- istry, botany, vegetable , physiology or natural philosophy; , but these sciences have given the modern husbandman the command of important agents, elements and principles, of which the ancients had no idea. The precepts of their writers were comf ormable to their experience ; but the rationale of the practices they prescribed they could not, and rarely attempted to, explain. Nature's most simple modes of operation were to them inexplicable, and their ignorance of causes often led to erroneous calculations with regard to effects. We are indebted to modern science for the following, among other improvements: A correct knowledge of the nature and prop- erties of manures — mineral, animal and vege- table ; the best modes of applying them, and me; particular crops for which particular sorts of manures are best suited. The method of using all manures of animal and vegetable origin while fresh, before the sun, air and rain, or other moisture has robbed them of their most valuable properties. It was formerly the practice to place barn-yard manure in layers or masses for the purpose of rotting, and tm'ning it over frequently with the plow or spade, till the whole had be- come destitute of almost all its original fertilizing substances, and deteriorated in quality almost as much as it was reduced in quantity. The knowledge and means of chemically analyzing soils by which we can ascertain their constituent parts, and thus learn what substances are wanted to increase their fertility. The introduction in JEngland of root husbandry, the raising of tur^ nips, mangel-wurzel, etc., extensively, by field husbandry, for feeding cattle, by which a given quantity of land may be made to produce muqh more nutritive matter than if it were occupied by grain or grass crops, and the health as well as the thriving of the animals in the winter season greatly promoted. Laying down lands to grass, either for pasture or mowing, with a greater variety of grasses, and with kinds adapted to a greater variety of soils; such as orchard-grass for dryland; foul meadow-grass for very wet land; timothy or herds'-grass for stiff, clayey soils, etc. The substitution of f allpw crops (or such crops as require cultivation and stirring of the ground while the plants are -growing) in the place of naked fallows, in which the land is allowed to remain without yielding any profitable product in order to renew its fertility. Pields may be so AGRICULTURE ; foul with weeds as to require a fallow, but not what is too often understood by that tci-m in this country. In England, when a fanner was com- pelled to fallow a field, he let the weeds gi-ow into blossom and then turned them down; in America, a fallow meant a field where the pro duce is a crop of weeds running to seed, instead of a crop of grain. Again, the art of breeding the best animals and the best vegetables, by a judicious selection of individuals to propagate from. These improvements, with others too numerous to be here specified, have rendered the agriculture of the early part of the century very different from that of the middle ages when it had sunk far below the degree of perfection which it had reached among the Romans. In relation to the difficulties experienced in advanc- ing agricultural art in the United States, it is well known that the earliest settlers found the country a wilderness, with many varieties of climate and soil, of which they were entirely ignorant, and to which the knowledge they had obtained in the mother country did not apply. Thus, they had to contend with the innumerable obstacles, such as the wilderness of nature, their ignorance of the climate, the hostility of the In- dians, the depredations of wild beasts, the ditfi- eulty and expense of procuring seeds, farming implements and superior stock. These various difficulties are quite sufficient to explain the slow progress they made in the way of improve- ment. For many years agriculture was in an exceedingly backward and depressed condition. Stocks and tools were poor, and there were obstacles and prejudices against any innovations in the established routine of practice. This state of things continued for many years with very little change. Jared Eliot, a clergyman of Connecticut, one of the earliest agricultural writers of America, published the first of a series of valuable essays on Field Husbandry, in 1747. but with this and a few other exceptions, no real efforts were made to improve farming until after the revolution, when the more settled state of the country and the gradual increase of population, began to impress the intrinsic import- ance of the subject upon the minds of a few enlightened men. They sought by associated effort to awaken an interest in the subject, and spread abroad valuable information. The South Carolina Agricultural Society was established in 1784, and still exists, and the Philadelphia Society for the Improvement of Agriculture, established in the same year, and a similar association in New York in 1791, incorporated in 1798, and the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, established in 1792, were active in their field of labor, and all accomplished import- ant results. The correspondence at this period between Sir John Sinclair and Washington, shows how anxious was the father of his country to promote the highest interests of the people by the improvement of agi'iculture. But all the efforts of the learned, and all the investigations of the scientific, prove comparatively unavailing, unless the people themselves — the actual workers of the soil — are prepared to receive and profit by their teachings. Many years elapsed before the habit of reading became sufficiently common among the masses of the actual tillers of the soil, to justify an expectation that any profit would arise from the annual publication of the transactions Df the several societies. The AGRICULTURE improvements proposed fell dead upon the people To rejected book farming as impertinent and useless, and knew as little of the chemistry of agriculture as of the problems of astronomy Such has been the increase of mtel igence and the growth of liberal ideas among all classes of men during the last half century, both in this country and Great Britain, that we, at this dis- tance of time, can with difficulty realize the extent of the prejudices which blinded the eyes of the people of those days. The farmer who ventured to make experiments, to strike out new paths of practice, or to adopt new modes of culture subjected himself to the ridicule of a whole neighborhood. For many years, there- fore, the same routine of farm labor had been pursued in the older settlements, the son planting just as many acres of corn as his father did, in the old of the moon, using the same number of oxen to plow, and getting in his crops on the same day, after having hoed them the same number of times as his father and grandfather. So all farm practices were merely traditional; no country or town agricultural societies existed to stimulate careful effort through competition. There were no journals devoted to the spread of agricultural knowledge, and the mental energies of the farmer lay dormant. The stock of the farm was such as one might expect to find under such circumstances; the sheep were small, and ill cared for in the winter, and the size of cattle generally was but little more than half the aver- age of the present time. The value of manures was little regarded ; the rotation of crops was scarcely thought of ; the introduction even, of new and labor-saving* machinery, was sternly resisted and ridiculed by the American farmers of that day as well as by the English laborers. It was long before the horse-rake was brought into use in opposition to the prejudices it encountered. It was equally long before the horse-power thresh- ing-machine was adopted In some parishes of Great Britain, even so late as 1830, the laborers actually went about destroying every machine they could find. Now, on the contrary, the use of the flail is a drudgery to which very few are willing to submit, and steam-power has in many instances been substituted for the horse, while new and improved implements of all kinds are sought to an extent unprecedented in the history of agriculture. Changes are gradually made every where, and the success which attends the intro- duction of new implements disai-ms prejudice. "Within the last half century, chemistry, the indispensable hand-maid of agriculture, has grown with great rapidity, and in each new dis- covery some new truth applicable to practical agriculture has come to light, while willing experimenters have labored in the field to prove the truth or falsity of the theories proposed, and thus the well established facts from which the science of agriculture is derived, and the sound theories deduced from these facts, are constantly increasing in number. The substitution of animal for manual power, and yet more, the saving of animal power by the substitution of natural and mechanical forces, are the surest indications of improvement. From the changes which have grown up in these respects, and from the more constant use of chemical analysis to determine the qualities of soils and manures within the last fifty years, we may safely assert Uiat the progress made during that period, or within the last AGRICULTURE twenty years, is wholly unparalleled. To come down now to our own day, in comparing- our husbandry with European, we find that in all the older settled portions of the United States, the processes of agriculture will now compare favorably with those of any country on the globe, in the perfect adaptation of means to the end. The American farmer does not raise so great an average crop per acre as the English or the Bel- gian or the Holland farmer; the reason of this lies in the cheapness of the land, rendering it easier to work a larger area somewhat superfi- cially, than to put a considerable expense on a smaller one. The fact that the conformation of the land, especially in the West, admits of work- ing almost entirely by the use of machinery, is the reason that a large area per capita may be economically cultivated. It is this that has made the West to teem with abundant crops of Indian corn and the other cereal grains; that has enabled her farmers to produce the immense herds of cattle,, droves of swine, and flocks of sheep. It has made this magnificent agricultural region to t^em with every crop that may be pro- duced in a temperate climate, and before which the productions of ancient Egjrpt, so much vaunted, sinks into utter insignificance. It has indeed made th'6 West the granary of the world. To show something of , this we give a statement showing our agricultural exports up to 1875, in periods of five years, extending back over fifty years, the fibres being the average per annum for each period. These exports are divided into five classes : animals and their products, bread- stuffs, cotton (including its manufacture^, wood, and miscellaneous products. Necessarily the ex- tension of raw materials, as manufactured meat- products, lumber, vegetatjle oils, must be con- sidered, and the direct madufacture of a single and uncombined product of the farm, to render it available for exportation, was deemed for this purpose an agi'icultural product : 33 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION following the great financial depression which resulted from the great monetary crash of 1837, when the exports of cotton greatly declined. The average Mr the last of these ten periods is nearly ten times that of the first. As showing the immense proportions to which agriculture has grown, we present a general summary, showing the estimated quantities, number of acres, and aggregate value of the principal crops of the farm in 1879: Periods. Animals and their Breadstuffs, etc. Cotton, etc. products. 1836-1830 $ 4,602,375 $ 8,472.623 $ 37,801,516 1831-1835 4,873,044 9,619,072 43,489,613 1836-1840 4,061,853 9,433,983 67,312,845 1841-1845 6,779;297 10,341,102 54,678,009 1846-1850 12.694,773 38,446,477 63,915,365 1851-1855 13,579,737 36,836,313 105,347,093 1856-1860 20.844,187 40,609,279 156,514,371 1861-1865 51,311,851 73,820,959 17,017,960 1866-1870 35,434,754 55,263,657 209,360,210 1871-1875 85,560,083 107,238,367 308,818,938 1879 146,641,233 210,391,066 173,158,200 Periods. Wood, and wood Miscellane- Average annual aggre- products. , gate. 1826-1830 $ 3,126,501 $ 6,568,375 $ 50,571,390 1831-1835 3,490,600 7,569,751 69,042,079 1836-1840 4,008,762 10,483,429 95,288,370 1841-1845 ; 3,866.331 10,439,520 86,094,159 1846-1850 4,0 6,636 9,799,988 118,933,233 1851-1855 6,049,737 15,438,588 - 167.151,457 256,770,265 1856-1860 12,370,881 26,531,647 1861-1865 11,069,359 34,171,187 186,391,316 1866-1870 16,405,155 34,920,511 351,273,287 1871-1875 22.730,065 40,376,374 464,713,827 1879 30,122,967 53,843,026 Total agricultural export, 1879, $604,156,492. '^he advance has been most remarkable ; progress \ ithout a faltering step, except in the period W Products. Number of bushels. etc. Number of acres. Value. Indian com, bu Wheat, bu 1,547,901,790 448,756,630 23,639,460 363,761,330 ' *,283,100 13,140,000 181,626,400 68,085,450 82,545,950 1,635,450 12,683,500 1,680,700 639,900 , 1,836,800 $580,486,217 497,030,142 15,507,431 Oats, bu ., Barley, bu 120,533,294 23,714,444 Buckwheat, bu Potatoes, bu 7,866,191 79,168,673 Total 2,619,108,700 104,097,750 492,100 27,484,991 12,695,500 1,324,281,392 Tobacco, lbs. 391,278,350 35,493,000 5,261,208 33,737,524 830,804,494 Cotton, bales 450 lbs. 242,140,987 144,670,341 1,919,954,897 ' What has brought all this about? It is the com- plete and general system of education in our country by which every child is enabled to glean current facts relating to his profession as fast as they come up. It is the perfection of ma- chinery and the improvement of stock; this added to a fertile soil has enabled the agriculture of to-day to keep pace with the growing events of a teeming and increasing population It has enabled the farmer of the IJnited States not only to supply the demand at home, but to send abroad yearly the vast surplus of every kind which is accumulated from year to year. Science has enabled the farmer to plow his ground, sow his seed, cultivate his crops, harvest his grain, and make it ready for the stock, thresh, winnow, and send it to the market by the mere act of superintending machines, which do the work like so many creatures of intelligence. He mows his grass, makes it into hay, rakes it into windrows, cocks or loads it directly on the wagon, stacks or puts it in the barn, and even does the heavy work of feeding, entirely by machinery. Water is pumped for his stock and carried into his house by the agency of wind and steam. He di.gs drains, lays tile, makes roads, subsoils and trench-plows his land; and plants, hauls, and grinds his grain; prepares fodder for, and feeds it to his stock; pumps, saws, a,nd threshes; spades and hoes; loads and unloads; stacks his hay and straw, and does an infinity of other'work besides, by the power of automatic sinews of iron and steel How? By the power of mind applied to the dh-ection of material forces; by true knowledge of cause and effect; in a word, by science. And yet, if asked the ques- tion to-day, it is highly probable that a majority would laugh at any intimate relation between science and agriculture. And yet modern agri- culture rests upon all science, chemistry being its corner stone and intelligence the power which applies it to agriculture. AGRICULTDEAL EDUCATION. Some years since the editor carefully prepared a digest of his ideas on education to the industries, in which he held to the Socratian doctrine, that a AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION child should be taught in youth that which he was to practice in age; and, also, to the Divine precept, train up a child in the way he should go, and when he is old he w^ill not depart from it. It was a subject that had long interested thinking men, and at the time spoken of a number of ag- ricultural colleges were in operation, under the law of Congress, granting lands for the endow- ment, and others were projected. The law was broad enough in its conception to include all the industries, and also military tactics. In the for- mation of some of these schools o^f industrial education, it was sought to carry them directly back into the grooves of the old scholastic sys- tem. There was a long and bitter strife over the matter, and particularly in Illinois, which State was among the foremost in urging forward the new system of education, and in brmging it prop erly before the people. It is now generally con- ceded that, to the persistent and continued efforts made by tlie true friends of industrial education, is due the fact that these colleges have been kept proximately near the mark originally intended f6r them. That is, to give a different education to the youth than that of the ordinary literary colleges — one founded upon the sciences under- lying art. Our higher schools of learning had heretofore educated their students in an undevi- ating groove — the classics. Science had but lit- tle place in our colleges, except a smattering of some of the principles obtained from text-books. When the student left college, if indeed', it had not so far unfitted him for labor In agriculture and the mechanic arts as to render these disgust- ing, he had to unlearn much that he had acquired, and begin again — ^ self-education. Here was where, as far back as 1850, such men as Presi- dent Way land, of Brown University; Bishop Potter, of Pennsylvania; Washington Irving, Governor Hunt and Senator Dix, of New York; President Hitchcock, of Amherst Col- lege; Profs. Webster, Dewey, Henry and Bache; Prof. Mitchell, of Cincinnati; Prof. Pierce, of Cambridge; and that persistent wheel-horse of agricultural education in the West, Prof. Jona- than B. Turner, of Jacksonville, 111., aided by Bronson Murray, John Gage, Smiley Shepherd, John Davis (now of Kansas) and others, had been preparing the public mind for years to the importance of education, grounded upon science rather than upon letters. At length a conven- tion was called in 1851, at Greenville, 111., at w'hich this question was fully discussed. Two of. the resolutions there adopted were as follows: Resolved^ That, as the representatives of the industrial .classes, including all cultivators of the soil, artisans, mechanics and merchants, lye desire the same privileges and advantages fur ourselves, our fellows and our pos- terity, in each of our several pursuits and callings, as our professional brethren enjoy in theirs; and we admit that ' it is our own fault'that we do not also enjoy them. Bssolved^ That, in our opinion, the institutions origin- ally and primarily designed to meet the wants of the pro- fessional classes, afl such can not,'ln the nature of things, meet ours, any more than the institutions we desire to establish for ourbelves could meet'tbeirs. The next resolution provided that immediate steps be taken for the establishment pf a univer- sity, expressly to meet the wants of each and all the industrial classes in the State. It was also recommended to found high schools, . lyceums, institutes, etc., in each county, on similar princi- ples, so soon as it might be practicable to do 80. At this convention Prof. Turner, in an ex- haustive address, unfolded an elaborate plan for 24 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION the establishment of a State University, which was subsequently niade the ground-work upon which the act of endowment by the United States, and the, law regulating the Industrial University of Illinois, were founded. A second,, convention was held at Springfield, 111., June 8, 1853. On this occasion there was a prolonged controversy, forced upon the convention by the representati,ves of a few of the old classical and theological colleges, who had been admitted by r courtesy to participate in the debate. As is usual with many of this class, they consumed the greater part of the time without making much, if any, impression for good on the minds of their auditors. These advocates of the col- leges just named desired to be themselves made the custodians of, and instruments through which, the funds of the State should be applied to the education of the industrial classes. This the representatives of these classes then and since, in all their conventions, have unanimously and steadfastly opposed. It was still fought for after the law of Congress endowed a more practical system of colleges; and when the masses thought they had finally beaten the scholiasts, and had secured the fund to the uses of those for whom it was intended, they soon found that their foe had only been beaten off to come up again in another form. A third convention was held at Chicago, November 24, 1853, at which it was resolved to establish an Industrial League of the State of Illinois, which was subsequently chartered by thfe legislature. The League was empowered to raise a fund to defray various expenses as, first, to disseminate information, both written and printed; second, to keep up concert of action among the friends of the industrial classes; and third', to employ lecturers to address citizens in all parts of the State. At this convention much important business was transacted; many helpful methods and useful aims were presented, and many interesting ideas elaborated. Prof. J. B. Turner was appointed Principal Director of the League, and John Gage, Bronson Murray, Dr. L. S. Pennington, J. T. Little and William A. Rennel) Associate Directors., The conven- tion was harmonious throughout, the members having wisely decided to exclude those profes- sional educators who had no practical knowledge of the wants of the industrial classes. The most noteworthy action of this convention, however, was the passage of a resolution to memorialize Congress for the purpose of obtaining a grant of public lands to establish and endow industrial colleges' in each and every State of the Union. Thus, was finally brought forth a definite plan of action, whTch iinmediately took, firm hold of many leading minds throughout the country, con^lidating, in valuable degree, persistent and unselfish efforts which had previously been more or less scattered. A fourth convention was held at Springfield, 111., on the 4th of July, 1853, at which the duties of the members and terms of office of officers of the League were fixed. Nev- ertheless, the important business of this conven- tion was the preparation of a memorial— this time to the legislature— setting fortli in the strongest light, facts, figures, and arguments, to show the great need of a thorough and systematic education of the masses to the industries thejc would follow in after life. The following ex|. tracts from this memorial will show the animuf and tenor of the work. We need the sam/S Area of States ancl. Territories in Sq^uare Miles and Acres. RANK. STA TES. SQUARE MILES. ACRES. 4-7 DISTRICT OFCOLUMBIA 70 44,800 46 RHODE ISLAND 45 DELAWARE 44 CONNECTICUT 43 NEW JERSEY 42 MASSACHUSETTS 41 NEW HAMPSHIRE 40 VERMONT 39 MARYLAND 38 WESTVIRGINIA 37 SOUTH CAROLINA 36 MAINE 35 INDIANA 34 KENTUCKY 33 OHIO 32 TENNESSEE 31 VIRGINIA 30 PENNSYLVANIA 29 MISSISSIPPI 28 LOUISIANA 27 NEW YORK 26 ALABAMA 26 NORTH CAROLINA 25 ARKANSAS 24 IOWA 23 WISCONSIN 22 ILLINOIS 21 FLORIDA 20 MICHIGAN 19 GEORGIA 18 INDIAN TERRITORY 17 WASHINGTON 16 MISSOURI 15 NEBRASKA 14 " KANSAS 13 MINNESOTA 12 IDAHO II UTAH 10 OREGON 9 WYOMING 8 COLORADO 7 NEVADA 6 ARIZONA 5 NEW MEXICO 4 MONTANA DAKOTA CALIFORNIA. TEX-A'S 24,780 30,570 33,040 3(J,350 40,400 41,060 42,030 42,450 45,215 4fi,810 48,730 49,170 ;50 52,250 90 800,000 1,312,000 3,193,600 5,001,500 5,321,600 5,955,200 6,121,600 12^10^ _ ^ 7,814,400" 15,859,200 19,504,800 21,145,600 23,264,000 35,856,000 26,378,400 26,913,000 27,168,000 28,937,000 39,958,400 31,180,800 31,408,800 33,440,000 33,440,000 34,464,000 33,856,000 35,865,600 36,256,000 37,555,200 37,705,600 38,064,000 41,401,600 44,375,200 44,425,600 49,187,300 53,531,200 53,353,600 54,273,000 54,380,800 61,459,200 62,649,600 66,512,000 70,848,000 72, IMS, 800 78,451,200 93,491,200 95,434,000 53,850 56,02! 50,040 56,650 58,080 58,915 59,475 64,690 69,180 09,415 76,855 82,080 i,365 8-1,800 84,970 97,890 103,925 110,700 113,020 122,580 146,080 149,100 158,360 265,780 101,350,400 170,099,200 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 25 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION thorough and practical application of knowledge to our pursuits that the learned professions enjoy in theirs through their universities and their lit- erature, schools and lihraries, that have grown out of them. For, even though knowledge may exist, it is perfectly powerless until properly ap- plied; and we have not the means of applying it. What sort of generals and soldiers would all our national science (and art) make, if we had no military academies to take that knowledge and apply it directly and specifically to military life? Are our classic universities, our law, medicine and divinity schools, adapted to make good gen- erals and warriors? Just as well as they are to make farmers and mechanics, and no better. Is the defense, then, of our resources of more actual consequence than their production? Why then, should the State care for the one and neglect the other? It was shown that only one in 260 of the population of the State were, in 1853, engaged in professional life, and not one in 300 in the Union, generally; and that a very great proportion, even of these, never enjoyed the advantages of classical and professional schools. Further, there were, in the United States, 235 principal universities, -colleges, seminaries and schools, devoted wholly to the interest of the professional classes, besides many smaller ones, while there was not a single one, with liberal en- dowments, designed for the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes It said: No West Point, as yet, beams upon the horizon of hope ; true, as yet, our boundless resources keep ,us, like the children of Japhet emigrating from the ark, from the miserable degradation and want of older empires; but the resources themselves lie all undeveloped in some directions, wasted and misapplied in others, and rapidly vanishing away as centuries roll onward, under the unskill- fulness that directs them. We, the members of the industrial classes, are still compelled to work empirically and blindly, without needful books, scheols, or means, by the slow process of that individual experience that lives and dies with the man. ' Our professional brethren, through their universities, schools, teachers, and libraries, combine and concentrate the practical experience of ages and each man's life. We need the same. We seek no novelties. We desire no new prin- ciples. We only wish to apply to the great in- terest of the common schools and the industrial ■ classes precisely the same principles of men- tal discipline and thorough, scientific, practical instruction, in their pursuits and interests, which arc now applied to the professional and military classes. ' We would, therefore, respectfully peti- tion the honorable Senate and House of Repre- sentatives of the State of Illinois, that they pre- sent a united memorial to the Congress now as- sembled at Washington, to appropriate to each State in the Union an amount of pubUc lands not less in value than $500,000, for the liberal endowment of a system of industrial universi- ties, one in each State in the Union, to cooperate with ealch other and with the Smithsonian Insti- tute at Washington, for the more liberal and practical education of our industrial classes and their teachers, in their various pursuits; for the production of knowledge and literature needful in those pursuits, and developing, to the fullest and most perfect extent, the resources of our soil and our arts, the virtue and intelligence of our people, and the true glory of our common country. The result of these labors was a series of strong resolutions, adopted by the legislature of Illinois, to Congress, of which the following is important: Resolved, By the House of Eepresentatives, the Senate concurring herein, that our Senators in Congress be in- structed, and our Eepreeentatives be requested, to use their best exertions to procure the passage ol'a law of Congress donating to eacl; State in the Union an amount of public lands not less in value than $5uO,000, for the liberal en- dowment of a system of industrial universitiee, one in each State in the Union, to cooperate with each other and with the Smithsonian Institute at Washington, for the more liberal and practical education of our industrial classes and their teachers— a liberal and varied education —adapted to the manifold wants of a practical and enter- prising people; and a provision for such cducationial facil- ities being in manifest concurrence with tlxe intimations of the popular will, it urgently demands the united efl'orts of our national strength. A resolution was also passed by the legisla- ture inviting the executive and legislatures of the other States to unite with Illinois to . cooperate in the effort to induce popular in- dustrial education. Meanwhile the friends of industrial education East had not been idle, as the following extracts from the history of the subject will show: The New York Tribune, of February 36, 1853, said: Here is the principle contended for by the friends of practical educa- tion abundantly confirmed, with a plan for its immediate realization. And it is worthy of note, that one of the most extensive of public-land (or new) States proposes a magnificent donation of public lands to each of the states, in furtherance of this idea. Whether that precise form of aid to the project is most judicious, and likely to be effective, we will not here consider. Suffice it that the legislature of Illinois has taken a noble step forward, in a most liberal and patriotic spirit, for which its members will be heartily thanked by thousands throughout the Uniori. We feel that this step has materially hastened the coming of scientific and practical education for all who desire, and are willing to work for it. It can not gome too soon. Governor Hunt, of New York, in his annual message to the legis- lature of that State, used the following language: Much interest has been manifested for some years past in favor of creating an institution for the advancement of agricultural science, and of knowledge in mechanical arts. The views in favor of this measure, expressed in toy last an- nual communication, remain unchanged. My impressions are still favorable to the plan of combining in one college two distinct depart- ments for instructions in agriculture and me- chanical sciences. I would respectfully recom- mend that a sufficient portion of the proceeds of the next sale of lands for taxes be appropriated to the erection of an institution, which shall stand as a lasting memorial of our munificence, and contribute to the diffusion of intelligence among the producing classes, during all future time Hon. Marshall P. Wilder, of Boston, in advocating this system of education before the Berkshire Agricultural Society of Massachusetts, held that: Fpr want of knowledge, milhons of dollars are now annually lost to the common- wealth by the mis-application of capital and labor industry. On these points we want a sys- tem of experiments directed by scientific linowl- edo-e Are they ngt important to our farmers? Neither the agiicultural papers, periodieals or societies, or any other agents now m operation, are deemed sufficient for all that are desirable: AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 26 We plead that the means and advantages of a professional education should be placed within the reach of our fanners. This would not only be one of the most important steps ever taken by the commonwealth for its permanent ad- vancement and prosperity, out would add another wreath to her renown for the protection of our industry and elevation of her sons. Rev. Dr. Hitchcock, President of Amherst College, while advocating the endowments of such institutions before the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture (1851), testified as follows: I have been a lec- turer on chemistry for twenty years. I have tried a great many experiments in that time, but I do not know of any experiments so delicate or so difficult as the farmer is trying every week. The experiments of the laboratory are not to be compared to them. You have a half dozen sciences which are concerned in the operation of a farm. There is to be a delicate balancing of all these, as every farmer knows. To suppose that a man is going to be able, without any knowledge of these sciences, to make improve- ments in agriculture by hap-hazard experimpnts, is, it seems to me, absurd. A general conven- tion on the subject of a national system of practical university education, was held at Al- bany, January 36, 1853. This convention was numerously attended by some of the most illus- trious men of the country, including many dis- tinguished educators, scientists and divines. A committee of twenty-one was appointed to report a plan of action. Rev. Dr. Kennedy spoke of the want that had long been felt for institu- tions different from those already established. Prof. C. S. Henry insisted that the welfare of our country was, in a great degree, dependent upon what should be done in regard to the pro- posed university. Rev. Ray Palmer said there wafi lack of opportunity for scientific men to perfect themselves in their various pursuits, and desired that this wai^t should be supplied to all parts of the country. Rev. Dr. Wykoff consid- ered that the first desideratum to the establish- ment of the institution was a conviction of its importance. When the souls of men are fired up, the money will not be wanting. He believed that the proper spirit was abroad — a feeling that would redound to the honor and benefit of the people, and that the work would be done. The enterprise was one for the masses. It would open the path of knowledge for all the youth in the land; and, fi'om the common school to the highest university, he would like to see our educational institutions thrown open to all. Prof. Henry said that he would bid the en- terprise God speed I He deprecated the idea of attempting to establish a university at a moderate outlay. One fitted for the wants of this country should throw open its lecture rooms freely, to all who might wish to avail themselves of their advantages. It should be the complete develop- ment of the principle which lies at the founda- tion of our common schools. Rev. JPresident Wayland expressed the belief that such an esta,b- lishment in New York would be an example, ■which, he believed, would be followed in other States. A university with a thousand students ■would abundantly sustain itself, and he thought the needed expense would not be so great as 8ome gentlemen anticipated. Did these gentle- men know anything about the subject of prac- tical education in America? Said the lamented AGRICULTURAL EDUCATIOHf Do-wning, the father of rural art in this comtry,! in the last number which he edited of the Horti- culturist: The leaven for the necessity for edu- cation among the industrial classes begin to work, we are happy to perceive, in many parts of the country. Speaking of the plan of Prof. Turner, he said: It is not often that the weak ^ints of an ordinary collegiate education are so clearly exposed, and the necessity of workingmen's universities so plainly demon- strated. This was in July, 1853. Before the article was published this preeminent master of horticultural art and science was lost in the ill- fated steamer, Henry Clay. An editorial in the North American (the oldest paper in Philadel- phia) on education and agriculture, said to be written by Judge Conrad, said- To secure the diffusion and practical application of agricultural science, it seems necessary that it should be interwoven ■with general education, and its acqui- sition made an object of early pride and animated ambition. The triumph of a republic can^only be successfully achieve.d and permanently en- joyed by a people, the mass of whopi are an enlightened yeomanry, liie proprietors' of the land they till, too independent to be bought, too enlightened to be cheated, and too powerful to be cnished. Said Dr. Lee, the talented editor of tlje Southern Cultivator, the leading monthly periodical of the southern planting interest, published at Augusta, Georgia, in reply to a let- ter inquiring for some practical agricultural school for the sons of the planters (which letter he published as a fair sample of scores of sim- ilar letters ^received every month): Thefe is not a good agricultural school in the United States. The truth is, the American people have yet to commence the study of agriculture as the combination of many sciences. Agriculture is the most profound and extensive profession that the progress of society and the accumulation of knowledge have developed a,mong , mankind. This is why the popular mind is so long in gr^p-. ing it. Whether we Consider the solid earth under our feet, the invisible atmosphere which we breathe, the wonderful growth and decay of all plants and animals, or the light, the heat, the cold, the electricity of heaven — ^we contem- plate but the elements of rural science. The careiul investigation of th^laws that govern all ponderable and unponderable agents is the first step in the young farmer's education. To facili- tate his studies, he needs, as he preeminently deserves, a moi-e comprehensive school than this country now, affords. From the time of the general awakening on the subject of industrial education, the discussion of the subject was kept prominently before the people of, the United States. This eventuated in the introduction of several bills into Congress, most of which fell stiU-born. One of them, however, successfully ran the gauntlet of Congressional opposition, only to be strangled in the very last stages of law making. The following is a brief summary of the matter: On the 14th of December, 1857. a bill was introduced into the House of Repre- sentatives by Hon. Justin S. Morrill, of Ver- mont, who was at that time Chairman of the Committee on Agriculture, to appropriate a por- tion of the public land to the several States fw the purpose of founding colleges for the ad- vancement of agricultural and mechanical edu- cation. Great opposition was manifested to the AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION bill at once, and Instead of being referred to the Committee on Agriculture, where it should legitimately have gone, it was referred to that on Public: Lands. There it was held four months, when the Chairman of that Committee, Mr. Cobb, of Alabama, reported upon it ad- versely. Notwithstanding this, the subject was earnestly discussed by the House, and the bill finally passed by a small majority. The Senate reached it in the winter of 1859, when it was strongly advocated by Senators Wade, Harlan and Stuart, and as determinedly opposed by Senators Davis, Mason and Pugh. Subsequently, it was passed by a majority of two and went to the President, — Mr. Buchanan, — who, with great alacrity, returned it with his veto The same bill was again introduced into the Senate in 1863, by Mr. Wade, was favorably reported by Mr. Harlan, and was passed on the 10th of June, by the decisive vote of thirty-two to seven. Prom thence the bill went to the House, where on the 17th of June, it was passed by the equally deciiive vote of ninety to twenty ive. It was approved by President Lincoln, and on the second day of July became a law. So much has been said and argued by the various minds who .have endeavortd to interpret this law, that it will not be out of place here to give this bill, and the amendment to the fifth section in full, so that every reader of this work may judge for himself what was the true intent and meaning of this act for the education of.the masses to industrial pursuits. The text of me act of Con- gress, donating public lands to the several States and Territories which may provide colleges for the benefit of agriculture and the mechanic arts is as follows . Be If. enarted by the Senate and House of Representa- tives of the United Stales of America, in Congress assem- bled, That there be granted to the several Sitftes, for the purposes hereinafter mentioned, an amount of puhllc, land, to be apportioned to- each State, in quantity equal to 30,000 acres for each Senator and Representative in Congress to which the States are respectively entitled by the apportionment under the census of 18eO: Prodded, That no mineral lands shall be selected or purchased under the provisions of this act. § a. And be it further enacted. That the land aforesaid, after being surveyed, shall be apportioned to the several States in sections or sub-divisions of sections not lees than one quarter of a section; and whenever there are public lands in a State, subject to sale at private entry, at one dollar and twenty-five cents per acre, the quantity to which said State shall be entitled, shall be selected from gnch lauds, within the limits of such state; and the Secretary of the Interior is hereby directed to issue to each of the States, in which there is not the quantity of public lands subject to sale at private entry, at one dollar and twenty-five cents per acre, to which said State may be entitled under the provisions of this act, land scrip to the amoantin acres for the deficiency ofiits distributive share; said scrip to be sold by said States, and the proceeds thereof applied to the uses and purposes prescribed in this act, and for no other use and purpose whatsoever: Provided, That in no case shall any State to which land scrip may thus be issued, be allowed to locate the same withinTthe limits of any other Siate, or of any Territories of the IJnited States ; hut their assignees may thus locate said land scrip, upon &ity of the unappropriated lands of the United States subj ct to sale at pkivate entry, at one dollar and twenty-five cents or less per acre. And pro- iMed,fiirther, That not more than one million acres shall be located by such assignees in any one of the States: And provided, further. That no such locations shall be made before one year from the passage of this act. S 3. And be it further enacted. That all expenses of management, superintendence, and taxes from date of selection of said lands previous to their sales, and all expenses incurred in the management and disbursement of the moneys which may be received therefrom, shall be paid by the States to which they may belong, out of the treasury of said Statesj so that the entire proceeds of the sale of said lands shall be applied, without any iiiminution \rbatever, to the purposes herei'hafter mentioned. 27 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION § 4. And be it further enacted,Th&t all moneys deriveii from the sale of lands aforesaid, by the States to whicti the lands are apportioned, and from the sales of land scrip, hereinbefore provided for, shall be invested in Stocks of the United States, or of the States, or some other safe stocks, yielding not less than five per cent, upon the par- value of said stocks ; and that the money so invested shall constitute a perpetual fund, the capital of which shall remain forever undiminished (except so far as may be- providdd in section fifth of this act), and the interest of which shall be inviolably ^wopriated by each State, which may take and claini4ho benefit of this act, to the- enciowment, support ana maintenance of, at least, one college, where the leadingoojectshallbe— without exclud- ing other scientific and classical studies, and including military tactics— to teach surh branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts, in such man- ner as the legislatures of the States may respectively prescribe, in order to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits- and professions in life. § 5. And be it further enacted, That the grant of land and scrip hereby authorized, shall be made on the follow- ing conditions, to which, laswell as to the provisions here- inbefore contained, the previous assi-nt of the several States shall be signified by legislative acts: First- If any portion of the fund invested, as provided by theforegoing section, or any portion of the interest thereon, shall, by any action or contingency, be dimin- ished or lost, it shall be replaced by the State to which it belongs, so that the capital of the fund shall remain for- - ever undiminished; and the annual interest shall be- regularly applied without diminution to the p\ii-poses. mentioned in the fourth section of this act, except that a sum, not exceeding ten per centum u]>ou the amount received by any State under the provisions of this act,, maybe expended for the purchase of, lands for sites or experimental farms, -whenever authorized by the respec- tive legislatures of said States. Second— No portion of said fund, nor the interest thereon, shall be applied, directly or indirectly, under any pretense whatever, to the purchase, erection, preser- vation' or repair of any building or buildings. Third— Any State which may take and claim the benefit of the provisions of this act, shall provide, within five years, at least not less than one o 'liege, as prescribert in the fourth section of this act, or the grant to such State shall cease; and said State shall be boiinrl to pay the- Uniten States the amount received of any lands previously sold, and that the title to purchasers under the State shall be valid. Fourth— An annual report shall be made regarding the- progress of each college, recording any improvements and experiments made, with their cost'and results, and such other matters, including State industrial and economical statistics, as may be supposed useful ; one copy of which shall be transmitted by mail free, by each, to all the other colleges which may be endowed under the provisions or this act, and also one copy to the Secretary of the Interior. Fifth— Wh'-n lands shall be selected f r om those which have been raised to double the minimum price In con- sequence of railroad grants, they shall be computed to the-States at the maximum price, and the number of acres, proportionally diminished- Sixth— No State, while in a condition of rebellion or insurrection against the government of the United States, shall be entitled to the benefits of this act. Seventh No State shall be entitled to the benefits or - this net, unless it shall express its acct^ptance tht-reof by its legislature within two years from the date of the ap- proval by the President. S 6. And be. it further enacted. That lind scrip issued under the provision of this act, shnll not be subject to location until after the first day of .lanuary, 1863. §'7. Andbeit further enacted. That land officers shall receive the' same fee for loc-iting land scrip issued under the pr -visions of this act, as is now allowed for the location of military bounty land warrants under existing laws: ' Provided, Their maximum compensation shalj not be- thereby increased. § 8. And be it further enacted. That the Governors of the several States to which scrip shall be issued under- this act, shall be required to report annually to Congress all sales made of such scrip until the whole shall be dis- posed of, the amount received for the same, and whal appropriation hns been made of the proceeds. Approved July 2, 1862. An act to amend the fifth section of an act entitled "An act donating public lands to the several States and Territories which may provide- coUeges for the benefit of agriculture and the mechanic arts," approved July two, eighteea hundred and sixty-two, so as to extend the time- AGRICULTURAL EDUqATION 28 Tvithin which the provisions of said act shall be accepted and such colleges established, was also . passed as follows : Be it enacted by, the Senate ana Mouse of Represen- tativee of the United States of Ameriia, in Congress 4Uterrd>led, That the time in which the eeverftl States may comply with the provisions of the act of July two, elght- ■ -een hundred and sixty-two, entitled '*An act donating public lands to the seyeral States and Territories which may provide colleges for the benefit of agricnlture and the meciianic arts-,'* is hereby extended so that the acceptance of the benefits of said act may be expressed within three vears from the passage of this act, and the colleges required by the said act may bn provided within five years from the date of the filing of such acceptance with the com- missioner of the genural land ofiice: Provided^ That when any Territory shall become a State and be admitted into • the Union, such new State shall be entitled to the benefits of the saia act of July two, eighteen hundred and sixty- two, by expressing the acceptance 'therein required within three years from the date of its admission into the Fnion,i and providing the college or colleges within five years after such acceptance, as prescribed in this act: Provided^ jTurther, That any State which has heretofore expressed its acceptance qf the act herein referred to shall have the period of five years within which to provide at least one cdllege, as described in the fourth section of said act, after the time for providing said college, according to the act of Jnlf second, eighteen hundred and sixty-two, sliall have -expired. Approved July 33, 1866. The following table shows the number of acres which should fall to each State under the law, with other facts of value for future reference : AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION Alabama Arkansas ■ California Connecticut Delaware Morida i Georgia Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucl^y liOnisIana Uaine Maryland ... Massachusetts. . Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Nebraska . .... Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New York North Carolina . <)hio Oregon Pennsylvania . . . Acres, in scrip. Designation and location of Colleges. 340.000 150.000 150,000 180,000 90,000 9l],000 270,000 480,000 390.000 240,000 90,000 330,000 310.000 210,000 210,000 360,000 240,000 120,000 210.000 830,000 90.000 90,000 150,000 210,000 990.000 270,000 680,000 , 90,000 780,000 Agricultural, Mining and Mechanic Arts College. Sheffield SciBntiflc School at Yalte College, New Hayen. Delaware State -College, Newark. Illinois, Industrial Univer- sity, Urbana, Champaign county. - , Indiana Agricultural College. State Agricultural College 'and Farm, Ames, Story . county. State Agricultural College, Manhattan. Agricultural and Mechanical College (Kentucky Univer- sity), Lexington . State College of Agricult- ' nral and Mechanical Arts, Orono. State Agricultural College, Hyattsville. Massachuseits Institute "of Technology, Boston. Massachusetts Agricultural College, Amherst. State Agricultural College, Lansing. Agricultural College of Min- ' ne^ora, with State Univer- sity, St. Paul. New Hampshire College of Ajrriculture (Dartmouth College), Hanover. Rutgers' Scientific School and Rutgers' College, New Brunswick. ' , Corneil/UnivorBlty, Ithaca. ■> Agricultural College of Penn- sylvania, Center county. Stste. Acres in scrip. Designation and location of Colleges. Rhode Island South Carolina... Teimessee 120,000 180,000 300,000 180,000 160,000 300,000 150,000 240,000 Sci»ntiflc Sch"oI of Brown University, Providence. University of Vermont and Virginia State Agricultural College, Burlington. West Virginia.... Wisconsin Agricultural College of West Virginia, Morgantown. , University of Wisconsin (College of Arts), Madison. Total 9,510,000 The schools thus endowed by Congress, and accepting the grant, have now gone into more or less successful operation. Among those most notably so, the pioneer school, which has given to some of the newer colleges .professors who have already attained eminence in scientific agiicult- ural investigation, may be noticed the Agficult- tural College of Michigan, which college, working singly an(f constantly in the interest of agri- cultural education, now leads in real utility Aany later and more pretentious ones which have tried to set a "full table," and spread their energies over the fHfhole ocean of literature, science and art. Other western colleges which are not attached as a part of other colleges and which have done constant good work, are those of Iowa and Kan- sas. The Industrial University of Illinois, in its early attempts to cover too much ground in the direction of general literature, allowed agriculture and mechanics to take a second place in >the studies. Of late years, under the persistent lashings of the press and the voice of thepeople,it has done better work; under the liber- ality of the State, in the erection of masterful build- ings and the appropriations for apparatus, it may nowbesaid to take rank in its scope and aim witli any in the country. Especially so during the year 1880, under the management of the new regent. To continue to do so all these colleges should bear'constantly in mind that experiment is the key to all agricultural knowledge. The profess- ors inust be men of more than ordinary attain- ments in science, since agriculttire is founded upon all science, or rather includes in its scope something of all science. Thus these professors have not one or two, but- all the sciences to deal with. It is their province to investigate as well as teach. They must educate in the fields as well as in the lecture hall and the laboratory. If this combination can not be f6und, then the working professor must take the students just where the theoretical professor left them, for the farm is the field where problems propounded in the lecture room or study must be worked out The soil is nature's great laboratory, where the elements are formed into grass, timber, grain, vegetables, fruits, flberg and flowers. So, also, the animals of the farm are laboraViries for the conversion of graSs, grain, vegetables, -etc., into flesh for the sustenance of man. All growth consists primarily of chemical changes and transformations, which result in elaborating from the elements, through the me- dium of the soil, all the varied and wonderful vegetable wealth that clothes the earth, from the minute lichen upon the bare rock to the giant monarch of the forest, which slowly accumulates its structure through decades of centuries. The AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 29 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATIOtST farmer assists nature in these transformations by such mechanical means as lie may be able to em- ploy. Scientific agriculture should go still fur- ther. It should teach why certain conditions were necessary and how produced. This is what makes the difference between the farmer and agriculturist. The farmer knows how, by me- chanical effort, under favorable influences, he may'produce crops. The ^agriculturist seeks to know why certain causes produce favorable or unfavorable results, in order that he may in- crease the one or guard against the other. This knowledge has made a Colling, a Bakewell, a Buel, a Downing, and many other self-educated , men. They, however, bear no greater propor- tion to the masses than the great oak does to the various trees of the forest. We need this class of minds in our agricultural colleges, to develop the practical application of science to agriculture. The agriculturist wants to know something of many things, but it is folly to suppose that, in or four years. The knowledge in the various, sciences pertaining to agriculture should be con- densed, so that flie student expecting soon to- return to the farm might work directly towards the end sought; while his "chum," who is aiming to- make scientific pursuits his profession for life, either as a teacher or writer, might climb and explore science after science at will. The farmer, of course, though -less profoundly versed in mere technics, might still keep pace with the new dis- coveries in his profession by a judicious system of reading. The ordinary farmer is not able to give his children more than one, two or three years of scientific education. In this time the student should acquire a knowledge of the nature and composition of soils, and of the economy of animal and vegetable life ; should investi- gate the effects produced upon soils by mechan- ical means, such as deep and shallow, trench and sub-soil plowing ; should study the benefits, of thorough drainage and other methods of work- KANSA3 AQHICOLTnBiL COLLIIQB AT MANHATTAlf. order to acquire this certain knowledge, he must follow out the science relating to a coordinate study in its ihost abstruse bearings or minuter details. A single example ,will illustrate our meaning. Of the commoner insects there are between two hun- dred and three hundred varieties^ noxious or bene- ficial to vegetation. The farmer should Be con- versant with these, and should learn their history and habits — the means for the destruction of the first and the manner of increasing and protect- ing the second, etc. Under the old system, the student must learn all about the infinite orders, families and sub-families that compose insect life, in order to acquire what he wants. To follow out this idea, life would be too short to get even a smattering of agriculture, and hence the disre- pute into which the system has fallen. If, on the other hand, those insects, destructive or beneficial to vegetation, were thoroughly classified, and their history and habits presentejd as far as Imown, with natural specimens properly ar- ranged in cases, the student would soon acquire a correct knowledge of all that would be neces- sary for him to know of entomology. Similar principles should govern the other sciences — at least in the case of the student of two, three ing the soil; should master the principles of a. proper rotation of crops; should store his mind with information relative to the application of special manurfes adapted to certain crops, and the like practical details, etc. The agricultural student should also understand something of the formation and nature of soils, and the chemical changes they undergo cfther than from mechan- ical disintegration. He should know precisely the action of certain manures, their effects upon va4ous soils, either as a top dressing or plowed under. He should understand just where and when fall or spring plowing, or both, would be most beneficial. He should acquaint him- self with the various and 'best manner of sheltering and feeding stock and fitting them for market; not in ten thousand dollar barns and stables, but practically. He should also, become well versed in the adaptation of farm ' animals to the uses required; to sheltering and fitting them for market; and with farm structures, fences and fencing materials. In vegetable economy the student should - under- stand as much as possible of the nature and growth of plants; their botanical characteristics, including variation and varieties; the adaptability AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 30 AILANTHU8 •of various plants to certain climates, Tvith the proper means of tlieir acclimatization, etc. He should study entomology, so far as it concerns insects beneficial or injurious to, vegetation, and mineralogy and geology so far as they relate to soil. So with other subjects. The student should pursue them to the bounds within which they pertain to his profession, but no further than this, if he wishes to put to practical every-day use on the farm simply the knowledge he has ■acquired. The education of girls should differ from that of boys in its practical bearing. This is really one of the most vital questions of the •day. Girls should bo educated with reference to their duties as wiyen and mothers as well as to the economy of th6' household. Thejf should be well versed in pomology, floriculture; bee-keep- ing, the care of poultry, and other light and suit- •able branches of agriculture. They should un- iierstand the chemical and other changes which milk undergoes during its manufacture into but- ter and cheese. They should understand struc- tural botany, vegetable physiology^ and the vari- •ous other studies that would enable them in after life to become true counselors and partners in all that pqrtains to farm life. Let us examine this point in some of its bearings. How many f arm- •ers are there who know the power which water has exerted in the earth's history, and still exerts upon the farm every day ? that by its action all ■our stratified rocks were formed ? that to its sol- vent power and chemical action we owe our use- ful minerals and our nietallic deposits ? that it is the great mechanical power in nature ? that it lias moved mountains and filled valleys through its glacial action ? or that through its agency our most fertile soils have' been deposited over vast areas ! Again, how many know that the sun is the real,' movmg life-power upon the earth, and that through the action.of its rays upon water we liave dew, clouds, fOgs, rain, snow and frost? How many know that the crystalline rocks at the •earth's surface contain a greater quantity of water than all thp seas and rivers of the globe ; that if the conditions surrounding us should change so that the earth would absorb only one part in four thousand of water, more than it now con- tains, the ocean would disappear, and -yve should lose not only our moisture, but the atmosphere itself? How many comprehend that it is the sun, after all, which is the great master power that moves all on earth, water being only|the agent ? Now, the student in agriculture should understand, for instance, how the agency of water is exerted for the benefit of the farmer ; but it is Dot necessary that he should know every thing -which science teaches about water in all its forms ^nd phases. Life is too short for such all-em- Tsracing; investigations. Nature's silent opera- tions on the farm are a succession pf miracles, "until Tve understand the laws by which she works. Then they become to our wondering minds as simple as they are beautiful, even in their vastness and complexity. The number of tons of water raised by an acre of corn, during its summer growth, is simply marvelous. How many farmers understand the process by which it is .accomplished, or can realize the immense ■measure of force and energy expended by nature in producing his twenty to fifty bushels of corn per acre 1 How niany appreciate the important fact that it is m his power to assist nature in ^economizing a portion of this vast force, by ena- bling her to produce ten, twenty, thirty busheta more of grain per acre than his land now yields? Hardly one in a thousand , and why ? Bimplj because they have never been educated to their calling— have never been taught to use their senses aright ; to store- their minds with useful, expansive knowledge ; or to reason from cause to effect, and from effect back to cause. It is this knowing something of many things that makes the practical man ; the knowing all about some one or two special things, the scholar. This knowledge, as gray hairs grow, comes slowly to a thinking man. What we want is to hasten the ripening of this practical kijowledge among the masses, through schools especially devoted to the departments of science relating to agriculture and other pursuits. A man may be a good chemist and botanirt; may understand the anatomy and structure of animals, with their diseases and the remedies necessary to their cure; may under- stand the nature and composition of soils — all these without being a farmer; nevertheless, if a farmer, he can not have studied the several branches in their bearing upon agriculture with- out being a much better one therefor. After- ward, if he chooses to make a specialty of any one of the sciences, what should hinder ? He has the foundation to work on, if he so desire. On the other hand, those whose means might allow them to spend a longer time would necessarily want a different curriculum. To the one class of stu- dents the classics would not be beneficial ; to the other they would be necessary, as enabling them to pursue their higher studies more surely. The ground work of all education is begun in our common schools. From these the student should go to our colleges for special education, and should have a definite idea of what he or she wants. The agricultural college must commence jiist where the other schools leave off, and carry the student forward in such of the sciences as will apply to his case. First of all, however, he must come to understand that labor, of whatso- ever kind it may be, is always honorable, and none more ennobling to the man of broad mind than agriculture. With this he must come to know that education to this industry will place him far in advance of the one who practices hus- bandry as a mere manual art. AGRIONIDjE The family of insects called dragon flies. lAbellulo,, Agnon AGRONOMY. The cultivation of land; agri- culture AGROSTIS. The genus of bent grasses, found growing mostly in moist places, and flower- ing late. They are generally perennial plants, with creeping roots, many of them being difiicult to exterminate. The variety in most common cultivation in the United States and Canada is red- top, A. vulgaris. (See Grasses.) AIGRETTE. The down or pappus of the seeds of compositse. AIIaNTHUS. The Ailanthus, when first introduced into the United States, many years ago, under the various names of, Tree of Heaven, Chinese Sumac. Tillow and Tallow Tree, was advertised as possessing so many admirable qual- ities that many were induced to plant it. North and South, only to be disgusted ■with the odor of the staminate flowers. This offensive odor may be prevented, in a measure, bv cutting away the staminate trees after they once have bloomed. North of the latitude of 40° the tree is not AIR, GROWTH OF CROPS entirely hardy, and Anywhere it can not be consid- ered a tree of special value for extensive planting. AILANTHUS WLANDULOSA, or glandu lous ailanthus, has the calyx flve-toothed ; petals five, inserted with the ten stamens under a hypogy- nousdisk: carpels three to five, samaroid, tumid in the centre, one-celled and one-seeded. Stigmas capitate, radiatelyflve-lobed. Flowers dioeciously polygamous. The leaves are odd pinnate; leaf- lets oblong — lanceolate, acuminate, coarsely den- tate at base, with a gland on the under side of each tooth. Darlington, in Weeds and Useful Plants, saysof it: Stem, thirty to sixty feet or more high, much branched; young branches never multiply- ing during growth, but developed only from the , buds of the preceding year. Leaves (6n young trees especially) much elongated and consisting of many_ pairs (fifteen to twenty) of smooth leaf- lets, which are three to five inches in length and entire, except a pair or two of coarse teeth at base. Flowers pale greenish yellow. Cultivated as a shade tree, and native of China. AIU. (See Atmosphere.) AIR A. The genus of hair grasses. They are perennial, usually grown in wet places, and are of little moment in agriculture.' AIR, AND THE GROWTH OF CROPS. The importance of air as an agent in the growlh of crops is but little known by the majority of farmers. The action of the oxygen of the air in connection with heat and moisture causes the seed to germinate, and during the whole growth of the plant, air is essential to growth and the \ proper ripening of the seed. For this reason the ground is required to be kept mellow; for this reason we cultivate often and thoroughly, and to enable the soil to become aerated, we break the . crust as often As it is formed. As showing the importance of air in the soil, a series of experi- ments made some years ago exhibits the agency of air and carbonic acid gas in the growth of «rop3. These experiments were made with three glass vessels, in depth two and a half feet, which were filled with soil of a like character, and planted in' oats and peas. They grew 110 days, and then the plants, with their roots, were taken out and dried and their ashes analyzed, and the soluble mineral substances ascertained that were left in the soil. In one of these vessels no air was introduced ; in another, it was by a" hole in the bottom -of the vessel; and in the third one, air and carbonic gas by the same means. The result is as follows, the estimates being made for the acre. Experiment without additional sup- ply of air — quantity of dry plants, in pounds, per acre — oat plants, 1,560; pea plants, 688; roots of both, 108. Soluble mineral substances, in pounds, per acre — ^in the ashes of the plants, 208: left in ' the soil, 608. Experiment with supply of air — quantity of dry plants, in pounds, per acre — oat plants, 3,060; pea plants, 984; roots of both,153. Soluble mineral substances, in pounds, per acre — in the ashes of the plants, 380; left in the soil, 1,104. Experiment with supply of air and car- bonic gas— <[uantity of dry plants, in pounds, per acre— oat plants, 3,396; pea plants, 1,304; roots of both, 240. Soluble mineral substances, in pounds, per acre — in ashes of plants, 448; left in the soil, 1,548. These experiments exhibit the important action of air and,carbomie gas in the gi-owth of vegetable matter. The first increased the plants in size about eighty per cent. ; the min- eral substances in the plants about eighty per 31 ALBUMEN cent, and the soluble minerals left in the soil about eighty per cent. The carbonic gas in- creased the growth of plants over that caused by air alone about thirty per cent. ; the mineral sub- stances absorbed by the plant thirty -five per cent., and the soluble minerals left in the soil about sev- enty-five per cent. The element of the air which causes such important action is its oxygen. It is the great destroyer either by rapid burning or by slow decay. It is this which, uniting with the wood of -plants, turns it into carbonic gas. It aids in rendering soluble the insoluble minerals of the soil; that is, it so changes them that they dis- solve in water and are carried by it into the roots of the plants. Hence it is the great destroyer of the mould of the soil, as before stated, turning it into carbonic gas, and thus making it useful to form new vegetable growths. By returning these to the soil we increase the amount of the mould, for in addition to the amount of carbonic gas they have derived from the old mould, they have received much from the atmosphere. AIR CELLS* In plants, enlarged cavities in the cellular tissue, to produce buoyancy in aquatic plants. In birds, membranous cavities communicatiiig with the lungs, and traversing all parts of the bird, even to the interior of the bones and quills. In some insects the air vessels are enlarged into cells. AIR PLANTS. Those which grow without striking their roots into the soil. They usually derive sustenance from other plants. Orchids are air plants. AIR PUMP. A pump for removing air to produce a vacuum. The principle is simple. The essential part of the machine consists of an exhausting syringe formed of a tube or barrel of brass, closed at one end, with the exception of a small orifice, to which a valve, opening inward, is attached . An air-tight piston is worked in the barrel. The piston has also an orifice with a valve, which opens upward, or in the same di- rection as the valve of the tube. The syringe communicates, by means of a small pipe fitted into the opening at its lower extremity, with a vessel (receiver) from which the air is to be ex- tracted. The principle is applied wherever a vacuum is to be produced. In agriculture the air-pump is used as a portion of the machinery attached to the vaccuum pan in condensing the juice of the cane or other saccharine plants, in the manufacture of sugar. ALBUMEN. A substance occurring in the blood and nerves of animals, in the eggs of birds, and in grains and vegetables, in almost exactly identical composition. These we give, and also that of fibrin and casein, as follows'; Albumen dif- fers from fat in its composition, having the four elements— carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen — while fat contains but three. All the organs of the bodies of animals contain these four elements, and food must necessarily contain them to be nutritious. We find the carbonaceous foods to be fat-producing or heat-giving. The nutritious foods containing the four elements are called nitrogenous or flesh-forming foods. They are all included in the three forms, albumen,, fibrin and casein, which contain the four elements in nearly the same proportions. When we consider that albumen, or at least the group of which it is a member, is one of the constituents of food with- out which young animals can not thrive, that it is a chief constituent of the eggs of birds, and of AI.BXIMEN , 33 the milk of animals, wo shall see the importance and necessity of food containing largely of the so- called protein compounds, especially for young and growing animals. Boussingault gives the results of analysis performed by Messrs. Dumas and Cahours to prove this fact, as follows: ALBUMEN Name. Animal. Vegetable. 53.5 7.1 23.6 15.8 53.7 7.1 2,3.5 15.7 100.0 100.0 Fibrin is the principal element of which the mus- cles of animals are formed ; it also forms the clot and globules in blood. Like albumen, fibrin is found in vegetables in nearly Identical composi- tion with that of animals. Analysis shows: Name. Carbon . . Hydrogen Oxygen . . Nitrogen. Animal. Vegetable. B2.8 53 2 7.0 7.0 23.7 23.4 IB.S 16.4 Casein is found in the milk of mammals, and is identical with that called legumen, of the legu- minous seeds, such as beans, peas, etc., in which it exists more abundantly than in milk itself. Analysis shows the composition of the animal and vegetable casein to be also nearly identical: r.4«lEIN. Name. Animal. Vegetable. 58.5 7.0 28.7 15.8 53. B Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen 7.1 2.3.4 16.0 1 100.0 100.0 Again, we see that the composition of albumen, fibrin and casein, is nearly similar, and that they contain a large percentage of that important and scarce element in agriculture, as well as neces- sary constituents in all plants and animals. Al- bumen abounds in bone, muscle, the mem- brane of shells, sponges and cartilage, the nails, claws, horns and hoofs. The horns of ani- mals are almost entirely composed of it. Albu- men is found in the fluid state in the serum of blood and the whites of eggs. In the moist state it easily putrefies in the presence of heat and air and coagulates at about 180° Fahrenheit. Dry, it is a transparent, brittle substance, resist- ing decay. Many plants contain notable quanti- ties of albumen, and the juice of all plants con- tain more or less, being found in all their parts as necessary to growth. The accumulation ends in the seeds, the cereal and leguminous grains being especially rich in albumen. Besides car- bon, oxygen and hydrogen, albumen contains from fifteen to eighteen per cent, of nitrogen, a fimall quantity of sulphur, and sometimes phos- ALCOHOL phorus The albuminoids are both soluble and insoluble in water. The insoluble albuminoids sometimes occur in both plants and animals. When purified it resembles white, flocky, lumpy or fibrous bodies, without taste or odor. 4.LBURNUM:. The sap wood lying between the inner bark and heart wood (Duramen). It is usually of a different color, and much more per- ishable than the heart wood. ALCOHOL. Spirits of wine. It is foi-med during the vinous fermentation. The pure spirit has a specific gravity of 0.792, and consists, chemically, of Ci, He, Oa. It is present in brandy, whisky and strong spirits, to the extent of fifty per cent. , twenty-five per cent, in strong wines, ten per cent, in cider and ales, and six per cent, in beer. It is of great use in the laboratory as a solvent of resins, etc., and for the hot flames it produces when burned in lamps. The history of alcohol is as follows: Alcohol is the name first given by the alchemists to the liquid obtained by fhe distillation of wine, beer and other fermented spirits. These seem to have been known in the earliest ages. Noah, who planted a vineyard, drank wine, and the heathen writers deemed the invention worthy of being ascribed to their greatest kings and heroes. Beer, there is little doubt, was invented by the Egyptians. They certainly used it in the days of Herodotus. The Germans drank it extensively when Tacitus wrote. These were probably the purest varieties of alcohol then generally made, although they were known in the dark ages, and it is probable have been employed in the north of Europe from a very remote period. The process, however, of separating the impure alcohol from these is very easy; upon subjecting the wine or "wash" to a moderate heat, the spirit arises, and is easily collected in a worm surrounded by cool water. It is in this way that gin is procured from the distillation of fermented barley or other grain, rum from mohisses, brandy from wine. It must not be supposed, however, that the product of these distillations is pure alcohol, for even the strongest brandy contains between forty and fifty per cent, of water. T he first who procured alcohol in a state of tolerable purity is supposed to have been Arnold, of Villa Nova, a celebrated alchemist of the fourteenth century. When impure alcohol is concentrated by repeated dis- tillations, and by mixing it with some salt, like the salt of tartar, that has a strong attraction for water, it gradually parts with a considerable por- tion of its water and becomes reduced in specific gravity to about 0.820; that of commerce, however, is rarely of less specific gravity than 0.8371. At the greatest strength, however, at which it has been observed, such as that of 792, which M. Lowitz obtained by repeatedly distilling rectified spirits from potash, it pos- sesses the following properties: it is transparent, colorless, of a strong, agreeable, penetrating taste, and produces, when swallowed, intoxica- tion. It does not freeze, even by exposure to the most intense cold; it is very volatile, boiling at 176° of Fahrenheit, and in a vacuum at 56°. It unites with water in all proportions, and is entirely combustible — burning without leaving any residuum. It is, however, not found in commerce pure, since the cost of making it chemically so is too expensive. Hence it is never found pure, except when wanted for special scientific purposes. Alcohol, according ALDERNEY CATTLE to the analysis of M. Saussure, is composed as follows : Hydrogen isTO Carbon 51.98 0==ygen 3432 100.00 The foUoying table will show the ordinary pro- portion of alcohol per cent, by measure in various fluids, according to the experiments of Prof. Brande : Port 12.(0 Madeira 19.34 Sherry 18.25 Claret 18.91 Lisbon -. 18.S4 Malaga 17:38 Red MHdeira 18.40 Malmsly Madeira 16.40 Red Dbampagne 1 1 .10 White Champagne 13.B0 Burgundy 14.53 Hock lt.37 Yin de Grave 13.80 FroiltiEtnac 12.79 Coti-Eoti 12.33 Soussillon 17.26 CapeMudeira 18.11 Cape Muschat 18.25 Oonstantia 17.75 Tent 13.30 Bheraz '. 16.6a Syracuse 15.28 Nice 14.ii3 Tokay ;, 9.88 Raisin 23.77 Grape I8.11 Currant , .20.05 Gooseberry ; 11 .84 Eider 9.87 Cider 9.87 Perry.' 9.87 Brown Stout 6.80 Ale 8.88 Brandy ....63.39 Rum 63.(i8 Hollands or Gin ..51.60 The spirits distilled from different fermented liquors, says Davy, differ in their flavor, for peculiar odorous matters or oils rise in most cases with '.the alcohol. The spirit from malt usually has an empyreumatic taste, like that of oil formed by the distillation of vegetable sub- stances The best brandies seeni to owe their flavor to a peculiar oily matter, formed probably by the action of tartaric acid upon alcohol ; and rum flfirives its characteristic taste from a prin- ciple in the sugar cane. The cogniac brandies contain prussic acid. ALDER. Shrubs of the genus AlnuB, which is closely allied to the birch. The common swamp alder is the A. surrulata. The A. glauca (Black Alder) is used by dyers for the production of a black. ALDERNEY CATTLE. Jersey or channel cattle, are natives of the islands belonging to England, lying in the British channel about twelve miles from France. , Th6 largest of the group (Jersey) is about twelve miles long by five m , breadth, and here the largest number and the best of these distinctive and excellent milk- ing cows — if we consider them purely for the richness of the milk in cream and butter — are now produced. Hence they are now generally known as Jerseys. Of late years strict attention to purity of blood and careful selection have rend- ered this breed of cattle quite uniform in their characteristics, and in breeding to type, although one may infer that up to Yonatt's time little attention was paid to thqir breeding, since this careful writer bestows but little space upon their history. Briefly stated, they were carried to the channel islands long ago from Nomaandy, in France, and in the course of time developed into the peculiar and deer-like race which is now most perfectly fixed. Mr. Louis F. Allen, a careful, usually correct, and a conscientious wri- ter, though apt to form a standard from his favorite Short'horns, describes them with accu- racy as follows: Beginning with the head — the most characteristic feature — the muzzle is fine; the nose either dark brown or black, and occa- sionally a yellowish shade, with a peculiar mealy, light-colored hair, running up the face into, a smoky hue, when it gradually takes the 33 ALDERNEY CATTLE general color of the body; the face is slightly dishing, clean of flesh, mild and gentle in expression; the eye clear and full, and encircled with a distinct ring of the color of the nosfi; the forehead bold; the 'horn short, curving inward, and waxy in color, with black tips; the ear sizable, thin, and quick in movement. The whole head is original, and blood-like in appear- ance, — more so than in almost any other of the cattle race, — reminding one strongly of the head, of 9ur American elk. The neck is pomewhat depressed — wduld be called ewe-necked by some —but clean in the throat, with moderate or little dewlap; the shoulders are wide and somewhat ragged, with prominent points, running down to a delicate arm, and slender legs beneath; the fore-quarters stand rather close together, with a thinnish, yet well developed brislcet between; the ribs are flat, yet giving suflicient play for good lungs; the back depressed and somewhat hoUow: the belly deep and large; the hips tolera- bly wide; the rump and tail high; the loin and quarter medium in length; the thigh thin and deep; the twist wide, to accommodate a clea,n, good-sized udder; the flanks medium: the hocks or gambrel joints brooked; ihc- hind legf small; the udder capacious, square, set well forward, and covered with soft, silky hair; the teats fine, standing well apart and nicely tapering; the milk veins prominent. On the whole she is a homely, blood-like, gentle, useful little housekeeping body, with a most kindly temper, loving to be petted, and, like the pony with the children, readily becomes a great favorite with those who have her about them, either in pasture, paddock, stable or the lawn. The colors are usually light red or fawn, occasionally smoky grey, and sometimes black, mixed or splashed more or less with white. Roan colors, and a more rounded form, are now and then seen among them, but we do not like them (as they savor of a Short-horn cross, which they should not have), as anything but their own blood and figure, and that of the ancient stock, deteriorates them — as Aldemeys. , The first importation of Jerseys into the United States is said to have been made by the late Nicholas Biddle, of Penn- sylvania. They were coarse, and were probably nearer Guernseys than Aldemeys or Jerseys. Later, Mr. Roswell Colt, of New Jersey, imported a superior herd Mr Motley, of Massachusetts, and Mr. Taintor, of Connecticut, also imported superior animals soon after. Subsequent impor- tations of the choicest blood have rendered this breed quite common, and they are pretty gen- erally disseminated throughout the United States. Various attempts have been made in crossing the Jersey with other improved breeds, but the results have always proved unsatisfactory. When crossed, however, upon the native mixed stock of the country, it has always resulted in an increase in the richness of the milk, and often in an increased flow. The colors vary much in the Jerseys. Fawn color, fawn color and white, yel- low, mouse color, brown, and even almost black are found The bulls are darker than the cows, and the color increases with age A yellow or fawn-colored calf will sometimes, at one or two years of age, assume so dark a tint as to leave scarcely a trace of the lighter color. The butter from the cows is very rich in cream and deep yellow in color, so much so that a few cows in a herd will decidedly change the color of the ALKALI butter of the whole herd. The percentage of cream to milk varies from eighteen to twenty- five per cent., and the proportion of butter to cream varies from 3.70 to 8.07 in 100 parts Twenty-six quarts per day has been recorded as the product of an individual cow, and fourteen pounds of butter per week. Sixteen quarts per •day may be regarded as a good yield, and when we take into consideration the light weight of the cow, and, the fact that the milk will yield from one-quarter to one-sixth of the richest cream, we need not wonder that these gentle and •depr-like cattle have become universal favorites as a family cow. (See cut, opposite page.) ALE-HOOF. Ground ivy ^ ' ALEMB i C. A retort with a movable cover or cap, used in chemical manipulations. ALEXANDERS. An umbelliferous plant formerly cultivated like celery. . ALFALFA. Lucerne ; Medmago 8atwa'. Un- ider the name Alfalfa this plant has been exten- sively cultivated in some portions of the United States, especially in California, where it consti- tutes one of the important forage, crops. It is especially adapted to a dry, gravelly soil, and ■once established, survives the winter up to the latitude of Central Indiana and Illinois, Northern Missouri and Southern Iowa. It is strictly a per- ennial plant. It is also widely known by its French narne. Lucerne. Its Spanish name is Alfalfa, and having been originally introduced and Cultivated by the Spaniards, in their posses- sions—since ceded to the United States— it has popularly preserved this name with'us. It be- longs to. the pulse family, and is allied to the clovers, which it somewhat resembles in its ^owth. The seed, however, is formed in spiral- shaped pods. In Northern Mexico, Texas, and in California, it is suc- cessfully cultivated, being cut sev- eral times in a season. Its botanical description is as follows: Root, perennial; stem one and two feet high, branched, smoothish; leaflets half an inch to an inch long, the lateral ones subsessile, the terminal one petiolulate ; common petiole one- fourth to three-fourths of an inch long. Racemes erect, on peduncles half an inch to an inch long. Corolla, violet purple, nearly twice as long as the calyx. Introduced; cultivated. Native of Spain. Flow- ers in June and July; fruits in August. Saint foin {Hedysarum OnobrycMs, L., or Onobryehis iatma. Lam., a plant of the Hedysarum tribe), is cultivated for^ fodder on the calcareous soils of Eurppe. (See Lucerne.) ALG-jE. The family of sea- weeds and fresh- water weeds {Confervm) They are cellular and cryptogamic. ALIMENTARY CANAL. The passage from the mouth through the stomach and intestines. ALITRUNCK, ALITRUNCUS. In ento mology, the posterior segment of the thorax of an. insect to which the abdomen is affixed, and which bears the legs, prcjperly so called, or the two posterior pairs, and the wings. ALKALI. A term originally applied to the ashes of plants. The term is now generally used to designate potash, soda, and ammonia. Lime and magnesia are alkali-earths. Potassium, so- dium, lithium and, rubidium are alkali metals. The alkali-earths, lime and magnesia, are formed 35 ALLUVIUM SEED POD OP LUCERNE. by the union of calcium and magnesium with oxygen. According to Heyne and Lenk, the functions of alkalies and alkali-earth is as fol- lows: The organic /acids, viz.: oxalic, malic, tartaric, citric, etc. .'require alkalies and alkali- earthg to form the salts which exist in plants, as bitartrate of potash in the grape, oxalate of lime in beet-leaves, malate of lime in tobacco; and without these bases it is, perhaps, in most cases impossible for the acids to" be formed, though in the orange and lemon citric acid exists in the uncombined or free state, and in various plants, as SmD/parvivam arborevm, and CacaMa ficoides, acids are formed during tJie-night which disappear in the day. The leaves of these plants are sour in the morning, tasteless at noon, and bitter at night Alkaloids are a class of bodies very numerous in poisonous and medicinal plants, of which they constitute the active prin- ciple. Nicotine, caffein and theo-brorain are the three having an agricultural interest, and are described by Johnston in How Crops Grow, as follows, the figures attached to the letters C, H, N, O, designating the relative proportion con- tained of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxy- gen: Nicotine, Cio, Hu, Nj, is the narcotic and extremely poisonous principle in tobacco, where it exists in combination with malic and citric acids. In the pure state it is a colorless, oily liquid, having the odor of tobacco in an extreme degree. It is inflammable and volatile, and so deadly that a Single drop will kill a large dog. French tobacco contains 7 or 8 per cent., Virginia 6 or 7 per cent., and Maiyland and Ha- vana about 2 per cent, of nicotine. Nicotine contains 17.3 per cent, of nitrogen, but no oxygen. Caffein, Cg, Hio, N4, O-j, exists in coffee and tea, combined with tannic acid. In the pure state it forms white', silky, fibrous crys- tals, and has a bittisr taste. In coffee, it is found to the. extent of one-half per cent. ; in tea it oc- curs in much larger quantity, sometimes as high as 6 per cent. Theo-bromin, Ct, Hj, N4, Oi, resembles caffein in its characters, and is closely related to it in chemical composition. It is found in the cocoa bean, from which chocolate is manufactured. The alka,loids are remarkable as containing nitrogen, and from having strongly basic characters. They derive their designation, alkaloidfe, from their likepess to the alkalies. ALKALIMETER. A graduated glass tube employed in determining the quantity of' real alkali in commercial potash and soda, by the quantity of dilute sulphuric acid of a known strength, which a certain weight of these satu- rates. ' ALKANET. Anchusa tineloria. The root of this plant, which is a native of the warmer parts of Europe, contains a red resinous coloring mat- ter, which it imparts to alcohol and oils; it is used to tinge some ointments, especially lip- salves, of a red color. ALLANTOIS. A membrane attached to the extrernity of the alimentary canal in the foetus of animals. It contains the cellantoic fluid. ALLUVIUM, or ALLUVION. A term which, in the English language, has no very defined meaning. Some authors use it to designate all those fopks which have been formed by causes now acting on the surface of the earth, including those of Volcanic origin; while others, adhering to the literal meaning of the original term, con- fine its application to ^eposits, whatever be their AXLUVIUM 36 character, that have resulted from inundations. Neither of these definitions convey the same meaning as is usually attached to the word, the one including tijo much, the other too little. The term is now used in its proper application to designate all those deposits recently formed, or now forming, by the agency of water, whether from an uninterrupted and constant stream, or from casual inundations. All streams, lakes, rivers, seas, and the ocean itself, hold a large quantity of earthly matter in mechanical solu- tion, which they deposit in their beds. The character of the sediment is governed by the na- ture of the tocks over which the waters flow; and the quantity depends partly upon the constitution of the roo$:s, and partly upon the power of the water. If the rock be easily destroyed, and a large body of water flow over it with a considerable velo- city, the destructive effect will be great, and much worn materials (detritus) being formed, the stream will have a thick arid turbid appearance. The same effect is frequently produced by the discharge of a number of tributary streams into a river, all of which accumulate a greater or less quantity of the eai-ths over which they flow. The distribution of water at the present time, more particularly ref ering to rivers, is very differ- ent from that of former periods. The majority of the valleys through which rivers are nbw flow- ing, have been produced by the action of water. which, running rfrom higher lands, has not only scooped them out, but has spread over them the worn material which it accumulates in its pas- sage. By the operations which have since been gomg on, the waters have been collected to- gether in comparatively narrow channels of con- siderable permanency. On this account, the influence of Wjater that flows over the portions of the earth inhai)ited, by terrestrial animals iB greatly restricted; and the production of new beds of rock or soil is rather an accidental than a necessary Consequepce. But, although the influ- ence of water has been thus confined, all lands, and especially the surfaces of mountainous dis- tricts, are undergoing change; and the superficial covering on one district is conveyed to another. The showers of heaven are constantly sweeping away the soil and decomposed rocks pf the up- lands into the valleys, over which they 9,re trans- ported by streains and rivers, the larger and heavier particles falling to^he bottom, the smaller being united with the water in mechanical mix- ture. That portion of earthy matter which is carried away from a district by the running water is, as far as the district itself is concerned, the most valuable, being the superficial covering or soil, and would be forever lost to that portion' of the earth inhabited- by man, were it not arrested in its passage to the ocean, by deposition in the bed of the river, or on those lands which the waters may happen to overflow. It is well known to those who have visited elevated dis- tricts, that many mountains are already deprived of their soils, and are but the skeletons of the earth, without covering or life. By this action the val- leys are in the process of elevation, and the mount- ■ ains of depression; and if we could conceive it to Ijroceed without limitation, we may imagine a time when all the varieties of elevation and depreseiion, whicH now give beauty to the sur- face, will be desti'oyed, and an entirely different condition or the distribution of land and water will be established. But, at the same time, it ALLUVIUM '' ■■i can not be denied that these changes, as far a» they have hitherto proceeded, have been advan- tageous to man, whatever might be their result under the conditions to which we have alluded.. The mountainous regions are, from their eleva- tion less suited to the progression of society, so intimately connected with agricultural prosper- ity than the plains. As we rise above the level of the sea, the atmosphere becomes more rarefied, and the cold more intense, both of which are in- jurious to vegetation in general, and unsuited to promote the comfort of animal life. The plains , are, therefore, preferred by men when they con- gregate togetljer and form societies. ; It can not be considered an unwise or unfit result, that the lowlands, should be enriched with alluvial soils, produced by the destruction of the rocks and natural soils of mountainous regions. It is re- ported of Dioclesian, that he told his colleague,, Maximilian, he had more pleasure in the cul- tivation of a few pot-herbs which, ' in the gar- den of Spalatro, grew in the soil that on the top of Mount Haemus had only produced moss and dittany, than in all the honors the Roman empire could confer. From the definition here given of the word "alluvium," it must include the gravels and sands that are of recent formation among the alluvial deposits; but our attention is chiefly directed to the soils, or those beds which are suited to sustain vegetable life. It is true that the ^gravels may be made available for the cultivation of some plants, but the beds which are so used belong rather to that class of rocks de- nominated dUumal by geologists, than to the deposits of which we are speaking. If we trace the circuihstances under which alluvial soils are formed to their cause, we shall find that they have their origin in the fall of heavy rains, and . the melting of snows, in mountainous regions. The Tpater, in its passage to the valleys, collects the superficial soil and decomposed eai-thy ma- terial that lies in its path, and transports them into the channels towards which it flows. The streams that are formed on tha mountain Slopes are generally united together before they reach the plains, an,d form impetuous torrents, over- coming all obstaclesi, until their velocity is lost, when, in their winding- courses, they meet each other and form rivers. Rivers, in every part of their course, are subject to inundation; when, throvsring their waters over a considerable space, they deposit the earthy materials they have accumulated. If such inundations had not occurred, the accumulated worn materials (debris) would have been deposited in the bed of the river, or carried into the lake or sea where the waters themselves are discharged. There are abundant instances on record of the filling up of rivers by the worn materials (detritus) which have been carried into their courses, and the rivers of our own country will afford excellent examples of this result. Many rivers and estu- aries, in some portions of the globe, which a few years since were navigable, have ceased to be so on account of the large amount of alluvial matter de- posited in their beds; and many towns and cities which were once populous and wealthy, have on this account become poor and almost deserted. If we would see the effect of the transport of worn materials into lakes, we can not have a more favorable opportunity than in Switzerland. Many of the lakes of this sublime and majestic country are rapidly filling from this cause; and in some ALLUVIUM of them water plants are seeu above the surface of the water. But when a river suffers inunda- tion, the earthy matter, which is held in mechan- ical mixture, is awested, and deposited on the land that is overflowed, and a richly productive soil is formed. One or two examples may illus- trate these' remarks. The Ganges annually over- flows its banks, and deposite a rich alluvial soil over the country it inundates. This magnificent river was supposed to take its rise on the northern side of the Himalaya mountains, until it was proved, in 1819, by Lieutenant Webb, that all the streams which unite to give its existence, take their rise on the south side of the Hindoo Coast, or Snowy mountains. The melting of the snows, and the heavy periodical rains augment the volume of the water, and by the end of June, before the rainy season has commenced in the low country, the river has generally risen fifteen feet; but after, the rains m Bengal it usually attains a height of thirty-two feet above its ordi- nary level. By the end of Juiy all the low countries adjoining the Ganges and the Burram- pooter are overflowed, and nothing but houses and trees are seen for many miles inward. The province of Bengal is divided into two nearly equal parts by the Gaiiges; and as a large portion of*the country on the banks of the river is low, it is especially exposed to inundation, f rofh which circumstance it probably derives its name, such districts being called beng. A deep bed of rich soil is deposited during the period of the over- flow, and the vegetable productions are of the most varied and luxuriant character. Rice, wheat, barley, tobacco, indigo, ^otton, the mul- berry, and the poppy, are all jultivated with success on the alluvial soils. It is well known that Egypt has been, from time immemorial, in- debted to the overflow of the Nile for a rich alluvial soil, as well as for the means of irrigat- ing the land. The ancients seem to have been altogether at a loss to account for the periodical overflow of this river ;v and when we consider the appearances before them, we are not surprised at the difficulties they experienced. They ob- served it in a country that was not moistened by a drop of rain,> and when it^^ was unaided by a single stream, and yet, -at its ■stated period, it began to lift its waters from their bed, and rising higher and higher, overflowed its banks, and spread itself like a sea over Lower Egypt, re- freshing the parched earth with moisture, and aiding its productiveness with the formation of a superficial covering of rich loam. The philoso- pher* speculated without success upon its cause; but while they were disputing as to the origin of the phenomenon, year by year the Nile rose, and left the evidence of its beneficial sway in the richness of the crops and the luxuriance of the country. From the investigations that have now been made, we know that the rise of the Nile is oceasioned by the rains whjich fall on the high mountains in the interior and tropical regions, and not, as many of the ancients sup- posed, from the Etesian winds, which, blowing periodically from the north, prevent the waters from reaching the sea. The great importance of rivers, as agents in the, production of alluvial soils, can not be more strongly proved by any positive evidence J;han, by a Consideration of the state of Australia, a country remarkable for the fewness of its rivers, and the general poverty of its soil. Contrary to all precedents, the richest 37 ALLUVIUM soils in this land, excepting the alluvial, are found on the summits of hills. The fires which so frequently happen on the plains, the peculiar character of the vegetation (chiefly consisting of evergreens),, and the sparing distribution of water, are the principal causes of the sterility of this otherwise desirable country. There are, however, spots which, covered with alluvial soil, can rival the richest and most cultivated dis- tricts of England ; and the comparison of these with other lands impresses the observer the more strongly with the great importance of the natural provision for the restitution of that portion of the earth inhabited by man, by the disposition of new earthy matter and a virgin soil: The alluvial flats of the Nepean, the Hawksbury, and the Hunter rivers, are spoken of by all writers as remarkable for their fertility. The rioh valley in which the Lake Alexandrina is situated may be noticed as another example of the influence of alluvial soils. The country around this lake appears to be one of the rnost beautiful and fertile in Australia; and a glance at the map will immediately inform the inquirer of th^ cause. It is so situated as to receive the worn materials of the mountain chain that ranges along the prom- ontory of which Cape Jervis is the southern point, and also to obtain moisture from the lake, and a renovating soil Tjvhenever it may overflow its banks. Alluvial soils are produced by the discharge of mountain streams into valleys, as well as by the overflow of rivers. We have already explained the manner in which they col- lect the superficial covering of mountainous districts, and being charged with earthy matter, bring it into the plains. This may be deposited before the streams are united together in an individual channel as well as after, and should this be done, the valley may be cohered with alluvial products. The formation of a river is a process which requires time, ahd many changes must happen before the flowing waters can form for themselves a local habitation; obstacles must be removed, a bed must be scooped out, and an outlet must be formed, in the performance of which earthy matter must be accumulated, and extensive deposits be formed. A third cause in the production of alluvial deposits may be meh- tione(^. The sea is making great inroads upon many of its shores, carrying a destructive war against the cliffs that vainly indeavor to oppose its force ; while on the other hand it' is in some instances receding from the shores against which it once beat; and thus,, as though to recompense man for what it takes away, gives to him a por- tion of its own territory. Those districts which are thus added to the land are usually superposed by a fine, rich, alluvial soil, as also are those which have at a former period been covered by the sea, and would be at the present day, were it not for the ingenuity and works of man. The districts in which are situated New Orletes, in America, and Missolonghi, in Greece, are chiefly alluvial, and nearly the whole of Holland has the same character, and can only be described as a district of which man has robbed the ocean. That part of the coast of Germany which is bor- dered by the Nonh Sea is alluvial, and additions are constantly made to the shores by the gradual deposition of earthy matter upon the immense flats which extend along them. The first sign of vegetation on these lands is the appearance of the saltwort {Salicomia maritima), which is ALLUVIUM 38 succeeded by the sea grass {Poa mairitima), and when the land is very rich, by the marsh star- ■wort (Aiter TripoUum). The land is afterwards dyked, and used as pasture for sheep and cattle; so that the spot over which the sea has perha]ps for ages exercised an undisputable control, is brought under the power of man in a state most admirably adapted to suit his wants. But it may be asked, whence does the sea obtain the earthy matter with which it abounds? Rivers discharge themselves into the ocean, and it has been already stated that their waters are charged, more or less, with superficial soil of mountainous countries a,nd the destroyed materials of rocks. A part of this may be arrested by occasional or periodical inundations, and by deposition in the bed of the river, but a large quantity must still be carried into ^the ocean. It must also be remembered that the waters which is conveyed in a channel is constantly endeavoring so to arrange its course so as to suffer the least possi- ble resistance. In this attempt, it attacks the banks that confine it, and widens its course, pre- cipitating much earthy matter into the streari, to be removed by the flowing water. It fre- quently happens, and especially after the fall of heavy rains, that the water, at the mouths of rivers is thick and turbid f*om the quantity \of alluvial matter it holds in solution, and very many large rivers are rendered unsafe for naviga- tion by the existence of large bars of sand or clay at their outlet. But the sea is not merely a passive recipient, of the product of destructive causes, but is itself a cause. Sea coasts are con- stantly suffering depredation by the action of the waves that beat upon them. Whether we look at the Soft and almost ^unresisting rocks of the eastern coast of England, or ti.e hard primary rocks of Devonshire, Cornwall, and the Shetland Isles, the same result will be observed. During the stormy months Of winter, when the waves are tossed upon the coasts with an almost uncon- trolled violence, no rock is sufliciently hard to resist its energy, and when unruffled by a passing breeze in the months of summer, its influence upon the softer rocks is hardly less destnictive, though more insidious, for it then attacks the base of the clids, and removing the support of the superincumbent mass, causes the precipita- tion of large portions into the sea. By these two caused the sea is proyided with the materials for the formation of alluvial soils. Some estimate may be formed of the violence and extent of these causes, by an exanftination of the present state of the Gerrdan Ocean, one fifth of which is covered by banks that appear to have been pro- duced in the same way as the alluvial soils on the northern coast of Germany. Water, then, is a most powerful agent in the destruction and production of rocks, and were there no conserva- tive principle, the changes that are going on would be more extensive than they are in the present day. The floods to which some rivers are subject are so impetuous that they frequently sweep awajr all opposing objects, and involve an entire district in ruin. These eJBEects, however, are much more common in countries that are thinly covered by vegstation than in those where it is luxuriant, for it acts as a conservative agent, increasing the power of the resistance by binding the soil more closely together. This, therefore, will account for the diminished influence of floods upon low lands, and for the ffequent ALPACA. deposition of rich and fertile alluvial soils. Tlie : composition of the, alluvial soils that have been brought under cultivation is exceedmgly vanous; but they aro generally remarka;ble for "their fertility, and are admirably suited for pasture lands. In general, says Sir Humphrey Davy, the soils, the materials of which are most vari- ous and heterogeneous, are those called alluvial, or which have been formed by the deposition of rivers; many of them are extremely fertile. — Appleton's New Cyclopaedia. ALMOND. The common almond tree {Amyg- dolus communig) is a native of Northern Africa, and so late as the time of Cato had not been in- troduced into Italy, as he calls the fruit Greek nuts. It was introduced into Britain about 1548. It will grow to the height of twenty or thirty feet, dividing into a head of numerous spreading branches. The leaves very much resernble those of the peach, but they proceed from buds both above and below the flowers. There are alsa small glands on the lower saw-toothing of the leaves. The form of the flowers is not very different from those of the peach, but they come out usually in pairs, and vary more in their color, from the fine blush of the apple blossom to a. snowy whiteness. The chief obvious distinction is in the,fruit, which is fiatter^ with a leather- like covering, instead of the rich pulp of the peach, and the nectarine, and it also ogens spon- taneously when the kernel is ripe. The shell of . the almond is never so hard as a peach stone, and is sometimes even tender and exceedingly brittle. It is flatter, smoother, and the furrowa or holes are more superficial than those of the peaich stone. In the United States the almond is. . hardy in the Gulf States, and even to the latitude of Kentucky. It is not, however, cultivated for' market, we believe, except in California, where already very considerable plantations of it are grown. ALOES. The dried juice, or an extract of numerous species of Aloe, particularly the Aloe spioata. The plants inhabit arid countries in the tropics, and have long, rather fleshy leaves, and a liliaceous inflorescence arranged in spikes. The drug is a nauseous bitter, and warm purga- tive. It IS administered to horses in balls of four to five drachms. ALOPECUKUS. The genus of Fox-tail grasses; they resemble the cat's-tail. Many are of great agricultural value. ALPACA. An animal inhabiting the mount- ains of I Peru (the Cwmelus paca of Linnaeus), used as a beast of burden. The wool is particularly valuable, and many attempts have been made to introduce them into i various countries, but as a rule not with success. Of the late attempt to- introduce tliem into the United States, Hon. Frederic Watts, Commissioner of Agriculture under President Grant's administration, in his. report says in relation to the Alpaca, that, in the latter part of 1875, correspondence was had between the Commissioner and Hon. Francis. Thomas, late minister to Peru (since deceased), concerning a small flock of Alpacas which that gentleman had imported from Peru and placed on his farm at Frankville, Alleghany county, Md. In a letter dated October 8, 1875, Mr. Thomas, inclosing a sample of the wool of four months' growth, remarked : The fiber of a fleece of twelve months' growth often exceeds fifteen inches in 'length, and fleeces average from seven. ALSIKE CLOVER 39 ALUMINA pounds to ten pounds each in weight. The ani- mals live to the age of twenty, twenty-five, and sometimes thirty years; are too large and bold to be worried by dogs, and are very docUe and tractable. I think you will concur with me in the opinion that this experiment which I ani con- ducting is well worth the expense which I have incurred, especially when we consider the public benefit which would accrue in case of my suc- cess. Attempts have been made at various i)m»s in this country, in Eu- rope and in Australia, ^ to introduce the Al- paca, but generally without profitable re- sult Various causes have contributed to the failure of these efforts. Sometimes the confine- ment on shipboard dur- ing a long voyage, with impure air and unac- customed food, has al- most destroyed the stock. Again, the ani- mals, *hen brought to their destined abode have fieen placed on luxuriant clover past- ure, or other feed, so much richer than the coarse herbage of their native regions, that dis- ease has fastened on the whole flock. The Al- paca is indigenous in the mountain regions of Peru, and thrives in the highest inhabited districts of the Andes, where the cold is more severe than in most parts of the United States. Accustomed to the vicissitudes of such ' regions, and inured to cold, damp, hunger, and thirst, it is especially adapted to bleak hill dis- tricts. Yet it is said to do well in most localities where the air is pure, the heat not oppressive, and water for bathing readily accessible. The latter is stated to be indispensable to the health of the animal, which, when deprived of this requisite, soon becomes fevered and infected with scab. While the introduction of the Alpaca into this country still remains a matter of ex- periment, there is no known reason why such experiments should not be successful, when properljr conducted, in loca,lities affording some approximation to the native conditions of the animal. Not to mention many elevated situations in the Atlantic, Northern and Central States, the regions lying along the Rocky mountain ranges have been indicated as presenting good opportunities for such trials. ALSIKE CLOVER. Swedish clover, Trifo- Hum hyhridum. This variety of clover has been introduced into various localities, and with varying results — some authorities speaking highly of it and others as severely denouncing it. It is generally, however, agreed that it is a good bee pasture, and that it succeeds in moist soils better than the common red clover. It grows to about the height of medium red clover. The blossoms are white. It would seem from the evidence that it is not so liable to winter kill as red clover, and that it suffers less from cold, wet weather, being in this respect like the small white or Dutch clover. On dry soils, especially those of a sandy nature, it is conceded not to do well, but is better adapted to moist, loamy soils. It may be mown for hay when the blossoms are fully mature, 'at which time red clover has lost miifh of its succulence. Its aftermath is both ALPACA SHEEP. dense and heavy, furnishing pasturage late in the season. Both the aftermath and the hay are fairly well liked by cattle, and it is undoubtedly valuable on the soils we have named. ALTERATIVES. Medicines which improve the health without any active effect. ALTERNATE HUSBANDRY. That sort of management of farms which has one part in the state of grass or sward, while the other is under the plow, so as t9 be capable of being changed as there may be occasicfti, or as the na- ture of the land may require. This system of management is supposed to lessen the expense of manure and keep the land more clean. (See Husbandry.) ALUM. The sulphate of alumina and pot- ash. The powder is a powerful styptic, and used to arrest bleeding. In lotion it is astringent and stimulating. When burned the powder becomes caustic. The lotion may be made with six to eight drachms of alum to a quart of water. It is used for grease, cracks in the heels of horses, and ulcers after the inflammation is subdued. The alum is used by dyers, but the solution of acetate of alumina is superior for most purposes. ALUMINA. Alumina, or alumine, is one of the component parts of alum, from which it was originally extracted. It is the principal ALUMINA ^ constituent of clays, in w-hicli it is found gener- ally mixed with, other subtances that impart to it a color, it being naturally white. It is a com- pound of oxygen and the metal aluminum. The precious stones, corundum, sapphire, emery and other varieties, are nearly pure crystallized alu- mina, particularly the sapphire, which is very hard, and is cut by means of diamond powder and is polished on lead wheels with the same powder, or that of emery, a less pure variety of the same mineral. The specific ^avity of alumina is 3 (water being unity). It is without smell, and has little or no taste, but is not altogether void of astringency. It has a strong affinity for water, and gives it off with readiness when heated. The tenaciousi sticky nature of clay soils is owing to this property, and is marked in proportion as the soil, approaches to pure alumina. As it gives off water under the effects of the sun or the wind, it hardens, cracks, and becomes obdurate and unyielding. Of all soils pure clay is therefore the most difficult to man- age or subdue by cultivation. Sir Arthur Young has said that no man ever throve upon a stiff soil. Strong teams are required to work it, apd this can be done at the proper moment only, as , it is not only difficult and fexpensive, but to a certain extent injurious at other times. Clay has merits which should hot be underrated, such as the retention of fertilizers more efffectually per- haps than any other material, and its capability of absorbing ammoliia when exposed to the air, as is apparent to the sniell when a piece of clay is breathed upon, for the peculiar odor emitted on sufh an occasion is due to the presence of this alkali. Alumina is rather an essential element of soils, or purveyor of food, than a constituent of plants; for the ashes of plants rarely contain it, and even then but sparingly, Tliere is reason to suppose that those analyses which give alumina as a cotistituent in certain plants are erroneous, and that what was rendered as alumina inay have been in reality phosphate of lime. Thus, it is stated that three-fifths of a grain of alumina are found in .thirty-two ounces of the grains of wheat, and about four grains in .thirty ounces of the grains of barley and of oats. It is also said to constitute 3.73 parts in 100 of the entire plant of the sunflower, 7.11 of the entire plant of Turkey wheat, and 14 of thie entire plant of the fdinitory. It is seldom or never found uncombined, but rather in the form of sUicate, sulpliate, or phosphate of alumina. It is an important part of the crystalline rocks. Aluminous minerals, so manifestly essential to the fertility of. soils, are extensively diffused throughout the surface of the globe. , They occur in all soils susceptible of cultivatioUj which may be owing to the fact that they are retentive of fertilizing salts; and, according to a paper lately published by Prof. Voelcker, alumi- nous earths possess the po*er of absorbing and retaining fertilizing principles in such a state of combination as to readily yield them to plants, without their being subject to detraction from that combination by rain or water as it usually falls or passes through soils. In order to form a distinct conception of the quantities of alkalies in aluminous minerals, says Liebeg, it must be remembered that feldspar contains 17f per cent, of potash, albite (soda feldspar) 11.43 per cent, of soda, and mica from 3 to 5 per cent., and that zeolite contains from 18 to 16 per cent. 40 , ALUMINitl of alkalies. The analyses of Gmelin, Lowe, Fricke, Meyer and Redtenbacher, have also shown that basalt and clinkstone contain from f to S S per cent, of potash, and from 5 to 7 per cent, of soda; that claystone contains from 3.75 to 3.31 per cent, of potash, and loam from li to 4 per cent, of potash. The quantities of these sub- > stances present in any specimen can not give a correct estimate of its presence in all portions of the rock; nor are the alkalies the only fertilizers to be anticipated, where analysis has not hereto- fore mentioned or detected their presence, since the presence of phosphoric acid has been shown in a variety of rocks which were considered free from that substance and from all organic remains, such as clinkstone, phonolites, horn- blende, augite, compact basalt, trap i:ock, pumice stones, obsidian, mica, grafiite, chlorite-slate, porphyry, mica-slate and gneiss, and in native borax from the East Indies. Soils eminently aluminous, as has been stated, are absorbents' of water and retentive thereof. This renders them stiff, waxy and cold, as well as damp, and exceedingly difficult to cultivate and subdue. It has been said, that this property of clay soils may be modified by the application of sand; but • this is often expensive, and at all times laborious and attended with difficulty in making the ad- mixture. ' The cohesive nature of clays may be overcome, and they made comparatively porous, dry, warm and fertile, by the operation of paring and burning, the particles being thus partly fused and maide to cohere and form a gritty mass containing the elements inherent to the clay with the properties of sand. Besides this, burnt clays have an increased power for the absorption of ammonia; but clays thus heated lose a great pre portion of their retentiveness of moisture. The most cohesive clays may, by this process, be con- verted into a fine, dry, powdery soil as light as an ash bank; a,nd where rushes, and coarse grasses, and semi-aquatic plants have got hold, a new growth will come in, and the sOil will become fertile and easily cultivajted. The roots and fibers of weeds and plants, and all noxious seeds, may be eradicated by paring and burning; and in a vast number of instances soils of a clayey nature that can not otherwise be brought into economical culture, may by this operation ■} be rendered fruitful. The alteration in the inert vegetable fiber existing in soils, when subjected to this operation, will often have a decided effect upon its prpductiveness, by converting useless and injurious matter into assimilable plant food; or a product may pe thus obtained having an advantageous chemical action upon the inorganic constituents of the soil. The transformation of inert vegetable fiber by charrihg, or even roast- ing, will add to the absorbent quality of the soil in proportion to the amount of tliose substances in the earth; for it is known that charcoal has surprising qualities of absorption and conden- sation, not of water, but of those gases which have an evident influence upon fertility. The paring and burning process, though applicable and advantageous to deep clays that are barren from their closeness and their wetness, would be followed by disastrous consequences if applied to shallow arenaceous lands. In this case it would drive off or destroy even the scanty vegeta- ble matter that such a soil might contain, leaving an arid sandy waste. Sandy soils are frequently too porous, and the heat generated by paring and ANAESTHETICS 41 ANALYSIS burning could not give consistence to such a material as silicious sand, since silex, however fusible when in contact with bases such as alu- mina, lime, magnesia and the alkalies, is refractory by itself. ALVEOLATE. Covered with little pits; honw-combed. • ALVINE. Relating to the bowels. AMALGAM. A compound of mercury with a metal. AMANITA, A genus of poisonous mush- rooms. AMAUROSIS. Total blindness, without loss of brilliancy in the eye. It is a disease to which horses are very subject, and should never be treated with the hope of cure. AMBLE. The same as the pace in horseman- ship. AMBUSTION. A scald or burn. AMELIORATING CROPS. Root crops; clovers and grasses fed on the land. AMENTABOLIANS. Insects which do not undergo metamorphoses. AMENTUM. The catkin; a deciduous spike, such as that of willows, poplars, etc. Trees with this inflorescence are called amentaceous, and usually contain much potash in their ashes. AMERICAN BREEDS OF SWINE. (See Cheshire, Chester White, Jersey Reds, Poland China, and Victoria Swine.) AMIDINE. The soluble, internal portions of the starch globules. AMMONIA. Volatile alakli, spirits of harts- horn. ■ Ammoniacal gas is the gaseous state of pure ammonia before it is dissolved by waler, in which it is extremely soluble; it is also rapidly absorbed by charcoal, clays, rust, etc. Ammo- nium is a hypothetic base of ammonia, consisting of nitrogen and hydrogen. The oxide of ammo- nium is the common base, as found in the salts of ammonia, and consists of nitrogen, hydro- gen and oxygen. (See Nitrogen.) AMNION. The delicate membrane which surrounds the foetus in utero; it. contains the amniotic fluid, or liquor amnios. The fluid within the nucleus of the young seed, on which the embiyo feeds, is called amnios. AMORPHOUS. Without regular figure or form. AMPHIBOLE. A variety of horn blende. AMPHITROPAL. In botany, an embryo which is turned round in the albumen, pr curved upon itself in such a manner that both its ends are presented to the same point. AMPLEXICiUL. Clasping or embracing - the stem. AMY«DALIJf. A white, sweetish, soluble matter in bitter almonds, changeable into oil of bitter almonds b'y the action of emulsin. AMYtrDALOID, . Rocks in which other min- erals are embedded; pudding-stone. AMYGrD.VLUS. The generig name of the peach and almond. AMYLACEOUS. Starchy; full of starch. AMYLIN. Pure starch. ANAESTHETICS, ADMINISTERING. An- aesthetics are of value in rendering an' animal wholly or partially insensible. Vapors, sprays and fumes are also valuable, and nearly related in. the form of administering. When a surgi- cal operation is to be performed, anaesthetics mav be administered, held directly to the nose by "means of a sponge, or a sponge may be placed in a net, fastened under the nose, and the anaesthetic introduced thereon. In diseases of the throat and windpipe, — as catarrh, sore throat and strangles, — steam, either clear or in combi- nation with belladonna, laudanum, sulphurous acid, vinegar, etc., will often give quick relief. So vapors may be easily produced by charging a liquid, as water, with the medium to be used, by means of a hand-ball atomizer; these will be found useful for diseases of tlie nostrils, mouth and throat. Powders are also used to cause expulsion of the secretions of the nostrils, thus clearing the nasal passages or inner surface of the nose. A tube and hollow rubber ball is used for this purpose. A hollow section of alder, or sumac, charged with the powder, and one end furnished with a piece of rubber tubing, answers well the operation of blowing it into the nostrils with the breath. A good anaesthetic is com- posed as follows: One ounce alcohol, two ounces chloroform, three ounces ether. Shake the bottle well before using it, and two or three minutes time will cause the strongest animal to succumb, when used as heretofore directed In chronic cough, flowers of sulphur or the fumes of burning tar will soon fill a stable, and is val- uable for treating the lining membranes of the breathing organs. The first is an agent of great value for dismfecting purposes. ANAL GLANDS. Glands for the secretion of various substances, situated near the anus. aNaLYSIS. Analysis consists in determin- ing the constituent elements of the subject of analysis, By it we show either the organic or inorganic elements. In soils, for instance, we may find how much sand, lime, alumina, phos- phoric acid, potash, magnesia and other constit- uents are contained in the sample; but we can not through analysis arrite at any definite de- termination of the amount of plant food which is at the disposal of the present crop. It may or may not be locked up in insoluble forms.' Hence it has been found that experience alone must demonstrate the productions of the soil. But an analysis of a soil.may show its adaptation natur- ally to pertain crops. Here, again, experience is sufiicient in the generality of cases. It is the fact that the chemist may compound a soil artificially , containing every element of plant food in abund- ance, and yet which will be perfectly sterile, because locked up in insoluble combinations. Nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash, are the three important constituent elements in soils, because these are, as a rule, the substances whose absence or deficiency impair fertility. Yet there are many cases when lime, magnesia, oxide of iron, chlorine, sulphuric acid, etc, may be needed, because absent or deficient, and hence they become prime integers, Analysis will show the absence of a constituent, and hence its value, in special cases, when particular crops are to be raised, the soil, perhaps, lacking only one or two of the constituents necessary to perfect the crop. When we come to the plants or grains them- selves, analysis becomes more practically ini- portant, since it shows just the amount of nutri- tion contained. Thus', in special feeding, it becomes of -especial value to know the constit- uents of certain foods. And in the feeding of calves, when skim milk or whey is to be used, analysis will show what should be added to either to form a comparatively perfect food. We say comparatively, for in combined food, how- ANALYSIS 42 ever perfectly or Bcientiflcally it rnay be com- pounded, it can not equal the whole and natural milk of the cow. This is ihfe type of all animal food, milk being conceded to be practically as well as theoretically a perfect food. Several analyses of milk taken together we have averaged-as fol- lows: Water ■- 86.0 Flesh-formers ,5.0 Fat- formers «... 8 Mineral matter 10 100.0 In the manufacture of butter the fat-formers are the principal constituent removed. Hence in practice,' the addition of linseed meal, or mush from finely ground Indian corn, or b6th, brings up the skimmed milk and buttermilk, relatively, to its normal condition as food for calves, after they are three or four weeks old. If the milk is converted into cheese, the flesh-formers are also removed. Hence the difiiculty of bringmg whey again to a perfect food. To do so, the equiva- lent of the casein, albumen, etc., must be res- tored. This may be measurably attained by the addition of oatmeal mush, and a little of lin- seed cake. Economically, milk may be stated to contain the following constituents: Water 86.0 Casein 1.. 5.0 Fatty matter 3.5 Sugar 4.5 ^Mineral matter 1.0 ^, 100.0 The following table will show results cif many analyses of vafioils food substances, economic- ally considered, in Comparative equivalents: - 9 a o 2 , it 11 si II «p, OS. •""S^ Foods. ^g Si ^a ^a ^a «g^ fl"^ gS2 t4 a m 3l ,lii P4 h &H B 1 4 20.3 7.S 8.2 245.3 691.6 607.3 6.6 7.0 Parsnip 1.8 Jernsalem artichoke. . . . 1.0 0.9 18.8 13.6 19.8 14.5 251.0 336.5 Sugar beet Swedish turnip 1.0 5 2 6.2 803.2 Common white turnip o.» aa 4.2 1185.7 Uangel-wurzel 1 12 6 13.6 8.8 4.5 367.6 665.9 1106.6 0.9 1.9 7.9 2 6 Common vetch (green).r; 8.5 q>7 9.5 13.7 624.3 363.4 Green timothy grass 4.0 Green red-top grass .3.3 8 7 12.0 ■415.0 Superior meadow hay 13. S 36.3 49.8 100.0 Red clover (green) S.O 3 6 5.6 Si07.1 wmte clover (green) 1.5 2.7 4.2 1185.7 liucerne (green) 1.9 18.7 12.7 ,3.6 is 7 6.5 41.2 68.7 50.7 H06.4 ISO. 8 84.6 98.2 Bed clover (hay) White clover (hay) 40.0 38.0 Lucerne (hay) Wheat flour 14.7 66,4 81.1 61.4 Indian com , 11.0 66 7 77.7 64.2 Rye meal 14.3 18.0 55.8 52.0 ro.i 65.0 71.0 76 Barley meal Oat meal 18.0 9.0 61.1 52,1 69.1 61.1 72.0 81.5 Buckwheat meal Peas 23.1 41.9 6S.0 76 Kidney beans 23.9 89.3 68.2 78 7 White field beans 24.0 22.2 .S9.7 48.6 63.7 70.8 18.2 70.3 American linseed cake •■ , \ ,-'•' ANALYSIS, In relation to analyzing a soil, says Prof. Hitch- - cock in his report of the Geological Survey of Massachusetts, Dr. Davy sets out by stating that geine constitutes the basis of all the nourishing part of vegetable manures. - By the term geine, he means all the decomposed organic matter of the soil, chiefly derived from Hecayed vegetable matter. Animal substances, he says, produce a similar compound containing azote or nitrogen. There may be undecomposed vegetable fibres so minutely divided as to pass through the sieve, but as one object of this operation is to free the soil from vegetable fibre, the portion will be quite inconsiderable, and can only affect the amount of insoluble geine When so minutely divided, it will probably pass into soluble geine in a season's cultivation. Geine, or' the vegetable nourishing matter of soils, exists in two states, ■ in one of which it is soluble in water, etc , whilst in the insoluble state it resists the solvent power of water. Soluble geine he considers the im- mediate food of growing plants, whilst insoluble , geine becomes food after sufficient exposure to air and moisture. Hence the reason and result Of tillage. We quote the following mles of analysis: 1. Sift the soil through a fine sieve.. Take the fine part; bake it just up to brovniing paper. 3. Boil 100 grains of the baked soil, ■yyitn 50 grains of pearl ashes, saleratus or carbon9,te of soda in four ounces of water, for half an hour; let it settle; decant the clear; wash the grounds with four ounces boiling water; throw all on a weighed filter, previously dried at the same temperature as was the soil (1); wash till colorless water .returns. Mix all these liquors. It is a brown-colored solution of all. the soluble geine. All sulphates have been converted into carbonates, and with any phosphates, are on the filter. Diy therefore that, with, its contents, at the same heat as before. Weigh — the loss is soluble geine. 3. If you wish to examine the geine ; precipitate the alkaline solution with ex- cess of lime-water. The geate of lime will rapidly subside, , and if lime-water enough has been added, the nitrous liquor will be colorless. Col- lect the geate of lime on a filter; wash with a little acetic or very dilute muriatic acid, and you have geine quite pure. Dry and weigh. 4. Ke-* place on a funnel the filter (2) and ifs earthy contents; wash with two drachms muriatic acid, diluted with three times its bulk of cold water. Wash till tasteless. The carbonate and phos- phate of lime vrill be dissolved with a little iron, which has resulted from the decomposition of any salts of iron, beside a little oxide of iron. The alumina will be scarcely touched. We may estimate all as salts of lime. Evaporate the muriatic solution to dryness, weigh and dissolve in boiling water. The insolubte will be phos- phate of lime. Weigh — the. loss is the sulphate of lime. (I make no allowance here for the dif- ference in atomic weights of the acids, as the result is of no consequence in this analysis.) 5. The earthy residuum, if of a greyish white color, contains no insoluble geine — test it by burning % weighed small quantity on a hot shovel — if the odor of burning peat is given off, the presence of insoluble geine is indicated. If so, calcine the earthy residuum and its filter— the loss of weight will give the insoluble geine; that part which air and moisture, time and lime, will convert into soluble vegetable food. Any error here will be due to the loss of water in ahydrale» ANALYSIS if one be present, but these exist in too small quantities in |;ramtic sand to aflfect'the result. The actual weight of the rpsiduary mass is gran- itic sand. The clay, mica, quartz, etc., are easily distinguished. If your soil is calcareous — which may be easily tested by acids— then before proceeding to this analysis, boil 100 grains in a pint of water, filter and dry as before, the loss of weight is due to the sulphate of lime, even the sulphate of iron may be so considered; for the ultimate result in cultivation is to convert this into sulphate of lime. Test the soil with muriatic acid, and having thus removed the lime, proceed as before, to determine the geine and insoluble vegetable matter. In applying Dr. Dana's rules giTen in the text, to the soils of Massachusetts, I found it necessary to adopt some method of carrying forward several pro- cesses together. I accordingly made ten com- partments upon a table, each provided with apparatus for filtering and precipitations, also ten numbered flasks, ten evaporating dishes, and a piece of sheet-iron pierced with ten holes, for receiving the same number of crucibles. I pro- vided, also, a sheet-iron oven, with a tin bottom large enough to admit ten filters, arranged in proper order, and a hole in the top to admit a thermometer. The sand bath was also made large enough for receiving the ten flasks. In this manner I was able to conduct ten processes with almost as great facility as one could have been carried forward in the usual way. As be- fore stated, Dr. Dana regards geine as the basis of all the nourishing p&,rt of vegetable manures. The relation of soils to heat and moisture, he says, depend chiefly on geine. It is in fact, under its three states of vegetable extract, geine and tarbonaceous mould, the principle which gives fertility to soils long after the action of common manures- has ceased. In these three states it is essentially the same. The experiments of Saus- sure have long ago proved that air and moisture convert insoluble into soluble geine. Of all the problems to be solved by agricultural chemistry, none is of so great practical importance as the determination of the quantity of soluble and in- soluble . geine in soils. This is a question of much higher import3,nce than the nature and proportions of the earthy constitiients and sol- uble salts of soils. It lies at the foundation of all successful cultivation. Its importance has been not so much overlooked as undervalued. Hence, on this point the least light has been reflected from the labors of Davy and Chaptal. It needs but a glance at any analysis of soils, published in the books, to see that fertility de- pends not on the proportion of the earthy ingre- dients. Among the few facts, best established in chemical agriculture, are these: that a soil, whose earthy part is composed wholly or chiefly of one earth ; or any soil with excess of salts, is always barren; and that plants grow equally well in all soils destitute of geine, up to the period of fructification, — failing of geine, the fruit fails, the plants die:* Earths, and salts, and geine, constitute, then, all that is essential; and soils will be fertile, in proportion as the last is mixed with the first. The earths are the plates, the salts the seasoning, the geine the food of plants. The salts can be varied but very little in their proportions, without injury. The earths admit cf wide variety in their nature and .proportions. I would resolve all into granitic sand; by which 43 ANASTOMOSIS I mean the finely divided, almost impalpable mixture of the detritus of granite, gneiss, mica- slate, sienite, and argillite; the last, giving hy analysis, a compound very similar to the former. When we look at the analysis of vegetables, we- find these inorganic principles constant constit- uents — silica, lime, magnesia, oxide of iron, potash, soda, and sulphuric and phosphoric acids. Hence, these will be found constituents- of all soils. The phosphates have been over- looked from the known diflfliculty of detecting- phosphoric acid. Phosphate of lime is so easily soluble when combined with mucilage, or gela- tine, that it is among the first principles of soil* exhausted. Doubtless, the good effects, the last- ing effects, of bone manure, depend more on the phosphate of lime, than on its animal portion. Though the same plants growing in different soils are found to yield variable quantities of the salts and earthy compounds, yet I believe that accurate analysis will show, that similar parts of the same species, at the same age, always contain the inorganic principles above named, when grown in soils arising from the natural decomposition of granite rocks. These inorganla substances will be found not only in constant quantity, but always in definite proportion to- the vegetable portion of each plant. The effect of cultivation may depend, therefore, much more- on the introduction of salts than has been gen- erally supposed. The salts introduce new force. So long as the salts and earths exist in the soil, so long will they form voltaic batteries with the roots of growing plants, by which, the granitie sand is decomposed and the nascent earths, in this state readily soluble, are taken up by the absorbents of the roots, always a living, never a mechanical operation. Hence, so long as the soil iS granitic, — using the term as above defined, — so- long is it as good as on the day of its deposition: salts and geine may vary, and must be modified by cultivation. The universal diffusion of gran- itic diluvium will always afford ^ough of the earthy ingredients . The fertile character of soils, I persume, will not be found dependent on any particular rock formation on which it reposes. Modified they may be, to a certain extent, by peculiar formations ; but all our granitic roclra afford, when decomposed, all those inorganic principles which plants demand. This is s* true, that on this point the farmer already knows all that chemistry can teach him. Clay and sand, every one knows; a soil too sandy, too clayey, may be modified by mixture, but the best possi- ble mixture does not give fertility. That de- pends on salts and geine. If these views are correct, the few properties of geine which we have mentioned, will lead us at once to a simple and accurate mode of analyzing soils; a mode which determines at once the value of a, soil, from its quantity of soluble and insoluble vegetable nutri- ment; a mode requiring no array of apparatus, nor delicate experimental tact; one, which the country gentleman may apply with very greait accuracy, and, with a little modification, per- fectly within the reach of any man who can drive a team or hold a plow. ANASARCA. A dropsy in the cellular tissue of the limbs. ANASTOMOSIS. The interfacing and uniom of small veins or arteries proceeding from dif- ferent parts. Formerly supposed to be the open- ing of the vessels, and excretion of contents. ANIMAL POISONS U ANTIDOt!]^ ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. (See Horse, Anatomy of.) ANATROPOCS. A very common embryo, produced, by one side of the ovule growing upon itself, while the other remains immovable, till, at last, that part of the ovule which was origi- nally next the apex is brought down to the hilum, the base of the nucleus in such cases being at the apex of the ovule. The common apple, and the greater part of plants, offer an example ■of this. ANBURY. In farriery, a spongy, soft tumoi:, commoiily full of blood, growing on any part of an, animal s body. Sustances of this kind may be removed either by means of ligatures being passed round their bases, or by the knife, and the subsequent application of some caustic, in order to effectually destroy the parts from which they arise. ANCHYLOSIS. A stiff, immovable joint, ANCIPITOUS. Having two edges. ANDROCEUM. The male parts of the flower. ANDROGYNOUS. Hermaphrodite; a union «f both sexes. ANELLIDES. Anellata. The class of artic- nlated animals formed of ring-like segments, as the ear^th-woi'ms. ANELYTROUS. .Without elytra or wing- cases. V ANEMOMETER. lAn instrument for meas- uring the force or velocity of the wind; a wind fiauge. ANEMQSCOPE. An instrument showing the ■direction of the wind, a weathercock. ANEURISM. In farriery, a throbbing tumor, produced by the dilitation of the gjrtery coats in «ome part of the body of an animal. Anemisms in the limbs may be cured by making an incis- ion, exposing the artery, and tying it above and below the tumor with a proper ligature ANGINA. In /farriery, a name sometimes applied to the quinsy, or what in animals is termed anticor; sore throat. ANGLE BERRY. In farriery, a sort of fleshy , excrescence, to which cattle and some ■•ther animals are subject under different circum- stances, and are supposed to proceed^ from a rupture of the cutaneous vessels, which give vent to a matter capable of forming a sarcoma or fleshy excrescence. They frequently appear upon the belly and adjacent parts, hanging down in a pendulous manner ANGUSTATE. NaiTow; diminishing rapidly in breadth. ANGUSTURA BARK. The bark of the €hcspa/na febnfuga, of tjouth America; used as a tonic. ANHYDROUS. Without water; a chemical term to express the entire absence of water in a «alt or acid substance. ANIMAL. Any object 'capable of voluntary motion; a function dependent on the nervous system, which is peculiar to animals and absent in plants. ANIMAL ACIDS. Acids existing in animals ■or producedjfrom their tissues. The principal are the oily acids, choleic, lactic and uric. (See Acids.) ANIMALCULES. Infusorials. Miscroscopie life, both animal and vegetable; some of these vegetable forms have the power of motion. ANIMAL MANURES. (See Urine, Manure.) ANIMAL POISONS. The bites of venom- ous reptiles, rabid dogs, the contagious diseases produced by decaying meat, cheese, infected cattle, glanders, are all called animal poisons. They usually produce great prostration, and call for the use of ammonia and stimulants. ANIMALS. The animals of the\farm are horned cattle, horses, mules, asses, swin£, sheep, goats, and in some sections of the country, as in some hill regions of the South and California, the alpaca. So, also, the llama, the guanaco ajud the vicuna have been introduced, but not suc- cessfully. Some years before the war, camels were introduced into Texasy but they did not' pi-ove profitable, although some specimens of them still exist in the far southwest and in Ari- zona, where they have been used for transporting good's to the mines. On ithe whole, however, mules prove better adapted to the necessities of the country. , The productive farm animals will be treated, of under their proper names, which see. , ANISE-SEED. PimpineUa anisrnn.^ The aro- matic seeds of a well known umbelliferous plant. The oil is a grateful aromatic to the stomach. ANISOTOMID.I;. A family of coleopterous insects, having moniliform or beaded anteniwe, sub-elongate, slender at the base, gr&duaUy in- creasing towards the apex, with a terminal club- shaped multarticulate joint;- palpi various, gen- erally filiform; head small and ovate; body con- vex, never linear. ANNUALS. Plants which perfect seeds in one year and die, as wheat, rye, etc. ANNULUS. An organ resembling a ring, as the collar which surrounds the stem of some mushrooms. ANODYNE. A drug which allays pain, as opium, camphor, henbane, etc. ANOTTO (Annoto). An elegant coloring sub- stance used in the arts, and in the dairy for coloring butter and cheese, obtained from the pulp of the seed vessels of the Bixa oreUana. (See Dairy.) ANTACIDS. Medicines which neutralize the acid of the stomach in disease, as chalk, carboh- ate of soda, etc. ANTENNA. Antennm. The hair-like jointed organs on the heads of insects. They are very movable, and are supposed to be organs of sen- sation. ANTEPECTUS. In insects, the under side of the maiii trunk, in which the first pair of legs is inserted. ANTHELMINTICS. Drugs which are used to destroy intestinal worms. . Turpentine, worm- seed oil, pink-root and aloes are the most im- portant. I ANTHER, The bilobate organ, containing pollen, situated at the summit of the filament, the two constituting the male organ, or stamen of plants. ANTHODIUM. Ahead of flowers, as in the thistle or sunflower; a capitulum. ANTHOXANTHUM. A genus of gi-asses, of which A. odoratum is tlie sweet-scented vernal grass. (See Grasses.) ANTIBRACHIUM. The forearm. ANTICLINAL AXIS. The line lying be- tween strata which dip in opposite.directions. ANTICOR. An inflammation of the throat and gullet in horses, attended with fever and pros- tration ; a kind of quinsy. ANTIDOTE. A remedy against a poison. APHIDES ANTIMONY, TARTRATE OF. (See Tartar Emetic.) ANTIPHLOGISTIC. Remedies opposed to an inflammatory state. ANTISEPTICS. Substances wliieli prevent putrefaction. ANTISPASMODICS. Remedies which cure spasms or cramps, as opium, camphor, asafoet- ida, etc. ANTITROP.VL. When in a seed the radicle of the embryo is turned to the end farthest away from the hilum. This, although a compara- tively unusual position of parts, is, nevertheless, the normal position, if the exact nature of the development of an ovule is rightly understood.- ANTRUM. A cavity. ANTS. A genus belonging to the entomolo- gical classification Hymenoptera. The food of ants consists both of vegetable and animal juices. As a rule they are more troublesome than they are noxious, and not specially beneficial, since they d^ not kill insects but eat only such as they find ' dead or maimed. Ant-hills are readily de- stroyed by digging up in the depth of winter and scattering the earth; the exposure will thus destroy the entire colony. ANTS, BLACK. To destroy, remove the upper portion of the hill, so as to form a basin as large 'as the entire nest. Let this be the deposit of dry £^shes for one week, each morn- ing, as they are taken from the stove, or the hill may be excavated in the middle, and the hole filled with rough salt. About a house ants may be destroyed by placing bones about where they collect, and when covered with ants they can be burned, or killed with scalding water, and the bones replaced. Anise-seed oil is also said to drive them away. AORTA. The great arterial vessel which issues from the left ventricle of the heart, and by its branches distributes blood to every part of the tody. APATITE. A greenish, crystalline mineral found in primary rocks, consisting of a phos- phate and silicate of lime. It is found in the eastern and northern States, but only in small quantities. In Spain and Norway large quan- tities are developed. It has been spoken of as a manure in the place of bones. APERIENTS. Gentle purgatives. APETALOUS. Without corolla. APEX. The summit. APHANIPTERA. An order of apterous insects, with rudimentary elytra, and undergo- ing a diange of form. The flea (Pulecc irritans) is of this kmd. APHIDES, or plant lice, as they are usually called, are among the most extraordinary of insects. They are found upon almost all parts of plants — the roots, stems, young shoots, buds and leaves — and there is* scarcely a plant which does not harbor one or two kinds peculiar to itseM. They are, moreover, exceedingly pro- lific, for Rgaumur has proved ,that one individ- ual, in five generations, may become the progen- itor of nearly six thousand millions of descend- ants. It often happens that the succulent extremities and stems of plants will, in an in- credibly* short space of time, become completely coated with a living mass of these little lice. These are usually wingless, consisting of the young a.nd of the female only; for winged indi- viduals appear only at particular seasons, usually 45 APHIDES WOOLT APPLE-TRBE BLIGHT. in the autumn, but sometimes in the spring, and these are small males and larger females. After pairing, the latter lay thfeir egg? upon or nea,r the leaf -buds of the plant upon which they live, and, together with the males, soon afterward perish. The genus to which plant lice belong is called Aphis, from a Greek word which signmes. to exhaust. The following are the principal characters by which they may be distinguished . from other ipsects : Their bodies are short, oval and soft, and are furnished at the hinder ex- tremity with two little tubes, knobs or pores, from which exude almost constantly minute- drops of a fluid as- sweet as honey; their heads are small, their beaks are very long-, and tubular, their fflWWi RM I t g eyes are globular, but they have not eyelets ; thpir antennas- are long and usually taper toward the- extremity, and their legs are also long and very glender, and there are only twO' joints to their feet. Their upper are near- ly ttvice as large as. the lower wings, are much longer than the b(3dy, are gradually widened towards the extremity, and nearly triangular; they are almost, vertical when at rest, and cover the body above like a very sharp-ridged roof. The winged plant-lice provide for a succession of their race by stocking the plants with eggs in the autumn, as before stated. These are hatched in due time in the- fepring, and the young liCe immedi- ately begin to pump up sap from the tender leaves and shoots, in- crease rapidly in size, and in a short time come to maturity. In this state it is found that the brood, without a single exception, consists W|holly of females, which are wingless, but are in a condition immediately toi continue their kind. Their young, howevei', are not hatched from eggs, but are produced alive, and■^ each female may be the mother of fifteen or twenty young lice in the course of a single day. The plant-lice of this second generation are also wingless females, which grow up and have their young in due time; and thus, brood after brood is produced even to the sev- enth generation or more, without the appearance or intervention, throughout the whole season, of a sin- fle male. This extraor- inary kind of propaga- tion ends in the autumn with the birth of a brood of males and females, which, in due time, acquire wings, and pair;, eggs are then laid by these females, and with the death of these winged individuals, which soon fdllows, the race becomes extinct for the season.— Harris' Insects Injiu-ious to Vegetation. In the case of the oats aphife, we believe they are , single-brooded; otherwise their habits are much the same as the other plant-lice, having honey PEAR TREE FLEA LOUSE. 3UAFLE EABK SCALE mSECT. APHTHA tvibea, except that, although these are well devel- oped, they emit no honey and therefore are not followed by ants. They are also stated to freeze fast with the plants in the fall and revive in the ■spring. The mussel-shell orange-scale insect Ci^motus aloverin) is found on the orange in Florida, where it does mucli injury to the •range trees, Sometimes killing whole orange 46 APHTH.a. GBAIH OB OAT PLAST-LOUSE. groves; it is found, also, on citron and lemon trees, and even sparingly on a camelia grown under an orange tree. The female scale resem- Ijles the upper half of a miniature brown mussel- shell, with its flat side downward on the leaf. These scales, when placed singly and not crowded together, are generally straight in form, but when in clusters, they are curved to suit the inequali- ties of the surface or contiguity of the neighbor- ing scales. The insect itself is sheltered under MnSSEL-SHELI, BOALB INSECT OI" ORANGE TREE. *he scale, and is of a soft consistence, having the *ody gradually tapering from near the tail to the anterior 'part, which ends somewhat obtusely This msect, like the oyster-shell bark-louse of the Korth, is single-brooded each season. That is, unlike the plant-lice, they do not propasate for several generations by the fertilization of a common ancestor. APHTHjE. This contagious malady, after havmg been well known in Central Europe for more than two centuries, reached Great Britain in 1839, Denmark in 1641, and the united States m 1870. It is supposed to have been introducei' from cattle shipped from England in that yeSr' and landed in Canada. It made its appearance in Oneida county, N. Y , in September, from which it spread' over various portions of the seaboard States It is known by various names in Eng- land, principally as foot and mouth disease, and among veterinarians as epizootic, aptha and aphthous fever. Investigations under the direc- tion of the Commissioner of Agriculture at Washington, show the following facts in relation to the disease, its causes and cures: This conta- gious malady of stock belongs to the class of zymotic disease, or, in other words, it is caused, like specific fevers generally, by the introduction into the system of a poison germ, which propa- gates itself, and increases in the blood and tissues in a manner allied to the growth of a ferment in a saccharine solution. During this reproduc- tion of the virus in such fRvers, the system passes through a series of successive stages of disease, the nature and duration of which are determined by the character of the particular poison taken in, and during which the poison germs (conta- gious principles) are given off abundantly by one or other or all of the secreting surfaces. Hence, like other zymotic diseases, this is altogether specific in its cause, its nature, and its mode of propagation. As known in Western Europe and America, this disease is invariably due to a virus or contagion thrown off by some animal suffer- ing from the disease; it is always manifested by a slight prelimin^y fever, and a period of erup- tion and decline, and these are respectively of constant and well defined duration. These dif- ferent periods of the disease are characterized by varied manifestations. The first period is fliat of incubation during which the poison germs are in the body of the animal, and propagating them- selves there, but have not yet affected the consti- tution so as to impair the functions, or give rise to the more nianifest symptoms 'of iUness. To- wards the end of this period, however, the ther- mometer shows an increase of temperature in the interior of the body, of about two degrees beyond the natural standard. This period lasts twenty-four to forty-eight hours, though in rare cases it may apparently extend to a week. It is followed by a period of eruption, which is first manifested by the redness, heat and tenderness of the udder and teats, of the space between the hoofs, and of the membrane of the mouth. In the course of one day more, these parts are found to be the seat of numerous hemispherical eleva- tions or blisters, caused by the effusion of a clear yellowish fluid from the blood-vessels be- neath the cuticle or scarfskin. These increase in size for the next two or three days, burst, and dry up. The period of decline is marked by the dry- ing and scabbing over of the sores caused by the - rupture of the blisters, and by the reproduction of the lost cuticular covering or scarfskin. The elevated temperature, which had declined some- what on the appearance of the blisters, now en- tirely subsides, unless maintained by exposure, 01- the irritation of t^e sores by dirt and .other bodies. This period has passed and the disease is at an end by the flfteentli day, in favorable cases. The only known cause of itself capable of inducing the disease is contagion, or contact of a sound animal with the virus dischai-ged from the sores of an aphthous patient. Many acces- APHTHA 8ory causes may be named, such as a wet, muddy- season, which insures the contact of the virus deposited on the soil with the skin about the top of the hoofs ; the accumulation of cattle in large fairs or markets; the aggregation of large num- bers of live stock for the supply of armies in the field; travel of stock byrail or road, and the like. Yet these are but means for the diffusion of the poison, while no one of them, nor all taken together, can call the disease into existence where the ijoison is not already present. Such compre- hensive facts as these 'narrow the list of real causes down to the simple contact of the virus with a healthy animal. This virus, however, is perhaps the most contagious known. It is often carried on the clothes, boots and hands of man ; on the fibers of hay or straw ; preserved on the walls, floors, mangers, and other fittings of the building; on stable utensils; in yards, parks, roads and railroad cars; on drinking troughs; or it may be carried on the legs or bodies of dogs, chickens, jats, and other animals which themselves escape the infliction. In short, "any solid body may re- tain, and be a bearer of, this contagion. Fortu- nately, it does not spread to any extent in the atmosphere. Nothing is more common than to find a herd on one side of a road struck down by -the disease, while another in a field on the oppo- site side of the road remains perfectly healthy. It may be carried by a strong wind in the form of a virulent saliva, or the virus may dry up on light bodies, such as paper, hay, etc., which are afterwards borne off by the wind. It may be carried by^^men or animals, or by water running from the diseased to the healthy lot; but, in the absence of such agencies, the breadth of a com- mon road is amply sufiicient to circumscribe the disease Cloven-footed animals appear to be the natural victims of this disease, and all species are about equally obnoxious to its attacks; but it may be communicated to many if not all other warm-blooded animals by inoculation or by con- tact of the vu-ulent discharges with the mucous membranes. Its transmission to man has been noticed during almost every great outbreak since that of 1695. It has been reported, among others, by Valentine, Nadberny, Levitzky, Kolb, Hert- wig, Rayer, Bosquet, Londe, Levigny, Dun- dussy, Hilbner, Holmes, Balfour, Karkeek and Watson. Cases of the disease in man have been seen in Albany and at South Dover, Dutchess county, N. Y., during the i present outbreak. It shows itself in man by slight f everishness, and the formation on the tongue and inside the lips and cheeks, and sometimes on the hands, of small blisters, rarely amoimting to the bulk of a lentil. In children and young animals, feeding exclusively on milk, diarrhoea and fatal inflam- mation of the stomach and bowels occasionally supervene. It is further to be dreaded that the malady, gaining a lasting hold on the dairies of our large cities, may s'well the list of mortality of the infant population by inducing those fatal diarrhoeas and enteritis reported by Hilbner, Bal- four and Watson. Its existence in horses is reported by Sagar, Cleaver and Laubender, but the susceptibility of the soliped is very slight, and he can probably be affected only by inocula- tion. In chickens it has been frequently noticed — among others, by Hennicke, Sagar, Lamber- Kcchi, Dickens and Youatt. Chickens were attacked in December, 1870, on the farm of Mr. Eighmie, La Grange, Dutchess county, N. Y. 47 APHTH.S! The drinking of the castaway milk is probably the common cause. Dogs and cats have been noticed by Lagar, Younghusband and others, to suffer from drinking the milk. A shepherd's dog at Mr. Eighmie's suffered from the disease, and another, Mr. Preston's, South Dover, N. Y., had only partially recovered when seen by the writer. The victims may usually be picked out from a herd, twelve to twenty-four hours before they show distinct signs of the disease, by the increase of temperature indicated by a chnical thermometer introduced into the rectum and retained there for three minutes. In cattle the eruption may be concentrated on the mouth (including the muzzle and nostrils), on the udder and teats, or on the space between the hoofs, though it usually attacks all of these parts sim- ultaneously, and in rare cases even extends to the general integument or to the mucous membrane of the throat, stomach and bowels, or other inter- nal organs. The sjnmptoms are slight shivering or roughness of the coat, neglect of feeding and rumination, redness, heat, swelling and tender- ness of the pasterns, teats and mouth, arching of the back, and a crouching, hesitating gait, accumulation of a white froth around the mar- gin of the lips, and a loud smacking noise made by the tongue and lips. On the second or third day the blisters may be seen on the gums, on the dental pad behind the upper lip, on the tongue, on the teats, and around the upper borders of the hoofs and between them. In twenty-four to thirty-six hours more (sometimes at once) these burst, the cuticle is detached, and raw pink sores are left, most noticeable on the mouth and teats. With care the process of healing goes on rapidly, and is completed about the fifteenth day. Com- plications are rare, unless as the result of neglect, and consist in inflammatiori and loss of the udder; extensive formation of matter beneath the hoofs, causing them to be~shed; extension of disease to the sinews, bones and joints of the foot, with wide-spread destruction of parts; eruption on the stomach and bowels, with dangerous or fatal inflammation; or implication of the' womb with abortion or long-continued weakening discharges. In sheep the feet are mainly affected, and the malady bears a strong resemblance to foot-rot, and, under neglect, may merge into this. Swine also suffer severely in the feet, and, as they are too commonly neglected and left to stand on mud and filth, shedding of the hoofs is frequent. When the mouth suffers they champ the jaws, and frothy saliva collects around the lips. Losses can only be estimated by considering that every ruminating animal and hog exposed to the poison will almost invariably contract the disease ;' also, that the poison may be dried up in barns and elsewhere without losing its vitality or virulence, and thus be preserved for months and years. TThe depreciation of ordinary store and feeding stock, which have passed through the affection, may be approximately stated at $5 to $10 per head — sheep and swine at relatively smaller amounts; but for dairy stock no such low esti. mates can be accepted. Then there are frequent consequences of loss of the bag, or of the hoofs, abortions, and chronic discharges from the womb, which unfit the subjects for dairy purposes; and lastly, internal complications and fatal results. "Such results imply serious losses for individuab, counties or States; but the great danger lies i« the possible migration of the disease out west, APHTHiE 48 and its final diffusion throughout the States. This is much less unlikely than was its importa- tion from Europe nine months ago. We had then the safeguard of a restriction on direct im- portation; hut now let a valuable Short-horn he sent from Massachusetts or New York, to Min- nesota, Illinois, Missouri, Kansas or Texas; let him contract the disease on the roads or railroad cars, and convey it to the stock among which he is sent and the chances are that all the more eastern States will sufief in turn. The aggregate loss in such a case would be virtually incalcu- lable, and if the disease gained a permanent f oot- > ing ampng us it would be liable to occur, more or less widely at intervals of a few years. Under the head of treatment little need be said. Keep; ing the bowels open by soft diet, or, if necessary, mild laxatives, administering nourishing gruels if the animal threatens to sink, and keeping the seat of eruption scrupulously Clean, will usually suffice. No vaunted preparations for the cure of the disease will ,really cut it short, as it passes through its successive stages, and ter- minates in recovery in ten to fifteen days, the time at which the venders of specifics claim that a cur^ can be effected. A dry floor must be ~ secured, with perfect cleanliness, and the sores may be washed daily with a preparation of one part of carbolic acid dissolved in fifty or a hun- dred parts of water. For the teats, glycerine may advantageously replace the water. The milk must be fully withdrawn, using a silver milking tube if the teats are sore' and the cow restive. Importation of ruminants atid swine from all countries where 'it exists should be allowed only under the restrictions of a week's qi^arantine, ex;amination by a competent veter- inary surgeon, and sponging of the skin with a solution of carbolic acid. Diseased stock should be parefuUy secluded, together with infected barns, yards, fields, fodder, rugs^ buckets and other utensils , One person should be appointed to attei^d to them, and forbidden to go near other . stock, or even to cross the road or other place ' frequented by stock, until he has washed his boots with the carbolic acid solution. All other persons and animals should be excluded. In- spectors should wash and disinfect on leaving. Infected roads should be closed for a month at least. In injected countries or districts, all movements of live stock (cattle, sheep and swine) should be prohibited except under a written permit from the local authority,; who should assure himself of their soundness before granting it. Railroad cars, yards, and loading-banks on which diseased stock have been, should be well washed or scraped, and then thickly sprinkled > with carbolic acid. A similar thorough disinf ec- ,tion of infected buildings, yards, utensils, rugs, etc., is equally essential. Manure " should be removed and plowed under by horses. No new stock should be brought on the same premises until after thorough disinfection, nor upon in- fected fields until one or more months after the last sick animal has left. While the disease pre- vails in the same State, or in an adjacent one, newly purchased stock should be placed on quar- ahtine, in a^ separate building or park, with sep- arate attendants, for a fortnight after purchase. During the prevalence of the disease the milk can not be safely used, but to young animals it may be given with impunity it it has first been boiled. The following -will hi found useful in APPLE the treatment of this disease: As a laxative, give a half pound of Epsom salts (sulphate magnesia); as an astringent wash, use one ounce each of borax and tincture of myrrh and one quart of water- if there is a bad smell, use one drachm carbolic acid, two ounces' honey, one pint each of vinegar and water. As a lotion for the teats, use one-half drachm carbolic acid and ten ounces rivcerine; as a dressing for the feet, apply, with a feather, one ounce of oil of vitriol, slowly poured into four ounces of water, first cleans- ing the feet. After dressing, tie up th? feet in a tar bandage. The hind feet are easily dressed if two men raise each separately with a long, stout fork handle, passed in front of the hock. In dressing the feet all detached horn should be removed and a poultice applied if inflamma- tion runs high. Soft cold mMies or thinly sliced or pulped roots are the best food throughout. APHYLLUS. Leafless; without fully devel- oped green leaves. APIAET. A bee-house. ; (See Bees.) APISi The generic name of the bee. APOCARPOUS. "VVhen the carpels of a fruit do not hang together. APOCBENIC ACIB. (See Humus.) . APOPHYSIS. A protuberance, -process, or projection. In anatomy, restricted to processes of the osseous system. APOPLEXY.' This disease is rare in horses. Giddiness, inegruns and vertigo are diseases of the brain analagous to apoplexy, occasioning loss of control of the muscles, loss of sensation, and slight spasms of the muscles, but without the exhibition of inflammation. The causes are over- work, tight collars, exposure to the sun, local irritation, as of woi-ms, and hereditary tendency. The animal suddenly stops, reels, trembles, and perhaps falls suddenly to the grpund, but again, after a time, staggering to his feet, and showing excitement ana nervousness for some days. Remedial means are to bleed from the jugular vein, put the horse in a stable and give an active purge. In all diseases of this class, to which animals are subject, care should be taken that no arteries are pressed upon, and that the collar and harness are easy. The special cause should be found if this does not give relief — a veterinary surgeon alone being competent to determine. When it occurs in a stallion, castration often avoids these difficulties. Any form of apoplexy constitutes unsoundness, and an animal afflicted is dangerous to himself and driver: APOTHECIUM. The shield of lichens. APPLE. Pyrus malus. This is the most im- portant of the fruits of the temperate zone. The time when it was first brought into cultivation is lost in the obscurity of the past. It is, without doubt, one of the most ancient of fruits culti- vated, since it is found in the remains of the lake dwellings of the Neolithic period, having then been apparently cultivated. Again, its name, as found in most Indo-European lan- guages, is derived froin a common root, Ab., Ap., ,A1., AV., Af., implying its transmission successively from its original place of cultiva- tion, or home, through numerous tribes. It has one of the widest ranges of any fruit, being found in nearly the whole of Europe, Northern Africa, Northern Asia, China, Japan, in North America and in South America, being abundant in Southern Chili. It is also found in Australia. In fact, wherever civilization extends, and the CANADA REINETTE. APPLE / 60 APPLE climate is temperate, there this king of fruits may- be found. In the United States, apple orchards are cultivated from Florida to Alaska. Even at Sitka it blossoms the first of June, but does not usually perfect its fruit. ■ It is held to be descended from the wild crab of Europe, but the Siberian crab, and most probably the Russian apples, are descendants of the Pyrua prunifoUa. The wild crab-apples of the United States are as follows. Pynisav,gusUfolia(A.\t.), or American crab-apple, is found growing wild in Pennsylvania, south- ward and westward, supposed by some to be only a variety ' The arrangement of the names of varieties in the cata- .^■J.! 'J a}Pliabetic»l and according to the nomenclature adopted by the society. Synonyms are given in a few instances where it seemed necessary, and these are placed oS.„ ™ *Je idopted names in italics. The columSs are arranged thus: In the first, the names of varieties, in S» S^^^?*^ columns the descrlpHon.-ahd in the remain- ' ma columns the States or districts. The: State or district coTumns .are not placed in alphabetisal order, but are grouped in divisions somewhat similaTiin climate, and othercharactersaffectingfruitculture. Thus: 1, Northern division, between 43' and 49° • a Central Hiiioinn K. 35*'Vh^%Ti'''=.?%^"?^''''V-*^'^™ for' ™u^v«K ■ "■ ^'^'™' '? ?"i^* * *°'t '« recommended for cultivation is designated by a star (*) and if the vanety IS of great supeaority an^ value, two stars (V if new and recently infroduced and promising, by a daiger ^l^'nH^ifJ' T"?" "^ abbreviations: The 1 z7is uS T>^2l^'-^°'' l^Se; m. for medium, and s. for sm^l The form-r. c. for roundish conical: olJ. for oblong- rob The"co?o*i?v°?^?^.V»,-,'" "''i °'.°^""«: ■•■ for ro^undisS: ine coior-y. r. for yellow and red: r. s. for red strineri - g.y. for greenish yellow; rus. for ruisett^d: v ru7f..r J1'S''i^°?**-k^J'« quality-g. for goodV v. g forVerv good ; b. for best. *he use-F. frSit valnaS e for aft family purposes; K. M. valuable for kitchen o? markei MdWfo^'winiS.r°'"p^ =*"'"?"" J"-*- f""- 'ate autumn. Am a"™ > "'"'"• Bus- « 'or Russian; Eug.. English- Am., American; Qer., German; F., Foreign. ™e"8n. TET0F8K1. (51) APPLES 53 APPIi|l8 NAjbES. 1 a 8 4 5 6 r 8 9 10 ,11 18 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 SI 22 23 37 Aleraon's Early Alexander !.'."!'.!!!'.".'.!!! American Beauty !!!.!!!!!.'!!!.*,'.*!] American Golden Pippin '''.'.".*.'.'.'*.* ! .' .' ' ' '. American -Summer Pearmain Arnold's Beauty Aromatic Carolina !"'.'.!!!!.".* Autumn Bough '.'.V.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. Autumnal Swaar '.'.'.'.'. Bailey Sweet '..', Baker ' ' ' Baldwin ......! I !.'.....!."" " Baltimore [[][ (Cable's Gilliflower. MahaskaO Baltzley Beauty of Kent Belden Sweet ."....' Belmont BenDavis i (New York Pippin.) Benoni Bentley's Sweet Berkshire Spy Bethlehemite ['[ Bevan's Favorite Black Apple (Jersey Black.) ' Blackshear Blenheim Pippin Blue Pearmain Bonum '..'.'.". Bourassa '.!'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'."[ Bower's Nonpareil ". Bowling^ Sweet Broadwell Brittle Sweet '.'.'.'.'.'.'. Brown ■. '.','.'.'.'. ; (Nottingham Brown.) ' Bruce's Summer Backingham (Fall Queen of Kentucky,' Bache'lorj Equinetefy.')' ' Bnfflngton's Early !....!..' Bullock's Pippin '. .... ... (American Golden Eusset.) Burlington Pippin Calkins' Pippin Camak Sweet Catnpfleld Canada Eeinette .!!..."., Cannon Pearmain Carolina Bed June Carolina Watson Carter's Blue Cane Creek Sweet ..."i."'.'.'."!!! Chattahoochee ChenangoStrawberry !.'.'..'..'!!!' ( Sherwood's Favorite. ) Clark's Pearmain Clayton Clyde Beauty ....'." Cooper , "' Cooper's Market '. Cooper's Early White Cogswell Cole's Quince DESCRIPTION. r. r. c. r. ob. r. ob. 00. fl. fl. r. c. r. ob. ir.c r. ob. r. c. r. c. r. ob. r. c. r. c. r. c. r. c. r. ob. r. ob. r. c. r. ob. fl. ( fl. r. ob. r. c. r. ob r. c. fl. r. c. r. ob r. ob fl. r. c. fl. c. r. c. r. ob. r. ob, r. c. r. c. r. c. fl.c. r. ob. r. fl. ob. c. r. ob. c. r. c. r. ob. r. c. r. . r. ob. r. ob. y- r. s. y.r. g- y- y.r. y.r. y.r. g. y- g.,y. r. s. y.r. I'-g. r.y. y- r. s. y. y.r. y.r. y.r. g- y. r. s. y.r. d. r. y. y.r. r. y.r. y.r. y.r. y.r. g- y- r. s. r. s. y.r. y- y. rus. y.r. y.r. y. g.r. g- y. r. s. r. s. g.y.r. g-r. y. y. g.r. y. y.r. g.r. g. y. y.r. y. 'y.r. g. y. v.g. g. T.g. V- v.g. T.g. V.g. V.g;. v.g. v.g. v.g. v.g. g. g. g- v.g. v.g. V- g. g. v.g. g. v.g. g. v.g. g- y. g. v.g. v.g. t3,. 2 Moderate bearer; showy. 5 Slender grower, but healthy. 18 A hardy tree ; very productive. v.g. v.g. g. g. g. v.g. v.g. v.g. g. v.g. g. g- v.g. v.S. g. g. g. g. v.g. K. K.M. F. m: P.M. F. P. F. F; F. P.M. K.M. P.M. P.M. P.M. K.M. P. P.M. K.M. P.M. P.M. P. P.M. P. F. P.M. P.M. M. M. M. P.M. M. P.M. P. P.M. E. A. W. W. S. W. A. E.A. L. A. L. A. W. W. W. A. L.A. W. W. W. S. w. E.W, W. S. W. w. w. w. L. A. L. A. W. L.A. L. A. A. L. A. Am. Bus. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am, AmV Am. Am. Eng. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Eng. I._ P.M. P. P. P.M. P.M. P.M. P.M. M.K. P.M. P. P.M. M. P.M. P. M. P.M. M. P.M. P.M. M. M. M. P.M. P. M, E.W. W. 'S. W. W. W. W. W. W. W. S. s. E.A. S. w. E.A, W. W. W. L. A. W. A. W. W. Am. Ger. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. N. S. Am. Am. P. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. P El 15 A cparee, showy fruit. II S'?^ '?l' **''1«! too tender to ship. 18 Valuable shipping sort. 20 Fine winter variety OT ?iol°,°'l"''5 Newtown Spltzenbeig 27 Liable to drop, at the West. APPLES 53 APPLES NOKTHBRN DIVISION. . n Between 42' and 49°. — : 1 : : , .-CBNTEAL DIVISION. III.-SOUTH. DIVISION. Between 35° and.42°. Between 38° and 35°. Number. Vermont. Maeeachusetts. Rhode Isiand. Connecticut. New York. Ontario. Micfagan. Wisconsin. Minnesuta. Dakota. Montana. Wyoming. Idaho. Washington. Oregon. Jr'ennsylvania. New Jersey. Delaware. Maryland and District of Col. Virginia. 1 i 1 i pl|i lill llliltilliili d ^ i 8-3 1 4 ■■*•■■■ ! ■■■, * * 2 » ■• « 5 **•••■*••* »..«..» 6 J. ■ ■ * * . . ** ^ *# . . # ## #* ^ ^ ^ ^ * ** * . 7 .* .. :: :: :. :: :: ::.: :::: ::;:;: .§■■•■*■■*■■* ■■*■■••** t . . # 10 * **** J; ■ • * * . . • ■ t # * ■ . . - * *♦ . ." 11 t , .. ...*. .* * * •■******•■•■* V » * . . 1^ * 14 ^ 11 ■• **■•** 16 # ■ ■ *....* ^ .. jj ' ••***'.#*####* * **#..*..# ***** ** #* 19 4: Hf. H/i . . ^ :)! ^ ^ ,, ^ ^ d. ao + . t ... {■'• 21 .. , 22 ... .1 .... t + 23 .. .. 24 : : * #* . . 25 .. 26 , 29 . ...... , .... .*..*. 30 .* , 31 , .* 83 , ..... * ::..:;;:::;:::;::::: :::;:::;:: ' ' 34 i , 35 .... ■ . . « .-..** * * ** ** :,: * ** * ■ . . . " 42 '* • * * ************** . ■ * ■ - * ***** *****# 47 ...*. :: ::.*. '* ■;::: :■;: "::;: ." .*. ::.*. ::. 49 50 61 t***« 53 .. .. .... . * 64 J * * * * 1 1 43 Valued for stock and cider. 46 Esteemed South and West. 48 Valued at the South. APPLES 54 APPLES 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 NAMES. Colvert CorntlPs Funcy . Cracking Creek Cross , Cullasaga Curtis Sweet Danvers' Winter Sweet. Dean , Disliaroon Dominie ,' Drap d'Or Dutcll Miguonne Ductless of Oldenburg Dyer, or Pomme Eoyal Early Harvest Early Red Margaret Early Joe Early Pennock Early Strawberry Early Eipe Edgar Red Streak (Walbridge.) Edwards' Early English Russett (Poui;hkeepsie Ensset.) Esopus Spitzenberg .. Eustis __ Eutaw . 100 101 102 103 104 106 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 Evening Party. Ewalt Excel Pallawater (Fornwalder, Tuipehocken.) Fall Harvey Fall Jenneting Fall Orange Fall Pippin ........'.'.'.'..'. rr , (Hol'and Pippin, erroneously.) *all Qneen, or Haas, Gros Pommier Pall Wine Pameuse (P6mme de Neige, Snow Appie.) ' Family "^ Fanny Ferdinand Ferris Fink Fourth of July Poust's Winter Foundling Fulton ;;■ ■; Gabriel .'.'.'. Garden Royal '.'...'. Garretson's Early Gilpin ' "_ (Carthouse, Little Komanite.) Gladney's Red ... Goff .■.■.'.■.'.'.'.'.■ Golden Dixie ,,[ Golden Russet, af WestemNew York ' Golden Sweet Granite Beauty Gravenstein . , Green Cheese......... Green Sweet .' Grimes' Golden DESCRIPTION. r. ob. 00. r. ob. fl. c. r. ob. r. c. r. c. r. ob. fl. r. c. r. ob. r. ob. r. ob. r. ob. r. r. ob, r. fl. r. c. r. r. ob. r. ob. ob. r. ob. ob. c. r. 0. r. ob. r. ob, ob. c. r. ob, r. ob, fl. c. fl. fl. r. fl. fl. r. ob. r. ob. fl. r. ob. r. ob. r. c. r. c. y. r. y. r. y- y. r. r. s. y. B. y. r. g- y- r. 8. g- g. r. y. r. y. r. c? y. r. r. 8. m. r. ob. m. r. ob. 1. r. 1. r. ob. 1. r. ob. m. fl. m. r. ob. m. r. ob. y. r. y. r. s- y. g- y- g- y- y. r. e- y- y. r. r. y. r. B. y. r. r. s. o-y- y.r. y. r. r. 8. y.r. g. y. r. y. y.r. y. y. r. r. 8. y.r. g- y. y.rus. g- y- y.r. y.r. g-y. g. y. g. y. g- v.g. v-g. g- g- v.g. v.g. g- v.g. v.g. g. g- v.g. v.g. g- v.g. P. M. F. M, K. P. M. P. M, M. K. P.M. P.M. P.M. P.M. F. M. M. P. P.M. P. M. P. M. P. P. P. v.g. b. P. M v.g. F. L. A L. A. L. A, W. S. w. L. A. W. E. A. A. W. S. w. s. E.A. S. S. S. S. S. s. w. Ger. Qer. Rus. P. Am. Ger. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. S. Am. P. M, W. Eng. v.g. g- v.g. g- g- g. v7g. v.g. v.g. g. g- g. v.g. v.g. v.g. v.g. g- v.g. v.g. g. v.g. p. M, M. P. M, M. M. M. K.M, P.M. P.M. P. P.M. M. F. M. P.' M. M. M. "p." M. M. P. K. M. H. >i K.M. P.M. F. M. P.M. F. M., F. M, P. M, K.M, P. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. I.- 70 Productive and hardy. 73 One of the most hardy varieties. 74 Valued for dessert. W, E.W. A. W. W. W. W. L. A. E.A. L. A. L. A. A. L. A. \V. S. s. A. W. L.W. S. W. A. W. L. A. S. A. "A' « . S. s. w. s. w. L. A.- W. W. W. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. F. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Ger. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am'. Am. ^m. Am. Am. Am, Am. Am. Ger. Am. Am. Am. 75 Succeeds beet on strong soils 77 A delicious table sort; tree of small growth. 78 Popular market sort. 79 Continues a long time ripening; often called Red Juneatlng. APPLES 55 APPLES NORTHERN DIVTS Between 43° and 4 >ION. H.-CENTRAL DIVISION. j^,^ ' ,, , ^ Between 35" and 42°. in.— SOUTH. DIVISION. Between 28*" and Z^". Number. Vermont. Massachusetts. Rhode Island. Connecticut. New York. Ontario. * * 1 Michigan. : : I Wisconsin. : : 1 Minnesuta. : : Dakota. : : Montana, : Wyoming. : : Idaho. : :, W^ashington. : : Oregon. ^ : Pennsylvania. * : New Jersey. : : Delaware. t : Maryland and District of Col. : : 1 Virginia. : : 1 North Carolina. * : 1 Ohio. .2 '3 1 a V V p .2 o p * o * 1 2 03 d i i * a o3 > '(3 1 o J3 S o 02 03 g * * ♦ Em < i i 03 a "3 3 — i X 8 ■a <) 60 * * * 61 * .. 62 63 * ; «4 65 66 * 67 * * 68 * ■ .*.... 69 * * # * * * * * # * * * * ** *# * # # * * * If* *>¥ ♦# #♦ * V #* *■ 70 * .. * * •. * * •• * * ** !t!4 ** * * * * * * * * * * ** * * #■ ** 71 .. 72 * , # -1 * .. ** * • • !¥ * * * * ** ** ** ** ** ** * * # ** * * ** * * * * ** * t * # * * * # * 74 «){: :^ . . . 3): ^ 75 * # # «4: ** * 76 * .. # .. *■■■•# * ■ • ■■ « if # .. .. # .. .. .. .. # 7T ##••■■#* 78 79 * * * . . jn * * •■ * * * ■■ * * .- .■ ■■ 80 . * . . . . . ■ ' 81 ■82 * . . ** • ■ ■ ■ . . . . * * « 83 #..*..*.. 86 * 87 '« . . 88 * .. 89 t ... * * 90 , .. !(:***•■ «* ** ■■ * * * «* ** * * # ♦# * ♦ ** * ** ** * * * *♦ * # * # «* * ** * * * * * 92 , .. 93 , , .. 95 # « * « * •■ * * ## # * ** * ** 4:* * * * ** * * * t * * * * * * * * •• * .. .- * * * 97 ** * •■***** 98 * •■ •• * S9 J, .. *...... 100 .... 101 * V 102 v 103 + . . t ,104' 105 . . , 10« , . . . * * * ** * 107 :.. 408 .. ,...., .. ■ 109 « 110 : * ■ . * ** * -■ * * * ** * ** * ** * * * Ill . . . . l! . * . 112 ** ** * * * « * * * * * * * * # 4* 113 * .. -. 114 ««.... * ** * * 115 ^^ # « 4:«Hc* « i * ** * * P * * * 118 f.***A* !!**.*.' ••* ** * • • • ■ *# * ■- * * # ■• * m ** * * * ¥* # * * ** * * * * * * * ** •■ * # ■• * # ■ ■ * It 1 1 97 A hardy tree; one of the best for 103 Very hardy trea and handsome 117 Ripens early and keeps lato. the North and West. fruit. 118 One of the best South. 108 Valuable as a very late keeper. 108 Of a delicious pear flavor. A.PPLES 56 APPLES NAUKS. ' 181 122 ISS 134 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 133 133 134 135 136 187 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 ,148 149 150 151 152 153 164 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 m 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 ,179 Gully Hall..i. Hamilton Haskell Sweet. '. Hawthornden Hartford Sweet ; Hewea' Virginia Crab Highby Sweet Hightop Sweet Hockett's Sweet Holland Pippin Holly Hoover (Black Coal.) Horn Horse (Haas.) Huhbardston Nonsuch Hun,t Busset Huntsman's Favorite Hurlbut Irish Pippin , Jefferson County Jefferis ,[ Jersey Sweet Jewett's Fine Bed i . . Joaathan Julian. ;'"' JunaliiglEee : Kentiicky . Kentucky' Bed Streak (Bradford's Best.) Keswick Codlin Key's Pall Kinnaird's Choice /Kinney's Winter '. . King of Tompkins County. . . Klrkbridge White Klaproth..... Lady Apple -. Lady's Sweet Laiisingburg Large Yellow Bough. DBSCEIPTION. (Summer Sweet Bough.) Late Strawberry (Autumn Strawberry.) Lawver Limber Twig ., Long Island Busset '.'.'.'.". Loudon Pippin LowSll '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. (Oran^^ij^Tallow Pippin,' Queen AineViiichigin Gol- Lyscom .' Maiden'6 Blush Major Mangum !!!!!!! Mann .*.".".*.*! Manoihet !.*.*! !!!!!i]! Mary Womac Marquis of Lome. . . Marston's Bed Winter . . Mason's Stranger Maitamnsket , Maverick Sweet i Maxy . . , fl. fl. r. fl. r. ob. r. ob. r, r. c. r. r. ob. r. r. ob, r. fl. r. c. :. ob. ob. :. ob. r. ■. ob. r. ob. r. r. ob. r. c. fl. c. r. ob. ob. fl. r. fl. ob. r. ob r. ob. fl. r. c. r. r. fl. r. ob, r. ob, r. ob. r. fl. r. fl. r. c. fl. fl. r. ob, r. c. g- y. y. r. r. y. g. y. g. y. r. B. y.r. y.r. g. y. y.r. g- y. y.r. y.r. g.r. y.r. y.r. y. rus. y- y.r. r. s. y.r. y.r. y.r. r. y.r. ly. r. g- y.r. g.y.d.r g.y. ruS. y.r. y.r. g- y. y.r. y.r. y-r- y.r. g.y. y.r. y.r. y.r. rus. y.r. g. y. g. y. g.y. g-r. y.r. y.r.' y.r. y.r. g-r. r. s. y.r. y.r.. y.r. g.r. T-g. v.g. g. v.g- g. g. g- v.g. v.g. g. ■ g. g- v-g- V. g., g. v.g. v.g. v.g. g- v-g- g- v.g. v.g. g. g- g. v.g. g. g- v.g. g. v.g. g. g. v.g. v.g. g. v.g. v.g. v.g. g- g. v-g. v-g- v.g. V. g- v.g. v.g. v-g. v-g. g- v.g. g> P. F. P.M. p. S.M. M. Cider P. P.M. K. K.M. K. P.M. P.M. K.M. P.M. P.M. P.M. P.M. F. M P. M P.M. P. M, P.M. P.M. K. P.M. M. P.M. K.M. P.M. P.M. f.'m. K.M. K.M. P.M. P.M. M. P.M. P.M. P.M. M. K. M. P.M. P. M, K.M, P. M: P.M. P.M. F. M. P.M. P.M. P., P.M. P.M. M. P. M.J W. W. A. E.A. E.A. W. L. A. L. A. S. w. L. A. W. W. L.W. S. w. w. w. L. A. E.W, W. E.A. E.A. W. W. S. W. L. A. A. E.A. E.W. W. W. W. E.A. E.A. W. W. W. S. L- L. A. W. W. W. W. E.A. E.A. E.A. W. W. W. B.A. W. W.., W. W. W. W. w. Am. Am. Am. Am. P. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. P. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Eng. Am. Am. Am. Am. P. Am. Am. Am. n as . Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am, Am. Am. Am. Am. N. S. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. f^^mrattrr'"™"""^ "' ''' ^^^^^.'^^l^^L^H^.^.^P,- ?« Ver, valuable for market or stoolc H Y*J",®^ ""'y f™ cider. 1« A delicious dessert apple. luuy aeciaeu. 172 A valued sweet apple. UNITED STATES CLIMATE AND RAINFALL. The variations of Temperature, and tlie comparisons of heat and cold, between tlie States shown at a glance. TTlorida Lonisiima Alabama South Carolina MississippL Georgia Texas North Carolina, Arizona CalU'ornia Arkansas Indian Ter. Tennessee Virginia Kentucky :Maryland Missouri Dis't Coluraljia Delaware West Virginia Illinois Indiana Oregon Ohio New Jersey Kansas P'ennsylvanla New Mexico Idaho Utah Rhode Island Connecticut Nevada Iowa Colorado Washiugton T. Massachusetts New York Nebraska Wisconsin Verniont Maine Micliigaa Dakola jNIontana JMinncsota Wyoming New Hampshire Sighest Temperature at any point, at any time ia the Slide. 104 De; 107 Mean Annual Teinperatlhrc. Zowest Temperature any parLof State, Zero It.n above 1.3 above fj.6 above 10.5 above :i al)ove Annual Rainfii.lt anit nirlii'd iSnoir Tncbi APPLES 57 APPLES NORTHERN DIVISION. Between 42° and 49°. 121 182 183 184 185 186 127 188 189 130 131 138 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 158 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 178 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 U.— CENTRAL DIVISION. Between 35° and 48°. III.— SOUTH. DmsiON. Between 28° and 35°. 173 A seeding from Eamlio, which it reBembles. APPLES 58 APPLES NAMES. DESCRIPTION. I - 0> e 1 i o ci 5 so > o * t * t * * * ii ■•J ■| a s m t * * 5 1 s t. 180 181 McAfee's Nousuch (Large Striped Pearmain.) McLellan 1. m. m. m. m. m. 1. 1. 1. m. m. m. m. 1. m. 1. m. 1. m. m. 1. m. m. m. m. m. m. 1. m. m, 1. 1. m. m. B. 1. m. 1. m. m. m. 1. 1. 1. m. m. 1. 1. m. 1. s. m. m. m. 1. m. m. r. ob. r. ob. r. c. r. ob. r. ob. r. fl. ob. fl. r. ob. r. c. fl. r. ob. r. ob. r. ob. r. ob. r. r. c. fl. ob. r. ob. ob. ob. r. ob. fl. r. r. c. fl. r. oh. r. ob. r. ob. fl. r. ob. r. c. r. ob. ob. r. c. r. ob. r. c. r. ob. c. r. ob. r.obl. r. ob. ob. fl. r. c. r, r. ob. r. c. r. r. ob. r. ob. ob, c. r. ob. r. ob. r. y-r. y.r. r. s. y.r. r. 6. r. B. y.r. r. s. y.r. r. y. r- y- r. s. g- y. y.r. r. s. y.g- y.r. r. s. y. y.r. y- g- y. y.r. g- y. ruB. r. 8. r. s. r. y. g.y.r. g. y. g- y- g.y-r. y. ru8. g. y. y- y- g- y- y. y. !'■ y.r. y. r. s. y.r. y.r. y.r. y.r. y.r. y.r. r. r. 8. y.r. y.r. g- y. y.r. y.r. V. g. T.g. V- v.g- g- v.g. g- v.g. f: g. v.g. v.g. b. g- !: v.g. g- v.g. v.g. v.g. v.g. v.g. v.g. g- e- v.g. g- v.g. v.g. v.g. i: b. v.g. !: g- g- v.g. g. v.g. g. v.g. v.g. t g. v.g. g. e- v.g. g. v.g. P.M. F. M. P.M. P.M. P.M. K.M. P.M. K.M. P.M. K. P.M. K.M. P.M. P.M. P.M. P.M. P. M. P.M. P. 'i\ M . P.M. P.M. P.M. ' P. P.M. P.M. P.M. P.M. P. P.M. P.M. P.M. K.M. P. P.M. P.M. P. P. P.M. P.M. P.M. K.M. P.M. K.M. P.M. P.M. K.M. P.M. P.M. Cider P.M. P.M. K.M. P.M. P. P.M. W. W. E.W. W. A. W. A.W. L. A. W.' W. w. L.A. W. w. w. w. w. w. E.W. A. L. A. A. W. W. A. W. W. W. W. W. W. W. W. A. W. W. E.W. A. E.A. W. L.W. w. ■ E.W. W. L. A. L. A. W. S. W. L.A. L. A. E.W. W. S. W. S. w. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Eng. Am. Am, Am. Am. Am. Am Am. Am. Am. Am. Am Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. P. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. isa 1H3 Melon iS Mexico Milam ' Ififi Milden, or Milding 187 Minister 188 189 (EedCheeTi Pippin.) Moore^s Sweet 190 191 192 193 194 (Orange Sweet.) Nansemond Beauty Newtown Pippin (Albemarle Pippin, Brook's Pippin.) 195 (Vandevere, of New York.) Nickajack 19B Nonpareil Russet.' 597 Nortnern Spy 198 199 Oconee Greening , 200 201 Oliio Nonpareil Orange Pippin 202 oro^....'^!\. ;;;;;;;;;;:;;;;;;;;;;:::;:..::. .::;;:;•::::■■■ 203 (■White Bellflower. Woodman's Long.) Otoe Red Streak -204 Peach Pond Sweet 205 206 207 ■208 209 Phillip's Sweet 210 211 Pilot 212 Pleasant Valley Pippin 213 Plumb's Cider 214 Pomme Griee 215 Porter 216 217 ai8 Premium Hreeident '.. Primate 219 220 Prother's 'Winter 221 Pumpkin Sweet Pyle's Red 'Winter '.. Ramsdell'a Sweet Hambo Rawle's Genet 223 224 225 226 Am. Am. Am. "p." ** * * If* 4> * 227 22M Red Canada ** ■229 Red Cathead..... Am, Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Eng. # * 230 231 232 RedCrab Red Ranee Red Winter Pearmain 233 (Buncombe.) 234 235 236 Ithode Island Greening ' Rhodes' Orange "! Hibston Pippin * 183 One of the most delicious apples; tree a poor grower. m Esteemed whdte knowa. 200 Esteemed where known.' Sr mow yeaw since": 5 This apple la known South and West 203 An old variety; extensively by over forty diflferent names. planted at the West twenty iflfiteemed whorH kTinwn «« -m.^..^. ,—«-„ „i- ^ APPLES 59 APPLES MOETHEEN DIVISION. Between 42° and 49°. 1 r— 1 ; i ; ; : : -. ■ : II.-CENTEAL DIVISION. Between 35° and 42°. . III.— SOUTH. DIVISION. Between 28° ana 35°. Xumber. Vermont. 1 MaesachQsettB. 1 Khode Island. 1 Connection t. 1 New York. i Ontario. 1 Michigan. ) Wisconsin. 1 Minnesota. 1 Dakota. Montana. Wyoming. t a llllllllllllllillll; B J P 2i U m O 3 . 1 ■■ d ^« -Is 1 i S 1 1 180 « . . « ' 181 .. ..,..*•■* t .. .. * 182 183 ..,....»* * ■ •; ■ • * 184 « « 185 186 187 .. ,-...«.., #*■■#*••* * t .. * ■ 188 * .. , 189 .. ..*.., 190 ,«....«*, * ■ ■ • • * * 191 » .. , .. .. : ■ * 192 * ■ * 193 » • *..**.... * 194 .. , .. * , 195 , * * * 196 • Hf ^if . . . . J^ ***»**■•** « ■** **..**..****....##....#... ■ * . . * ■ ■ • ■ * • * t 199 _ . ** " * ' * .... # • 200 , ,. » . .. * * ■ - . t + ** * * ■ ■ •^- 201 * 202 * 4e . . ' ' + ' 203 204 » * .. « * ■■ ■■ ;• ■ 206 * 207 * 208 , 209 • 211 , .. * t ,. ,, ., . 212 * ...*. 213 * * ' 214 !,■■■■**■■** * 217 * 319 ..**.*.. *.."■■ ■■'■'■■■ ■•'. 220 ..:: .* : 221 . ** ** * - 2^ , 223 324 .. .«..,..« * * ■ - * ** ** ai6 * « 227 #* ^(up ** J,::,: ****** *# * ** * #..***..**** 1" ** * ** **'■*■* ** 'V • **** ***+.... 229 * 230 232 #■•.-*- * 233 * • . ** * * # * ....*#.. iti * * 236 * . . . . ***** 1 ... .... 1 203 A new variety: originated in Nebraska. 230 Best of all (or cider. 214 A. tree of small gTowtb; succeeds well at the North. 832 Extensively grown South and West. 230 Valued chiefly for Its keeping qualities. S APPLES GO APPLES^ NAMES. 'Richard's Graft Rid^e Pippin Robinson's Superb Robertson's Wnite RockPippin (Lemon.) Rockport Sweet Romanite, of the South,. Roman Stem Rome Beauty Roxbury Russet Saint Lawrence Sarah . Saxton (Fall Stripe.) heppard's Sweet r Shiawassee Beauty Snoekley Smith's Cider Smokehouse Somerset, of Maine /Somerset, of New York . Sops, of wine (Hominy.-) Soulard Southern Porter Spice Russet Stansill Stark. Stevenson's Winter Summer BelUleur Summer Hagloe Summer King Bummer Queen Summer Pound Royal Summer Pippin '.. (Champlain.) ■ Summer Rose Summer Sweet Paradise Susan's Spice Sutton Beauty Striped Sweet Pippin Swaar , , Sweet Belle et Bonne, Sweet Pear Sweet Winesap Taunton Tfetofsky Tewksbury Winter Blnsh Tillaquah Tinmouth^ Talman's sweet .'." Townsend .' (Hocking.) Transparent Zoar Trenton Early Twenty Ounce Apple .'.'.' (Cayuga Red Streak.) Utter .... Vandevere ' " Victuals and Drink .'.'.'.' Virginia Greening Wagener Warfleld '...'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.' Washington .*.'.'.'.".*.'." (Washington Strawberry.)' ' Washington Royal DESCRIPTION. I.— r. ob r. c. r, ■. y. ruB. r. ob c. r. ob r. c. r. r. r. ob. fi. fl. r. ob. r. c. fl. r. c. r. ob. r. ob. fi. r. c. r. r. ob r. c. fl. c. r. ob. r. c. r. ob, c. r. ob, fl. r. c. r. c. ob. c. s. r. 1. r. m. fl. n. r. oil 1. r. ob 1. r. ob m. r. ob n. r. c. m. fl. 1. r. c. m. fl.c. 6. fl. m. r. fl. m. fl. r. ob. fl. r. r. . r. oh. fl. ob. fl. r. ob. fl. r. c. r. ob. g- y- y. g- y. y.r. y.rus, y. r. y.rus. y.r. r. s. y.r. r. s. r.y. y.r. y.r. y.r. r. s. y.rus, y.r. y.r. ■y- y.rus. g- y- y.r. y- y- r. 8. y.r. y.r. y.rus. y.r. y.r. g- y- y-r- r. 8. r. s. g- y- y.rus. y. r. 8. y.r. y.r. y.r. y.r. y.r. g-y. r. s. w. y. r. s. y.r- y.r. y.rus. g. y. y.r. y. y.r. g. y. V. g. g. g. g. T.g. V.g. V.g. g- y.g. v.g. v.g. g. g. T.g. g: g. g. T.g. v.g, g. g- v.g. V. g. g. g. g. g. v.g. g. g. g. g. b. v.g. g. v.g. "b^- v.g. v.g. v.g. g. g. •v.g. g. v.g. v.g. g. v.g. g. v.g. g. g. g. g- v.g. P.M. M. F. M. F. M. M. P. F. M. P.M. M. P.M. M. P.M. P. P. F. M, P.M. P.M. K.M. P. P. K.M. M. . P.M. P. P. P. P. P.M. K.M. P. M K.M. M. K.M, P. P. P. P.M. P.M. P.M. P. P., M. P.M. K. P.M. P. M, P. K.M, M. P. P. P.M. P. K. M. F. M. P. P.M. P. M E.A. W. A. L. A. W. W. W.. W. L. A. W. A. E.A. A. L. A. W. W. W. W. S. E.A. E.A. L. A, S. w. w. w. w. A. M. S. : E.A. L. S. S. E.A. A. E.W. B.W. W. E.W. A. . W. A. S. W. W. W. W. S. E.W. S. L. A. A. W. W. W. W. A. E.A. W. 'u o i 3K Am, Am. Am. Ami Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Ajii. Eng. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am, Am. Am. Am. Am. Am.' Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Aiq. Am Rub. Am, Am. Am. Am. Am, Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am^ Am. Am., \Vv(t^ APPLES 61 APPLES NORTHERN DIVISION. Between 4^° aud 49°. n.— CENTRATi DIVISION. Between 35° and 42°. III;— SOUTH. DIVISION. Between 28" and 35". ■i 1 > a si 03 ■a d ■• 03 as ■ 1) 'a o X! u It . d -4 •§ a g i 2 g 1 ^ .s g 1 s a to . i £ i .§ -s a P ^ Q * 1 1 1 CQ '5 > a 03 O g 03 '3 O d i a .9 * * * ** + 03 M 1 V ** * i d g 03 * * 03 03 ;2i 03 s .o o * * si .5 1 s X] c ** * ** * O ** ** ** S3 i < * * * * * * ** ** * * * * * 03 1 5 S3 i ** ** * t * •i d 53 * * * ** ** * * * * * * ** #* * * * * 03 X 4:* 3 237 * * * * ** t * * * * * ~ 238 239 240 241 242 243 * •- * * * * * * * * * ** * 244 *# .J ** * ** * • # • If ** ' ** • * # 24.5 246 247 248 249 250 251 •■ # ** ** * * * * * * * ** ** * t * * 252 253 * • * ■ # ■ * * * avt- 265 256 857 ■- * * ■ 258 259 260 # 261 262 ■ # .. t # * * * * * * * * ** * # ** * 2HR, 264 265 ■ * * ** ** * * * * * * * * 266 ' 267 * * • N ^ - * ■ * ■ # • * • * ' * * t 4: * * * * * 268 269- . ** ** * 870 * * 271 * 272 273 274 * t . . 275 :" • 1* • * * * * ** * 276 277 .. -. * »78 279 280 * * * * * * * * * * 2H1 ** * * * * * * * * * * * # ** * * * 282 283 * 284 * * - ?«5 286 287 * * ■ *« 288 ■• 289 890 291 * ' 292 * 293 « * * * 294 * * 295 * * • * * 296 f 1 ' ^ 238 A long keeper. 843 Entirely distinct from Gilpin or Shockley. APPLES 63 APPLES 297 800 301 302 303 304 305 306 307 808 3oa 310 311 312 313 814 315 316 31,7 318 ^19 820 3;jl 3->2 •W AMTC a Water Waugh's Crab Wealthy Webb's Winter Wellf ord's Yellow WeBteri} Beauty (Grosh, Summer Bambo, etc.) Westfleld Seek-no-further White Doctor Wliite Juneating, May, Early May, Bio White Paradise (Lady Finger.) White Pippin White Winter Pearmain White Rambo Williams' Favorite Willis Sweet Willow Twig (James River.) Wine . / (Hay's Wine, Pennsylvania Red Streak.) Winesap : -Winier S**eet Paradise : Wythe Tafes , '. Yellow Bellefleur Yellow June i , (/Nantabalee.) York Imperial -Yopp'B Favorite Zauiary Pippin DESCRIPTION. r. c. r. 0. r. ob. r. r. ob. r. ob. r. c. r. ob. r. r. fl. r. ob. r. 0. r. ob. r. c. r. r. c. r.' r. r. ob. fl. ' fl. ■ob. r. ob. fl. r. c. fl. y. r. y- r. s. y-r. v-g. r. s. K- r. s. v-g- T- s- K- y- K. r. s. v.g. y.r. b. g- y. S' K- y- K. y-r. e- K. y. v.g. y.r. v.g. K- y. K- y-r. K- y.r. v.g. y-r. g- y.r- v.g. y-r. v.g. K-y- v.g. r. 8. v.g- y.r. K- R- y- v.g. y- g. g. g- v.g. F. Cider J!\M. F. M. P.M. F. M. K.M. F. M. M. F. M. F. M. M, M, K.M. K.M. F. M. F. M. P. F. F. M. F. M. P. P.M. F. F. M. B.W. • W. W. W. W. s. w. E.A. ■ S. w w. w. L. A. S. S. w. w. w. w. w. w. w. S. w. A. B.W. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. F. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Ani. I.— 312 Valuable for late keeping. II. —APPLES— CRABS. • NAIEES. DESCRIPTION. I.— 1 i. i. IS -1 g 1 oi 33 8 S3 S 8 i 1 .6 g 1 §, ) 1 Byer's Beauty s. 1. s. r. fl. r. r. r.y. y-r. g- v-g- g- F.M. P.M. K. B.A. A. A. Am. Am. F. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. I". Am. Am. Am. F. II* * * ; HI 2 3 Brier's Sweet (of Wisconsin) Cherry - 4 Glover's Early 5 6 Hielop, Lady Elgin ] 1. 1. 1. 1. m. r. r. ob. r. fl. r. ob. r. r. y.r. y.r. y.r. r. g- v.g. g- g. g. F.M. F.M. P.M. P.M. P.M. A. L. A. W. A. A. r- Marengo 8 9 Montreal Beauty Bed Siberian..... 10 Spitzenberg : ' 11 SylvanSweet 'i." 1. TO. r. fl. r. ob. r. y.r. ■y.r. y. g. g- g- F.M. F.M. P.M. S. A. A. 12 13 Transcendent., Yellow Siberian 2. APPLES 63 APPLES. NORTHERN DIVISION. Between 42° and 49°. II.— CENTRAL DIVISION.^! Between 35** and 42". III.-SOUTH. DIVISION. Between 28* and 35". 1' 1 1 > ** * S S a * ** * * 1=1 * * g o t o * * * * * * * * * 6 a O i + * * * * * "5 n o ** * * 4 V * 1 ft a ■i til n S p S3 ►— 1 C * a I-H * * ** * c3 ■p 03 ^ a * * * * * ** * * * * 1 ft * * o o « 'B ft a OS 1 1 * * * ** * ** 03 '5 > * * * ** ** i g O o v d 1 * * * * * * # * a s] '•B * * * * * * ■i 'a ■& ** O J * * * ** ** * i n ** Me ** ** "3 p ft * * ** * oi & o V * * * * if #* ** * pi o i * ** * * * ** * * 2 IZi e: d 1 5 id e o " * * * * ** o O * ** c3 & S o i < OS- 'S g o g i 1 1 Q 3 d i o , 297 298 299 300 301 802 803 304 SOS 806 307 308 809 810 311 812 313 814 315 316 817 818 819 830 321 822 ** ** ** * * ** * * * * « * * # * "* * * '.'. * * * ** * * * * * ** * ** ■-■ II.— APPLES— CRABS. NORTHERN DIVISION. Between 42° and 49°. t n.— CENTRAL DIVISION. Between 35" and 42°-. ni.- SOUTH. DIVISION. Between 28° a^nd 35°. i 1 > fL 1 •3 f R g o sz; d 1 1 1 03 P .3 2 a o be a o Id 1 I o oi a 03 t CD & iz; d 1 p ;; o ft 1=1 oi Id 1 a '3 > 03* l=! S o3 O 1 d •5 "S 1 d l=i o p ft * * * 1 l-H * * S o 1 •** ** CJ d £ o '3 o si % 'A d B 5: £ 3 ■a : ■ 03 B a 1 * •g 1 c 'E P i ■a • • •■ ;; i 1 oi p « "a. P q to" t-i d (a B < 1 z 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 # * # * * * + * * * # * ;- "■ * ** ;; ■ • GRIMES' GOLDEN (64) APPLE-TREE BORER AP?1E-LEAF CRUMPLER. PTiyeUa {Aero- lads) rtebulo. This insect is known under vari- ous names, as rascal leaf-crumpler, leaf-roller, and is found throughout the United States, especially in the more central latitudes. It is exceedingly voracious in its larval state, and from its habit of folding the leaf, is often not observed until extensive damage has been done to the foliage. The cut shows the insect in its several stages, enlarged, the cross lines at d rep- resenting the size of the mature moth. Some- times the insects so multiply, especially in young orchards and in the nursery, as seriously to affect 65 APPLE TREE BORER as well as unhealthy trees and is very destructive. The illustration will show the insect in its various stages. The grub remaining intact until the third spring, when it assumes the pupa form: APPLE-TBEE ORUUPLEB. a, worm case; b, <;a8e attached to a limb; c, head and firetsegmeptB of caterpillar; d, perfect moth. the growth and even the life of the tree. This insect is one-brooded, the caterpillar attaining its growth in May or June, according to the lati- tude. The chrysalis is found inside the worm case, and the moths appear in June or July, ac- cording to the latitude. The eggs are deposited, hatch, grow, and hibernate in their cases. If these are picked in the autumn, winter or spring, and deposited in some vessel placed far from an .orchard, the insects will die for want of food; but the parasites infesting them will mature, thus accumulating in numbers to destroy still others of the worms. The cases, if not removed, even form secure places for the deposit of eggs of other injurious insects, especially the Canker- worm. APPLE-TREE BOEER. There are a num- ber of species. The two-striped Saperda {Saperda UwttfUa) is extremely destructive to apple orchards, from the borings of the grub into the wood of the trees. The mature beetle, appears during May and June, and being strictly nocturnal is seldom seen except by the entomolo- gist who hunts for it. The female deposits her eggs, mostly in June, in the bark near the. foot of the tree, and also in the forks of the main branches. The eggs hatched, the minute grubs commence boring into the wood, generally downward the first year and upward and near the bark the second year. The borer lives in the wood of the tree until the third year when it emerges as a perfect beetle. It infests healthy 5 BOUNS-HEADED APPLE-TBEE BOBEB. Fig. 1, perfect beetle; fig. 2, full grovra borer; fig. 8, borer at beginning of eecond winter; flg. 4, lines showing various stages of growth from the minute insect just hatched; flg. 6, pnpa; flg. 6, shows its manner of entering the tree and its work. The natural enemies of this insect are the wood- pecker tribe. Artificial remedies- are to find the cast of the young larvse, and kill them by piercing with a flexible wire. Prevention is, however, the only sure rem- edy. , Keep the base of every tree quite clear of weeds and trash, and apply soft soap thoroughly to the bark, laying cakes of strong bar soap in the forks of the trees, during May, June, and into July. The insect in- fests besides the ap- ple, the mountain ash, pear, quince and June berry. The flat - headed borers {GhrysobotTiris femo- rata), while working in the same class of trees, is totally rm- like the others, bor- ing an oval hole twice as wide as high. The beetle flies by day instead of at night, and besides the apple, attacks the oak, peach, the soft maple, ash, willow, tulip FLAT-HEAD ED APPLE-TBEE BORER. a, larva, showing its peculiar manner of curling itself; ft, pupa; c, head and succeeding segments of body ; d, beetle. APPLE-WORM tree, and even the elm and cottonwood. It also attains its full size in one year from the egg. The insect attacks limbs and trunk indiscnm- inately. The soaping is as effectual for this as the round-headed species, but must be applied more generally over the larger limbs. Once either of these species get firmly fixed in the tree, the only remedy is to cut them out. Hence the value of the preventatives named. APPLE-TREE CATERPILLAK. (See Yel- low-necked Apple Caterpillar.) APPLE-WORM. Codling Moth, Carpoeapsa pomeneUa. The cut which we give below will represent the natural history of this noxious insect fully enough, since it represents the pest in all its stages. It is two-brooded; the first brood appearing with the opening of ^the leaves in the spring, and the second brood pass the winter in the larval state. Yet the two broods often run into each other, since some worms leave the -apple while others are entering. The female is wmgless. The eggs require from four to ten days to hatch; the worm lives in the larval state about four weeks, and the pupal state remains from two to three weeks. Various APPLE-WOEM. «, section of apple Bhowing the burrows and place of exit; 6, the point at which the egg is laid, and maik of worm in entering; d, pupa; «, full grown worm;'/, the moth juBt escaped from the chrysalis; g)f, moth with wings expanded; A, head of worm magnilied; i, insect within cocoon. remedies are proposed.. Two shingles nailed together and fastened to the trunks of trees, will catch large numbers. Paper or cloth bandages of several folds may be tied around the trunks, and removing them once in ten days, killing the worms by scalding^ and again replacing them. Commence bandaging about a week later than early strawberry blossoms appear. Dr. Riley, in his Fourth Missouri Entomological Report, says; There has been some difference of opinion as to the best form of bandage to be used. To be thoroughly effectual and durable it should be sufficiently firm in texture that it can not be too easily cut through by the jaws of the worm, or drawn in folds and wrinkles by its silken threads. A stout and narrow piece of cloth or canvas, drawn around and fastened to the tree by a tack, is perhaps the simplest form of bandage and. the most quickly fastened . Mr. James Weed, of Mus- catine, Iowa, uses strips of cloth one and a-half inches wide. Every one must decide for him- 66 ARAB HORSM self what will be cheapest and most expedient, according to the extent of his orchard and the facility with which he can procure rags, cloth, hay-bands, or other substances. A good bandage, ready-made, is greatly needed' in the country, and if some enterprising firm would manufact- ure canvas strips about six inches wide, lined on one side with four inches of tow cotton wadding, or some other loose material, and would put it upon the market at a' reasonable price per yard, there would be an unlimited demand for it. Such strips would last for years, and could be cut of any desired length, drawn around and tacked, with little labor, to eack tree, while, by smearing with tar or molasses, it might also be made to do good service, after the Apple- worm season, in those' orchards infested with the Canker-worm; The advantage of th« looser, thicker inside lining (which should, how- ever, be closely and compactly pressed) would be, that it would enable us to fill up all the little inequalities of the bark, so as to absolutely pre- vent the young Canker-worms, as well as the rrioths, from ascending, and at the same time it would furnish a most enticing substance for the Apple- worm to spin up in. APRICOT. This, one of the most delicate of fruits of ithe temperate zone, belongs to the plum family. Its generic name is Pi'unas a/r- meniaea. Alexander the Great -is reported to have sent this fruit front Armenia to Greece aid Epirus. Like the peach, the apricot is propa- gated by budding, but it may also be propagated by grafting ,The tree requires a rich, dry loam, ' such as is suited to the peaeh and the plum. It ' is also subject to the sarne class of insect ene- mies as the peach — the curculio being the great drawback to its general cultivation. It is not hardy north of Maryland, and indeed does not attain full perfection of hardiness even in that State. Only in California is it much grown, ex- cept in conservatories and in the gardens of am- ateurs. South APTERANS, APTERA. Wingless insects. - APVREXIA.- The cool or quie't stagb of intermittent fevers. AQUA FORTIS. Nitric acid, usually dilute. A(JDA RE6IA. A mixture of nitric and muriatic acids. AQUATIC PLANTS. Such as grow sub- merged, or partly so, in water; applied, also, to marsh plants. AQUEOUS HUMOR. The fluid in the an- terior cha,mber of the eye. ARAB HORSES. Prom'the fact of the im- portation of Arabian horses into England, many years ago, for the purpose of improving the blood of theEnglish horsS, many persons suppose the Arab to lae the type of all that is excellent in that noble animal — the horse. Others again suppose that Arabia is the native country of the horse. This again is a fallacy. The horse of Arabia is a rather small, compact horse, possessed of great bottom, that is capable of going long journeys, and of continuing many hotirs in action at a moder- ate rate of speed. He is docile, spirited, sagacious, attached to his master, a strong constltutioned, active, intelligent animal, capable of enduring considerable hardship, and of continuing a jour- ney, without food or water, to a far greater extent than the more artificially reared horses of enlight- ened nations. Our Morgan horses come nearer the Arab in these respects than any other of oui ARAB HORSES better bred horses. Yet in every trial with the modem-bred racer, even on the Arab's ovm des- erts, the English blood hofse has left him behind. He can neither carry the weight, nor, to use a racing term, "stay the pace." There is no evi- dence that there were horses in Arabia 900 years before the time of Christ; for then, while Solomon brought silver and gold and spices from Arabia, he brought his horses from Egypt; in fact, in the fourth century after Christ, 200 Cappadocian horses were sent by the then Roman Emperor, to one of the most powerful of the Arabian princes, as being the most acceptable present he could offer. So late as the seventh century after Christ, there were but few horses in Arabia, for when Mahomet attacked the Koreish near Mecca, he had but two horses in his army, and although vast numbers of camels and sheep were carried away and immense plunder in' silver, not a single horse is mentioned us a part of the spoils; in fact, the most credible testimony would seem to show that the horse was gradually introduced into Arabia at a compara- tively late period from Egypt, from whence, also, the adjoining Asiatic countries, derived their horses, and that from the same stock has also sprung the stock of horses in the whole south- eastern portion of Europe. What the Arabians have excelled in is in keeping their race of horses pure, by the most careful breeding, and attention to keejjing the blood pure and without stain of intermjxtm'e; hence, when crossed upon other stock, the pre-potency of the blood has always shown itself. This has been, especially ^hown m the English race-horse, and yet to-day so intel- ligently has this sub-family of horses been bred in England and America, that a further admixture of Arabian blood would prove disastrous to the stock. lu England, an allowamce of one stone (fourteen pound) ismade in favor of the Arabians, in racing tor the Goodwood cup, and yet none have ever won it. In India, a difference of from fourteen to twenty-one pounds is made in the carrying weights in favor of Arabian horses over English blood horses. Captain Shakspear, in his work on Wild Sports in India, gives a minute descrip- tion of the Arab horse as it is found in Ii^dia, as follows : The points of the highest caste Arab horse, as compared with the English thorough- bred, are as follows: the head is more beautifully formed, and more intelligent; the forehead broad- er; the muzzle finer; the eye more prominent, more sleepy-looking in repose, more brilliant when the animal is excited. The ear is more beautifully pricked, and of exquisite shape and sensitiveness. On the back of the trained hunter, the rider scarce- ly requires to keep his eye on anything but the ears of his horse, which give indications of every- thing that his ever- watchful eye catches sight of. The nostril is not , always so open in a state of rest, and indeed often looks thick and closed ; but in excitement, and when the lungs are in full play from the.animal being at speed, it expands greatly, and the membrane shows scarlet and as if on fire. The ganie-cock throttle — that most exquisite for- mation of the throat and jaws of the blood-horse — is not so commonly seen in the Arab as in the ., thorough-bred English race-horse, nor is the head quite so lean. The jaws, for the size of the head, are perhaps more apart, giving more room for the expansion of the windpi{)e., The point where the head is put on the neck is quite as delicate as in the English horse. This junction has much more to ■do with the mouth of the horse than most people 67 ■ ARAB HORSES are aware of, and on it depends the pleasure or otherwise of the rider. The bones, from the eye down towards the lower part of the head, should not be too concave, or of a deer's form; for thi« in the Arab as in the English horse denotes a violent temper, though it is very beautiful to look at. Proceeding to Sie neck, we notice that the Arab stallion has rarely the crest that an English stallion has. He has a strong, light, and muscu- lar neck, a little short, perhaps, compared to the other, and thick. In the pure breeds, the neck runs into the shoulders very gradually; and gen- erally, if the horse has a pretty good crest, comes down rather perpendicularly into the shoulders; but often, if he is a little ewe-ni eked, which ii not uncommon with the Arab, it runs in too straight, and low down in the shoulders. The Arab, however, rarely carries his head, when he is being ridden, so high in proportion as the English. He is not so well topped, which I at- tribute to the different way he,is reared, and to his not being broken in regularly, like the English horse, before he is put to work. His shoulden are not so flat and thin, and he is thicker through in these parts generally for his size, than the Eng- lish thorough-bred horse . His girth does not show so deep, that is, he does not look so deep over the heart; but between the knees and behind the sad- dle, where the English horse very often falls off, the Arab is barrel-ribbed ; and this gives him bia wonderful endurance and his great constitutional points. This also prevents him from getting used up in severe training or under short allow- ance of food, and in long marches. His chest is quite broad enough and deep enough for either strength or bottom. The scapula, or shoulder- blade, is both in length and backward inclination, compared to the humerus, or upper bone of the arm, quite as fine in the high-caste Arab as in the English horse; while both bones are better fur- nishe'd with muscles, better developed, and feel firmer to the hand. But some of the very fastest Arabs have their fore legs very much under thein; indeed, so much that no judge would buy an English horse so made. Yet, whether it be that this form admits of the joints between these bones becoming more opened, when the horse extends himself, or whatever be the cause, it is a fact that blood-horses thus made are almost always fast horses. The upper part of their shoulder-blade seems to run back under the front part of the saddle, when they are goin^ their best. This formation is most common in the lower-sized Arab, and apparently makes up to him for his deficiency in height. The ve!ry flnest-actioned Arabs have had this peculiarity of form. They are rather apt to become chafed at the elbow-points by the girths, and almost require to have saddles made on purpose for them. The elbow-point, that essential bone, which for sake of leverage should be prominent, is fine in tte Arab, and generally plays clear of the body. The fore-arm is strong and muscular, and is pretty long; the knee square, with a good speedy cut for the size of the animal, equal to the English horse; while below the knee the Arab shmes very conspicuously, having a degree of power there, both in the suspensory ligaments and flexor tendons, far superior, in proportion to his size, to the English horse. These are dis- tinct and away from the shank-bone; they give a very deep leg, and act mechanically to -great advantage. The bone looks small, but then it is ARAB HORSES 68 ARBOR Vlt^ I very dense, the hollow which contains the mar- row being very small, and the material solid, more like ivory than bone, heavy, and close- grained. The flexor tendons are nearly as large and as thick as the canon bone. The pasterns and their joints are quite in keeping with the bones above them, and are not so long, strai^t, and weak as those of the English horse. The feet are generally in the same proportion; but the Arabs themselves appear to be very careless in their treatment of them. The body or centre piece of the Arab horse has rarely tod great length. This is a very uncommon fault in the pure breed; and there is no breed of horses are more even in this respect than the A Behind this, we come to a ^reat peculiarit the breed — his troup. I might say an A horse is known by it; he is so much more b i tifully made in his hind quarters, and in the his tail is put on, than most other breeds. 1 1 loins are good; he is well coupled; his quar are poweSul, and his tail carried high; and I even. in castes that have* very little more thi high-bred stallion to recommend them. I straight-dropped hind leg is always a recommf ation, and almost all racing Arabs have it; i this, when extended, brings the hind foot under the stirrup, and the propellers being of this shape give a vast stride without fear of overreach. The thighs and hocka are good; the latter very rarely know either kind of spavin or curbs. The points and processes are preSminently well adapted for the attachment of the mus- cles, while the flexor tendons of the hind legs generally corre- spond with those of the fore. The hocks are not so much let down, nor the hind legs so grey- hound-like, as in the thorough- bred English horse. In stride, too, he IS somewhat different, inasmuch as it is a rounder way of going, and is not so extended or so near the ground, but is more like a bound. However, there are exceptions; and I have bred pure Arabs whose stride, for their size,' was very extended, and quite like that of English * race-horses. Ali Bey, an acute s and apparently disinterested Ori- ental writer, describes six dis- tinct, breeds of Arabs. The first " Dgelfe," found in Arabia Felix. They are lofty in stature, with long ears, narrow in the chest, but deep in the girth; swift, high-strung animals, and yet docile m temper, and capable of supporting hunger and thirst for a long time. The sedond breed, named " Seclaoni," is reared in the eastern part of the desert and resembles the ' ' Dgelf e, " but is not con- sidered so valuable. The third breed, "Mefki," is handsome, resembling the Andalusian horse m figure, but not remarkable for speed. The fourth, called "Sabi," resembles the "Mefki." The fifth, -named "Fridi," are quite common, but apt to be vicious. The sixth breed, named "Nejdi,"is from the neighborhood of Bussora, and considered equal to the first-named breed' the " Dgelf e," and either the first or last named will sell at two years old for about 2000 Turkish piasters ($160). ARABLE' LAND. So called from the Latin word ara/re (to plow), is "that part of the land which is chiefly cultivated by means of the plow. ARACffi. The natural family of plants, including the Arum, Indian Turnip, and Skunk Cabbage. AEACHNIDANS, AEACHNIDA. A elafis of apterous, spider-like eondylopes, having the head confluent with the chest, and the hoif. '<•" ^? <"■*• I- 1 Inclined to, or becoming STBBRIAN ABBOB TIT^. consequently, consisting of but two segments, with eight legs, smooth eyes, and the sexual orifices situated on the thorax, or anterior part of the abdomen. ARBORESCENT. woody. ARBORICULTURE. The cultivation of trees. (See Horticulture, Forestry, and trees under their proper names ) ARBORETUM. A place for the cultivation of trees. ARBOR VITjE. The Arbor Vitffi belongs to the sub-order Oitpresainem (the cypress sub- family), and is sometimes called, incon-ectly, White Cedar. The White Cedar is Cupremi* ARCHITECTURE '69 ARCHITECTURE The Arbor Vitae is thuja-occidentalis. Arbor Vitse occurs in cool,, swampy situations from New England to Pennsylvania, and sparsely in Northern Indiana and Illinois In Wisconsin and Michigan, and north, there are extensive swamps of this tree, where it is much valued for posts, telegraph poles, and other pui-poses where strength combined with lightness is necessary. As a tree for ornamental hedging it is extensively used and is surpassed by few. Prom cultivation and hybridization, it is now broken up into numerous varieties. Some of them are very inter- esting, and which must be propagated from cuttings to get them true. Some of the golden and variegated varieties are most beautiful, while others are so extremely dwarf and compact as to prove valuable for the borders of walks, edgings, etc., in ornamental gardening The cut of Siberian Arbor Vitse, is one of the "sports," and does not come true from seed. It must be prop- agated from cuttings or by layers. ARBUTUS. A genus of evergreen shrubs characterized by its fruit being a berry,, contain- ing many seeids. Arbutus unedo, or Strawberry Tree, is a well known variety. ARCESTHIDA, A small succulent core, as the juniper berry. ARCHIL. A purple dye-stuff procured from the JBoceUa tinctma and Pud formis, lichens growing on the rocks of the Canary Islands. ARCHITECTl'RE. The architecture of the farm is generally of the simplest kind, and em- braces dwellings, barns and stables for the vari- ous animals and birds kept; also green-houses, conservatories, hot-houses, and the simple frames used in forcing plants. In all farm structures, the object should be to combine as much prac- tical utility with strength as may be possible. Where the pecuniary means of the individual will allow, ornamentation may be extended ac- cording to the length of the purse. The subject is too broad to he exhaustively treated in a work of this kind. Thus we shall only notice some of the more simple forms of dwellings here, but, under their appropriate heads, will give instruc- tions for the more simple farm buildmgs, which see. The new settler must be content with the crudest structure until his means will allow him to build better. Thus, a log house where tim- ber is handy, afford the means of a most com- fortable dwelling. Straight logs, of a nearly uni- form size and of equal lengths, are selected. These may be hewed square, or the two sides^ outer and inner — may pe hewn straight. The under sid^ of the logs are then notched, eight or ten inches from the end, and the upper sides scarfed to fit, so the < bark will come just near enough together to meet without riding one on another. They are then laid up, chinked when necessary, with slabs, which are pinned or nailed. The interstices are then stopped with clay or mortar. At the proper height from the ground for the ceiling, poles, hewed to a size of four by eight, are let into the logs to form the floor. This is covered with flooring, or in Ueu of that with puncheons — slabs split out of free rifted timber and hewn into planks. The lower floor is usually laid on timbers placed directly on the leveled ground. The supports for the roof are made of rafters hewed fair on one side; a ridge-pole is laid on the top, and the supports for the shingles are placed at proper intervals. The shingles are generally made three feet long, split out of free rifted timber, and are nailed or held in place by straight poles pinned down at proper intervals. Thus we have the simplest structure possible, in a timbered country, combining strength with warmth in winter, and coolness in summer. The window and door places are then cut out and the casings put in, ready for the doors and windows. A space is then cut out at one end for a fire-place, six feet wide and five feet high; or calcvilation may be made for this and also the doors and windows when the logs are hewn. To do this, however, the measure- ments must be accurate ; there must be no guess- work. In time, the log cabin, the Kansas dug- out or the rough shanty gives place to a dwelling where taste and comfort are combined with prac- tical utility. Mistakes are too often made in the endeavor to have something showy and stylish. A farm house should be in keeping with its sur- roundings, unless money is to be spent to make the surroundings beautiful. A plain, comfort- able house is more in harmony with the ordinary farm surroundings than an expensive building with all bare or semi- wild outside. A house should be in hai-mony with the situation.- Just as a house and its surroundings exert its Loflu- once on the family and neighboring inhabitants, juSt so the lay of the country and the scenery should exert its influence, so the buildings may harmonize. For instance, where there are sharp hills, ravines, bluffs, broken rocks or mountains, flat roofs, horizontal lines and broad verandas would be out of place. There should be gables and steep roofs to harmonize. In other words, the architectural features of the buildings should be broken to harmonize. There lofty turrets, steep gables and grouped chimneys may mark the dwelling of the man of wealth, while his less plethoric (in purse) neighbors may profit by the example in his modest cottage. On a level plain or in a gently undulating Country, such as is characteristic of the greater part of the west, this style of architecture would be out of place. The summers are torrid and the winters often arctic. There are often sweeping winds. Hence these must be provided for. The roof should be steep enough to quickly carry off drenching rains. There should be caps to the windows for shade. , There must be stability to the whole. Thus the square form, or nearly so, will not only be economical, but at the same time in good taste with the surroundings. A cottage, with honeysuckles and morning-glories climbing over the porch and windows, or the log cabin in the woods with vines nestling around it, is more truly beautiful than the pretentious mansion ■i^ith bare walls, weeds and rank grass, muddy or dusty walks and roadways, with, perhaps, a Virginia fence in front to keep out the pigs. In building, always have the best possible cellar the situation will allow. In very many country ■ residences, a fatal mistake is made in having the walls of the rooms too low. Nine feet below stairs and seven and a half for the chambers is little enough. , Ten feet below stairs and eight feet walls for the chambers would be better. Use large glass for the windows, and have them to slide top and bottom by means of cords and pulleys. Do not build a bracketed house. Use good sheathing, felting paper ,and the -best siding. If the walls are to be of sound brick, so much the better. Never build a large, infe- rior house. It is better to build smaller and ARMY-WORM 70 arAow-root substantial. Do not forget the porches and ve- randas. They are most comfortable in summer, and give stability to the whole building. Pro- vide, also, double or stonn windows for the en- tire lower part of the house. The extra expense wUl be repaid the first hard winter. In the spring, these may be taken down and placed where they may be kept dry. The same may be said of the cellar, one of the most important parts of the farm dwelling. This should always have double! windows, and also be fur- nished with blinds to darken it at will. If large, it should be divided into compartments, and for the reason that some portions of the cellar are required to be kept warmer than others. When hardy vegetables are to be kept, and canned fruits and vegetables, the temperature should be just above freezing. Squashes, sweet potatoes, pumpkins, and half-hardy plants, bulbs and tubers, must be kept where the temperature ?s dry and of about 50° Fahrenheit. Other apart- ments in the cellar may be kept down to the freezing point. Thus, by having the cellar divided as we have shown, convenience and •conomy may be both preserved. ARCHITRAVE. The chief beam or struc- ture resting immediately upon the columns of an edifice; the lowest number of the entablature. AREGA. An East Indian palm, the nut of which is chewed with the betel. ARENACEOUS. Sandy; relating to sand, as arenaceous soils. .. AREOLJE. In entomology, the small spaces l&etween the nervures of the wings: AREOMETER. An instrument for taking specific gravities. (See Hydrometer.) ' ARGILLACEOUS, dlay; clayey. ARILLA, ARIL, ARIEL. A membranous prolongation of the placenta over a seed, as the mace of the nutmeg. , ARM. OF A HORSE. The upper .part of the fore legs. ARMY-WORM. I^ucania (Helwpnila) uni- puncta. Of this insect, Dr. Riley,, in his Ninth Missouri Entomological Report, says it is with ms every year. In ordinary seasons, when it is NORTHBKN AKMT-WORM. ■ot excessively numerous, it is seldom noticed- 1, because the moths are low, swift fliers and nocturnal in babit; 2, because the worms when young; have protective coloring, and, when mature, hide during the day at the base of meadows. In years of great abundance the worms are generaUy unnoticed during early life •nd attract attention only when, from crowding too much on each other, or from having exhaust- ed the f pod supply in the fields in which they hatched, they are forced, from necessity, to mi- grate to fresh pastures in great bodies The NORTHERN ARMY-WORM. earliest attain full growth and commence to travel in armies, to devastate otir fields, and to attract attention, about the time that winter wheat is in the milk — this period being twO' months later in Maine than in Southern Missouri; and they soon afterwards descend into the ground, and thus suddenly disappear, to issue again two or three weeks later as moths. In the latitude of St. Louis the bulk of these moths lay eggs, from wljich are produced a second generation of worms, which become moths again late in July or early in August. Ex- ceptionally a third genera- tion of worms may be pro- duced from these. Further north there is but one gen- eration annually. Th& Jnoths hibernate, ' and ovi- posit soon after vegetation starts in spring. The chrysalides may also hiber- nate, and probably do so to a large extent ip the more northern States. The eggs are inserted between the. sheath and stalk, or secret- ed in the folds of a blade; , and mature and perennial grasses are preferred for this purpose. The worms abound in w«t springs preceded by one or more very dry years. .They are preyed upon by numerous enemies, which So effectually check their increase, whenever they unusually abound, that the second brood, when it occurs, is seldom tioticed; and two great army- worm years have never followed each other, and are not likely t» do so. They may be prevented from invading a field by judicious ditching; and the burning over of a field, in winter or early spring, effectually prevents their hatching in such field. It ha» numerous natural enemies, amongwhich may be noticed, some parasites, the Red-Bailed Tachina Ply, the YelloW-Tailed Tachina Fly, also IcK- neumon flies. Various predaceous beetles and their larva also prey upon it. ARRACACHA. The South American name for an umbelliferous plant (the Arracaeia escu- lenta of botanists) whose fleshy sweet roots are cultivated in Colombia and Jamaica, , in the mountainous parts of those countries, in the M,me way as parsnips 'and carrots in Europe. The roots are of large size, and in quality are, when cooked, between a sweet chestnut and a parsnip. Attempts to introduce it into common European cultivation have uniformly failed; s» says Dr. Brande. ARROW-GRASS. The genus TnghcMn. They are small marsh grasses, perennial,' and flowering in July; some grow on salt marsh. They are eaten by cattle. ARROW-HEAD. Sagittaria mgitUfoUa'. A common indigenous, perennial, tuberose plant,^ with arrow-shaped leaves, growing in broobs. It IS cultivated by the Chinese for its roots, which are mealy. ARROW-ROOT. Maranta arurvdinacea. A herbaceous plant of the family Cannse, with fleshy perennial roots, readily propagated by root-cuttings. It is cultivated in Bermuda, the West Indies and Florida. Arrow-root is a nearly pure sterch, of agreeable flavor, but little ARTICHOKE nutrition. Good potatoes, rasped into a pulp «nd treated in tlie same way, produce a starch, ■which is often used to adulterate the genuine article. ABSENIC. Arsenious acid; white oxide of •rsenic ; a violent and irritant poison. The safest antidote is the recently prepared hydrated oxide of iron; by precipitating a solution of per-nitrate of iron by solution or potash. Lime water is nuch less certain. ARTEMISIA. The genus of wormwoods. ARTERIOTOMY. The opening of an artery to let blood. ARTERY. The Tassels which convey red ilooA are so called. ARTESIAN WELLS, or fountains, are those gprings or wells which constantly overflow their iummits. In many parts of the country streams *re reached at various depths, which, being tubed, continue to give a full flow at the surface from year to year. ARTICHOKE. The true Artichoke (Cyrutra teolymus), an herbaceous annual plant as to its top, with a perennial root. The plant is three to five feet or more high, with large, entire or lobed and gpinose (sjiined) leaves; the thick receptacle, together with the fleshy bases of the scales of ■the flower head, being the parts usually eaten. It is nearly allied to the Cardoon, G. cardunculus. The plant usually cultivated under the name of artichoke is a true sunflower, Helianthus. The ,' tuberous variety is called Jerusalem Artichoke, a corruption of the Italian name Girasol. There are several wild varieties in the West, found growing generally in rich valleys and river bot- toms, the roots or tubers of which are eagerly sought in the autumn and spring by swine. The variety usually cultivated is a native of Brazil, and has many valuable qualities aside from its well known hardiness, standing, as it does, our coldest western winters perflectly. As food for ■ hogs, it should be cultivated extensively, since its tubers are eagerly eaten and are highly con- ducive to the health of swine. It 'has usually been considered a*watery, innutritions tuber. It is, however, quite as nutritious as the potato, as the following analysis of the artichoke and potato will show: 1. Proximate anabasis of the tubers of the Jerusalem Artichoke, by Braoonnot : TJncrystalized sugar 14.80 Intdine 3.00 •um 1.23 Albumen 1.00 Fatty matter 0.09 Citrates of potasb and'lime > 1.15 ■ Phosphates of potash and lime 0.20 Sulphate of potash 0.12 Chloride of potassium 0.08 Halates and tartrates of potasb and lime .0.05 • •Woody fibre 1.22 Silica 0.03 Water '...., 77.05 M. Payen found a larger proportion of sugar in this tuber than that stated above, and he ascer- tained that the fatty matter consists of stearine and elaine. Boussingault found: Of dry matter, 20.8; water, 79.2. 2. Proximate analysis of the potato in a fresh state, by Johnston: Water , 75.52 Starch 15.72 Dextrine 0-55 Sugar J 3.30 Albumen, casein, gluten 1-41 Fat .7 0.24 Fibre 3.26 The cultivation of the artichoke is exceedingly 71 ASH simple. Furrow the ground — a well drained soil — four feet apart, and plant the tubers an inch below the surface and about ten inches apart, covering about two inches. Keep free from weeds with the ordinary two-horse corn cul- tivator. Dig in the fall, and leave the tubers to be rooted out by the hogs in the autumn, winter and spring. They bear great heat and drouth, and are excellent food for horses, cows and sheep in winter, if used in connection with dry food and salt. ARTICULATA, ARTICULATES. A term applied by Cuvier to a primary dmsion of the animal kingdom, characterized by an external skeleton in the form of a serie? of rings articu- lated together and surrounding the body; by an internal gangliated nervous system, the ganglions being arranged symmetrically along the middle line of the body, and by having distinct respira- tory organs. Insects and various worms are of this order. ARTICULATED. Jointed. In botany it signifies a slight connexion, such as that of the leaf with the stem in exogens, which allows them to fall ofE when dead. ARTICULATION. The connexion of the bones of the skeleton by joints: ARUM. The genus of the Indian turnip. ARUNDO. 'J he reed plants. Several species, growing on sand, bind it together; arundinv ceous, reed-like. * ARVICOLA. The genus of field-mice. ASAF(ETIDA. A fetid gum resin obtained from the root of the Ferula asafatida, whence it exudes, by incision, in the f oim of a milky juice, which, when dried by exposure to the sun, acquires a^ottled appearance and pink color. It is a native of the south of Persia, and is used in medicine as a stimulant and anti-spasmodic in hysteric and nervous disorders, and in spasmodic Cough, asthma, and flatulent colic ASCARIS, ASCARIDES. Intestinal worms. ASCI. Little membranous, bags containing sporules; Ascidium, the Leaf -pitcher: ASCITES. Dropsy of the belly. ASH. The ash (PH-asdnus Americana) con- tains five well known species: White Ash, Blue Ash, Black Ash, Red Ash and Green Ash. They occupy an important rank as timber trees of value, and thrive on a variety of soils — a cool deep moist soil being congenial to the most of the species. White Ash will thrive on rathar poor soil. Blue Ash is found on rich river bot- toms. Black Ash grows in swamps. Red Ash on river banks, and other rich soils, like the White Ash. The same situation puits the Green Ash. A European species (F. excelsior) has been introduced, but is hif erior to our White and Blue Ash. The Acuba-leaved Ash is one of the most ornamental varieties. The cut, page 72, shows leaves one quarter the natural size. The White Ash is quite commonly known as the American Ash. Of it Arthur Bryant, Sr., says: Branchlets and petioles, smooth; leaflets, seven to nine, ovate or lance-oblong, pointed, pale, smooth or pubescent underneath, somewhat toothed or entire; fruit, terete, and marginless below; above, extended into a lanceolate, oblan- ceolate, or wedge linear wing. Among the Amer- ican species of ash, the White Ash is one of the most valuable and worthy of culture, for the qual- ities of its wood and the rapidity of its growth. When full grown, it is one of the largest trees of ASH n ASH our forests. I well recollect trees, in Western Mass- achusetts, three feet in diameter, with a straight shaft free from branches to the height of forty- feet or more, but such are no longer to be found less frequent in proceeding southward, A cold climate appears to suit it' best. I have never met with very large trees of the ash in the vicinity of the prairies of Illinois and Iowa, although the soil is well suited to its growth} but this may readily be accounted for from the fact that it is one of the trees most easily destroyed, by the fires which annually ravaged these coun- tries previous to their settlement. I have been informed that in South- ern Kansas the White Ash is small, crooked, an_ worthles.s for any pur- pose except tuel. The White Ash will not thrive in very poor, dry lands. A cool, deep, moist soil seems most congenial to its growth. The trees which have grown most rapidly afford the best timber; that taken from stunted, slow-growinfe trees, is comparatively weak and bnttle. The prairie soils of Iowa and Northern and Central Illinois are well adapted to the gi-owth of the White ' Ash. Other species would, perhaps, be of more value furthier south. Besides its employment in the manufacture of agricultural implements, ash timber is extensively used in the construc- tion "of carriages and furniture. It is esteemed for fire- wood. The sup- ' ply is fast diminishing, and the de- mand increasing, and fliose who pro- pose to engage iji tree planting can not be too soon in taking measures to meet it. The American species of ash are dioecious, that is, the fertile and barren flowers are on different trees. Seed is produced by White Ash trees which grow in open ground. The seed are ripe by the first of October, and vrith the first sfiarp frosts. If sown in the fall, it should iffe thinly covered with earth, and straw or litter laid over it to prevent it from being washed out by heavy AMERICAN ASn. in the thickly settled parts of the country. The largest ash tree I ever met with was one near my native place, which was felled more than forty years since for the manufacture of scythe snathes. The ttunk was five feet in di?,meter, and per- fectly sound. The tree was not lofty, the top having been broken off by a tornado many years before. The White Ash abounds in the Provinces of the Domin- ion, in most parts of New Eng- land, New York, and the north- em States generally, but is fast becoming scarce. It is common, but not abundant, in Northern Illinois and Iowa, and becomes LEAVES OF THE ACOBA-LBAVED ASH. ASHES rains. The litter must be taken oflE in spring. If to be sown in spring, it should be mixed with moderately damp sand. If' kept dry through the winter it is not likely to vegetate. The White Ash bears transplanting well, even when of con- siderable size. It is a handsome oiiiamental tree, and is rarely attacked by insects. The only exception I know of is the May-bug (Laohnosterna fusca), which sometimes devours the leaves early in the summer. The Mountain Ash is not an ash, but i belongs to the apple (Pyrus) family. It is one of the most ornamental of our small trees, with its peculiar ash-like foliage, white flowers and its handsome red berries. The American species is Pyrus Amer- icana, and the European species, P. attcuparia, also called Rowan Tree. The Mountain Ash scarcely requires pruning and never grows unshapely. The American Mount- ain A&h ig sometimes used as a stock upon which to graft the apple, but can not be recom- mended. It is subject to the attacks of borers fully as much as the apple-tree, and the same means must be used for protection as given in the arti- cle, Apple-tree Borers We give cut of the Oak-leaved Mountain Ash, and fruit, one of the rarer ornamental varieties. ASHES. The earthy residuum, from the combustion of any organic substance as vegetable matter, wood, coal, etc., is termed ash or ashes. In an agricultural sense they are valuable as containing pot- ash, one of the important constituents in all fertile soils. The anci,ents were well acquainted with the use of ashes as ma- nure j even to the burning of twigs and dry branches, for the sake of the ashes they contained. The burning of stubble, for the same purpose, was practiced botli by the Jews and Romans, and also by the ancient Britons. Ashes vary in potash, according to the wood employed. The wood of the oak, divested of the bark, contains but about 2 parts of ash in 1,000 parts, while the bark contains 60 parts. Poplar wood contains 8 parts of ash, and the bark 72 parts. The wood of the mul- berry 7 parts in 1,000, and the bark 89 parts. The wood of horse chestnut con- j tains 35, and wheali^ straw 43 parts in " 1,000. Yet this is no criterion of their -; value as manure, since it is no index to the potash they contain. The following table will show the potash/parts) contained in 10,000 parts of some well known substances, compiled by Davy, as follows : Poplar, 10,000 parts produced 7 Beech, " " Vi Oak, " " I ri Elm, " " 31 Vine, '• ** 55 Thistle, " " .5.3 Fern, " " 62 CowThistle," " ....' 196 Beans, " " -210 Vetches, " "■ 875 Wormwood," " 7!0 Fumitory, " " 790 Corn-cobs are so rich, that the ash has been used as a substitute for saleratus, for raising 73 ASPARAGUS bread, and the ashes are now carefully saved in many of the great corn regions of the West, as a manure for the land. Coal ashes contains but little potash^the constituents of value being OAK-LEAVED TUOUNTAIN ASU. lime and gypsum, about two per cent in a hun- dred of each. , They are valuable, however, as a divisor of the soil, and on stiff clays may be used until it composes about one quarter of the soil. (See articles. Alkali and Potash.) ASPARAGtIN. The white crystalline prin- ciple found in the juice of the asparagus. It is resolved by boiling in water with magnesia, into ammonia and aspartic acid. ASPARAGUS. A well known garden plant, a hardy perennial, maratime species, cultivated for its young tender stalks. Its cultivation is exceedingly easy, but to secure large succulent shoots the ground must be deeply trenched and ASS ''* made exceeding rich, at least (our jnch^ of manure being incorporated -with the soil. , Plant one year old roots in deep furrows, covering fully five inches, the rows three feet apart, and the plants twelve inches in the row. Keep clear of weeds for two years, digging in lightly, annu- ally a top dressing of manure. The third year ' the shoots may be cut, and thereafter annually for many years. . . ,.^ ASPARAGUS STONE. A vanety of apatite. ASPEN. Populua tremula and Tmnuundes. Species of the great genus of poplars, remark- able for their lightness and shade. The timber u white, soft, and reaSily decays. AS& doubtedly domesticated before the horse. The ! first mention of the ass in the Scriptures is when Abraham went into Egypt at the time of a great famine in Palestine. Wild asses are still found in the mountains of Syria and adjacent countries, so fleet that the swiftest horses can not overtake them. The usual color of the ass in domestication is gray, mouse-color or black. The teeth of the ass assimilates to that of the horse, and the age is indicated as -in the horse by the changes in growth of the teeth. The male is capable of propagating at the age of two years, and the female somewhat sooner; like the mare the female carries her young elfeven mouths. i.«t. * * ft fit • ' ~ .. 'k. HuJ'ir ■i^S=:Si-i SPANISH JACK. ASPERGILLUM. One of the commonest asildew plants. (See Fungus.) ASFHODELd:. The family of plants to which the onion belongs. ASP'iDIOTUS. A genus of insects resem- bling the bark-lice, or scale insects, and of the same habits and family. They are fopnd on the •leander, rose, bay, cactus and other plants. ASS. Bquus dsinus. An animal considered ttie humblest melnber of the horse family, but really second only in value to man, when we like into consideration the important place lie occupies as a beast of burthen, among the poorer classes in all parts of the civilized world, and also the importance of the mule, the product •f the male ass and the mare. The ass was un- The hybrid obtained between the male ass and mare is called a mule, and that between the stal- lion and the female ass a hinny . Although the word mule is correct, as applying to a hybrid of any two species, yet the word ^ule has now come, by common usage, to be applied distinctively to the produce between the "jack" and mare. The ass is but little used in the United States except for service in producing mules. These are bred more or less, in all ,tne western and southern States, but principally in Texas, Kentuckjr, Ten- nessee, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois andMissouri, form- ing an industry of great value, and upon which large sums are yearly spent foi; superior jacks. These have, from time to time, been imported, ui>til now it is probable no country possesses finer ASTER Jacks or more able mules. The raising of mules m the United States is Principally conmied to the States of Tenn'essee, Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Southern Kansas and Texas, Although more or less are raised in nearly every State in the Union, and, as a rule, they sell about twenty-flve per cent, higher than the ordi- ■ary horse stock of the country. ASSOCIATION, FARMERS. (See Grange »nd Fairs.) ASTER. The China-aster has always been a 75 ATMOSPHERE ASTER FLOWBR. favorite m the garden. Of late years, the Ger- Man Asters, produced by hybridization and care- ful culture, are among the most beautiful of garden flowers. The seed is better sown in a ASTER PLANT IN BLOOH. riight hot-bed, in March, and pricked out three jbches apart in another frame when large •nough. About the middle of May, or when m>ra is fairly growing, they may be transplanted in beds, at a distance of twelve inches apart, where liey will bloom profusely from the mid- dle of summer until frost. The cut shows the- flower, and also the plant in bloom. The Cape Aster is a pretty and showy plant for stand or window. The whole genus is easy of culture, hybridize freely with each other, and are held in general estimation. They are nearly hardy, but are always grown in pots, as they flower so. early that in the open ground the buds would be liable to be nipped by the frost. They are grown in light, rich soil, and only require ordinary care- in watering. This plant is propagated by divid- ing the roots in August by cuttings struck ia autumn, or by seeds which they ripen in abun- dance. The seed should be sown in^May, on a slight hot-bed, and the young plants pricked out into small pdts and shifted frequently during the summer. If they are wanted to flower in De- cember, they should be kept in the green-hous& all the year and will begin to throw up their flower stalks in October; but if flowers are not wanted before April, the usual time, they may stand in the open air, and be, re-potted two or three times during the summer. In October, they may be put in a cold pit, where they must remain Just protected from the frost till March', when they will begin to send up their flower stalks. ASTHMA. Heaves or broken wind are em- physematous asthma. The cause is rupture of the small cells of the lungs, occasioried by hard work and insufficent, musty or coarse food, and hereditary predisposition. Thus, the animal can not expel the air drawn into the lungs with- out a distinct double effort. The cough attend- ing this disability is peculiar, a hollow, muffled sound, easily brought on by pressing on th& upper part of the windpipe. A cure is, impossi- ble, but relief may be obtained by placing the- animal on clean short grass, or better, i a summer on the prairie where resin weed grows. Such horses should be fed on light nutritious food. Indigestion is always an accompaniment of this, disease. This should be improved by tonics, anji the bowels should be kept regular, if consti- pated, by light purgatives. Prof. Law recom» mends, as most useful in this desease, -the fol- lowing: One ounce Fowler's soluti6n of arsenic, one drachm extract belladonna, half drachm tincture of ginger; mix with a pint of water and give as a drench daily, in the moniing, for one or two months. Heaves are incurable and constitute unsoundness. ASTRINGENT. In farriery, a term applied to such remedies as have the property of constriug- ing, or binding the parts, as oak bark, sugar of lead, etc. i ATMOSPHERE. From two Greek words, signifying vapor and a sphere, is the body of air- which sun-ounds the globe, and besides being necessary to the life of all terrestrial animals, is of special importance to the agriculturist, since- upon its condition are we dependent for rain, the motion of the air tempering the heat of sum- mer, and various meteorological conditions, with- out which, the labors of- the farmer would ba void. The air is in fact the great reservoir of the fertility of the earth. Elements noxious to. animal life are constantly being poured into it, from various sources of contaminations; from all decaying bodies, whether animal or vegetable; from the lungs of all animals in breathing; from. ATMOSPHERE 76 the miasma of marshes; from volcanoes, and the various other sources of contamination. On the other hand, living vegetation is constantly giving forth by day, during the growing season, fresh supplies of oxygen to keep it up to its normal state, else the oxygen consumed by animals in breathing would at length exhaust the air of this very necessary element. Upon some of the phenomena of the atmosptere, Appletoh's New American Encyclopaedia says: Air consists essen- tially of two gases, oxygen and nitrogen, in a state of mechanical mixture. But with these are always present a small proportion of carbonic acid gas and aqueous vapor. In the vioinify of large cities, ammonia is found too, in small ■quantity; and nitric acid is generated in thunder- storms by the chemical combination of nitrogen -and oxygen induced by the electrical shock. These, which may be regarded as accidental im- purities, are soon dissipated in tlie great bulk of the atmosphere, or they enter into new combi- nations, and are precipitated upon the earth, or ■are washed down by the rain. The proportions ■of the two. elements of the air hardly vary — whether this is taken from the summits of the highest mountains, from extensive plains, from thickly populated cities, or from crowded hos- pitals — nor are they affected by season, climate, or weather. In closely confined places exposed to putrescent exhalations, the purity of the air is ^necessarily much affected; the proportion of ■oxygen diminishes, and nuphitio gases, as sul- phuretted hydrogen and carbonic acid are in- troduced. Prof. Nicol gives an analysis of air •collected in a filthy lane in Paris, in which the •oxygen constitutes 13.79 per cent, orily, instead of 23 per cent., its usual proportion; nitrogen was present to the amount of 81..2i percent., ■carbonic acid 2.01; and sulphuretted hydrogen 3.90 per cent. Carbonic acid gas and aqueous vapor are more variable in their proportions, and the former, though found in the highest altitudes, has sometimes escaped detection in air ■collected at sea. Its composition is ; ATMOSPHERE Name. Nitrogen Oxygen Aqueous vapor. ■Carbonic acid.. Measure. 77.50 2.. 00 . 0.U8 1 ,0.00 Weight. S'i.32 1.03 0.10 100.00 Regnault calculates, from numerous analyses, that it is by, measure oxygen 20.90, and nitrogen 79.10; and the article Atmosphere, in the Bncy- ■clopsedia Britannica, i gives as the mean of ten careful trials a proportion by volume of 79.9735 parts of nitrogen, and 20.0265 of oxygen. The near approach of these two gases to the number *0 of the one and 20 of the other, cannot fail to istrike the attention of those who study the analyses made by Cavendish, Davy, Gay, Lussac, Humboldt and others. • And as a volume of nitro- gen is equivalent to one atom, the inclination is very strong to consider air as a compound of these gases in the equivalent proportions of two atoms of -nitrogen and one atom of oxygen. But the differences of specific gravity, of- tem- perature, structure or form, which usually accompany the change by chemical combina- tion are here wanting; and, moreover, air is recomposed by simple mixture of its elements, with no evidence of any chemical change taking place. The phenomena of refraction are such as iudicate a mixture; arid a still more conclusive proof is that air held in solution in water does not consist of the same proportions of its ele- ments;' b.ut from the greater solubility of oxygen, it contains of this about thirty-two per cent., and of nitrogen sixty-eight per cent. We are there- fore not authorized in the conclusion that air can be otherwise than a mechanical mixture of its elements. Carbonic acid gas, increased to the proportion of five to six per cent., genders air unfit for sustaining animal life. A candle ceases to burn when it contains three per cent, of this gas. One may live, however, in an atmosphere containing thirty per cent, of it for a short time, but not without suffering. But if carbonic oxide, which has only one atom of oxygen, instead of two atoms to one of carbon, is present, even in the small proportion of one per cent., it may prove instantly fatal. This poisonous gas ia generated by the combustion of charcoalin con- fined places. Carbonic acid is generated by combustion of carbonaceous substances; with free access of air, and by the analogous process of the Ijreathing of animals, an atom of carbon unites with two atoms Of oxygen, and the, solid matter takes the form of this invisible gas. By several processes it may be restored to a fixed or tangible shape Man requires from 312 to 353' cubic feet of air per hour. In breathing, the oxygen in part unites with carbon in the system, and the air expired contains four and a half per cent, of carbonic acid gas. This is immediately dispursed through the atmosphere by the property of diffusibility, possessed in such a remarkable degree by the gases; but if confined in close places it soon accumulates and contaminates the air. Though this is the heaviest of the gases, and is generated near the surface,, it is found in larger proportion in the air of elevatei places, than in that below. The reason ascribed is, that this is owing to the plants absorbing it in the lower strata, and is not satisfactory, as it is in these strata produced. Growing plants are the compensating agents, that counteract the noxious influences of combustion and the breath- ing of animals; as in the ocean the coralline insects as quietly perform their great otBce of separating from the water the soluble con- taminati ig ingredients, poured in from the innumerable rivers that feed it. Plants as well as animals breathe the air, but the effect of this respiration is just the reverse of that of animals. The carbonic acid gas is decomposed in the laboratory of their vessels, the solid carbon is added to their structure, and the pure oxygen is expired. It is true the process is reversed in the night, but with much less effect. This change in the action of plants at night is th6 reason why they should not be kept in sleeping apartments. Oxygen thus appears to be the life-sustaining element of the air for animals, while nitrogen has the negative duty of restraining, by its bulky proportions, the too active influence of its fiery partner. Oxygen is diluted with it, as strong food is with water, to make it wholesome. Both the weaker elements, however, have some other uses, being found as constituents of veg- etable and animal substances. Water, more- over, in the form of vapor, manifests its pres- ence by condensing in visible moisture and ATMOSPHERE drops upon cOld surfaces. When the air is warm, its capacity of holding water is great; as it becomes cool tliis capacity diminishes, and the water that is now in excess appears as dew, or mist, or rain. The atmosphere is said to be dry when it has not so much moisture in it as it is capable of holding at its temperature; evapora- tion then takes place. But let the temperature fall, and the same air that was called dry is now damp. ' The absolute quantity of vapor has not changed, but the relative quantity of what the air is capable of holding, and that actually in it. As the air becomes cool, and reaches a degree at which it is saturated with the water it contains, and this begins to condense upon cold surfaces, this degree of temperature is called the dew- point. If it is high, the absolute quantity of vapor in the air was great ; if low, there was little vapor in the air. The relative quantity was the same in both instances, as it always must be at the dew-point. As the hot airs of the tropics are swept over the Atlantic in the trade winds they suck up the moisture like a dry sponge. Saturated with it, as they pass over the snowy summits of the Cordilleras, and their particles are compressed together with the cold, they shed it, like the same sponge squeezed in the hand. Thus does the atmosphere fill its office as a com- pensating agent, carrying away the excess of waters of the ocean, that, though all the rivers flow into it, it shall never be full, feeding, too, the 4ry places of the earth, that its wells and springs shall never lack its supplies. Air being a material substance, though invisible," possesses many of the physical properties of the solid and liquid bodies, as weight, inertia, elasticity, im- penetrability, capacity for heat, etc. ^A. vessel exhausted of air is found to weigh less than when filled with it; and in this manner it has been ascertained that 100 cubic inches of pure and dry air, at a temperature of 60°, and under a pressure of thirty inches of the barometer,- weigh 81.0117 grains. Other gases are referred to air at this temperature for the expression of their comparative weight. Water is 815 times heavier than air; but at the freezing point the difference is as 770 to 1. From its weight result its inertia and the pressure of the atmosphere. It can not be set in motion without exertion of force, nor in motion be retarded without opposi- tion of force. Its momentum, as with other bodies, is its weight multiplied by its velocity. Air in motion is a mechanical force, applied to propelling ships and wind-mills. ' The pressure of the atmosphere is the weight of the column of air. If this were alike dense throughout its height, the upper limit of the atmosphere would be, easily calculated from the weight of a cubic inch, and the pressure of 14.6 pounds upon the square inch. It would be about five and one- fourth miles. But from the prppertjr possessed by the gaseous bodies of expanding in bulk or becoming more rare, in proportion as the force that confines them Is removed, the weight of a colum'n of air is not directly proportional to its height. This tendency of the particles of air to separate from each other, as the pressure that confines them is taken off, is called the elasticity of the air. Its effect is, that every successive layer of air of any given thickness is of less density and weight than the layer of the same thickness beneath it. The rate of this decrease of weight may be thus expressed: When the 77 ATMOSPHERE height increases in an arithmetical ratio, the volume increases in a geometrical ratio and the weight diminishes in the same. For example, at' the level of the sea, calling the volume one, and the density or weight one; at the height of 3.705 miles, the volume is two and the density one-half; at twice the height, the volume is four and the density one-fourth ; at three times the height, the volume is eight and the density one-eighth. But notwithstanding this tendency of expansion, the atmosphere is proved by calculations based on its refractive properties to find somewhere a limit, and this appears to be not far from forty- five miles above the surface. The pressure of the atmosphere is made apparent by removing the air from any tube, the lower end of which is. immersed in water or any other fluid. This fluid will be pressed up the tube to a height corres- ponding to the pressure upon its surface. If this be at the level of the sea, where the pressure is. 14.6 pounds on the square inch, water will rise thirty-three feet and mercury twenty -nine inches. At any greater elevation, the pressure being less, a less height of the fluid will balance it. Such an instrument as this tube is the barometer, by which the difference of elevation is determined by the different heights of the column of mercuiy, the calculation being made on the principal above described, and corrected for temperature and the latitude of the place. There is another instrument used for the same purpose, based on the property of water boil- ing at less temperature, as the pressure of air upon its surface is taken off. For every 549^ feet increase of elevation, it is found that the boiling point is one degree less. Con-ectiom is in this case also to be made for the tempera- ture of the air. Well constructed instruments of this kind have been made to produce veiy fair results in experienced hands. Familiar illustra- tions of the pressure of the air are afforded by the common pump, which is but such a tube a» has been already referred to, furnished merely with a proper valve for lifting out the air, and then the water which foUows it. The power applied to lift the air is equal to its pressure at the place multiplied by the height it is raised, or to the weight of the column of water. There can, therefore, be no expedients that will lessen the power required to work a pump, unless they can present some form more simple, and which involves less friction than the ordinary form of the pump, and this seems hardly possible. The pressure of the air is also well illustrated by the common leather " sucker," which the boys make for a toy — a mere disk of soft leather with a string knotted at one end passed through the centre. When moistened and applied to any smooth surface, care being taken to expel the in- tervening air, it is attracted to it by the external pressure. By the same principle insects walk upon the ceiling, and the patella or limpet, and, some other shell fish, hold fast upon the smooth rock. So great is this pressure, that the force exerted upon the body of a moderately sized man is estimated at about fifteen tons, sufficient to crush him, as it inevitably would, if applied to only a portion of the body; but quite harmless when pressing with perfect elasticity everywhere alike— from the external parts inwardly, and from those within outward. , Let the pressure be taken off from any portion, as by the cupping instrument, and one is immediately sensible of ATMOSPHERE 78 ATOM the power that is exerted upon the parts around, painfully pressing them into the vacant space of the instrument. Elasticity is possessed in a re- markable degree by gaseous bodies. If the pressure is removed from them their particles repel each other, and the tendency is to expand indefinitely. This force, as expressed by the law of Mariotte, its discoverer varies in exactly the same proportion -as the density of the air. But as air has been made to expand to more than 2,000 times its usual bulk, and been com- ,pressed into less than one-thousandth— ^and at these extreme ^ degrees of rarefaction and con- densation it is diflflicult to determine its elasticity with rigor. From the freezing point upward air ■expands 1.493 of its bulk for every degree of its temperature. This is easily exemplified by heat- ing air confined in a bladder. Its expansion soon swells the bladder and causes it to burst. As the bulk increases, its density or weight dimin- ishes. The colder and heavier air presses through it, afid the more buoyant fluid is lifted up. On this principle were constructed the first balloons. 'It is this principle that gives rise to the currents of air or wind, the colder bodies flowing along the surface to fill the space left by the ascending columns. Thus the trade winds blow from the temperate regions toward the torrid equatorial belt. The -whirling tornado, and all the phe- nomena of the winds, owe their origin to local heating and rarefaction of the atmosphere. The rays of the sun pass through the upper strata of the atmosphere, imparting to them no heat. This the air receives only near the sur- face. As we ascend the temperature diminishes one degfee for every 352 feet. Near the equator perpetual snow covers the mountains at a height of 15,207 feet; in latitude 60° it is found at 3,818 feet; and in 75° at 1,016 feet. Did the sun's rays impart no effect to the atmosphere, the great body of it would be seen as blank dark- ness; but a partial absorption of a portion of the rays takes place, and reflection' of the blue rays. This gives the color to the sky, while that of the olouds and the rainbow comes from the effect of the light upon the particles of vapor floating in the atmosphere. These colors are too faint to be perceived in any spiall quantity of air. It is only by; looking into the great depths of the atmosphere that they may become visible, as the color of the ocean is only apparent when the wAters are seen in a mass. ATMOSPHERE, GASES AND YAPOR OP. The invisible fluid surrounding the earth is termed the atmosphere. It is composed of oxygen 20.84 and nitrogen 79.16, in 100 parts water, in the form of vapor, and carbonic acid gas is also held mechanically, the former aver- aging one per cent., but varying with tempera- ture, etc., ai»d other meteorological conditions; and the carbonic acid gas forming 0.1 per cent., or by wpight as compared with a volume of an one-thousandth part. In relation to the effects of vapor on the Atmosphere,' it is stated that, on the supposition that the vapor is uniformly dis- tributed through the atmosphere, which will not be far from the truth if considered with refer- ence to the principal zones of the earth, we can calculate the whole weight of water contained. Thus we find, if the water were at the boiling point, its elastic tension or pressure would be equal to the^ pressure of the atmosphere, and in this case it would support thirty inches of mer- cury, or Its equivalent, 407.4 inches of water; and since transparent vapor observes the same law of expansion and contraction by variations of pressure and temperature that dry air does, it is clear that we shall have the following relatiom for any other temperature, namely, as thirty inches is to the quantity of mercury expressing the elasticity of the air at any temperature, so is 407.4 inches of water to the whole weight of the aqueous vapor, provided the weight of vapor is the same as that of the air. It has, however, beea proved that vapor is only flve-eighths ' of the density of air, and therefore, the quantity found by the foregoing relation must be reduced in this ratio. If we assume that the dew-point is on aa average of 6° below the temperature of the air, and allowing the temperature of the tropical regions to be 82°, we shall have the following proportion: 30 : 0.897 : : 407.4 : 13.81. This last number must, however, be multiplied by f, and this will give us 7.61 inches. From this it will appear that if the atmospheric columns at the equator were to discharge their whole watery store, the moisture precipitated would cover the the earth to the small depth of 7.61 inches; and from a similar calculation we find that, if the columns of air resting upon the city of Washing- ton were to precipitate at once all their moisture, the quantity of water would be indicated by about three inches of the gauge. To supply, therefore, thirty or forty inches of rain in the course of a year it is necessary that the vapor contained in the atmosphere should be very fre- quently renewed, and that, consequently, locali- ties which c^n not be reached by moist winds must be abnormally dry. ATOM. In chemistry, the ultimate part of a body which combines with other atoms. Theo- retically, these are of a determinate magnitude ia every case. Atoms are simple or elementary when they can not be separated by cheinical forces, and compound when they are liable to decomposi- tion . Chemical compounds consist of a definite number of atoms, bound together by chemical force or aflinity; but the value of this force ia different in different compounds. In conse- quence, however, of the union of atoms in invari- able weights,; determined by experiment, each chemical body has attached to it a distinct pro- portional weight, termed its atomic weight, equiva- lent, or combining number. The study of these is the essential of all chemical inquiries; it is this remarkable adherence to a precise quantity in all cases of combination which gives exactness to our investigations, and forms the difference be- tween a mere mixture and chemical tmion- The following are the atomic weights or proportionals of various elementary bodies interesting to agri- culture, and their initial equivalent or contrac- tion: Hydrogen (H.) 1. Oxygen(O) 8. Nitrogen (N.) 14. Carbon (C ) 6. Sulphur (S.) 16. PhoephorilB (P.) 81 . Chlorne (Cl.j .35.5 Silicon (Si.) 22. Potassium (K.) 39. Sodium (Na.) 8S. Calcium (Ca.) 20.5 Magnesium (Mg.). .' lii.7 Aluminium (Al. ).!,... IS. 7 Iron(Fe.) .:. ..27. Maganese (Mn.) 27.7 These are on the basis that hydrogen Is 1., and may be understood by the following case ; Water is a compound of one atom of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen; and, supposing a given quantity^ weighs nine grains, we know, by the laws of chemi- cal combinations, that it contains one grain at AYRSHIRE CATTLE 79 AYRSHIRE CATTLB hydrogen and eight grains of oxygen; or, if the weight of water be other than nine grains, these constituents are united in the rigorous proportion of one to eight. Atomic theory is the theory of Dr. Dalton, that chemical union takes place only , in definite atoms. Atomic weight is the equiva- lent or combining weight. ATROPY. In farriery, a morbid wasting and emaciation, attended with a great loss of strength in animals. ATROPIA. The poisonous alkaloid of the ■doadly Night-shade, AUCHENIA. The region of the neck,inmam- mals, below the nape. AURALIA, AUKELIAN. Pupa or nymph of the higher insects. AURICLE. The external ear; the venous chambers of the heart. A UR I CD LA R. Appertaining to the ear. AURICULATE. When the base of a leaf is lobed on each side the midrib. AUSCULTATION. The examination of the sounds within the body to detect diseases, etc. AUTOPSY. Examination by the eye. It is generally used to designate examinations of the body after death, for the discovery of the causes of disease. AVENA. The generic name of a family of grasses, of which the A. satma (oats) and A. elatior (Andes Grass) are best kiiown. Several species, as the A. flavescens and puiescens, are found in ' English meadows, and the latter is well worthy of cultivation ; it, is the downy oat-grass of agri- culture. AVENUE. Any broad, gravelled, or properly made road, bordered by trees; a side road, or approach to a house. AVERSE, A VERSUS. Turned back. AVIARY. A place to keep birds in. AWN. The stiff beard or bristle of some grasses, Arista. AWNING, A covering of some kind of cloth, to protect plants, etc., from sun or rain. AXIL, AXILLA. The armpit; the angle between the leaf and the stem; buds placed here are termed axillary. AXI s, AXL E-T REE. The spindle or central rod around which parts of machinery, etc., re- volve or are developed. AYRSHIRE CATTLE. The Aryshire are imdoubtedly a composit breed and of compara- tively modern date, originating in the county of Ayr, Scotland, whence their name, and within tlie last sixty or seventy years disseminated gen- erally throughout England and Ireland, where they are generally esteemed for their superior milking qualities. Importations were made into the United States over forty years ago. Of late years superior specimens have been introduced over the East and West, and where handled, they have given general satisfaction. . Their his- tory and characteristics is as follows: Alton, in his Dairy Husbandry, speaks of the cattle which occupied Ayrshire fifty years before the time, when he wrote (1806) as follows : The cows kept in the districts. of Kyle and Cunningham (dis- tricts of Ayrshire) were of a diminutive size, ill- f ed, ill-shaped, and yielded but a scanty return m milk; they were mostly of a black color, with stripes of white along the chine or ridge of their backs, about their flanks, and on their faces; their horns' were high and crooked; their pile (hair) was coar-se and open, and few of them yi'■ BARN room upon the other for a horse, power and hay cutter, by which most of the coarse fodder is chopped up before being delivered at the feed trough on the floor below. Each gi-ain and meal bin communicates by a chute with the feeding floor, where its contents may be drawn off. The ' greater part of this floor is occupied by the im- mense hay mows through which pass the four great ventilators conling from the feeding floor, •oors open with the ventilating trunks at difEer- ^ent heights, so, when desirable, hay, straw, oats in the sheaf, etc. jmay be thrown down to the stock. From this floor there are stairs which ascend to the cupola or .pbservatory. The horse stables 92. BARN tWo-inch chestnut plank, with cleats, half an inch thick,, covering the cracks between, the planks. Upon this water-tight floor is another made in three parts; for two feet at the upper end the floor is of white oak plank nailed fast; the rest of the floor is formed of nan'ow oak plank, fast- ened together by strong oak cleats let in flush so as to form two doors, as it were, hinged at either side, so as to be lifted and set "upias shown in right hand stall of the cut, for the perfect cleans- ing of the lower floor. A channel at the. rear carries off the urine, and the solid manure is thrown into the cellar through the trap-door seen open in cut. Between the cattle-stalls in the south -.J %/. . ./bl— r - ' '' ' ' ' w STALL, WITH HORSE. throughout the barn are airy and roomy. There are three loose boxes as shown in the ground plan (page 90), one twelve feet square, for horses, and two somewhat smaller, which are used for horses, or as lying-in stalls for cows. The horse-stalls are inodels of convenience and excellelice. Each has the following dimensions: ten feet from front to rear, five feet one inch wide, nine feet four inches high. The stalls are separated by plank parti- tions four and a half feet high, surmounted by strong woven-wire , cloth extending two feet higher. The same style of partition forms the front of the stalls. The hay rack is of iron, in one corner, and an iron feed box is in the opposite corner, accessible from the passage way in front of the stalls by a small door in the wire cloth, There are two floors, the lower one being laid of wing (page 93) there is a passage way ten feet wide, through which carts with green f ood^ roots, etc , may be driven, making a complete system of soiling in summer practicable and convenient. The passage way through the east wing is not quite so wide, but might easily bte used in the same way. All the cattle-stalls are made upon the same principle, though of different sizes, for fattening cattle, milch cows, and young stock: The cow-staUs are represented on page 93. The feeding boxes are two and a half feet wide, the floors five and a half feet from the feeding trot^h , •;2^ to the gutter, which is fourteen inches wide, iaad ' the passage in the rear is three feet, making in all about twelve feet for the stalls. The stalls ■ are six and a half feet Wide, arranged for two ani- mals, which are fastened by a neck strap or chain BARN attached to a short chain and ring, playing up and down upon a rod. bolted to the partition between the stalls. A perpendicular rack is in front of the manger, and a shutter is hinged below it, a,nd when open is held in an inclined position by a chain. This afEords space below for a good forkful of hay between the shutter and the rack. Great economy of space is thus secured, for the encroachment upon the gangway is rarely of any inconvenience, and when carts are driven through it is easy to close the shutters. Light and air are abundantly 'provided for the stock, as one may see by a casual inspection of the plans. In fact, these are the first features that 93 BARN ducted ofE, none going into the yard, ajid there is no necessity for husbanding it. The gables on the sides of the barn and south wing give great strength to the frame, aflord light to the floor, and in summer give a splendid draft of air over the floor, to say nothing of the beauty added to the building. A cheap barn can be built on this general plan of, first, basement for stock cattle; second, floor for stock, wagons and tools ; third, floor for hay, grain, hay-scales and other conven- iences. To come to more simple barns, intended principally for storage of hay and grain, all that will be necessary to decide will be the size intended. In those localities where there is a lack of build- 'J I - i ^' ' / ST"-- " i'^&'^O'M cow STALLS. impress one. The ventilating trunks are four feet square, and rise from the feeding floor . directly to the roof, where they terminate in Tfentilators of the largest size. The current of air caused by one of these is all times percepti- ble, and usually amounts to a considerable flow. The windows on the stock floor are numerous, and are each provided with two glazed sashes, hung by weights, so that any one, or all, may be opened to any degree desired, making the floors cool and airy in the closest weather. The yards open to the south and east, and are so arranged that the wash inay be turned to flow into tanks for wetting down the manure in the cellar, which operation is frequently necessary, especially in summer. The water from the eaves is all con- ing stone for the foundation, it is better that there be no basement. A bam forty by eighty feet, or larger, should not have less than twenty- five feet posts, since with a horse fork and run- ways, hay may be carried easily and economic- ally. Such a barn, to be built internaUy of timber and boards, should be sided vertically, and battened, or not, as the taste of the owner may suggest. For an average farm we present a cut of barn thirty-two bjr forty-four, with base- ment. This barn iftis eighteen feet posts, but we should prefer in a barn of this size that the posts should be twenty feet. The inside arrange- ment may be figured upon according to the special wants of the owner. " By studying the plan of large bam, the fixtures may easily be BAROMETER 94 altered for -smaller. In such a barn the entrance should be from the end, the doors being hung on iron rollers; the siding may be of rough boards, placed vertically, the , floors of two-mch ■ A SMALL BANK BARK. plank, .planed and matched, with the shed and corn stables in the basement, and horse stables i on the floor above. BAROMETER. The word is derived from s two Greek words, which signify the measurer of weight.- This, the most valuable instrument for meteorological observations in the farmer's pos- session, was invented about the middle of the 17th century, by Torricelli, an. Italian philoso- pher. It was found by Torricelli, that a column of water of about thirty-two feet exactly balanced the weight of the atmosphere which surrounds our earth, and that this was equal to the weight of a column of mercury of about twenty-eight inches. This column of mercury under various forms is the barometer. As the pressure of the atmosphere commonly varies with approaching changes, in the weather, the consequent rise' or fall of the mercdry merely marks its amount; one end of the mercurial tube is hermetically sealed a'nd is void of air, so that the mercury rises or falls in it unresisted; but the other end of the tube is open, and the atmosphere forces the mercury through this, by pressure on the . surface of the fluid lyercury in the cistern. Thus, the atmosphere operates by its varying pressure. When, therefore, the mercury rises, the atmos- pheric pressure is increasing; when it falls, the pressure is diminishing. The more dense the atmosphere, the, higher the mercury will rise in the' instrument. It is a popular notion that the atmospheric pressure must be greater when the air is thick and cloudy. The term density, when applied to the condition of the atmosphere and its gelations with the barometer, means specific weight, without reference to its clearness or cloudiness .Vapor or moisture in the air always lessens its weight, and the more vapor, whether this be invisible, or in the condensed states con- stituting fogs and clouds, the leas the weight or density and pressure upon the barometer. It is more from this rising and falling of the barome- ter, observes Mr. Forster, that from its height or lownessT that we are to infer fair or foul weather. In very hot weather the falling of the mercury indicates thunder; in winter, the rising indicates frost; and in frosty weather, if the mercury falls three or four divisions, there'will follow a thaw; but in a continued frost, if the mercury rises it will snow. When foul weather happens soon after the falling of the mercury, it will not con- tinue; and, on the contrary, you may expect, if 'the weather becomes fair as soon as the meicury BARROW rises, that it will be of short duration. In fotil weather, when the mercury rises much and high, and so continues for two or three days before the foul weather is quite over, then expect a con- tinuance of fair weather to follow. There are many catch-penny, cheap barometers of late years. To buy them is money thrown away. If the farmer wishes a barometer, he had better get a mercurial instrument at once, since the first cost will be amply re-paid in the end. BABRAS. The resin which flows from the bark of fir-trees. ' BARREL. An English beer measure of thirty-four gallons. In the southern States, a measure of corn equal in the ear to ten bushels, or five bushels, shelled. A barrel of flour con- tains 196 pounds. BARREN FLOWERS. Those which contain stamens only; tjiey are easily known by the absence of the swelling under the ipva/rium) flow- er. By high cultivation flowers become barren, and contain no stamens; when these bear fruit, it is without seeds; hence seedless varieties of orange, grape, etc. Thus entirely double flowers are seedless. These, botanically, are monstrosi- ties, yet very beautiful to the eye. ; BARRENNESS. Barrenness or sterility is produced by a variety of causes. High and stimulating food; want of exercise, fatty and sweet foods, lack of vigor, disease, over-milking and innutritions food are among the more com- mon among the artificial causes. ' Natural causes, are a female twinned with a male; incomplete growth of the ovaries and incomplete genital organs are among the natural causes. If the male be old, diseased, very fat or very lean, or if his copulation has been excessive, the females coupled with him may not breed. The proper remedies will naturally suggest themselves'. Mal- formation, of course, cannot be remedied. BA.KRENS. A term applied in the West to sandy soils, sparsely covered with trees. They are not necessarily barren soils. Since those bearing bur oak are among the most productive soils in the West, Soils may be barren not always frorn the lack of fertility; excessive dryness and porosity may prevent fertility. Indurated clays may lack fertility because the roots cannot pene- trate the soils. Others again are barren' from the presence of tannin, metals, as iron, sulphur, etc., in combination with acids. Irrigatioii is necessary to the first named, deep tilth to the second, and the, third class of soils are usually benefited by dressings of lime. BARROW. In the United States, a pit or cave. In agriculture, a mound of earth, some- times called camps, under which potatoes or other roots are stored for protectiorr from frost. They are made by excavating the ground, when possible, which should be high and dry, about one foot and a half deep, from three to four wide, and of a length proportionable to the num- ber of bushels to be stored. The earth dug out is tlirown evenly on both sides of the trench. Before storing, a layer of straw is put down; but this is unnecessary; the roots, etc., are next piled up in a rounded form, with the greatest height of three or four feet in the middle of the mound; straw is laid over thein, and dry earth of the excavation piled on from two to two and a half feet, and flattened with the spade. Around the barrow a ditch is dug, deeper than the floor within, to drain off water What BATRACHIAN ever is stored should be sound, and previously well aired. They should be placed in a shaded place. When severe frost is expected one foot of earth is thrown on the first layer of straw, and another layer of straw is ' placed over this, and another foot of earth over all. The severest frosts will not enter a pit thus made. When the soil is too wet to be excavated, the roots may be placed directly on the surface, and a mound raised over the heap as before directed, but in this case it will require one-quarter more earth for covering than in the case of a pit. BARS. In farriery, those portions of the cnist or hoof of horses that are reflected inward, and from the arches situated between the heels and the frog. BARS OF A HORSES MOUTH. The fleshy rows that run across the upper part of the mouth, and reach almost to the palate; they form that part of the mouth on which the bit should rest, and have its efEect; the tongue of the ciu'b bit, pressing directly thereon, when pulled upon by the reins. BAR-SHOE. A particular kind of sho^, which is sometimes of necessity used to protect a tender frog from injury, the hinder part of the shoe being thickened and hollowed over the frog; but unless it is made fixceedingly heavy it will soon be flat- tened down, and press injuriously upon the heels. BARYTA. The oxide of barium, an alkaline qarth closely resembling lime, but not very abun- dant. Many of its salts are isomorphous with those of lime. BASALT. A rock of great hardness, contain- mg iron, lime and sand. It does not differ from trajp except in color, and occasionally in putting on the columnar form. The Palisades of the Hudson are a range forty miles long of this rock. BASE. In chemistry, a term used to desig- nate those substances which readily combine with acids, as alkaUes, metallic oxides, etc. ; in general terms, all substances which readily combine with others; in architecture, a pedestal. BASIL. Ocymum ioMliaum. Two species. The one named is most usually cultivated for culi- nary purposes; an aromatic annual; the fragrance resembling cloves; a native of India. Among ' the French it is considered important in some sotips, especially mock turtle ; also in sauces and salads, the young leaves being the portions used. As an edging for large beds it is pretty. In the United States it is little used in cooking. The seed should be sown north, in a cold frame about the first of April and transplanted as soon as dan- ger of frost is over. It requires a fertile, mellow. Soil and a warm exposure, and should be planted in rows one foot apart, the plants about eight inches in the rows. The stalks are cut for dry- ing when in flower. BASS. 1. The inner bark of the Lime or Lin- den Tree (TUia glabra) ; used by gardeners to bind plants, and in the form of mats, to protect trees, frames. The American Linden Basswood, fur- nishes good bass. 2. Afresh waterfish. (SeeFish). BATH. In chemistry, sand, water, or oil heated in a metallic vessel communicating a steady and regulated heat to chemical vessels in distilation, drying, or evaporation. BATRACHIAN, BATRACHIA. An order of reptiles including the frogs and toads, and all reptiles which, like them, have naked skins and external branchise in the early stage of existence ; those batrachia which retain the gills or gill 95 ' BEAN aperatures throughout life are called "perenni- branchiate," or amphibious. BATTATAS. A name for the sweet potato. BATTENS. Strips of wood two to four inches broad, nailed over the cracks in the vert?- cal siding of buildings; any strip nailed over a croFck BAUME'S AREOMETER, or HYDROME- TER. A hydrometer, the zero of which is pure v^ater at 58° Fahrenheit, and the 15° is the den- sity of a mixture of fifteen parts cornmon salt and eighty-five parts water, by weight. ' BAY. 1. The term for a color inclining to a chestnut. In reference to the horse this color has various shades, from the very light bay to the dark bay, which approaches nearly to the brown; but it is always more bright and shin- ing There are also dappled bays. All bay horses are really called brown. Bay horses have generally black manes. There are Ught bays, and gilded bays, which are somewhat of a yel- lowish color. The chestnut bay is that which ' comes nearest to the color of the chestnut. The bay is one of the best colors of horses, and horses of all the different shades of bays are generally sought after as indicating good temper and con- stitutional vigor. 2. Bay, in forestry, is a com- mon name for the laurels, especially Lawns nobilis. Bayberry is the Myrica cerifera. 3. Bay of a barn ; that part where the mow is placed. Hence such barns as have the threshing floor in the middle, and a space for a mow on each side, are called barns of two bays. BEAK. The rostrum or sharp termination of a fruit. BEAM. A horizontal timber used to resist or sustain weight. BEAN. Pliaseolus. In the United States the bean is a tender annual, either dwarf or climbing, and is cultivated both for the succulent green pods and ripe seeds. The dwarf varieties vary in height from twelve to twenty-four inches, and require no poles. The climbing varieties require poles for their support. There are varieties inter- . medial between the bush and climbing bean, but which do not require support as the White Mar- row, one of the best of the white yarieties to be used as dry, ripe beans. Among the varieties used as string beans, the Turtle Soup or Tampico Bean produces abundant runners two feet or more in length. Beans when planted in drills^the- usual and proper way for all the dwarf and half dwarf varieties — should be sown, as to the drills, thirty inches apart, to allow of horse cultivation;, and if the drills are bedded up by running a horse hoe lightly between before sowing, on ordinary prairie land, it will increase their earliness and assist in the ease of cultivation, and subsequently the hilling with the horse hoe. When ripe, the crop is allowed to stand until the pods are quite dry, and pulled by the roots while moist with dew, the roots being pressed together in the hand and the handfulls set upon their tops in windows to dry. When sufficiently cured, they are to be laid loosely on scaffolds or laid around branched stakes, the roots in and the tops pointing down, ' to become quite dry before threshing. When threshed, the beans should be cleaned from the chaff in a fanning mill and be spread on a smooth airy floor and turned, from time to time, until they are entirely cured; thus they will not heat and mould when put in barrels. For the general crop of dry beans, they should not be planted BEAN -until the days and nights are warm, or about the •first week in June in the North, since the whole family are inter-tropical plants and exceedingly impatient, not only of frost, bjit cold storms. The pole varieties should be planted, the lower growing sorts three feet apart one way, by about two feet the other, and the taller climbers, as Scarlet Runners, Lima, etc., four feet one way, 'by three feet the other. Among the dwarf varie- ties, the China Red-eye is one of the most hardy and also moderately early. Early Valentine is pj-oductive and among the earliest; planted in June, they will afford green pods in fifty days, .and ripen in eleven weeks. Long Yellow Six- weeks is also amdng the earliest, of the early sorts, productive and excellent for a string bean. The so-called wax varieties are now generally •cultivated for their succulent pods. The White Kidney Bean makes an excellent family bean for shelling green, coming in about the time of the first green corn, and is much used for making isuccotash. The pole or running varieties are less hardy than the dwarf varieties, and must not be planted in the open air until the days and nights are permanently warm, or about the time the ■earliest peas come in blossom. The Carolina and large Lima are the best of their class. Concord is a good shell bean, healthy and vigorous. The Corn Bean makes an excellent string bean. In- dian Chief known also as Wax and Butter Bean, -makes an excellent string or shell bean. Sabre ■or Oimeter, is productive and an excellent string or shell bean, and, valuable for pickling. Among those considered /ornamental, may be mentioned the Scarlet Runner, the Painted Lady and the White Runner. In England, Horse Beans (mda), -a family different frorn the garden bean and the bean of commerce (Pkaseolus). There are a num- ber of varieties of fflie horse bean raised in Eng- land as food for horses; and in Germany they are sown to some extent for soiling. All varieties of beans are (3onsidered to leave the soil open, porous and mellow. Again they are not an exhausting •Hjrop, notwithstanding the abundance of nutritive -substance they contain, and this rich in azotized matter. The proportion of nutritive matter in ■Ijeans, as compared with other grain is given by Einhof, as follows: 9(3 BEE-MOTH BEARD. The awn of cereal grains and "^Theat Jlje Barley •Oats Peas ....... .. Kidney Beans Per cent. Pounds by weight. per busliel 74 47 70 S9 65 33 58 23 75 49 84 54 Von Thaer, in his experiments in feeding, to •determine the value of beans as food for cattle, in his comparative estimate rates field beans as •equal in value to one-third of wheat, and two- thirds of Indian corn or barley. The probability is that in countries adapted to the crop, that beans and Indian corn will admirably supple- anent each other in feeding, since Indian corn is ■rich in carbon, oil and starch, and beans are rich -in nitrogen, as much as thirty per cent, of casein being found in the ripe seeds. Stock, however, must be learned to eat beans. We have never : succeeded ii getting a;ny farm animals to eat beans eing quite convex so as to be easily distinguish- »d from the worker brood. After mating, the drone organs adhere to the queen, the act of cop- ulation always proving fatal to the drone. In relation to ihe neuter or worker-bees, says Prof. Cook, in this connection, they were called the bees by Aristotle, and Wildman and Bevan say ihey are by far the most numerous individuals of the hive— there being from 1,500 to 4,000 in every good colony. It is possible for a colony to be even much more populous than this. These are also the smallest bees of the colony, as they measure but little more than one-half of an inch in length. The workers — as taught by Schirach, and proved by Mile. Jurine, of Geneva, Switzerland, who, at the request of Huber, sought for and found, by aid of her microscope, that abortive ovaries are undeveloped females. Rarely, and probably very rarely, except that a colony is long or often queenless, as is frequently true of our nuclei, these bees are so far developed as to produce eggs, which, of course, would always be drone eggs. Such workers — known as fertile — were first noticed by Reim, while Huber actually saw one in the act of egg-laying. Except in the power to produde eggs, they seem not unlike the other workers. Huber supposed that these were reared in cells contiguous to royal cells, and thus received royal food by accident. The fact, as stated by Mr. Quinby, that these occur in colonies where queen-larvs8 were never reared, is fatal to the above theory. Langstroth, and Berlepscn thought that these bees, while larvse, were fed, though too spar- ingly, with the royal aliment, by bees in need of % queen, and hence the accelerated development. The workers, as might be surmised by the im- portance and variety of their functions, are •tructurally very peculiar. Their tongues, labial palpi, and maxillae, are very much elongated, while the former is very hairy, and doubles under the throat when not in use. The length of the ligula enables them to reach into flowers with long tubes, and by the aid of the hairs they lap up the nectar. When the tongue is big with its adhering load of sweet, it is doubled back, •nclosed by the labial palpi and maxillee, and then extended, thus losing its nectar, which at the same time is sucked- into the large hohey- ■tomach. The bees, at will, can force the honey back from the ihoney-stomach, when it is stored in the honey-cells or given to the other bees. The jaws are very strong, without the rudiment- ary tooth, while the cutting edge is semi-conical, so that when the Jaws are closed they form an imperfect cone. Thus these are well formed to eut comb, knead wax, and perform their various functions. Their eyes are like those of the queen, while their wings, like those of the drones, attain the end of the body. These organs as in all insects with rapid flight, are slim and strong. and, by their more or less rapid vibrations, eive- the variety of tone which characterizes their hum. Thus we have the rapid movements and high pitch of anger, and the slow motioa and mellow note of content and joy. On the outside of the posterior tibia and basal tarsus is- a cavity, made more deep by its rim of haiis, known as the pollen basket. In these pollen baskets is compacted the pollen, which is gaUi-- ered by the mouth organs, and carried back to- the four anterior legs. Opposite the pollen bas- kets are regular rows of golden hairs which probably aid in storing and compacting the- pollen balls. On the anterior legs of the workers, between the fimur and tibia, is a curious notch, covered by a spur. Some have supposed that it aided bees in reaching deeper down into tubular flowers, others that it was used in scraping off the pollen, and still others have thought that it was to enable bees to hold on when clustering. The first two functions may belong to this, though other honey and pollen-gathering bees lio- net possess it. The lattet function is performed by the claws at the end of the tarsi. The work- ers, too, possess an organ of defense which they are quick to use if occasion requires. This is- not curved as in the queen, but straight. Thft gland which secretes the poison is double, and. the sack in which it is stored, is as large as a flaxseed. The sting proper, is a triple organ consisting of three sharp spears, very smooth and of exquisite polish. The most highly- ' wrought steel instruments, imder a high mag- nifier, look rough and unfinished, while the parts- of the sting show no such inequalities. _ Oneof these spears is canaliculate — that is, it forms- an imperfect tube — and in this canal work the other two, which fill the vacant space, and thus the three make a complete tube, which con- nects with the poison sack and pass the poison. The slender spears which work in the tube, ar^- marvelously sharp, and project ieyond it when used, and are worked alternately by small but powerful muscles, so they may pass through buckskin, or even through the thick scarfskin. of the hand. These are also barbed at the end with teeth, seven of which are prominent, which extend out and back like the barb of a fish-hook. Hence, they cannot be withdrawn, if it pene- trates any firm substance, and so when used, itis- drawn from the bee, and carries with it a por- tion of the alimentary canal, thus costing the- poor bee its life. The workers hatch from an impregnated egg, which can only come from a queen that has met a drone, and is always laid in the small, horizontal cell. These eggs are in no- wise different, so far as we can see, from those which ar^ laid in the drone or queen cells. All are cylindrical and slightly curved, and are- fastened by one end to the bottom of the cell, and a little to one side of the centre. As already shown, these are voluntarily fertilized by the queen, as she extrudes them, preparatory to- fastening them in the cells. These eggs, though so small — one-sixteenth of an inch long — may be easily seen by holding the comb so that the light will shine into the cells. With experience, they are detected almost at once, but I have often found it quite diflcult to make the novice see- them, though very plainly -visible to my experi- enced eye. The egg hatches in three days. The larva, incorreotlycalledgnib, maggot — and even caterpillar, by "Hunter— is white, footless, and BEET 103 BEET' lies coiled up in the cell till near maturity. In six days the cell is capped over by the worker- bees. This cap is composed of pollen and wax so it is darker, more porous, and more easily broken than the caps of the honey-cells ; it is also more convex. The larva, now full grown, hav- having lapped up all the food placed before it, surrounds itself with a silken cocoon, so exces- siveljf thin that it requires a great number to ap- preciably reduce the size of the cells. These al- ways remain in the cell after the bees escape, and give to old comb its dark color and great strength. Yet they are so thin, that cells used even for a dozen years, seem to serve as well for brood as when first used. In three days the insects assume the pupa state and in twenty-one days the bee emerges from the cell. The worker- bees never attain a great age. Those reared in autumn may live for eight or nine months, and if in queenless stocks, where little labor is per- formed, even longer; while those reared in spring will wear out in three, and when most busy, will often die in from thirty to forty-flve days. None of these bees survive the year through, so there is a limit to the number which may exist in a colony. The function of the worker-bees is to do all the manual labor of the hives. They secrete the wax, which forms in small pellets under the over-lapping rings, un- der the abdomen. I have found these wax-scales on both old and young. According to Fritz MilUer, the admirable German observer, so long a traveler in South America, the bees of the fenus melipona secrete the wax on the back, 'he young bees build the comb, ventilate the hive, feed the larvae, and cap the cells. The older bees — for, as readily seen in Italianizing, the ypung bees do not go forth for the first one or two weeks — gather the honey, collect the pollen, or bee-bread, as it is generally called ; bring in J;he propolis or bee-glue, which is used to close openings, and as a cement, supply the hive with water (?); defend the hive from all improper in- trusions; destroy drones when their day of grace is past; kill and arrange for replacing worth- less queens; destroy inchoate queens, drones, or even workers, if circumstances demand it, and lead forth a portion of the bees when the conditions impel them to swarm. When there are no young bees, the old bees will act as house-keepers and nurses, which they otherwise refuse to do. The young bees, on the other hand, will not go forth and glean, even though there be no old bees to do this necessary part of bee-duties. An indirect function of all the bees in the hive is to supply animal heat, as the very life of the bees require that the temperature inside the hive be maintained at a rate considerably above freezing. In the chemical process at- tendant upon nutrition, much heat is generated, which, as first shown by Newport, may be con- siderably augmented at the pleasure of the bees, by forced respiration. The bees, too, by a rapid vibration of their wings, have a power to venti- late their hives, and thus reduce the temperature, when the weather is hot. Thus they moderate the heat of summer, and temper, the cold of winter. BEET. Beta vulgaris. This is the common beet •f the garden, a half hardy perennial plant; forming its esculent root the first season and producing its seed the second. The roots which attain their fuU development the first season, must be cared for before cold weather, since they do not stand actual freezing.. In harvesting, care should be taken not to brmse the skin, since it causes the root to bleed and impairs their quality. In topping beets, when they are intended for the table, it is usual to wring off the leaves, and this for the reason that they are supposed to keep better. This, however, is an en-or, and need only be observed when roots are wanted for seed. When they are raised for making sugar the fentire crown is taken off below the marks formed by the leaves, since tliis portion of the root contains nitre and other salts, inimical to the production of sugar. For home use it is usual to twist off the tops, and to keep them in full perfection over winter the roots should be packed in sand. For use on the table the seed may be sown in the spring as soon as the ground can be worked, this will give early roots for cooking. From the first to the middle of June, another sowing may be made for winter and spring ijse, since the half grown roots are more succulent and tender than the full grown ones. The beet is produced entirely withm the earth, except some of the varieties, as the mangel-wurzel, which are raised for cattle-feeding. The varieties are numerous, the Bassano being one the earliest but of inferior quality; the Bark-skinned, Early Blood Turnip, and Egyptian are the earliest. Wyatt's Dark Crimson is especially fine for long keeping. The improved Long Blood is the sort usually raised for winter, the root being long, tapering, of proper size for slicing, and particularly rich in color and flavor. The varieties of mangel-wurzel usually cultivated for stock-feeding al-e, the Long Yellow, Red Globe, Yellow Globe, and Cow Horn. The beet has attained its chief importance from its extended cultivation in Europe for the manufac- ture of sugar. France, Belgium, Germany, Austria and Russia being the largest producers of sugar. It will perhaps be surprising to many to know that one-third of all the sugar produced in the world, is made from beets; yet such is the fact. The sugar produced is fully equal to that made from the sugar cane, and identical in its chemical composition, being really, cane sugar, as distinguished from glucose, as the sugar made from the starch of corn, potatoes, etc., is called. The varieties generally cultivated for sugar are the White Silesian or some of its sub-varieties. In Europe, so particular are manufacturers as to the purity and quality of the seed used, that large estates are devoted exclusively to the cultivation of particular varieties pure. In the United States, several attempts have been made in Illinois, Wis- consin, California and Maine, to produce sugar from the beet, but so far the enterprise has not been successful, pecuniarily, principally from the excessive cost of labor. The manufacture of sugar from the beet is a nice process from first to last, requiring the strictest care and manipula- tion. The attempt made at Chatsworth, 111., to inake beet sugar, was intended to test the matter thoroughly, and a large capital and 2,400 acres of land were devoted to the purpose for ten years. At last, however, the company were obliged to give way before the obstacles pre- sented; first, from the strong nitrous nature of the soil, but principally from the want of water to work the crops, after about $13,000 had been expended in boring for a supply. After the breaking' up of the company at Chatsworth the machinery was moved to Freeport, where the BEETLES 104 BEETLES water supply was abundant, and the soil sup- posed to be eminently adapted to the crop. Here, however, the failure was more pronounped than at Chatsworth. In Wisconsiji two factories were started and both abandoned. In California the industry is languishing, and in Maine the enterprise has not yet been prosecuted long enough to allow an estimate to be made of its probable success. As showing the importance of the production of sugar from beets, and the relative proportion as between beet and cane sugar, it may be stated that in 1875 the con- sumption of sugar in the United States was thirty-eight pounds for each individual. In 1876 it was thirty-six pounds. The sugar supply of the world in 1875 was 3,457,633 tons. Forty per cent of this was beet sugar, made in Europe. The production of maple sugar in the United States in that year was 13,000 tons, and of beet sugar and sorghum only 2,000 tons. The pro- duction of cane sugar in the United States, (Louisiana) was 95,000> tons. According to the report of the State Agricultural Society of Cal- ifornia, the production of beet sugar in Califor- nia has been as follows: 500,000 pounds of sugar in 1870. In 1871 there were 800,000 pounds made, in 1873 it amounted to 1,135,000, and in 1873 to 1,500,000 pounds. In 1873 the report of beets raised was 10,073 tons, so the yield of sugar may be set down as having been seven per cent., a yield that should afford a handsome profit, if economy and business tact was used in the man- ufacture. In the latter part of 1880, a company — European and Canadian — are said to have capi- talized a large sum, with a view of thoroughly testing the feasibility of beet sugar manufacture in Canada. ' With cheaper labor than in the United States, and a climate where the pulp may be utilized in feeding stoclt, it is hoped the pro- ject will be successful and profitable. BEETLE. A heavy wooden maul for driving wedges or other metal implements, when it is not wished to destroy the form of the metal. (See Beetles.) , BEETLES. The common name of the larger coleopterous insects, having hard wing-cases. The late Dr., Le Baron^ in his Fourth Entomo- logical Report for the State of Illinois, gives a synopsis of the tribes of the coleoptera, which will be of value to the reader as a means of identification. The tribes of beetles are as fol- lows: I. Predaceous gronnd boetles. II. Predaceous water 'beetlofi. III. Water scavenger beetles. IV. Land.scavenger beetles. V. Short-winged scavengers. VI. Stag beetles. VII. Lamellicora dung beetles. VIII. •• Leaf-chafers. IX. Saw-horn 4 wood beetles. X. Aberlant wood beetles. XI. .Soft-winged predaceous beetles. . XII. Parasitic b etles. ' XIII. HeteroijerouB bark beetles. XIV. Heteromerous ground beetles. XV. Heteromeroas fungus beetles. XVI. Snout' beetles. XVII. Short-homed wood-borers. ^ XVIII. Long-homed Wood-borers. XIX. Tetramerous plant beetles. XX. Trimerous fungus beetles. XXI. Plant-louse beetles. The synopsis of the tribes of the coleoptera is as follows; Tribe I. Tarsi, usually ilve-jointed, sometimes four or three-jointed in fery small species, slender and sparsely haired, except Tribe XI, and eicept that the interior, or anterior and middle tarsi arc oometimes dilated and fcrusB-like beneath in the males. Elytra covering the whole or nearly the whole of the abdomen. Antennse filiform and simple ; outer lobe of, ma illse palpiform, giving the appearance of six palpi. " Legs long and fitted for running; hind trochanters large, egg-shaped and prOminentj tarsi always iive-jo'nted. Tribe II. Hind legs flattened and fringed for swim- ming; trochanters not prominent; the fourth joint of the anterior and middle tarsi sometimes indistinct in very small species. Tribe III. Antennae clayate or capitate. Palpi usually very long, sometimes longer than the short antenna; ^ antennae six to nine jointed, strongly clavate : middle and bind coxffi dilated; middle and hind tarsi sometimes fringed; h-'ibits aquatic. Tribe IV. Antennae clavate, but with the club neither pectinate nor lamellate, and nearly or quite fllifdrm in the exceptional group of sub-clavicornes; size^ small or very small (except Silphidce). Tribe V. Elytra much shortened, usually covering leas than half of the abdomen ; antennae more or less monill- form. Tribe VI. Palpi not elongated; antennse eleven- jointed, rarely ten^tir' nine jointed; coxae not dilated; habits not aquatic. liib of antennae pectinate ; mandi- bles usually strongly tooth'^d or even branched; size large ornieaium. Tribe VII. Club of antennae lamellate; size often large; sometimes small, but never very small. Abdomen wholly covered by the e'ytra (except Copridae) ; hind leg» set far back. Tribe VIII. Tip of abdomen exposed; hind legs not set far back. Tribe JS^. Antennae filiform and usually serrate; outer lobe of maxillae not palpiform. Presternum pro- longed to a point behind and received in the mesoster- nnm; body very firm; legs shorty tarsi always flve- jointed; joints not dilated and brush-like beneath, hnt often furnished with membranous lobes on the under side. Tribe X. Prosternum not prolonged behind. Body moderately firm; • legs more or less elongated; tarsi various. Tribe XI. Body soft, elytra thin and flexible; tarsi usually fomewhat dilated and hru^h-like beneath, witk the fourth joint bilobed; last joint of palpi sometime! dilated. Tribe XII. Anterior and middle tarsi five-jointed, liind tarsi /four-jointed; the joints slender, sparsely haired o^ spinous, sometimes silky or pubescent beneath, ifuX^r. never dilated, brush-like and bilobed as in the remaiiiji»;|ii ihg sections; except sometimi-s the penultimate joima'?. in parts o€ Tribes XII and XIII. Head as wide Us tlwOJi thorax, and attached to, it by a neck; body rather soft apd'^^;:* elytra flexible; ai-tennse filiform sometimes serrate or pectinate; anterior coxae prominent and contiguous; colors various, and often diversified ; larvae usually para- sitic. Tribe XIII. Head narrower than the thorax, and usu- ally partly inserted in it; body firm; color black or brown, rarely diversified. Antennae filiform : anterior coxie some- what prominent, and nearly or quite contiguous; color mostly brown, sometimes black; 1 rvse sub-cortical. Tribe XIV. Antennae sometimes filiform, but usually more or less clavate; anterior co> ae small, depressed, and never contiguous. Antennae usually moderately and grad- ually enlnrged towards the tip, but sometimes filiform, and usually as long as the head and thorax; body oblong; , color black or dark metallic; larvae mostly terrestrial. Tribe XV. .'Antennae usually short and pi'rfoliate; body short, oval or subquadrate; color brown, or black with red spots, , sometimes metallic; Inrvjie fungivorous. Tribe XVI. Tarsi apparently four-jointed, with all the joints, except the lastj dilated, brush-like beneath, and wiih the penultimate joint usually bilobed (except Sooly- tidae). Head more or less prolonged into a snoilt or ros- trum; antennae usually capitate ; Cirvae fructivorons. Tribe XVII. Head not prolonged into a snout, > An- ten ae clavate or capitate; tarsi not dilated; form sub- cylindrical; size small; color brown or black; larvae lig- nivorous. Tribi' XVIII. Antennae usually filiform or setaoeons: soim times slightly widened towards the tip; tarsi always dilated and brush-like beneath, with the penultimata joint usually bilobed. Form elongated; antennae almost always long, and filiform or setaceous; often as long u the body or longer; size and colors various; larvae ligniT- orons. Tribe XIX. Form short, and more or less oval; an- tennae filiform, or a little thickened towards the end, and never much more than half as large as the body; siza below medium or small; colors various; larvae nerblT- orons. ' Tribe XX. Tarsi usually apparently three-jointed, sometimes four or five-jointed, the joints dilated and BENE brneh-like beneath, with the 105 BERKSHIRE SWINE . penultimate joint usnally deeply DiloDed; antennse asually strongly clavate, rarely eub-clavate. Form oval or oblong; antennse of moderate length; colors red and black, usually arranged in laree spots or stripes; habits fungivorous. Tribe XXI. Form rounded, or sub-hemispherical- antennse very short ; colors mostly red and black arranged in dots ; habits carnivorous. As being of interest we give cut showing the largest of our native beetles (Dynasitis Utyiis, Linn.) a species, Iiowever, not injurious. (See, also, Insects, Entomology, and articles under proper names of the species noticed, as injurious or beneficial.) BELLADONNA. The deadly Night-shade, Atropa belladonna. It is valuable in medicine as an anodine, antispasmodic and narcotic. Dose for horse or ox, two ounces; sheep, five grains. If the extract is used the dose would he two drachms for the horse, two-thirds of a drachm for the ox, and one-half drachm for a sheep. BELT. In planting, a strip or portion of land planted with trees for the purpose of orna- ment, or warmth or shel- ter. The planting of belts or wind-breaks for protection, is variously estimated by practical men, but there is no doubt of their value in agriculture in the pro- tection of orchards, nur- series, for stock and homesteads. BELVIDERE. Is a small place at the top of a house for a lookout. BENE. Sesamum ori- entak. An annilal plant of the family Bignonia- cem. Successfully culti- vated south of Pennsyl- vania. The seeds abound in oil, are nutritious, and eaten by the Italians roasted, boiled, and made into flour resembling buckwheat. The oil may be substituted for com- mon olive oil. The seed is sown in drills three or four feet apart. The plant attains the height of four or five feet. The crop ripens gradually, and is taken in the early autumn; fifteen to twenty bushels are given per acre, from which forty to fifty gallons of oil may be obtained. Its cultivation is not remunerative in the United States. BONOT. An old name for a double mould- board plow. BENT GRASS. Agrostis. A family con- taining some of our most valuable grasses, as Red Top and White Bent Gra.ss (iiWin), and others not valuable to the agricultiu-ist. The family have decidedly creeping, subterranean stems, and some of them are difficult to exterminate. Yet there are but few plants, however noxious, but will succumb to a summer fallow, followed by a cleanly-kept, hoed crop, and most of the grasses may be subdued by a thoroughly culti- vated crop of corn. (See article Grass.) BENZINE. It should be generally imder- stood that benzine, which is so freely used to re- move grease and other stains from clothing, is a very dangerous article It is distilled from pe- troleum, and is extremely volatile and inflam- mable, and if this vapor is mixed with air it be- comes explosive. Some people are very careless with it, allowing a vial of tliis fluid to stand near a fire or a lamp, while its odor prevades the room. This is dangerous, for it takes very little to do mischief. A four-ounce bottle overturned and vaporized, would make the air of a room ex- plosive; and if ignited, might occasion loss of life. Another important fact to know i.s, that if the vial containing benzine is left uncorked, flame will run to it several feet, jMost all the compounds sold by the druggist under fanciful names for the purpose of taking out grease, have benzine for one of their ingredients, therefore anything suspected of containing it, either pure or mixed, should be kept tightly stopped, in a cold place and entirely away from possible con- tact witli flame. BENZOIC ACID. A vegetable acid found in balsams and some grasses. BENZOIN. The concrete exudation of the Styrax beiizmn of the East. It is a resin com- bined with benzoic acid. BERUAM.OT. Citmx benjamia. Cultivated in the South of Europe for the fragrant oil of the rind of its fruit. Mentha citrata, a com- PRIZB BEBESHIRE OF TO-DAT. mon species of mint, easily cultivated, yields an oil nearly as fragrant as the bergamot. BERKSHIRE SWINE. The Berkshire's arc to swine what the blood-horse is among horsemen — a type of high breeding, possessing firm bone, great muscularity, and good constitu- tion, so far as this may be compatible with high fattening qualities. They are more uniform BERMUDA GRASS 106 BIRCH in color, than any of the white and black breeds. The fashionable color now being white feet, tips of tail8,vand a little white in the face, the rest of the body being jet black. More than forty years ago, as we then knew and bred them, there were many upon which a sandy color would crop out. They were larger boned and coarser in their make-up, but nevertheless, perhaps, containing more lean flesh (muscle) than at the present day; not so kindly in fattening, neither did they contain so much lard, but their hams, shoulders and bacon were, we think, superior to the more modern Berkshires, or those of to-day. The illustration will show the perfection of Berkshire breeding (fat) as we now see them at our fairs. The best type of this breed of to-day have short noses; slightly dished faces; small, fine, erect ears; eyes wide apart; straight backs, preserving its width from the neck to the rump; muscular hams and shoulders; the bacon pieces well broken with strips of lean, fine hams, short legs, excellent hoofs, and in killing showing but little offal. Their vigor make them excellent gleaners, to follow cattle fattened in the field, and their weight, from 300 to 600 pounds, render them sought after by the packers, especially of hams and bacon. They have been with us always a favorite breed on account of their muscular development, as among the middle breeds, as the Essex have been among the small breeds. It is, however, not to be denied, that they will, not stand starving. They require strpng feed and plenty of it, to reach the best development, and what aninlal does not? Nevertheless, we do not think they assimilate, quitfe so much of their food, when the bulk of it is corn, as do some of the breeds more inclined to lard., Yet, no breed will reach good development on scant food, and when muscle as well as fat is wanted, the breeder or feeder would have to hunt far for a hog better co6ibining all good qualities, and of medium \yeight. BERMUDA GRASS. Scutch Grass, Cyraottore iactylon. One of the most valuable of the grasses in the South. It is not recorded as having seeded in the United States, being an introduced exotic, a native of Africa, intro- duced into the West Indies and thence to the United States. It is propagated by the root or creeping stems. Planted in squares of from two to three feet apart, it quicfly covers the ground. The soil should be put in complete tilth Ky deep plowing and thorough harrowing, when the best returns are to be expected. It is consid- ered one of the heaviest croppers, and as making hay fully equal to any grass cultivated south ofTennessee. As high as six tons have even been recorded as the product of hay per acre. In the middle States of the South this grass is not of so much value as in the extreme southern States. In the true grass region, stock, other than sheep, pteferthe regular pasture grasses to the Bermuda. Its persistent hold on the soil, when it will sur- vive the winter, makes it most valuable for hill- sides liable to wash, and for other situations where a tough mass of roots are required to hold the soil together. Its strong, creeping rhizoma root-stalks, tenacity of life even in the hottest ■weather, and its dense, firm, tough sward, making it almost impossible to be plowed up, has ren- dered it obnoxious to cotton farmers of the Soiith ; yet its value in restoring fertility to worn-out •oils should not be overlooked. It is in fact only by cotton farmers that this grass is really dreaded. It delights in a warm, sandy soil, does not like shade, and hence the roots are planted. The weeds should be mown off the first year. (See Grasses for cut.) BERRT. In botany, a fruit filled with pulp, in which the seeds are imbedded, as the currant and gooseberry ; also called baeca. BETEL. The leaf of an acrid narcotic pep- per, chewed by the natives of the East Indies. BETULA. The generic name of the birch family. The popuUfolia (white), excelaa (yellow), raJm (red). (See Birch.) BEVEL. An instrument to take angles. BI. Prom bis, twice ; a common chemical pre- fix to words meaning two or twice, as bi-tartrate, bi-noxide. BIBULOUS. Absorbent. In chemistry blot- ting-paper is often terme'd bibulous paper. BIENNIAL. This term is usually applied to plants which grow one year ahd flower the next, after which they perish. Many tender bien- nials, if sown early in the spring, will flower in autumn and then perish, thus actually becoming annuals; so winter wheat, a biennial, niay by xjultivation be turned into an annual wheat. BIESTIN6S. Firstmilkol cows after calving. BIFURCATE. Two-pronged, or forked. BI6N0NIA. A handsome genus of shrub- bery climbeirs. Bignorda radicans, the well known trumpet flower, belongs to this class. It is not entirely hardy west of Lake Michigan and north of 40° ; south of this line and up to 42° east of Lake Michigan it is one of the most beau- tiful of perennial climbers. BIKH. Aconitum ferox. A very poisonous Eastern monkhood. BILABIATE. Two-lipped, or petalled; ap- plied to flowers. BILBEKBY. Whortleberry. (See Cranberry.) BILE. The secretion of the liver. Any in- terruption in its production is attended with great lassitude, sickness, fever, and yellowness of the eyes and skin. Moist, marshy places, and food, rich in oil, as butter and fat, - produce bilious at- tacks. Fall and spring are the seasons most like- \y to produce bilious attacks in new countries. Sometimes biliary calculi, or stones, are formed. The composition of the bile is very complex, ac- cording to the analyses of some physiologists. Liebig, regarded it as a natural soap, nearly con- sisting of cholate of soda. BILL. A hedging knife with a curved point. BIND- WEED. A common name for most climbing plants, but especially directed to the convolvulaceous species. BIOCELLATE. When an insect's wing is marked with two eye-like dots. BIPINNATE. Leaves that are doubly pin- nate; in which the secondary stalks or petals are pinnated. BIRCH. Betula. The birches are mostly na- tives of northern latitudes, or elevated situations, generally above latitude 40°, and extending weU up toward the arctic circle. The foliage is gen- erally thin and light, and the whole tribe are grace- ful, and some of them elegant. The Black (sweet) or Cherry Birch (B. lenta) is one of the hand- somest and most valuable for its timber. It is widely distributed from New England West, well up in Canada, and south along the mountain ranges. It grows to a height of sixty or seventy feet, and some trees two to three feet m diameter; BIRCH 107 BIRCH s most excellent fuel and most valuable for cabi- Bct work. It likes a rich soil, such as is suited to the Sugar Maple, and ripens its seed in late autumn. The seeds of all the birches should be kept moist and cold until sown, and thinly cov- ered and moist until they germinate. Red Birch (B. nigra), also called River Birch, is found on the banks of rivers, growing to a lofty stature and often two feet in diameter. It is found in the •warmest situations of any of the birches, and its wood is similar in quaUty to the Yellow Birch. Tke seeds ripen in June and should be sown be- fore they become fully dry. The Yellow Birch (B. exeeka) is a handsome-growing tree far north, with a straight trunk, usually found inicool, moist soils. The wood is strong and line grained and much used for turning, also for furniture. It does well on prairie soils, except diy, sandy or gravelly soils. The Canoe Birch {B. papyracea), also called Paper Birch, is found north of 40* and well north in the British possessions where it attains great size. It is most valuable and highly prized for the many uses its bark may be put to ; is an ornamental tree, and thrives in mosi CUT-LBAVED WEEPING BIKCH. BIRCH 108 BIRDS situations, growing rapidly. The seeds ripen In Jtily and should be sown immediately. The "White Birch {JB.popuUfolia) is a small tree, but ornamental, grdwing in waste barren soils. The European White Birch is often planted for, orna- ment, and thrives in th^ most barren soil. Some of the cut-leaved varieties are highly ornamental. The Cut-leaved Weeping Birch, of which we give an illustration, being aijiong the handsomest. The birches have been sung by many poets. Coleridge calls it — 1 ' " — most beautiful Of .forest trees,— the lady of the wood." Bryant says: " The fragrant birch aboTe him hung Her tassels in the sky, And many a vernal blossom sprung, And nodded careless by." The following are varieties of the birch family (the alders belonging to this group) not men- tioned above. Western Birch (Betula occiden- talis), Rocky mountains. This species is a small , V . WHrrB PEWDDI.0TJ8 BIKCH. tree, rarely over twenty-flve feet high ana six inches in diameter. It is found in the Rocky mountains, along streams in Colorado, Utah, etc. Speekled Alder (Almisincana), northeastern United States. It is a shrub, or viSry small tree, growing along streams in New England, New York, and northward, and of no particular value, California Alder {Alnus rJwmMfoUa), California. Oregon Alder (^Alnxis Oregona), California and Oregon^ quite often become large trees, sixty to eighty feet high, with trunks two feet in diameter. We give herewith a cut of a lovely weeping birch. This is a variety of the white ' birch, first exhibited at the Paris Exposition in 1867, and must be grafted on another stock. The branches, as will be seen, run directly parallel with the stem, and directly to the gi-ound ; and its unique habit, elegant form, and beautiful foliage, renders ita name decidedly appropriate, and one of the prettiest objects for a small lawn. BIRD-LIME. A glutinous vegetable product prepared by first boiling mistletoe berries in water until they break, then pounding them in a mortar, and washing away the husky refuse with other portions of water; and made also from the middle bark of jthe holly. The bark is stripped in June or July, and boiled for six or eight hours in water, until it becomes tender; the water is then separated from it, and it is left to ferment for two or three weeks, until it be- comes a mucilage, which is pounded in a mortar into a mass, and then thoroughly rubbed by the hands in running water till all the fibrous mat- ters and other impurities are washed away; the bird-lime is then suffered to remain fermenting by itself in an earthen vessel, in a soft heat, for some weeks. The bark of the Wayfaring Tree is sometimes employed. The fragrant gum which exudes from the Styrax, or American Sweet Gum — a large tree, growing in the middle and southern States — also makes a good bird-lime, being extremely tenacious. It is also made chemically. BIRD PEPPER. A species of cap^cum whicli affords the best Cayenne pepper. Started in a hot bed in March, any of the capsicum family may be cultivated up to 44° north, and still farther northward in favored localities. BIRDS. The feathered tribes are among the most highly organized of created beings except man, possessing, as so many of them do, either elegance of plumage, great vivacity, or fine vocal powers. The increased prevalence of insect life in all thickly settled countries, is due, in a meas- ure, to the indiscriminate destruction of birds and insect-eating animals. The objection from pomologists, that they also eat fruit, although well founded as to the thrush family and some others, is no argument against the wholesale destruction of birds, especially in breeding time. To the farmer birds do not labor under the same objection. The moiety of grain they consume bemg too insignificant to be weighed for a mo- ment against the good they accomplish. rj'As against the thrush family, which in Illinbte.|for instance, comprises nine species, viz: the Robin, the Cat-bird, the Brown Thrush, the Wood Thrush, the Hermit Thrush, Swainson's Thrush, the Alice Thi;ush, the Mocking Bird and Wilsoii's Thrush or the Wren, from, the fact that the thrush tribe, the Robin and BroWn Thrush especially, prey largely on predaceous beetles, or those Insects whose food is other insects, we must consider carefully whether the injury done in eating predaceous beetles is more than counter- balanced by the good accomplished in eating insects injurious to vegetation. During the nest- ing season there is no doubt as to the benefits accomplished by insect-eating birds. The careful BIRDS 109 BIRDS investigations of Prof. Forbes, director of the Illinois State Department of Natural History, ■would seem to cast a strong doubt on the fact that the thrush family is beneficial to fruit grow- ers. Nevertheless, taking singing birds as a whole, when they are driven away insect liffe does increase unduly. Prof. Forbes seems to be of the opinion, from his examinations, that at least the good accomplished by the birds is not unmixed with evil, and acknowledges that the experiments must be continued much longer to be able to arrive at any accurate conclusion. It must be borne in mind, also, that the food of the young birds is almost exclusively insect. Prof. Treadwell, of Cambridge, was obliged to feed young Robins their weight in insects every day, to keep them from starving to death. Thomas M. Bremer, M.D., an eminent ornothologist of Boston, Mass., in a paper read in 1879, mentions as one of the prominent causes of the increase of insects in Europe, to be the wholesale killing of birds. The great Frederick of Prussia once nearly exterminated the sparrows in his kingdom, in a fit of royal wrath, because they took agrarian liberties with his fruit; and what was the conse- quence? The caterpillars, which the sparrows had kept in check, hiving no one now to prevent their increase, multiplied at such a fearful rate that they swept before them the foliage, and with the foliage all the fruit also. It is said that for two years not a cherry, apple, peach, plum, cur- rant or any kind of fruit could be raised in any portion of the kingdom, Sensible at last of his mistake, this great kin^^ conquered for the first time, in a fl.eld where his impotence was but too apparent, yielded to the necessit/, and expended more mpney in i reintroducing the sparrow than he had wasted in destroying them, but only after a loss to his subjects of a million of dollars. It has been ascertained that one pair of jays will feed its young on half a million of caterpillars in a season, and that each bird will destroy, during the winter, eggs that in the following spring would have hatched into at least a jnillion or more of the Isirvie. Our blue-jays would do the same if we would let them and not persecute them. Their favorite ' food is the egg of our apple tree, or tent-caterpillar, and for their young the larva of this same insect is also their choice. A pair of blue-jays in an orchard have cleared it so effectually of every caterpillar in a single sea- son, that not one single insect could be found. This is not merely theory, but absolute fact, demonstrated by the careful investigation of the venerable Dr. Kirtland, of Cleveland. So com- pletely did his carefully protected jay extirpate these pests from the lake shore of that part of Ohio, that absolutely not a single individual specimen could be found for miles around Cleve- land. The investigations of M. Prevost, acting for the French government, demonstrated that those birds generally regarded as being insect- eaters, are not as a rule tlie most beneficial; but that for the most part, the birds which render the greatest service are those against which the popular predjudices are strongest. Thus the sparrows, the starling and crows are the great destroyers of the cockchafers, and so our crows and black-birds are of- the May-beetles, and we are but just finding out that many birds we have deemed to be our enemies are really our best friends. Another important law of nature revealed by M. Prevost's investigation is of especial interest. This is, that nearly all birds, during the period of reproduction, whatever may be their natural food at other times, are almost entirely insect-eaters, and that they feed their young almost exclusively with insect food. Then the amount of insect food a young bird will con- sume is enormous.,. Dr. Wyman took from the crop of a young pigeon a mass of canker worms that was more than twice the weight of the bird itself. Charles V. Riley, Ph. D., Chief of the United. States Entomological Cornmission, in his report upon the subject of usefulness of birds, following some experiments in feeding two plovers with grasshoppers and other insects, under which they consumed 1,6J6 insects, says: At this rate twenty old plovers would eat 3,000 insects each day, or 90,000 in a month. And suppose, further, that these twenty plovers had ten nests, which averaged four young ones each. At sixty insects each day for each young plover, the forty would consume 3,400 every twenty- four hours, or 72,000 a month. The twenty plovers and their progeny together, would con- sume 162,000 insects each month. At this same rate 1,000 plovers and their young would con- sume in one month 8,100,000 insects. That many locusts removed in one year from a farm of 160 acres would probably render it capable of producing crops even when these insects are doing their worst. As there are many birds that eat more insects than do the plovers, as well as many that eat less, 150 insects a day is probably a fair average for all insectivorous birds. The prairie chicken (Grouse) has been ruthlessly de- stroyed by farmers, under the supposition that they destroy large quantities of grain. Such, however, is not the fact. The losses from the eating of the grain before harvest time is quite insignificant in proportion to the good these birds accomplish. Their ' food in summer is almost wholly insects, and in winter they eat the seeds of weeds, to far more than compensate for the little corn they destroy in the fields, as the following from Dr. Riley, will show: Four prairie chickens were examined, The contents of the first were one grain of corn, five grains of wheat, thirty-eight seeds of polygonums (mostly P. amphibium), seven seeds of cassia, and thir- teen of sunflowers, and seventeen/not identified. The contents of the second were fourteen seeds of polygonums, thirty-one of sunflowers, three of cassia, eleven of verbenas (wild), four euphorbias and 113 wild rose seeds. The contents of the third were thirteen seeds of cassia, twenty-nine of wild roses, twelve seeds of polygonums, two grains of wheat, one grain of barley, and thirty- four not identified. The fourth chicken had m its stomach fifteen seeds of the gentians, thirty- three of rag- weeds, three of wild roses, four of euphorbias, and twenty-nine minute seeds not identified. Of the eight quail examined dur- ing the same month, only one had a few grains of wheat in its stomach. All the rest were filled with grass-seed and the seed of weeds, principally the latter. Those examined in the winter of 1875 gave the same average results. The following , are among the more common of^ the insect-eating birds of the prairies and groves of the West: ORDER PASSEEBS: Perchers. Sub-order Osoises: Singing birds. B'AniLY TiTRu^: ThrualieB. Robin (Tur- dus mgralo:iiis); Wood ihrushfr. MusCeliniiis) ; Tier- mil Tliriish (T.pallasi); Olive-backed Thrush ( r. 5wai7i- soniy, Wilson'3 Thrush, Tawny Thrush [T.juscescens); BIRDS 110 BIRD8 MocHng-bird (Mimue polygloUmV, Catbird (Jf. Caroli- fMjwM); Sandy Mocking-bird, Thrashpr (JBarporhynr tkveriifus); BaBtem Bluebird (_Slaliasiali8). Family -SaxiooliDjs: Stone Ghats. Bocky Moantaln Bluebird {Sjoiia arrfica). . „, , . Family Sylvipjb; SyMas. Eaby-crowned Kinglet (Stgutus calendula); Golden Crested Kinglet (_Regulus Family Cisclid^:. Dippers. Water Onzels, Western Bluebird, (Oimfus Mexicanus); Blue-gray GnaKsatober (PoUoptilaccenika). „ , , „. ,, » Family Paeidje: Titmice. Tufted Titmouse (Lop/io- phanes bicolor) ; Plain-ciested Titmouse (L. inornaCus) ; iiing-tailed Ctiickadee (Pants atricapillua septeatrio- FamilySittid^: Nuthatcbea. Slender-billed Nutbatch iSUta CaroUnensie aeuleata); Eed-bellied Nulbatcb {S. Canadensis). „ „ Family CEBrHimjB: Creepers. Brown Creeper (Cer- Jhiafamiliaris). ^ „ , „, ,„ , Family TaooLODYTiDiE : Wrens. Kock Wrun (Sal- pinctes obsoletus); Great Carolina Wren (ThryothorM jMdovicianus) ; Bewicis's Wren ( 7'. Bewicki) ; House Wren (T. cedon) ; Western House Wren ( T. cedon); Water Wr.;n ' {Anort/iura troglodytes hyemalls) ; Long-billed Marsb Wren ( rebnalodytes palustris) ; Short-billed Marsh Wren (Oiatothorus stellaris). Family ALAauiD*: Lariu. Homed Lark, Shore Lark lElremophila alaestrls). Family Morioii,HD.«: Wagtails. Titlark, Pipit, Wag- tail (Anthus Ludoviclanus). Fahily Svltioojd.«: American Warblers. Black- and-Wbite Cr eping Warbler (Ifniotilta varla); Blue Yellow backed Warbler (Parula Americana); Pnitbuno- tary WarDlar (Protonotaria citrea) \ Worm-eating Warb- ler (Helmltherusmrmliiorus); Blue-winded Yellow Warb- ler Iffelmlnthophaga pinns) ; Blue Goldeu-winged Warb- ler (H. chrijsoptera); JSIashviUe Warbler (//. ruflca- pUla); Virginia's Warbler (H. Virginim); TenneHsee Warbler (B. peregrina); Blue-eyed Yellow Warbler, Golden Warbler, Summer Warbler (Dendroica aistiva); Black-throated Green Warbler (fl virens); Black-throated Green Warbler (O. cairulescens); Cerulean Wnroler (fl. ectridea); Yellow-rump Warbler (D. coronata); Black- burniaa WeiciilettD. Blackbarnle); Blac<-p(jll Warbler (ij. striata) ; Bay-breasted Warbler ( D. castanea) ; Chest- nutrsided Warbler (1). Pennsylvanlca) ; Black-and-Yellow Warbler (D. maculosa); Prairie Warbler (D. discolor); Yellow-throated Warbler (fl. domlnica); Yellow E.il- poU Warbler (D. palmarwn); Pine-deeping Warbler (D. pinics) ; Golde i-crfivvned Tbruab, Oraiige-crowned Accentor (Seiurus aurocapillus) • Water Thrush (5. nceiius); Large-billed Waiter Tinish (3. motacilla); Ken- tucky Warbler ('iporornis formosa); Maryland iello^v- XbTO<\\, (Oeothlypix trlchas); Mourning Warbler ('/. PAjJ- ■adelpMa); Macgillivrav'H Warbler ((?. ilacgillvorayl) ; ' Tellow-bra'aflted CbHt ( '<;(«rio vitldes); Hooded Ply-caich- in» Warbler (Vyiodloctes milratus); Wilxon s G-een Bfick-oapped Ply-catciiing Warbler ( I/. pusiUus) ; C ma- dian fly-catchins! Warbler (jf. Canadensis) ; Redstart iSetophaga rutiellla). Family TiHAGRiD^: Tanager=. Scarlet Tanager (Py- ranga rubra) ; Summer Redbird (P. wstiva) ; Louisiana Taniger (i*. Ludoviciana) . ' Family HiuaNDmui*: Swallows. American Bam Swallow (Birundoerytlirogastra); White-belliedSwailow ( Tachydneta bicolor)- Violet-green Swallow ( 7'. thalas- tina); CliffSwallow, Bave Swallow ( Pe'rochelidon luni- /ro»«); Bank Swallow (Cotyle riparla); Rough-winged, Swallow (Stelgidopteryx serripennls); Purple Martin .'(Prognepurpvirea). Family Ampelid^: Waxwings. Bohemian Wax- wing (Ampells garrtilus); Cedar-nird, Cherry-bird, Car- oliua Waxwing (.4. cedrorum); Townsend's Fly-catch- IngThrush (Uyiadestes Townsendl). Family ViiiBoNin^: Greenk'ts, Eed-eyed Vireo (Vireo olivaceus); Brotherly-love Vireo (K Philadel- phicus) ; Warbliua Vireo ( V. gilvus) ; Yell iw-thrSated Vireo (V. ^aBi/rons);\ Blue-headed or Solitary Vir o (K soii. nelawarensis); Frankhn's Rosy Gull {I'/ircecoce- Tlialus Frankllnl); Forsier's Tern (Sterna Forsteri); Arciic Tern (A', maprura); Least T^i-n (S. supercillaria aiitillarum)-.B\ ickTern ( Hydrochelldon lari/ormis). Oi{OEi{ PYGOPJDES: Di ing birds. Family Podi- crptuK: Grebes. American Bared Greue (Podiceps aurl- tus Calif ornlcus). BIRD'SFOOT TREFOIL. A European plant of the lotus family, a small, clover-like plant, growing in pastures. It has the power of preserving its verdure in extreme hot weather. The lotus, in its varieties, is inferior to red clover, with the exception of L. mlloms, which is cul- tivated in some portions of Europe, especially in Prance, on light soils. The plant may possi- lily pbssess some value in California, and other sections subject to extreme heat and drought. Elsewhere it would be inferior to the true clov- ers and grasses. BISEXUAL. In plants, having stamens and pistils in the same flower; now termed her- maphrodite. BIS HOPING. A cant word for disguising the age of a horse; from the name of the scoun- drel who invented it. It is performed by filing the teeth 6f an old horse, burning the cups or corrugations black, to give them a resemblance to the teeth of a young , horse. BISON. The American bison {Bos Ameri- canus) once roamed over nearly the whole of the North American continent from latitude 33° to 64°. It is fast disappearing, and is now confined to the Far West and the gorges of the Rocky mountains, ranging from Slave lake in the British possessions to Southern New Mexico. The bison has been repeat- edly domesticated, and easily becomes tract- able. The flesh has been much extolled by plainsmen, but really is inferior to beef, except the hump, which is rich, tender, and of fine flavor. The flesh bears the same relation to beef that venison does to mutton, and the only use in domestication of the animal would be to furnish another to the list of flesh foods and agricultural products. In its osteology — bony system — it dif- fers from the ox species in every part of the world, having fifteen ribs on a side, while the ox has only thirteen. One of the principal values of the buffalo is in the hide, from which buffalo robes are made. In winter his body is covered with long, coarse hair, mixed with much woolly and finer hair. The hair of the forehead is often more than a foot long. The fleece of a single animal has been found to weigh, some- times, as much as eight pounds. This the In- dians work into cloth, gloves, leggings, etc. A full grown buffalo will weigh from 1,200 ts 2,000 pounds. Instances have been cited of greater weights. He can withstand great ex- tremes of heat and cold, and has fleetness, vigor of constitution and muscular strength far superior to that of the ox. As a beast of draft and burthen suited to the arid plains of the West, if he could be rendered perfectly tractable, this animal might perhaps become as profitable, in some cases there as the camel is in the desert. American enterprise, however, builds railroads almost in advance ot civilization, and hence the buffalo will probably never be used for this pur- pose. Before the present generation of men pass away, it is more than probable the buffalo will become practically extinct in North America. The buffalo has been crossed in a number of instances upon the common cow, and is entirely fertile therewith. We knew of no instance where the experiment has been fully carried out with a view of ascertaining the subsequent and continued fertility of the progeny, nor of their adaptation to the production of economi- cal food, or as beasts of burthen or draft, though the extraordinary journeys they perform, and the distance they will travel in a day, show their powers of endurance to be nearly equal, if not fully equal, to that of horses, when kept only on grass. BISTORT. Polygonum bistorta. An acrid plant when fresh; of the knot- weed family . ISISULCATE. With two fissures; also two- hoofed, as in cattle. BIT. The iron part of the bridle which goes into the mouth and serves to guide the animal. BITTE 14 ALMOND. A variety of the almond of a bitter taste. BITTF.RDOCK. (See Dock.) BITTERNS. The residue in evaporating sa- line water for the salt. It contains sulphate of magnesia and chloride of magnesia, as well aa small quantities of soda, potash and bromides. It is used to take up superabundant moisture i> BLACKl^ERRY 113 BLACK CATTLE fruit-preserving and other houses, ■where low tem- perature and dry air is required. BITTER SWEETj An extensive genua (SqI- anum), the berries of which, of a red and dark color are considered to be poisonous. , ■ BITUMEN. A mineral pitch. Several varie- ties, as petroleuin, asphaltum, mineral tar, and naphtha, are distingjiished; the tar of gas worlcs is bitumen. BIXA. The genus yielding the B. orellana, or annotto. (See Dairying.) ' BLACKBERRY. Rubm. The common erect tlackberry (iJ. mllosus) and B. trimoHs, or dewberry, are those generally planted; the latter, however, but seldom. The upright varieties delight in ^ rather compact soil and are found wild m glades of the forest, shaded banks, openings, and the edges of groves. Of late years its cultivation has become quite extended for market, and it may now be found plentifully, m season, in all our principal city and village markets. It has a wide range, extending even to 45° north; and south nearly to the Gulf of Mexico, on favorable situations. The root is astringent and is used in cases of diarrhoea. The varieties adapted to general, cultivation- in various T)arts of the United States are, Kittatinny, Lawton/ Wilson and Snyder. ■ Of the list the last named is being generally adopted in the northwest on account of its bearing qualities and hardiness. The dis- tance apart at which to plant the bushes is' from five to six feet between the rows and about four feet in the rows. If the rows are six feet apart, the plant may be three and one-half feet apart in the row . BLACKBERRY WINE. (See Gallizing.)'^/' BLACK CATTLE. The Highland cattl&'of Scotland of which the West Highlanders may be considered the modern type, used to be designated as Black Cattle and also as Kyloes, from the fer- ries they were obliged to cross in being driven to market. The word Kyloe is thought perhaps to tie a corruption of the Gaelic word, signifying highland, and pronounced kael. They are wefl adapted to take care of themselves on the bleak hills of Scotland, and the outlying islands, and, when mature, fatten easily and kindly. Their beef is considered the finest which reaches theLon- ■ don market. We believe they have never been imported into the United States with a view of introducing the breed. They are described by Youatt as follows : The Highland bull should be black, the head not largejHhe ears thin, the' muzzle fine, and rather turned up. He Bhould.be broad in tW face, the , eyes prominent, and the counte- nance calm and placid. The horns should taper fine- ly to a point, and neither drooping; too much nor ris- ing too high; should be of a waxy color, and widely set on at the roots.' The neck should be fine, particularly where it joins the head, and rising with a gentle curve from the shoulder.; T^e , breast (Jmfei) wide, and project- ing well before the legs. The shouldet broad at the top, and the chine so f uH as to leave but little hollow behind- them (that is, the crops are full). The girth behind theshoutderdeep; the back straight, wide, muscular and flat; the ribs broad, the space between them and the hips well ribbed home ; the belly not sinking low in the middle; yet, in the whole, not forming the round and barrel-like carcass which some have de- scribed. The thigh tapering to the hock-joint:^-. BLACK WATER 113 BLAIN the bones larger in portion to the size than in the breeds of the southern districts. The tail set- on a level with the back. The legs short and straight. The whole carcass covered with a thick, long coat of hair, and plenty of hair also about the face and horns, and that hair not curly. As to their value he adds: The value of the West Highland cattle consists in their being hardy and easily fed; in that they will live, and sometimes tlirive, on the coarsest pastures; that they will frequently gain from a fourth to a third of their original weight in six months' good feeding; that the proportion of offal is not greater than in the most improved larger Ijreeds ; that they will lay their flesh and fat equally on the best parts'; and that, when fat, the beef is close and fine in the grain, highly flavored, and so well mixed or marbled, that it commands a superiorprice in evei-y market. BLACK FLY. The small black beetle {Haltica nmnorum) which infests cruciferous plants, and especially the turnip. (See Flea Beetle.) ' BLACK GUM. Nyssa multifiora. A tree sometimes attaining often more than from fifty to seventy feet or more in height, and twenty inches in diameter. Natural to the United States south of 40°. The wood is solid and little liable to split; it is used for naves or hubs, and in ship-building for the caps of masts. The berries are dark, and eaten by birds. JV. quatiea, or Tupelo, is less in size, and grows as far north as Canada. It is valuable as a dense wood, and used by carriage-builders. BLACK LEG. (See Blain and Murrain.) BLACK THORN. The European sloe, Pru- nusspinom. Sometimes the Gratmgus jlava is called by this name in America. BLACK, TO DIE. For a large dress, take two ounces of extract of logwood and the same of blue vitriol; dissolve the vitriol in sufficient soft water to cover the goods; put them wet into suds, simmer two hours; then wa.sh in three good suds. Throw away the vitriol water and wash the kettle. Make the dye with the extract in plenty of water; put in the goods and let them simmer two hours longer, stirring very often to prevent spotting. Rinse well in cold water, and wash clean in suds. BLACK TONGUE. (See Blain and Murrain.) BLACK TWITCH, or COUCH. Agrostis y men of birth, attached to the Cavalier party, race-horses were kept and trained, race-courses were established, and a well authenticated stock of thoroughbred animals, tracing to the most celebrated English sires, many of which were imported in the early part of the eighteenth century, was in existence considerably before the outbreak of the old French war. In the Eastern States, the settlers of which were for the most part attached to the Puritan party, and therefore opposed to all amusements and pastimes as frivolous at the least and unprofitable, and to horse-racing more es- pecially as profane and positively wicked, very few horses of pure blood were imported; racing did not take strong root in them, nor in the last century were stables of racers kept to the east of New York. Virginia and Maryland as the head- quarters of the Cavaliers — the former State having for a long time refused submission to the commonwealth and to stout old Oliver — as the seat of the aristocracy, fashion and wealth of the colonies, prior to the Revolution — took an early and decided lead in this noble pursuit; and, while the love of the sport continues to distin- guish their descendants who are by far the most equestrian in their habits of any other citizens of the Republic, the result of the liberality of the free settlers is yet visible in the blood of their no- ble steeds. It is probable that racing may have commenced simultaneously, of very nearly so, in the two States above named. It was an attribute of the principal towns of Maryland some years previous to Braddock's defeat in 1753, and it is nearly certain that Spark, owned by Governor Ogle, of that colony, presented to BLOOD HORSE 116 BLOOD HORSE him by Lord Baltimore, who received hjm as a gift from the Prince of Wales, father to King George HI. , came hither previous to that event, and was among the first horses of great distinc- tion brought to America, though it can not be shown, what was the date pf his imjjortation. About the year 1750, Colonel Tasker imported into Maryland the celebrated English mare Seli- ma, a daughter of the' Godolphin Arabian, one of the most distinguished mares that ever ran in America, and progenitrix through Rockingham, Mark Antoiiy, and many others, of half the best and most fashionable blood in America. Nearly about the same time, there were imported into Virginia, Routh's Crab, by, old Crab, dam by ■Counsellor, daughter of Coneyskins, supposed to be in or about 1745. In 1747, Monkey, by the Lonsdale Bay Arabian, dam by Curweh's Bay Barb, daughter of the Byerly Turk and a Royal mare. He was twenty-two years old when im- ported, but left good stock. In 1748, Roger of the Vale, afterwards known as Jolly Roger, by Roundhead, out of a partner mare. Woodcock, Croft's Bay Barb, Dickey Pierson, out of a Barb mare. Roundhead was by Flying Childers, out of Roxana, dam of Lath and Cade, by the Bald Galloway, out of a daughter tothe AcasterTurk. Woodcock was by Merlin, out of a daughter of Brimmer. Dickey Pierson by the Dodsworth Barb out of the Burton Barb mare. In about 1764, was imported Fearnought, got by Regulus, out of Silvertail, by Whitenose, grand-dam by Rattle. Thus Fearnought is come of the very highest and purest blood in England, and has left his mark largely on the blood-horse of Vir- ginia. It is said that before his time there was little beyond quarter racing in Virginia, that his irogeny were of uncommon figure, and first intro- luced the size and bottom of the English race- horse into America. This must be taken, how- ever^ with reservations, as it is evident from what has been stated in regard to Selima, that four- mile racers were the fashion, in Maryland at least, fifteen years before that date, and it is only to be understood in the case of second-rate racers, that quarter running was in vogue at this period. These capital horses were shortly followed by Morton's Traveller, who was probably got by Partner, a grandson of the Byerly Turk, and frandsire of King Herod, dam by the Bloody uttocks Arabian. These were probably the best early horses that were imported into America"; and to these, with the mares Selima, Queen Mab, Jenny Cameron, Kitty Fisher, Miss Colville and a few others of about the same period, may be traced a,ll, or almost all, the families of running horses how existing in the United States, in a greater or less degree, and with nearly as much certainty as the English champions of the olden day may be followed up to imported Arab and Barb on both sides. Fronr Virginia and Mary- latid, the racing spirit ex .ended itself rapidly into the Carolinas, where it has' never to this day flagged. The oldest race-courses in this country, which are yet kept up for purposes of sport, are the Newmarket course, near Petersburgh, Va., and the Washington course, near Charleston, 8.C. At Alexandria, Va., there was a race-course early in the last century, and the courses in the neighborhood of Richmond have been in existence above seventy years. Not very long after this date, and previous to the Revolutionary war, there were two race-courses oh Long Island, in e; the State of New York— one called Newmarket, near the centre of Suffolk county, and the other near Jamaica in Queens county, at both of which trials of speed were frequently had; but whether there were meetings at stated intervals and for regular prizes is not known. It was not until about the commencement of the present century, however, that what may be called race-courses proper were established in New York ; the first club for the promotion of the breed of horses by means of racing, taking date from 1804, in which year the old Newmarket course was remodelled, and regular meetings with two and three-mile heats were established. Long prior to this time, however, the improvement of the breed of horses had created much interest in that State, and as early as 1764 and 1765 two celebrated horses were impoi-ted — Wildair, by Cade, and Lath, by Shepherd's Crab— by Colonel Delancy of King's Bridge, who also imported the Cub mare.v dam of Mr. Gibson's Cub mare, killed on the course at Lancaster. Both Wildair and Lath greatly distinguished themselves as sires; the former was esteemed so valuable that he was reimported to England. Another horse. Sloven, said to be by Cub, is stated by -Skinner and by Edgar, on the faith of a pedigree signed Jacob Adlie, to have been imported also into New York in about 1764; he is not, however, to be found in the British Stud-book — Weatherby's; and I am not aware that any of the greater champions ol the American turf trace their descent to Sloven. In North and fc^outh Carolina racing commenced with spirit, second (if second) only to the date of its commencement in Virginia and Maryland. Flimnap, Sweeper and Toby, all horses held in high estimation at the time, were imported be- tween the years 1760 and 1770; the former a grandson on both sides of the Godolphin Arabian, I and both the others tracing to the same grsttt • progenitor, and to other ancestors scarcely of , inferior note; the last named was imported by Colonel Alston, of racing celebrity in North Carolina. Into Pennsylvania, which State has never shone particularly on the racing turf, were brought two horses. Gray Northumberland, also called Irish Gray, said to have been bred by Lord Mazarine, and to have been a racer in high form, supposed imported by Mr. Crow, and about the same time. Old England, pedigree also unknown, but supposed begot by Old England, son of Go- dolphin Arabian. To these must be given the credit of running one of the oldest great Amer- ican time races on record, so long ago as 1767, against two other horses, one of whom, Selim, it is not easy to identify, tiiree of the same name appearing to have covered nearly at the same time. The English sires most renowned in post-revolu- tionary days, until we come down to the day of the Leviathans, Sarpedons, Trustees, Priams and Glencoes, have been : Medley — imported into Vir- §iniain 1783, by Gimcrack; dam Arminda, by nap. Shark— foaled in 1771, and imported into Virginia byMarske, out of the Snap mare. Dio- med— foaled in 1777; imported' into Virginia, 1798. He was by Florizel, dam by Spectator. Diomed is probably th6 greatest sire of the great- est winner-getters ever brought into this country. Had he got none but Sir Archy, out of imported Castianira — who brought him to America in her belly — that renown alone would have been more than enough ; for scarce a recent horse in England, unless it be Pot8o's, has so distinguished himself BLOOD HORSE 117 BLOOD HORSE as a progenitor. Gabriel— foaled 1790; import- ed iato Virginia, was got by Dorimant; dam Snap mare. The year of Bedford's importation is not exactly known. He was a great stallion, and there is hardly a family of horses in the Southern States which do not in some degree, more or less, partake of his blood. He was a singularly formed horse — a rich bay — with a peculiar elevation on his rump, amounting in appearance to an unsight- liness, if not to an absolute deformity. This mark, known as the Bedford Hump, he has trans- mitted to his posterity, and, whatever may have been the original opinion as to its beauty, it has been worn by so many celebrated winners, that it I has come of late to be regarded as a fore-shadow- ing of excellence, rather than a deformity. It has been worn by Eclipse, Black Maria, her brother, ^hark, Boston, Argyle, and many others of note. The editor would here remark that what one authority says of Tennessee may also be said of Kentucky, which immediately that her sons be- came forehanded enough they commenced to breed thoroughbred horses. At the north, as settlement made good roads practicable, the attention of breeders was turned to trotting horses. That .they also were indebted to the staunchest thorough blood for their success, the record of the modern trotting phenomenans will attest. It will not be . necessary here to follow the account of successive sires and dams as they have appeared. It will be sufficient as a matter of interest, to present a record carefully prepared of the fastest and best running time, and most creditable performances made at all distances, to end of year 1879; the time being in minutes, seconds, and quarters of a second: Half amile:— Olitipa, by imported Leamington, Sara- toga, July 25, 187), 0.47-!^. Five-eiijhtlis of a mile :— Bonnie Wood, by Imported Bonnie Scotland, Saratoga, July 20, 1878, 1.025^. Three-quarters of a mile :— First Chance, by Bay wood, Philadelphia, Pu., Ootobfer 17, 1876, 1.15. One mile:— Ten Broec^, by imported Phaeton, Louis- ville, Ky., May 24, 1877, 1 .395i. Mile Heats: — Kadi, by Lexington, Hartford, Conn., Septemoer 2, 1875, fastest second heat, and fastest two beats ever run, 1.4:8*4, 1.41*4. One mile and one-eighth:— Bob Woolley, by imported Leamington, Lexington, Ky., September 6, 1875, 1.54. ' One mile and a quarter: — Charley Gorham, by Blarney- stone, Lexingtim, May 18, 1877, 8. 8(4. . , Onemileandthr'ee-eignths:— Spendthrift, by imported Aastralian, Jerome Park, June 10, 1879, 2.25Ji. One and, a half miles:— Tom Bowling, by Lexington, May 12. 1874, 2,34?^. This horse was permitted to extend the run to two mUes. One mile and flve-eighths:—TenBroeck, by imported Phseton, Lexington, Ky., September 9, 1875, 2.49)4. une andthree-quarter miles:— One Dime, by Wanderer, Lexington, September 12, 1879, 8.0514. Two miles:— Ten Broeckl by imported Phseton, against time, Louisville, May 29. 1877, 3.27!4. Two mile Heats;— Brandemante, by War Dance, Jack- son, Mies., November 17, 1877, 8.3214, 3.29. Doubtful. Willie 0., by Revolver, Prospect Park, September 11, 1879, 3 34^,3. ;«. Two miles and one-eighth:— Aristides, by imported Lea- mington, Lexingion, Ky., May 10, 1876, 3.15^. Two miles and a quarter: Freakness, by Lexington, Springbok, by imported Aastralian, dead heat, 3.56^. Two ana a half miles: — Aristides, by imported Lea- mington, Lexington, Ky.:May 13^1876, 4.a7!4 Two miles and five-eighths:— Ten Broeck, by imported Phston, Lexington, Ky., 1876, 4.58!^. Two miles and three-quarters :— Hubbard, by Planet, Saratoga, 1873, 4. 583Si. Three miles:- TenBroeck, by imported Phseton, Louis- ville, Ky., September, 23, 1876, 5.86'^. Three mile Heats:— Brown oick, by imported Margrave, New Orleans, April 10, 1865; the best second heat on record, and second best three-mile heat race, 5.30Ji, 5.28. Four miles:- TenBroeck, by imported PhsSton, vs. Fellowcraft's time, Louisville, Ky., September 7,, 1876, 7.14>i. ' Four mile Heats :—Lecompte, by Boston, at New Or- leans, Aprils, 1854, beating Lexington and Kenbe, 7.26, 7.38)4. Hurdle Races:— Joe Rodes, by Virgil, mile beats, over four hurdles, St. Louis, June 4, 1878, 1.5u^, I.5014. Steeple Chases:— Dead Head, by Julius, about two and three-qu .rter miles, thirty-six leaps, Saratoga, August 26, 1878, 5.33V^. BLOOD-HORSE, ENGLISH. The history of the blood-horse in England has been so accurately and carefully traced by the late William Henry Herbert, one of the most accomplished writers of horses and field sports, in America.from an Eng- lishman's view, tliat we excerpt therefrom so much as will give a correct idea and history of the origin and ^owth of the blood-horse in England. Our authority says: It being, in the first place, admitted that the English blood-horse is the most perfect animal of his race, in the whole world, both for speed and endurance, and that the American blood-horse directly traces, without mixture, to English, and, through the English, to Oriental parentage, it is absolutely necessary t o revert to the origin and original creation of the former variety, in order to come at the ped- igree, characteristics, and history of the latter. With American blood-horses, it is not as it is with American men; the latter may, in many cases, trace their descent to an admixture of the blood of many nations; tlie former, on the con- trary, must trace to the blood of the English thoroughbred; or, if it should fail to do so, must suffer in consequence of the taint of any foreign strain. I do not, of course, mean to assert that, in a horse of unquestioned excellence and per- formance, it would be a defect to trace to a new and recent cross of Arab or Barb blood; but I do mean to say, that such pedigree would be of no advantage to the character of the animal; since it is clear that, by no Oriental horse recently im- ported into Great Britain has the Briiish blood- horse been improved — the Wellesley Arabian having got but one offspring of even moderate racing celebrity. Fair Ellen — while no horse of the pure blood of the desert, by any allowance of weight, has been enabled to win a race on the. English tui-f, though, within the last twenty years, many have been started for prizes. It la believed that no Barb, Arab or Turk, imported into America, has ever got a horse of true pre- tensions on the turf, or which has an impor- tant race; and yet, within a few years, or during the second quarter of the century, a considerable ■number have been introduced to this country, many of them gifts from sovereign potentates to different Presidents of the United States, reputed to be of the noblest breed, and surely, as regal gifts, presumable to have been of true blood. The theory and presumed cause of the worthlessness of Arab Sires at the present day, will be discussed hereafter, when we come to treat of breeding and the influence of lineal descent on the production and transmission of hereditary qualities in the . horse. It suffices, at present, to observe iliat the English race-horse is now on all hands admitted to be an animal of superior hereditary qualities to the pure-bred horse of the desert ; and that the race horse in America— the only country wherein he does not appear to have degenerated from his an- cestry — is identical in breed and qualities with the progenitors, to whom he traces his pedigree. Quot- ing from various sources the author continues: That horses were introduced into Britain long be- fore the Christian era, we have abundant evi- dence, and that the inhabitants had acquired great BLOOD HORSE 118 BLOOD HORSE experience in their use is equally certain. In the ancient British language rliediad is the word for a race — rheder, to run — and r/iedeefa, a race. All these spring from the Gaulish rheda, a chariot. Here, then, is direct evidence that horses were introduced from Gaul, and that chariot races were established at a very early period. I would here observe, that this evidence is not to my mind direct or conclusive, as to the fact of the introduc- tion of the horse from Gaul; although it is so, as to the antiquity of chariot-racing in both coun- tries, and to the non-Roman descent or introduc- tion of the British or Gaulish animal. And my reason for so saying is that, as the blood, the re- ligion and the language of the Britons were cog- nate if not identical with those of some, at least. immediate moment, and is more curious and in teresting to the scholar and the antiquaiy, than to the horsemen or horse-breeder. From the differ- ent kinds of vehicles, noticed by the Latin writers — the carruca, the covinus, the essedum, or war- chariot — it would appear that the ancient Bri^tona had horses trained t6 different purposes, as well domestic as warlike. It is well observed by Youatt, in his larger work on the horse, that from the cumbrous structure of the car and the fury with which it was driven, and from the badness or non- existence of roads, they must have been both active and powerful in an extraordinary degree . Caesar, he adds, though without stating his authority, ' thought them so valuable, that he carried many of them to Rome; and the Britisli horsefs were, for GIMCEACK. of the Gallic tribes, it is no more certain that the Gallic rJieda is the theme of the British rheder, than that it is derived therefrom. It does, how- ever, in a great degree prove that the Gallic and British horses were identical, and descended not from any breed transmitted through Greece and Italy, but from one brought inland to the north- ward of the Alps; perhaps by those Gauls, who ravaged Upper Greece and Northern Italy, almost before the existence of authentic history; perhaps by their original ancestors; at all events, of an- tique Thracian or Thessalic descent, and, there- fore, of remote but direct Oriental race, in all pro- bability again improved by a later desert cross, derived from the Numidian cavalry of the Carth- aginian Barcas, long previous to the Ctesarian campaigns in Gaul or the invasions of the sacred island of the Druids. This; however, is of small a long time after, in great request in various parts of the Roman empire. I regret that, owing to the omission of giving authority, I have been unable to verify the latter statement; I have failed to discover any allusion to the facts stated in the writings of Caesar himself; nor can I recall to mind any mention of British horses, in any of the classical authorities, whether in prose or poetry; nevertheless, I presume, from the general care and truthfulness of this able writer, that there is no doubt as to the accuracy of his assertion. During the occupation of Eng- land by the Romans, the British horse was crossed to a considerable extent by the Roman horse— continues 'the author in the volume first quoted; for which I would myself, for reasons above stated, prefer to substitute by the forcing horses of the Roman mercenary or allied cavalry. BLOOD HORSE 119 BLOOD HORSE and yet strange to say, no opinion has been given by any liistorian, Roman or Britisli, as to the enect of this. After the evacuation of England by the Romans and its conquest by the Saxons, considerable attention was paid to the Englisli breed of horses, and we know that after the reign of Alfred, running horses were imported from Germany; this being the first historical intimation we have of running horses in Eng- land. It is scarcely to be doubted that this im- portation produced a marked effect on the char- acter of the native breed; but here, as before, no historian has thought it worth his while to record the fact of either improvement or deteri- oration. English horses, after this, appear to have been highly prized on the continent, so that the German, horses which were presented by Hugh Capet to Athelstan had been turned to good account. The English themselves, were, however, anxious to preserve the monopoly of the breed, for in 930 A. D. , a law prohibited the exportation of horses. In Athelstan 's reign many Spanish horses were imported, which shows the desire of the English, even at that early period, to improve the breed. It is no wonder that their descendants should have produced the finest horses in the world. Shortly before the Norman conquest a horse was valued at thirty shillings, a mare or colt at twenty shillings, an ox at thirty pence, a cow at twenty -four pence — these prices in case of their being destroyed or negligently lost — and a man at a pound. Money, it should be noted, then being equivalent to, at least fifteen times its present value. William the Conqueror took great pains to improve the English breed, introducing many fine animals from Normandy, Flanders and Spain. This monarch owed his success at Hastings chiefly to his cavalry ; his own horse was a Spanish one. In this reign we have the first notice of horses being employed in agriculture. They had been used for the saddle for many centuries — Bede informing us that the English! began to use horses as early as 631 A. D. , and that people of rank distinguished themselves by aippearing frequently on horseback. During the Conqueror's reign, the then Earl of Shrews- buiy, Roger de Belesme, brought a number of Spanish horses to his estate of Powisland. The breed issuing from these is highly eulogized by Giraldus, Cambrensis and Dayton. In the reign of Henry I. we have an account of the first Arab horse imported into the country. It was pre- sented by Alexander I., King of Scotland, to the church of St. Andrew's, with many valuable accoutrements, and a considerable estate. His- toiyi however, is silent as to the purposes to which this animal was devoted, and as to what ultimately became of him there is no record. Coming down to the time of King John, we find, according to Youatt, that he imported many- chosen stallions, 100 on a single occasion, aLd such was his anxiety to possess the best, that ho would accept strong horses for the rent of crown lands, and as fines for the renewal of leases, and that his personal stud was both numerous and excellent. Edward III. bought fifty Spanish horses and such care was taken that a formal ap- plication was made to the King of Prance for safe conduct to the troop having them in charge. This monarch, says M. Youatt, had many run- ning horses, though M. Youatt professes himself not clear whether it meant speedy horses in Apposition to war horses, or those used specially for racing purposes. Mr. Herbert says: In the reign of Richard II. horse- jockeysljip and the tricks of dealers had increased to such an extent, that a special proclamation was issued, regulating the price of animals of various kinds, and fixing a maximum value. Like all other sumptuary laws and prohibitory statutes effecting to regulate trade, this proclamation proved wholly useless and fell dead. It is curious, however, as proving the great increase in the value of horses, since the preceding reign, and showing what were, four hundred and fifty years ago, and what are still, the chief breeding districts. It was ordered to be published in the counties of Lincoln and Cam- bridge, and in the north and east ridings of York. The price was restricted to that determined by former sovereigns. Exportation of horses was strictly forbidden, especially to Scotland, as a kingdom with which England was constantly at war; and it is remarkable, that even in the time of Elizabeth, it was felony to export a horse to Scotland. These prohibitions, how contrary, so- ever, to recent and more enlightened views as to the injurious effects of such restrictions on the freedom of trade, distinctly proved two things. First, that the people and monarchs of England had now become fully awake to the value of race and breed in horses; and second, that the supe- rior quality of English horses was thus early acknowledged abroad, and that the demand for them was supposed to be greater than the super- fluity. We can now — quoting again from Mr. Youatt — collect but little of the history of the horse until the reign of Henry VII. at the close of the fifteenth century. He continued to pro- hibit the exportation of stallions, but allowed mares to be exported, when more thahi two years old, and under the value of six shillings and eight pence. James I. coming to the throne of England, purchased the Markham Arabian for £500 (an extraordinary price in those times), but he was found to be deficient in speed. Race meetings were now regularly held at Newmarket, and vari- ous other places, in addition to those already held at Chester, there being an account of a race being run there in 1665. Mr. Youatt also mentions races previous to King James' time, and says those of King James were in great part, matches against time, or trials of speed and bottom for absurdly long and cruel distances. Thus, from the time of James, the history of racing and English race- horses, and of course increased care in breeding , and management,may be said to commence. Com- ing down to the time of Cromwell, Mr. Herbert says: During the protectorate, though he was compelled by the necessity of conciliating the ab- surd prejudices of the Puritans, to forbidracing, was yet an ardent lover of the horse, and an earn- est promoter and patron of all that belongs to hprsemanship, purchased of Mr. Place, afterwards his stud-master, the celebrated White Turk— still recorded as the most beautiful southeastern horse ever brought into England, and the oldest to which our present strain refers. To him succeeds Vil- liers, Duke of Buckingham, his Helmsley Turk, and to him Fairfax's— the same great statesman and brave soldier, who fought against Newcastle at Marston — Morocco Barb. And to these three horses it is that the English race-horse of the old time chiefly owes its purity of blood, if we except the royal mare, specially imported by Charles IL, to which it is— mythically, rather than justly- held that all English blood should trace. Of aM BLOOD HORSE lao BLOOD HORSE succeeding importations, those, which are princi- pally known and referred to, as having notorious- ly amended our horse — by proof of stoclc begot- ten of superior qualities, and> victorious on the turf (through long generations — but few are true Arabs. We have, it is true, the Darley Arabian, the Leeds Ar Aian, Honeywood's White, the Ogle- thorpe, the Newcome, Bay Mountain, the Damas- cus, Cullen's Brown, the Chestnut, the Londsdale Bay, Combe's Gray and Bell's Gray Arabians; but what is generally called the Godolphiri Arabian, as it seems now to be the prevailing opinion — his origin not being ictuall^ aseertamed— was a Barb, not an Arab from Arabia proper. Against these, again, we find Place's White Turk, D'Arcey's Turk, the Yellow Turk, Lister's or the Straddling Turk, the Byerly Turk, the Selaby Turk, the Acas- ter Turk; Curwen's Bay Barb, Cpmpton's Barb, the Thoulouse Barb, Lwton's Barb Mare, great-\ great-grandam of Miss Layton ; the Roysil Mares, which were B jrbs from Tangier, and many other Barb horses, not from the Eastern desert, heading the pedigrees of our best horses. In this connec- tion, I would observe that the very reasons for which the Marquis of Newcastle condemned the Markham Arabian, viz. , that when regularly train- ed he coUld do notliing against race-horses — on ac- count of which condemnation he has received a sneer or a slur from every writer who has discussed the subject, are those which, at this very moment, prevent prudent breeders from having recourse to to Oriental blood of any kind. They can not run or last against the English horse. ^ They haye not the size, the bone, the muscle, or the shape, if we except the beautiful head, the fine neck, thin withers, and admirably long, deep and sloping shoulders, which are the inevitable characteristics of the race. Therefore, all men who breed with an eye to profit — and howsoever it might have been in the olden times of the turf, there are few now who have not an eye to it, either as hoping to win on the turf, or to produce salable stock — prefer to put their mares to known English winning horses, proved getters of winners, of unquestioned bottom and stoutness, rather than to tiy stallions of the desert blood, concerning which nothing is known beyond the pedigree. It is not necessary to follow the history of the English blood-horse further. It has been written voluminously by various English and American Writers. From the writings of Youatt in Eng- land, and Herbert in America, the horseman may thoroughly inform himself. He is not a pure breed, but m^de up of various bloods, and in- herits from Oriental blood, style, and soundness in wind, limb and hoof. By careful breeding, through many generations, his speed has been increased,/ while the general constitution of the thoroughbred, -has not specially suflfered. Arti- ficial care has made an artificial animal of him, yet certainly, the blood-horse of the present day IS far superior to his masters either on the Orien- tal or British side, as far superior in speed and stoutness, as is the modern Short-horn and Here- ford cattle superior in Ijeef points to their pro- genitors of 150 years ago. Fleet and enduring as is the English thoroughbred in Great Britain, the American descendants, have fully kept pace with them, as is well attested in many hard fought races in England and America. As to the thoroughbred twenty-five or thirty years ago, Stonehenge, an English writer, as honest as he was graphic, says: By an examination of the racing time-tables as recorded of late years, it will be seen that from thirteen and a half to four- teen second's per furlong is the highest rate of speed attained in any of our races, above a mile, and with eight stone, seven pounds, carried by three-year-old horses. In 1846, Surplice and Cymba won the Dei'by and Oaks, each running the distance in two minutes forty-eight seconds, or exactly fourteen seconds per furlong. This rate has never since that time been reached; the Flying Dutchman having, however, nearly at- tamed it, but failing by two seconds — making his rate fourteen seconds and one-sixth per fur- long. But the most extraordinary three-year-old performance is that of Sir Tatton Sykes over the St. Leger Course, one mile six furlongs, and 133 yards in length, which he ran in three minutes and sixteen seconds, or at a rate of as nearly as possible thirteen and a half seconds per furlong. With an additional year and the same weight, this speed has been slightly exceeded by West Australian, even over a longer course, as at Ascot in 1854, when he defeated Kingston by a head oiily; running two miles and four furlongs in four minutes and twenty-seven seconds, or aa nearly as possible at the rate of thirteen and a half seconds and one-third per furlong. This performance is the best in modern days, consid- ering the weight, the age, and the distance; and it wrll compare very favorably with the often- quoted exploit of Childers over the Beaco" Course in 1731, when, being six years old, he beat Al- mauzor and Brown Betty, carrying nine stone two pounds, and doing the distance in six min- utes forty seconds, or at the rate of fourteen seconds and one-third per furlong. Thus, allow- ing him his year for the extra mfle in the course, and fojr the two pounds which he carried above Kingston's weight, he was outdone by the latter horse at Ascot by one second per furlong, and likewise by West Australian at the usual allow- ance for his age. Again'; comparing these per- formances on the English turf with the recently lauded exploits of the American horses, it will be found that there is no cause for the fear lest our antagonists in the "go-ahead " department should deprive us of our laurels. On the second of April, 1855, a time-match was run at New Orleans be- tween Lecomte and Lexington, both four years old, in which the latter, who won, did the four miles, carrying seven stone five pounds, in seven mmutes nineteen and three-quarter seconds, or, as nearly as may be, thirteen and three-quarter seconds per furlong. This is considered by the Americans the best time on record, and is un- doubtedly a creditable performance ; i hough when the light weight is taken into account, not so near our best English time as would at first sight ~ appear. On the 14th of April, Brown Dick and Arrow ran three miles over the same course in five minutes twenty-eight seconds, or at the rat« of thirteen seconds and two-thirds per furlong; the former a three-year-old, carrying six stone two pounds, and the latter five years old, six stone twelve pounds. Thus it will appear that Kingston, of the same age as Arrow, and carry- ing nine stone instead of seven stone twelve pounds, ran two and a half miles at a better rate than Arrow did his three miles, by one-third of a second per furlong. And it has been shown that in the year last past, two horses exceeded the greatest performance of the olden times by a second per furlong, and beat the best American BLOOD-ROOT 121 BLOWN time of modern days by one-third of a second per mile. Thie assertion, therefore, that our present horses are degenerated in their power of staying a distance under weight, is wholly without foun- dation; since I have shown that, even taking the time of th^ Childers' performance as the true rate, of which there is some doubt, yet it has recently been beaten very .considerably by West Australian and Kingston. Many loose assertions have been made as to the rate of the hcrse, for a single mile in the last century, but thero is not the slightest reliance to be placed upon them. That any race-horse ever ran a mile within the minute, is an absurd fiction ; and i io out of the question to suppose that if Childers could not beat our modern horses over the Beacon Course, he could beat them a shorter distance. Stoutness was undoubtedly the forie of the early race- horses ; they were of small size, very wiry and low, and could unquestionably stay a distance, and could race month after month, and year after year, in a way seldom imitated in these' days; but that they could in their small compact forms run as fast in a short spin as our modern three-year- •Ids, is quite a fallacy, and no racing man of any experience would admit it for a moment. The size and shape of the modern thoroughbred horse are superior to those of olden days, if we may judge by the portraits of them handed down to us by Stubba, who was by far the most faithful animal painter of the eighteenth century. In elegance of shape we beat the horses of that day very considerably, more especially in the beauty •f the head and the formation of the shoulders, which have been much attended to by breeders. In size, also, there has been an immense stride made, the average height of the race-horse hav- ing been increased by at least a hand within the last century. This enlargement is, I believe, «hiefly due to the Godolphm Arabian, who was the sire of Babraham, the only horse of his time which reached sixteen hands, and sire or grand- sire of several which were more than fifteen hands, much above the average height of horses at that time — as, for instance. Fearnought, Genius, Gower Stallion, Infant, Denmark, Bolton, Cade, Chul), Lofty and Amphion. Indeed it will be iound, by an examination of the horses of that time, that out of 130 winners in the middle of the eighteenth century, there were only eighteen of (he height of fifteen hands and upwards, of which eleven were by Godolphin or his sons, three de- scended from the Darley Arabian, two from the "Byerley Turk, and two from other sources. It ^iiiay therefore be assumed, with, some degree of probability, that the increase in size is in a great measure due to the Godolphin, in addition to the extra care and attention which the horse has re- ceived during the same time. Nevertheless, all the care and forcing in the world will not increase the size of some breeds; and unless there was this capability of being forced, no amount of attention would have brought the horse to the present average, which may be placed at about fifteen hands three inches. BLOOD-EOOT. Banguinaria Canadensis. This root is of a red color; is valuable in medi- cine, being used as an emetic, and in coughs. In large doses it is poisonous, and should not be f'ven except under the advice of a physician, he leaves are sometimes given to horses to assist in shedding the hair in the spring, and the root, nlso, to exterpate bote. BLOOD-SHOT. In farriery, a popular term for that red appearance which the eye exhibits when inflamed. The best treatment is to bathe the eye with a lotion composed of one drachm of white vitriol (sulphate of zinc) dissolved in half a pint of water. BLOOD JSP ATTN, or BOG SPAVIN. In farriery, a swelling of the vein that runs along the inside of the hock of the horse, forming a soft tumor in the hollow part, often attended with weakness or lameness of the hock. (See' Spavin.) BLOOM, or BLOSSOM. A general name for the flowers of plants, but more especially of fruit- trees. The oflBce of the blossom is partly to afford protection, and partly to draw or supply nourishment to the fertilizing organs of the plant, for the perfecting of the embryo fruit or seed. Bloom IS a term applied to the delicate powder which coats the outer surface of such smooth- skinned fruits as the grape and plum. In gather- ing such fruits, care should always be observed to prevent this bloom from being removed by handling or otherwise, as it injures the appear- ance. BLOW-FLY. The Musca earnaria. It de- posits eggs upon meat, which in a few hours become maggots, and hasten the decay rapidly; gauze cloths are used to keep them off; salt or cayenne pepper serves as a preventive, by indis- posing the fly to lay eggs on surfaces smeared with them. BLOWN, or COLIC. Undue distention of the stomach, from fermentation of food, as wet grass, bad fodder, musty hay, ergoty, or even sound grain eaten in undue quantities, causing the liberation of gas faster than it can be passed off, is usually termed hoven in cattle, and also blast, blown, colic and wind-dropsy in fai'm animals. In cattle and sheep the trouble is in the third stomach, and if relief is not given, often ends in death. There will be swelling of the belly on the left side. The bowels will be torpid and constipated, the breathing difiicult, the eyes wild, with other indications of intense pain. If the distension has extended to both sides, the danger is imminent, A trocar, or in lieu thereof, a sharp- pointed pen-knife, should be thrust into the rumen, where the swelling is greatest, and the opening kept apart by a silver tube, or a large quill thrust in the. opening, to allow the escape of the gas. In cases not so severe, pressing and kneading of the stomach, to force the gas up the gullet, may give relief, or a half inch rubber tube well oiled, and furnished with a button of wool also well oiled, may be carefully worked down into the stomach. As a stimulant, one drachm of green mustard and one ounce of whisky, mixed in a little water, may be given by allowing it to trickle down slowly, to insure its safe passage into the third stomach. This may be repeated as may be deemed necessary. If this does not give relief, four drachms of the solution of potash, and one ounce of lard-oil and of com- mon salt may be mixed in a gill of water, and be given. Preventives are, not to turn stock into flush pastures wet with dew when hungry. Sheep may have one quarter of the above dose. Colic or gripes in the hprse must not be con- founded with this affection. It is a contraction of the muscular coats of the stomach, and is caused by bad food, exhaustion, drinking cold water, change of food, and various other causes. BLTJE-GBASS 123 BLUE-GRASS Intestinal colic, Is shown by severe pain, look- ing at the flanks, pawing, lying down, rolling, and then suddenly getting up. The pulse and breathing- are quick, and there are sometimes small discharges, both of dung and water. The bladder being generally distended. The most pronpt means is the injection under the skin, of ten grains of moiphia by means of a hypodermic iminge, and repeated in one hour if necessary. Giv a ball by the mouth of five to ten drachms of powdered aloes. (See article Ball, or Bolus.) Assist this with an injection of half a pint of tur- pentine mixed with one quart of soapsuds. Avoid all dosing with alkaline drenches so much in vogue with the ignorant. In simple cases, one ounce each of chloroform, laudanum and sulphuric ether, and eight' ounces of linseed oil will answer, if aided by the injection as given above. If there is much gas and swelling, give the following: Mild spirits of ammonia and sul- phuric ether, of each one ounce, and powdered aloes one-half ounce; mix in a pint of tepid water, and give at one dose. Gentle walking exercise will also tend to give relief and assist in the action of the medicines. BLUBBER. The cellular substance in which whale oil or fat is stored. BLUEBIRD. Sylva sialts. A familiar in- sectivorous bird that should be encouraged on farms. BLUE-GRASS. Poa pratends. The genus poa is one of the most important of the family of grasses, being decidedly the most valuable of our . pasture grasses in soil suited to it. Upon rich, open, argillaceous soils, containjng lime, and upon rich dry limestone soils proper, it is entirely at home, furnishing an abundance of early and late pastures, and south of the latitude of 40° north, and thence south it furnishes much valuable winter pasture. In Kentucky, the Blue-grass region has become famous, the world over. The profusion of nutritious, radical leaves constitute the superior excellence of this grass. It is also known as Bpear-grass, Green-grass, and Smooth Meadow-grass. It is a perennial creeping rooted grass, ,8mp6th-8temi;d, flowering in May and June, according to the latitude, and ripening a month later. In poor soils it soon deteriorates tnd is of little value. Poa compressa, to which the name of Blue-grass might more properly be applied, is also known as Blue-grass in some por- tions of the North, also as Wire-grass and Plat- Btitlked Meadow-graas. This also is a perennial creeping rooted grass, the plant smooth, but with short and fewer radical leaves than the so- called Kentucky Blue-grass. It has found its way into most pastures in the North, and if less flush, certainly is as rich or richer pasturage than Poa pratenm. Both species are said to have been intro(Juced, but if so, they have taken kindly to their adopted home, and have proved most valuable wherever acclimated. The cut shows the Kentucky Blue-grass {Poa compressa.) Kentucky Blue-grass is chiefly distinguished by the woolly web at the base of the floret, and the hairs on the lateral nerves of palea; the inner palea is a very little shorter than the outer, and is occasjonally bifld at the summit. Ihe culms are generally smooth, as are the sheaths, but they are occasionally a little rough; the upmr sheath is much longer than its leaf. Jt IS mdigenous in all the Northern States, gen- erally found on calcareous soil. The following from various authentic sources, will give an idea of the value of this grass, and of the general estimation in which it is held. No grass varies so much from alterations of soil and climate and exposure, as this. The flowers are sometimes tumid and tinged with red; vmder other circum- stances, they are a pale green, and compressed. The culms and leaves are sometimes a dark blu- ish green; sometimes of a pale yellowish green; sometimes one foot high, and at others over three feet. British authors enumerate six or seven sub-varieties of it, with a view of classifying these differences; we have representatives of KENTUCKY BLUE-OBASS. o, the plant; 6, •» spikelet, and c, a pistil, removed from the palea, ehowing the scales at the base of the ovary. most of them in this country. This great differ- ence of habit causes a very different value to be assigned to it in different sections of the country. Thus, Mr. Klippart says, that it is very much in favor in Soutnern Ohio, whilst in Northern and Northeastern Ohio it is considered a very unwel- come guest in the grass lands. A Kentucky farmer, quoted by Mr. Flint, says of it; In our climate it is not only the most beautiful of grasses, but the most valuable of crops. It is the first deciduous plant which puts forth its leaves here. BLUE-GRASS 133 BLUE-GRASa ripens its seeds about the 10th of June, and then remains green, if the summer is favorable in moisture, growing slowly till about the last of August, when it takes a second vigorous growth nntil the ground is frozen by winter's cold. If the summer is dry, it dries up utterly, and will bum if set on fire, but even then, if the spring growth has been left upon the ground, it is very nutritious to all grazing stock, and especially to aheep and cattle and all ruminating animals. When left to have all fts tall growth, it maKes fine winter pastures for all kinds of grazing animals. Cattle will not seek it through the snow, but sheep, mules and horses will paw it off and get plenty without any other food. When cov- ered with snow,cattle require some other feeding ; otherwise, they do well all winter upon it. It makes also the best hay. I have used it for twenty years. It should be cut just as the seeds begin to ripen, well spread and protected from the .lew at night. When properly cured, stock ■eem greatly to prefer it to all other hay. Thus much for the Kentucky farmer, who testifies that it i^ about as good as any grass can be. Dr. Darlington tells us, in his Agricultural Botany, that it is, indeed, as Muhlenberg terms it, opti- mum pahulum, being decidedly the most valuable of all the grasses known to our pastures. Prof. Buckman, of the Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester, says that it yields a good bulk for the rick, and sends up a quantity of herbage for the aftermath, which is less injured by the cold and other climatic changes than almost any other species. We have extracted these widely differ- ing opinions respecting this grass, that our readers may see how little is really known about the grasses and how imperfectly our observations -of them have been made. This is one of the most widely diffused grasses in the world. We have had the amplest opportunities for observing it, and yet we can come to no agreement upon its merits. Some things about it are admitted upon all hands. It enters into the composition of the best meadows and pastures in Europe and America. The famous 'pastures of Kentucky, which will fatten animals faster than any other in the known world, are filled with this grass. The fine meadows and pastures of Vermont, on the western slope of the Green mountains, con- tain a very large proportion (at least two- thirds) of it. Wherever the s-greetest and best keeping butter is made, this grass will occupy a very conspicuous place in the pastures; the best but- ter can not be made where this is wholly missing in the pasture. Although some grasses start earlier in the spring, yet it affords a good bite much earlier than most species. There is no grass known that bears the extreme cold as well as this, even as far norlhas Vermont; after lying exposed to the cold and snow all winter it is eaten greedily by the cattle in the spring, and they are found to thrive upon it; sheep ana even horses will naw away the snow in winter and eat the grass beneath with great avidity. It only sends up one flowering culm in a season, and these stand far apart; hence, at the first cutting, the burthen of hay is less than that afforded by several other species, bnt in August there is a Sreat growth of root leaves which give a heavy buJkatthe second cutting; the rowen, which is more sfoundant than any other, fully makes up for 'clie aeflciency of the first crop. In the west. Wherever it will grow, and in the northern por- tion of the Southern States it is the chief reliance for winter pasture. It succeeds in light lands where fibrous rooted grasses would fail. Ita nutritive properties, as given by Mr. Way, are as follows: In one hundred pounds of grass there are 67.14 pounds of water; 3.41 pounds « of albuminous or flesh-forming principles; 0.C3 pounds of fatty matters; 14.15 pounds of heat- forming principles, such as sugar, gJ'm, etc.; 12.49 pounds of woody fibre, and 1.9t> poimda of mineral matter or ash. According to the analyses of Soheven and Ritlhausen ToavTate,n»ia gave for 100 pounds of grass, sixty two pounds of water, four pounds of albuminous matter, 1 . 1 pounds of fatty matters, 15.4 pounds of heat- producing principles, 15.6 pounds of wood.y fibre, and 1 . 8 pounds of ash. The Woburn experiments show the production of an acre to be 10,209 pounds, which lost 7,337 pounds in drying, and gave 279 pounds of nutritive matter. When the seed was ripe, it yielded 8,507 pounds to the acre, which lost 5,104 pounds in drying, and gave 199 pounds of nutritive matter. The produce of the aftermath was 4,088 pounds to the acre, and yielded 111 pounds of nutritive matter. The discrepancies in these estimates of its nutritive value are undoubtedly due in a great measure to differences in the soil and climate of the places of its growth. We have never seen the culms longer than two and a half feet. Its average height in the regions that we are most acquainted with does not exceed eighteen inches. We have never seen any record of its producing more than three tons of hay to the acre, and have never actually seen a greater yield than one ton to an acre. It is well adapted for irrigation. When irrigated lands are ridged this always occupies the crowns of the ridges. Its favorite habitat is a limestone soil, which, if not too dry, will produce it in the greatest abundance. It is found in positions 3,000 feet above the level of the eea, but its valuable qualities are not mani- fested at over half that altitude. The seeds are acuminate or pointed, furrowed on the flat sides, and are furnished with a thick, woolly web, which entangles the seed. It weighs about thir- teen pounds to the bushel. With the aid of a glass they may be clearly distinguished from the seeds of P. triviaMs, the latter being shorter, rounder and nearly quite flat on the face. Dr. Darlington says that it is unnecessary to sow the seed in Pennsylvania if the field is well limed and manured. It will at once take possession of the land and grow vigorously. Hence, in that region the prevalence and the luxuriant growth of this grass is one of the best evidences that the land is in good condition and well managed. In many parts of nilQOls, where the prairie Is once depastured, although not a spear of this grass was seen before, the whole ground will be cov- ered with it, to the complete and the permanent exclusion of the former prairie plants. In poor lands, and in those ill adapted for this grass, its growth is exceedinaly dvcarflsh, and it would hardly be recognized by a superficial observer as belonging to the same species as that which he sees in more favored localities. It is probably owing to this cause that so many contradictory statements have been given with respect to its qualities. The straw of this grass, when bleached, is plaited like leghorn for bonnete, which are quite equal to the leghorn in beauty, and superior in fineness. None of the grasses surpass it in the BOG 124 BONES beauty of its forms and the gracefulness of its movements. Nowhere can we find more fairy- like delicacy of structure and contour, more graceful curves of motion, or greater softness and purity of color, than in the expanded panicles of Blue-grass. Poa Comipressa is also called Blue- grass and Wire-grass. The panicle is somewhat spreading in flowering time, but otherwise con- tracted; the branches in pairs or threes, short, flexuous, rough, often one-sided, the lowermost rather remote. Culm much compressed, decujn- bent, nine to eighteen inches long, usually about a foot Ipng, geniculate at the base It bears four or five leaves with smooth, striated sheaths. The leaves are smooth, short, linear, keeled, of a dark bluish green color. We know no grass of so dark a color except, perhaps, some specimens of Festuca nutans. Upper leaf about equal in length to its sheath. Perennial; rhizoma creeping, and flowers in June and July. It seems to be the prevalent opinion among botanists that it was Introduced from abroad ; bu,t in some regions it certainly appears to be indigenous. It is found in dry (fields and banks. Frequently it maybe seen growing in the joints of slaty rocks. It is also often found in damp clays, which are inter- mingled with gravel and small boulders, and it ■would be difficult to say in which of these soils it flourishes best. It never forms a close turf, and is rarely found intermixed with other grasses. Hence it liever yields a great bulk of hay, but this bulk weighs very heavily, so that the hay from an acre will weigh a ton or a ton and a half. We have often cut this amount from laiid on which a person unacquainted with the grass would not expect to get half a ton. It is certain that cows that feed upon it both'in pasture and in hay give more milk and keep in better condi- tion than when fed on any other grass. Horses fed on this hay will do as well as when fed on timothy hay and oats combined. This we have verified abundantly. The crops are remarkably «ven; it rarely suffers from excessive wetness or dryness. Sinclair says that heavy manuring very slightly increases the crop. This differs from our experience. We never,. indeed, succeeded in making a thick sod, but we have by manuring caused the culms to approximate more closely than they did before, and their length has been increased to two feet, while the diameter has been at the same t|me enlarged. The objection to the wide interspaces between the plants may be obviated by sowing the seeds of some other frass flowering about the same time with it. erhaps P. tnviaMs would be found to answer the pui-pose. It is one of the hardiest grasses known, and will grow in many places where no no other species will flourish. Sheep fatten as- tonishingly when fed upon it, and all grazing animals eat it with avidity. It keeps green and succulent after the seeds are ripe, even until the heavy frosts of winter. It loses less weight in drying than any other species. It is objected in some quarters that it is very difficult to exterm mate from the soil, and probably in some cases ihe objection is well founded ; but there is no "ifflolilty in raising, good corn from its sod with the free use of the cultivator. BLUE STONE AND BLUE VITRIOL. The sulphate of copper. It is used as a caustic to sores, and as a steep for wheat, to save it from smut. BOG. This term is commonly used m agricult- ure to designate a slough or morass containing much vegetable mud or muck; often the deposits are extensive, and many feet-deep. A peat bog contains peat chiefly. When bogs become con- solidated or compressed, they are called peat moss 6 s BOG EARTH. This earth often contains twenty or thirty per cent, of vegetable matter, and when well broken, with lime, and by exposure to air, forms a rich soil. BOIL, or BILE. A tumor containing inat- ter, or pus. It is the result of local inflammation. It should be brought to a head by poultices of ' flour or linseed, and when soft and fluctuating, opened freely with a lancet. The wound should be kept clean, and healing induced by simple dressings, after the matter is exhausted. BOILING POINT. The temperature at which fluids boll. Thus, water at 212°, alcohol 176°, • oil of turpentine 316°, ether 969, mercury 663° Fahrenheit. BOLE, or BOLL. In Scotland, once a com- mon measure of grain, containing four bushels. In the old measure of Scotland, for oats and bar- ley, four lippies made one peck; four pecks made one flrlot ; four flrlots made one boll ; sixteen bolls made one chalder. The boll of oatmeal weighs 140 pounds. For wheat, peas and rye, three oat flrlots make one boll. English measures are now used. The bole of a tree is the tnink. BOLETUS. A genus of mushroom, of which several species, subjected to analysis, have been found to yield bolitic acid. BOLTING FbOD. Swallowing food without proper chewing; a prolific cause of indigestion in animals as well as in man. It may be hindered by feeding the animal at short intervals, and using chopped food, meal mixed with cut straw. It is often brought about by irregular feeding in connection with exhausting work imtil bolting becomes a habit. BOMBAX. A genus of large trees producing a cottony substance. BONE EARTH* (See Bones.) BONES. The importance of bones is gener- ally underestimated. They form the framework of all verterbrate animals, are of great value in many of the arts, and crushed, form one of the most valuable of manures. They consist in 100 parts — of mineral matter, flfty-six, the balance being gelatinous and other destructable matter. The mineral portion— the valuable part — con- tains about fifty per cent, of phosphate of lime, of which twenty-four per cent, is phosphoric acid. The gelatinous part of the bone consists of car- bon, h3'drogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulphur. One hundred parts of gelatine of bones produce, when fermented, twenty-two pounds of ammo- nia, together with carbonic acid. Sulphur is also an ingredient of plants. Phosphate of lime is soluble in all acids, and we may say that all the the phosphates are soluble in' an excess of acid. When bones are surrounded by fermenting or- ganic matter, such as is offered in a manure or compost heap, the phosphate of lime is dissolved in the humidity by the carbonic acid which is constantly being evolved by the fermenting mass. This operation is more or less prompt, according to the activity of the fermenting heap. In the field, where carbonic acid is always present, this process is constantly going on ; but, owing to the presence of the cartilaginous or gelatinous por- tion which surrounds the particles of phosphate. BONES 125 BONES. the action is less apparent on a large bone than if it were in powder, and the finer the powder the more rapid the decomposition. Bones vary much in their composition, according to the age or variety of the animal. The amount of mineral matter is less in a young animal than in an old one, and the quantity increases gradually with age. Schreger found that the bones of a child contain one-half of phosphate in the entire mass of earthy matter, while those of a full-grown person give four-fifths, and an aged person not less than seven-eighths. The bones of adults contain less water than those of children. When a bone is sufficiently digested in muriatic acid, the mineral part is dissolved, leaving the gelatine, or cartilage, intact, which retains the original form of the bone. Large amounts of gelatine, or glue, are thus made. That portion of the bone dissolved in the acid consists of phosphate of lime and magnesia, fluoride of calcium, and car- bonate of lime, with small quantities of salts of potash and soda. All who work the soil know that bones are most valuable applied to all cereal craps, and the grasses and in root crops. The following method of preparing brmes on the farm, is from Mr. Pusey, a practical English farmer: The process depends upon the fact that bones consist, to the amount of one-third their weight, of cartilage or animal matter, which, under the influence of warmth and moisture, readily decomposes (ferments or decays) and loses its texture, so that the bones fall to dust. From the closeness and solidity of the bony structure, decay is excited and maintained with some difficulty. A single bone, /or a heap of bones, never decays alone, but dries and hardens on exposure. If, however, bones in quantity be brought into close contact with some easily fer- mentable moist substance, but little time elapses before a rapid decay sets in. So, too, if fresh crushed bones are mixed with sand soil, or any powdery matter that fills up the spaces between , flie fragments of the bone, and makes the heap compact, and then are moistened with pure water, the same result takes place in warm weather, though more slowly. The practical process may be as follows: The bones, if whole, should be broken up, as far as convenient, by a sledge-hammer, and made into alternate layers with sand, loam, saw-dust, leached ashes, coal ashes, or swamp muck, using just enough of any one of these materials to fill compactly the cavities among the bones, but hardly more. Be- gin with a thick layer of earth or muck, and as the pile is raised pour on stale urine or dung heap liquor enough to moisten the whole mass thoroughly, and finally, cover a foot thick with soil or muek. In warm weather the decomposi- tion goes on at once, and in from two to six or more weeks the bones will have entirely or nearly disappeared. If the fermentation should spend itself without reducing the bones sufficiently, the heap may be overhauled and built up again, moistening Vith liquor manure and covering as before. By thrusting a pole or bar into the heap, the progress of decomposition may be traced, from the heat and odor evolved. Should the heap become heated to the surface, so that am- monia escapes, as may be judged by the smell, it may be covered still more thickly with earth or muck. The larger the heap, the finer the bones, and the more stale urine or dung-liquor they have been made to absorb, the more rapid and complete will be the disintegration. In the heaps, horse dung or other manure may replace the ashes, etc. , but earth or muck should be used to cover the heap. This bone compost contains the phosphates of lime in a finely divided state, and the nitrogen of the cartilage, which has. mostly passed into ammonia or nitrates, is re- tained perfectly by the absorbent earth or muck. When carefully prepared^ this manure is adapted to be delivered from a drill-machine with seeds, and, according to English farmers, fully replaces in nearly every case the super-phosphate made by help of acid. And this we can indorse. As showing the value of bone phosphate in re- storing fertility to soils worn under successive croppings of wheat, we append the following from the report, the results as stated by a com- mittee of experts: An analysis of the grain of wheat, that part of the plant which is not again returned to the soil, shows that nearly fifty per cent, of the ash constituent is phosphoric acid, and this is equally true of nearly all the cereal crops. When it is considered that our most fertile soila contain a very small percentage of this essential element, and that in many soils there is scarcely a trace, its real importance in an agricultural point of view can not be questioned. Under our system of cropping, the mineral elements first exhausted are the phosphates, and while conced- ing that no special manure can be regarded as a substitute for barnyard manure, the question arises, can the farm be made to sustain its pro- ductiveness by the use of manures made solely from the products of the farm? Every bushel of grain and roots; every pound of cheese, butter, and wool ; every ton of hay and straw sold, carries away a portion of the organic mineral elements of the soil; and, if something is not added to. supply this deficiency beyond the ordinary accu- mulations of the barn-yard, gradual but certaia deterioration of the soil must necessarily follow. The largely increased yield of wheat by the use of clover and plaster on fields partially exhausted; by tillage, the clover being plowed under as a green crop, has led some to suppose that nothing else is needed to retain or restore the fertility oi their land. Without doubt there are important benefits derived from the use of clover and plaster as fertilizers ; indeed, a soil may have an available- supply of minerals for a wheat crop of forty bushels per acre, but if deficient in ammonia, th& crop, depending solely upon the atmosphere for its supply, the yield will not exceed eighteen or- twenty bushels, under the most favorable circum- stances of weather, ammonial manures being necessary to increase the yield. Yet, valuable as is the clover crop in furnishing this essential organic matter to the cereal crop, it adds, no mineral matter to the soil. The clover crop and the ordinary accumulations of the barn-yard are not sufficient to restore the mineral elements of which the soil is deprived by successive grain crops and it is necessary to resort to other fertil-- izers to restore this deficiency. The phosphates, among the mineral elements, necessarily first disappearing on a wheat farm, the value of bone- dust and super-phosphates can not be questioned, the former containing about fifty per cent, of phosphoric acid. But it will not do to rely upon this alone, as will be apparent when the constitu- ents of bone-dust are considered. One hundred pounds of raw bones may be estimated to con- tain eleven pounds of water, forty-five pounds BONES 126 BOS iphosphate of lime, thirty- eight pounds fat and gelatine, of which about five pounds are nitrogen; of the phosphates about fifty per cent, are phos- phoric acid. If all the nitrogen is preserved, 100 pounds of bones would furnish the amount ex- pended in growing a bushel of wheat; an appli- cation of 400 pounds per acre would furnish only twenty pounds of nitrogen, about one-third the quantity contained in clover, equalling one ton of hay. The committee think, that in connection with a proper use of clover as an organic fertil- izer, the wheat crop may be largely and profit- ably increased on impoverished soils by an appli- cation of 300 to 400 pounds of bone-dust per acre; on soils not greatly impoverished a smaller quantity may be used It is sometimes the case that bone-dust, when no other manures are used, fails to materially benefit the wheat crop to which it is immediately applied. This is atti'ibuted chiefly to a deficiency of ammonia; and when the wheat crop, under such circumstances, is only sllghtl.v benefited, the clover sown the suc- ceeding spring, which obtains a large proportion of its ammonia through its broad leaves from the atmosphere, will be largely increased by the de- composing phosphates applied in the fall, thus accumulating ammoniafor the succeeding wheat crop. The failure of bone-dust to benefit the crop to which it is first applied is owing also to its undecomposed condition. In one instance given, 500 pounds per acre was applied to corn without benefit; the second year it helped the corn, and the third year after the application, the yield of wheat was four bushels per acre greater than the product.of land in the same field not so dressed. On soils where no phosphates have been applied, an immediate fertilizer being needed for a summer crop, a well-prepared super-phosphate is recommended as preferable to undecomposed phosphate. The effects of a properly-prepared super-phosphate lipon a turnip crop are frequently almost magical, the crop being increased four or five fold by an application of 400 to 500 pounds per acre. When used for wheat and clover, it .should be well mixed with the surface soil, in a partially fermented condition, before the wheat 18 sown. Ample time will thus be given for a portion of the phosphates to be decomposed, and taken up in solution by the roots and plants, and organized in the grain. After the wheat crop has matured, the clover sown in the spring will be still further benefited by the gradual decomposi- tion. Ashes, both leached and unleached, are highly valuable as additional fertilizers in fur- nishing potash and other minerals for the culti- vated crops. In closing their report, the com- mittee state, that under the system of cropping, 80 widely prevalent, the most careful preparation and use of all the available bones in Michigan will not replace the phosphates withdrawn from the soil by the frequent recurrence of the wheat crop; and that, to increase the productiveness of their lands, farmers must lessen the proportion of acres annually devoted to wheat, keep more stock, and thus manure more highly from the products of the farm, and with other valuable fertilizers. One of the best means the editor of tliis work has ever found for making super-phosphate is in the bone-black, or animal charcoal, used in refining eurgars, and for filtering any substances requiring refining. Bone-black is made by burning bones in a closed vessel, by which they are converted into bone charcoal. They are then ground and used in the refineries. The waste bone-black-— about twenty-five to forty per cent, of the quan- tity used — which accumulates in twelve months, is no longer of value in the reflnihg. This is treated with sulphuric acid and" converted into super-phosphate of lime and sold for fertilizing purposes. Bone ash is obtained by burning bones with access of air or oxygen. Thus the organic matter, gelatins, etc. , is burned out, and the fri- able residue is easily acted on by sulphuric or other acids. When mills for crushing are not available, and bones and sulphuric acid are cheap, this is an easy way of obtaining, bone ash, which may be converted for use by means of sulphuric acid. BONE SPAVIN. A disease of the hock joint in horses, brought on by over exertion. While forming there is continued lameness. (See Spa- vin.) BORAGE. Borago oMeinalis. A rough weed growing two feet high. It is used as a fallow crop in Germany, and, according to Lampadius, con- tains nitre. It seems to be admirably adapted for this purpose. BORAX. Borate of soda, used as a flux ii welding steel, in washing clothes, etc. Borax ia now extensively prepared in California. BORDER. In gardening, the edges of beds. They should be well spaded and manured, so as to be made the richest parts of the garden; thus, when we are directed to plant in borders, it is usually meant that deep, good soil, and free space are required. The word is also used to desig- nate a bed specially prepared and protected, for assisting the early growth of plants that require some forcing to enable them to mature before the autumnal frosts, and also used for hardening plants before their transplanting, for ripening in the rows where they are to stand. BORECOLE. Bi-asdca okracia (called by the Scotch, Kale) is one of the many varieties of the cabbage family. It is distinguished by a large open head, and generally by curled or wrinkled leaves, and is almost hardy. It is thought -^ery valuable for cultivation in the Southern States, because it requires little or no protection during the winter months. The principal sub-varieties are- Scotch Kale, Green Curled, Csesarian Kale, and Thousand-headed Cabbage. Sow the seed- one ounce of which will furnish four thousand plants, or about that number— about the time of sowing late cabbage seed. Transplant in July into rich, mellow soil, and cultivate as caboage. Kor preservation in the open air through the cold weather, the plants should be set quite close to- gether m a trench, with the earth drawn up t* the lower leaves and covered with straw or litter; when a head is wanted, it is only necessary to re- move the covering and cut off the stalk with a knife, leaving the stump in the ground, where it will produce fine greens in the following spring, south of the latitude of 39° and even up to 40°, with protection. BORERS. The larvae of a class of beetles— the Long-horned, or Capricorn beetles (Cerambycidce), although there are many borers or wood-eating larvae which do not belong to this tribe. They will be treated under their appropriate names. The Short-horned Wood-borers (ScolyUdoe) do com- paratively little damage to the agriculturist. BOS. The generic name of ruminating quad- rupeds, having the characters of the ox and buf- falo. (See Cattle.) BOTANY 127 BOTANY eye. Some are hairy, some are smooth, and others covered with an enamel of silex, present- ing a glistening surface. The quince and lily have their margins entire and even. The wil- low is notched in the margin like a saw, but the teeth all point one way, like those of a saw for ripping boards. Thus they are serrate, or if the notches are very fine, serrated. If the teeth point neither forward or backward, but out- BOTANY. Botany has been defined as being the science which treats of the structure of plants, the functions of their parts, their places of growth, tlieir classification, and the terms which are employed in their description and denomination. Economic botany may be defined as teaching to distinguish between useful and noxious plants, and a correct knowledge of those plants necessary in daily life. Botany, in a strict sense of the term, is the science which teaches the arrangement of the members of the vegeta- ble kingdom in a certain order or system, by which we are enabled to ascertain the name of any individual plant with facility and / precision. Such arrangement is only to be con- sidered as useful in proportion as it facilitates the acquirement of a knowledge of their eco- nomical, and medicinal quali- ties, which cannot be perfectly ascertained without an ac- quaintance with vegetable physiology, the parts of plants, their functions and uses. Bot- Fio. 1. Apex of leaves. _, ,. any, in its most comprehensive «, obtuse; /, acuie; g, mucronnte; h, cuspidate; t^ acuminate, form teaches us the names Fio. 2. Bases of leaves: J, hastate; m,7i, sagittate; o, auriculate; p, ' - ' ", reniform. a d ^ f 9 Fig. 1. o Fio. 2. obcordate; 6, cordate; arrangement, parts, functions, *• qualities and uses of plants. It will not be neces- sarjr here to go into structural botany. It will be interesting, however, to become acquainted with leaf forms. Coiisequently we give a series of carefully prepared illustrations, showing the various /Shapes they assume. The cuts, Figs. 1 and 8, show the apex and bases of leaves, with their forms and names. Coming now to the forms of leaves, the accompanying cut, Fig. 3, Pio. 3. will'show, a, repand leaf of Enchanter's Night- shade; b, double serrate leaf of Elm; c, undulate leaf bf Shingle Oak (Q. imbricwna); d, crenate leaf. Catmint; e, dentate leaf of Arrow-wood (Fa- hirnum dentalum); f, serrate leaf of Chestnut; g, lobed leaf (Chrysanthemum). Leaves, it may be remarked, are described by their forms, pat- terns of the borders, or margins. These are various, and always beautiful to the educated ward, they are dentate, or like teeth; and again, if the teeth are quite small they are denticulate. But the teeth themselves may be again toothed. Then they pre doubly dentate; or, the serraturess of a leaf may be notched. They are then doubly serrate, as in the elm. Fig. 3. So, in the apex of leaves there is something to learn. The apex may be acuminate, ending in a long, tapering point ; or cuspidate, suddenly contracted to a sharp slender point; mucronate, tipped with a spiny point; acute, simply ending with an angle; obtuse, blunt. Or the leaf may end without a point, being truncate, as if cut square off; retuse, with a rounded and slightly depressed end where the poiilt should be; emarginate, having a small notch at the end ; obcordate. hav- ing a deep indentation at the end. This may seem to some readers of but lit- tle practical value, never- theless, it is one of the im- portant things upon which the study of botany rests, and valuable to every child who studies botany, even from a purely practical standpoint. Thus we have delineated something of the more simple form of leaves. In the scope of this work, while giving condensed information from an experience ol over a quarter of a cen- tury, of manual labor on the farm, supplemented by constant reading of the best authorities, careful experiment, and the close application of all to the practical working of the farm, we have followed authoiities only so far ap they do not conflict with the practical application of science. Scientific names are of value to a large class of readers, and for the reason that ths Latin has been adopted where civilization JOTANY 128 Fio. 4. extends, as a language with which schola^-Iy men are acquainted, and hence is a me- dium used which all readily understand. Thus, whatever common names may be used for one and the same object, its true name is always expressed scientifically by a name, synonyms scarcely ever being allowed, except inserted in parenthesis. In the above cut, Fig 4, are shown at a, reniform leaf of Wild Ginger; b, reniform leaf of Pennywort; c, peltate leaf of Penny- wort; d, oblong leaf of Toothed Arabis; e, arrow-shaped leaf of Scratch Knot-grass; /, obovate-spatulate, articulate at base, Fra- sei;'s Magnolia; g, spatulate leaf of Silene Vir^inica; h, three-lobed leaf of Liverwort. In the n^xt cut, Pig. 5, the form shown atffliruncinate leaf of Wild Lettuce; 6, pin- natifid leaf of Celandrine; c, pinnatisect leaf of Fennel-flower. The next series of leaves, Fig. 6,, shows a, ovate leaf of Pear- tree; 6, lanceolate leaf of Flowering Al- mond; c, narrow lanceolate leaf; d, del- toid leaf of White Birch. The next series, Fig. 7, shows rt, obovate leaf of Smoke-tree (Wiua coUnus); b, orbicular leaf of Winter- green (P^roZa); c, oval leaf of Plum-tree; d, elliptical leaf of Black Haw; e, oblong leaf BOTANY "* with palmate, three-toothed leaflets (JiotentiUa tridentata); e, binate leaf {Jefferrmnia di- phyUa); d, simple leaf jointed to the petiole, Lemon. Pig.' 9, rose leaves (compound leaves); at a, in this cut, shows the stipules adnate (a stipule is an appendage at the base of a leaf somewhat resejnbling a small leaf in texture and appearance); b, shows a leaf of violet ( V. tri- color) with gashed stipule. The next cut. Fig. 10, shows Red Clover; a compound leaf ^ at a; b, simple leaf .Weeping Willow ; c, ensif orm .(sworf shape) leaf of Iris, or Fleur- FiQ. 6. of willow. In the next illustration. Fig. 8, are still other forms, as a, leaf with five cut lobes, almost guinate {Poterdilla anaerma);b, ternate, de-lis ; d, acerose (needle- shaped) leaf of Scotch Pine. In the next illustration, Fig. 11, still other forms of lea:^ are given, hs a, ampleXicai^l leaves (Aster toas); bi p^t- foliate leaves of Bellwoft ( Uvularia perfoliata); c, con- nate leaves of Honeysuckle {Lonicera sempervirens). The next cut. Fig. 13, shows at a, an orbicular, leaf of Round- leaved Orchis; b, a sagittate leaf of Arrowhead ;■«, a cor- date leaf of Pondrweed; d, lanceolate leaves stem and flower of Lily of the Val- ley; and e, linear leaves of Blue-eyed grass (Sisffrin- chium). The next illustra- tion. Fig. 13, will show forms of leaves, including some of the oaks and other curious forms,, as a, bi-pin- natifld leaf of Pig- weed (Goose-foot family); b, sinnate-lobed leaf of White Oak; e, undulate- BOTANY 129 BOTANY CaUlpa, or may be clothed ■with long hairs, called coma. The silk of Silk-grass (Ascle- pias) is the coma of the seed, and cotton is the coma of cotton Beei. The seed of poplar (cotton-wood) or wil- low is also furnished with coma. The first stage of growth is called germination. (See article on Germination .) As to how it grows, the water which the plant imbibes by- its roots becomes sap in the stem, and circulates in every part as the blood circulates in the animal frame. The leaves, by their broad, thin forms, serve as lungs, to bring all the sap passing through them into contact Fig. 9. b tobed leaf of Jack Oak; d, lyrate leaf, Moss-cup Oak ; e, lobed leaf of Blue Mijk-weed (Mulgedium). The two figures in the next illustration, Fig. 14, will close the forms of leaves exhibited. They are, a, tri-pinnate leaf of Honey Locust; b, tri- pinnate leaf of Poison Hemlock. The very com- plete glossary of botanical terms appended to this article, will explain not only th« meaning of the terms used, but also, others in general use among botanists. They are given, as are the forms of leaves, not as constituting a text work to the'student in botany, but as helps to those who wish to acquire practical knowledge in the science, as brought into the every day life of the worker of the soil, and especially as a means of initiating the young into a love of this important and interesting study. That every iarmer should know something of the history and characteristics of plants is certainly neces- •sary. ' Indeed, there is no farm laborer, however .Ignorant, but what acquires a very considerable -Knowledge in this direction, simply by observa- : tion. To assist all who have not pursued botany as a study, this article and its object-lessons will be of value. The history of the development of the seed, and the essentials in the biography of the plants is contained as follows: The shell of a seed may be of any color, as white, black, yel- low, red, etc. ; may be polished and shining, or •dull and rough; may be of any shape, as round, ■or oval, or egg-shaped; may be winged, as in Fig. :o. BOTANY 130 BOTANT with the air and light, ^ By this means the sap is changed into a nourishing food, ^^ted to sustain the growth of the plant in every part. Thus the leaves are design- ed, not only as an ornamental robe, but as organs of breathing and di- gestion. In the second stage of growth, when the plant depends no longer upon the seed for nour- ishment, it goes on increasing in stature and multiplying its leaves and branches. It now consists of three parts, viz : root, stem and leaves. These are called the organs of vege- tation. The third stage of plant-life is the period of flowering. Before this period all its activity was devoted to its own nourishment and growth. Now it begins to live and act for the continu- ance of its own kind after it upon the earth, according to the Divine decree in Genesis, 1. 11. Some of its buds un- dergo a striking change, and Fto. 12 Fia. 11. open each a flower instead of a leafy branch. A flower is therefore a leafy branch transformed having its axis undeveloped, its leaves in crowded circles, moulded into more delicate forms and tinged with brighter colors, not only pleasing to the eye, but also as a means of attracting insects to assist fertilization to prepare the way for f iliit. (See illustration ) The fourth stage of plant-life is the period of its fruit-bearing. The flowers have gradually faded and disappeared, but the pistil, having received the quickening pollen, remains in its place, holds fast all. the nourishing matter which continues to flow into it through the flower-stem, grows, and finally ripens intoi the perfected fruit and seed. The fifth and last stage in the biography of the plant is its hibernation, the winter cessation of growth, or its death. If the event of fiower- ing and fruit-bearing occur within the first or second year of the life of the plant, it is generally followed by its speedy deaith. In all other cases it is followed by a state df needful repose, wherein it is commonly* stripped of its leaves, and gives few, if any, indlca^ tions of life, until awaked, with renewed vigor, in the Fig. 13. BOTANY 131 BOTANY following spring. According to their different terms of life, we distinguish plants as annuals, hiennials, and perennials. An annual herb com- pletes its whole history in one year. In the spring it germinates ; in summer it grows, blooms, bears friiit;' and in autumn its work and life are ended. The rnustard, maize and morning-rfory are such. A biennial herb lives two years. Diu*- Fio. 14. lug the first it germinates, grows, and bears leaves only; and in its second year it blossoms, bears fruit and dies. Such is the beet and radish. A perennial plant survives several or many years. There are herbaceous perennials and woody per- , ennials. The herbaceous perennials, or peren- nial herbs, are such as survive the winter only by their roots or their parts which grow under- ground. These in spring send up leaves, flowers, and often stems, all of which per- ish in autumn, leaving only the parts imder the ground alive as before. Such are the hop, asters, violets. Woody perennials sur- vive the winter by their stems as well as roots, and usually grow for several years be- fore flowering, and then flower annually during their existence. According to their size, such plants are trees, shrubs, under- shrubs. A tree is the largest among plants, having a permanent, woody stem, usually unbranched below, and dividing into branches above. The oaks, elms and pines are familiar examples. A shrub is smaller than a tree, usually growing in clusters from one under- ground mass of roots. The lilacs, roses, alders, are shrubs. Small shrubs, about of our own stature, as the currants, brambles, we call bushes. Very low shrubs, as the blueberries, box, etc., are undershrubs. Plants are divided mto phsenogamous or flowering plants, or cryp- togamous or flowerless plants; the first comprise the more noble; the second having spores instead of flowers. To these belong the Scouring Rush, Ferns, Club-moss, Mushrooms, etc. Flower- ing plants are vegetables bearing proper flowers, having stamens and pis- tils, and producing seeds which contam an em- bryo. They are dicoty- ledonous or exogenbus, and monocotydedonous or endogenous plants. Di- eotyledoTious or exogen- $1 ous plants have the stems formed of bark, wood and pith ; the wood forming a layer between the other two, increas- ing, when the stem con- tinues from year to year, by the annual addition of a new layer to the out- side, next the bark. Leaves netted- veined; embryo with a pair of opposite cotyledons, or rarely several in a Whorl ; flowers having their parts usually in fives or fours. Monoaotyledonous, or endogenous plants, have stems with no manifest distinction into bark, wood and pith; but the woody fibre and vessels collected into bundles or threads, which are irregularly imbedded in the cellular tissue; perennial trunks destitute of annual layers; Leaves mostly parallel-veined (nerved) and sheath- ing at the base, seldom separating by an artioula- KLOWERB OP THE MAGNOLIA SPBOIOSA. (ONE-FOUBTH NATDRAL SIZX.) tion, almost always alternate, or scattered and. not toothed. Parts of the flower commonly in threes. Embryo with a single cotyledon (and the leaves of the plumule alternate). Indian corn, the other grasses, etc., are examples of the latter; the oak, elm, apple-tree and many others, are of the former. Species of plants are comprised of all individuals of the same kind, and are BOTANY 132 BOTANY . descended from a common stock. A genus is an assemblage of species whicli are much alike, especially in their flowers and fruit. Thus, flax is a genus made of similar species. Clover is a genus composed of 150 species. Pine is a genus, embracing as species "White Pine, Yellow Pine, Pitch Pine, Long-leaved Pine, and many others. Individuals of the same species may differ some- what among themselves, and these differences constitute varieties. Thus apple trees differ in their fruit, and there are hundreds of 'varieties although only one species. Roses differ in their form, color, and fragrance of their flowers, .forming many varieties under each species. Nat- ural orders are made up of genera. Just as simi- lar species form a genus, so similar genera form natural orders. Thus individuals, form species, species form genera, and genera form orders. These, as previously stated, are again divided into the two sub-kingdoms— flowering plants and flowerless plants. The first called Plimwgamia and the latter Cryptogamia. Exogens have the wood in concentric rings or layers, formed year by year, the outer the newest. By counting these, one may form a definite idea of the age of the tree. The leaves of this class are net-veined, the flowers seldom or never completely three- parted, and the seed two-lobed. The endogens have their wood, if any, confused, the inner portion being the newest. Their leaves are par- allel-veined, flowers three-parted, and seeds one- lobed. Exogens are of two forms, vessel seeded, called a/ngiogperms, and naked seeded called gym- no^perrm. Exogens generally have pistils to the flowers, with young seeds inclosed in their ovaries. The pines, yews, etc., have no pistils, or at least no stigmas to their inflorescence, and produce naked seeds, and hence are called gym- nosperm, from the compound Greek word signi- fying naked-seeded. The grasses, endogens, have their flowers enveloped in green alternate scales, glumes, instead of the circle of pistils common to other flowers. Thus the division is made into glume plants and glumeless plants, called ghjumferm and petaliferm. Thus, all flower- ing plants are divided into four classes, as fol- lows: Angiosperms; exogens bearing stigmas and seed-vessels. Oymnoitperms; exogens with no stigmas, and with naked seeds, as " the pines, firs, larches, cedars, cypresses, yews, etc. Peta- lifera; endogens with no glumes and ordinary flowers. Qhimifera; endogens with glumes instead of petals, as the Grasses, Sedges, Grains. Angiosper-ms may be readily distinguished from gymnosperms, from the fact that nearly all the latter are cone-bearing, as the Pine, Cedar, Larch, etc. Below we give a tabular view of the natural system of classiflcation of plants: 2. Leaves parallel-veined. Flowers three- parted Endogens. 3. Stigmas present. Seeds in seed-vessels. Angluspenns. 3. Stigmas none. Seeds naked. Pines, spruces, etc .Gymnosperms. 4. Flowers without glumes, having petals, etc Petaliferae. 4. Flowei's with green, alternate glumes, no petals Glumiferse. 5. Petals - distinct and separate Polypctalse. 5. Petals united more or less Gamopetala:. 5. Petals none '. Apetalie. 6. The cone-bearing plants; as cedars, larches Conoids. 1. Inflorescence a spadix Spadiciflorffi. 7. Inflorescence not a spadix Florideae. 8. Grass-like plants Graminoids. 9. Ferns, mosses, lichens, sea-weeds, mushrooms. Abbreviations and scientific signs, often used in descriptive botany (omitting contractions for signs of the compass, the months and the States, as being generally understood) are as follows: invol., involucre. irreg., irregular. leg.', legume. I/., leaf;, Ivs., leaves. t/ts., leaflets. ova.f ovary. pet,, petals. r.. rare, uncommon. recp., receptacle. reg.., regular. rhiz., rhizome. rt.. root. - / ■" 8d8.. seeds. eeg., segments. Sep., sepals. St.. stem. eta.., stamens. stig., stigmas. sty.y styles. ach., achenia. txst., estivation. alter., alternate. anth., anther. addll,, axillary. c. common. cal., calyx. caps., capsule. cor . corolla. dedd., deciduous. diam., diameter. emarg., emarginate. / or ft., test, fll., filament. fi.. flower; fls,, flowers. fr., fruit. ?id., head; hds., heads. hyp., hypogynous. inwr.. imbricate. inf., inferior. /. (with or without the period) a foot. ' (a single accent) denotes an Inch (a twelfth of one foot). " (a double accent) a second, a line (a twelfth of an inch). An annual plant. A biennial plant. y A perennial plant. ''! A plant with a woody stem. 5 A staminate flower or plant. 9 A pistillate flower or plant. ^ A perfect flower, or a plant bearing perfect flowers. S Monoecious, or a plant bearing staminate and pistillate flowers. i DiCECious ; pistillate and staminate flowers on sepa- rate plants. ^ S Polygamous; the same species, with pistillate, perfect, and staminate flowers. (a cipher) signifies wanting or none, as " Petals 0." (placed after) a naturalized plant. (placed after) cultivated for ornament. (placed alter) cultivated for use. 00 Indefinite or numerous. The very complete glossary, compiled by the late and lamented Dr. Darlington, will be found important and very interesting in connec- Kingdom. Sub-kingdoms. Provinces. Classes. Cahorts. J Phffinogaraia f Bzogens I Dialypet«lous. \ Garaopetalous. 1 Apetalous. ( Gymnosperms =Conoids. Cryptogamia J SpadiclflOKB. 1 PloridesB. 1. Flowering plants. (See No. S) Pheenogamia. 1. Flowerless plants. "(See No. 9) Cryptogamia. 2. Leaves net-veined. Flowers never quite three-parted tion with botany in its relation to agricul- ture. The reader will bear in mind, that where compound descriptive terms are employed BOTANY. 133 BOTANY the last meaning of the compound word is in- tended to give the predominant character, and* that the word or syllable prefixed merely indi- cates a modification of that character; as for example; Ovate-lanceolate signifies lanceolate, but inclining somewhat to ovate; while lance- ovate means ovate with something of the lance- olate form, etc. Bo of colors : Yellowish-green, bluish-green, signify that green is the prevail- ing hue, but that it is tinged with a shade of yellow, blue, etc. Terms indicative of the size of any organ, or portion of plant as large, small, or middle-sized, are of course, relative, and have reference to the usual or average size of such parts, or organs, in other species of the same genus or family. A; at the commencenient of a word, signifies the absence of some part; as apctalous, destitute of petals. When the word commences with a vowel, an is prefixed. Abnormal; different from tlie regular or usual structure. AbortioJif an imperfect development of any organ. Abortive; not arriving at perfection ; producing no fruit. Abrupt. Not^adnal; sudden. J Abruptly acuminate ; suddenly narrowed to an acnmina- tiun. Abruptly/ pinnate. (See Even-pinnate.) Acaulescent; apparently stemless. Accessory; additional, or supernumerary. Accumbent cotyledons; having the radicle applied to the cleft, or recurved along the edges of the cotyledons (re- presented by this sign, o— ), as in some Cruciferous plants. Acerose; linear and needle-like, as Juniper leaves, etc. Acheniam. (See Akene.) Achlamydeous; applied to flowers that have no floral envelopes. AtAcular; needle-shaped. Aootyleaonous; destitute of cotyledons, or seed-leaves. Acrogenous plants. Plants which grow or develop from the apex or summit, only, of the stem. Acrogens ; Apex-growers, or acrogenouB plants. Aculeate. Prickly; armed with prickles. Aeuleolate; armed with little prickles. Acmninate; ending in a produced tapering point. Aemnination; An extended tapering point. Acute; sharp; ending in an angle, or point not rounded. Adherent; attached to, or united with another different organ, as the calyx-tube to the ovary, etc. Adnata; adhering laterally ; fixed or growing to. Adventitious; happening irregularly; not produced nat- urally or usually. JEquilaieral. Equal sided ; not oblique. JEstivation. The mode in which sepals and petals are arranged in the flower-bud before they expand. Aftermath. The second growth of the grasses in the same season, after being cut off. Aggregated; crowded, or standing together on the same receptacle. Akene, or acheniwm. A one-seeded fruit with a dry in- dehiscent pericarp; often bony or nut-like. Ala. Wings, or membranous expansions. Alate. Winged; having a membranous border. Albmnen. A deposit of nutritive matter, distinct from the embryo, fonnd in many kernels, and sometimes (as in the grasses) constituting their chief bulk. Albunanims seeds; furnished with, or containing albumen. Alternate. Not opposite; placed alternately on the axis, or receptacle. Alveolate; having pits or cells like a boney-comb. Ament. A slender spike of naked and usually separated flowers, with imbricated scales or bracts. Amorphous; without definite form. Ati^plisxicaul; embracing or clasping the stem. Amphitropous ovule ; when it is half inverted and stands across the apex of the stalk or funiculus. Amylaceous; starch-like. Analogue. A body or organ resembling, substituted for, or equivalent to, another body or organ. ;^ ^. . . Anastomosing; applied to branching vessels which m- ' osculate, or unite again, like net-work. xv * ■ Anatropous ovM\e or seeA. Turned; inverted on the funi- culus, so that the orifice or apex points towards the placenta. . . Aneipital. Two-edged; somewhat flatted with opposite Andrsecium; a term employed to designate the.staminate porSonof aflower;the stamens or fertihzmg organs ^idroroS? having staminate and pistillate flowers distinct, but on the same spike, or plant. Angiospermous; having the seeds contained in a distinct pericarp, or seed-vessel. Angalate; having angles, or comers, mostly of a dclcr- minate number. Annotinous; applied to leaves, etc., which are annual, ot renewed eveiy yeac. Annual; living or enduring but one yeai-. Annular; in the form of a rin" Annulate; having a ring or belt. Anomalous. Not according to rule orsystem; forminp."ii. exception to usual appearances, or structure. Anterior; in front, as that part of a flower next to the bract, or farthest from the axis of inflorescence. Anther. The knob, or capsule, containing the poUen, usually supported on a filament. AntherCferovs; bearing anthers. Anlrorse, or aiitrorsely; pointing forwards or upwards. Apetalous. Destitute of petals ; not having a corolla. Apex; the summit, upper or outer end. Aphyllous; destitute of leaves. Apiculate; tipt with a minute abrupt point. Appendiculate; having some appendage annexed. oppressed; pressed to, or lying close against. Approximate; growing or situated near each other. Aquatic; growing naturally in water, or in wet places. Araclmoid; resembling a spider's web. Arborescent; approachm^ the size or height of a tree. Arcuate; curved or bent like a bow. Areola. A small cavity, as in the base of some akenee. Arid; dry as if destitute of sap. Arillate; having an arillus. Arillus; An expansion of the funiculus or seed-stalk, form- ing a loose (and often fleshy) coating of the seed. Aristate; Awned; having awns, or bristle-like processes. Armed; having thorns or prickles. Aromatic; having a spicy flavor or fra^ance. Articulated. Jointed; connected by joints, or places of separation. Articulations. Joints; the places at which articulaied members are separable. Ascending; rising from the ground obliquely. Assurgent; rising in a curve from a declined base. Attenuated; tapering gradually until it becomes slender. Aurieulate; having rounded appendages at base, like ears. Awn. A Blender bristle-like process, common on the 1 chaff of grasses; sometimes on anthers, etc. Awned; furnished with awns, or bristle-like appendages. Awnlessj destitute of awns. Axil. The angle between a leaf and stem, or branch on the upper side. " . Axillary; growing in, or proceeding from, the axil. Axis; A central stem, or peduncle ; or, a real or imaginary central line extending from the base to the summit.' Baccate. Berried; becoming fleshy or succulent, like a Bald akenes. Naked at summit; destitute of pappus or crown. .,. - Banner. The broad upper petal of apapilionaceous Bower; called, also, the vexillum. Barb. A straight process, armed vnth one or more leetn pointing backwards. i Basai; originating at, or afBxed to, the base of another BeaK. A terminal process, like a bird's bill. Beaked; having, or terminating in a beak. Bearded; crested or furnished with parallel hairs; the term is applied, also, to awned wheat, etc. Berry. A pulpy valvelesa fruit, in which the seeds are imbedded^ Bi ; in composition, meaning two or twice ; as— Bibraateate; having two bracts. Bibraeteolate; having two small bracts, bractlets, or bracteoles. Bicarinate; having two keels. Bieuspidate; ending in two sharp points or cusps. 5WeratoHgue; a position between horizontal and erect; also descriptive of the base of a leaf, etc., when it is unequal or produced on one side. Oblong; longer than wide, with the sides parallel, or nearly so.' Obovate; Inversely ovate, or with the broadest end above. Obovoid; inversely ovoid. Obsolete ; indistinct, as if worn out. Obtuse; blunt, or rounded. Obxersely; turned contrary to the usual position. Ochrea. A membranous stipular sheath, emL>raclng the stem like a boot-leg; as in polygonum, etc. Ochroleucous ; yellowieh-white or cream colored. Octandrous; having eight stamens. Odd-pinnate leaf. Having the leaflets in opposite pairs, ; with a terminal odd one; often termed imparl -pinnate. Qfflcmal; u^d in, or belonging to, a shop, or medical oiflce. 0lerace ith unequal angles. Ribbed; having ribs, or longitudinal parallel ridges. Ribs. Parallelridges, or nerves, extending from the base to. or towards, the apex. Rigid; stiff, inflexible, or not pliable. Ringent; gaping, with an open throat. Root-stock. (See Ehi^oma.) Rostra'e; beaked; having a process reselnbline the beak of a bird. Eosulate; in a rosette; arranged in circular series, like th.'. petals of a dc-uble rose. i Rotate cor'illa. Wheel-shaped; mouopetalous (or gam- opetalous) and spreading almost flat, with a very short tune. Rough; covered with dots, points, or short hairs, which are harsh to the touch. Round; circular, or globular; not angular. (See Globose. Orbicular, and Terete.) Ritdiment. An imperfectly developed organ. Ruf'.sce;t; becoming reddish-brown, or rustcolored. Rufous; reddish-brown, or rust colored. Rugose; wrinkled. Rug'dose; finely wrinkled. Ruminaled; a term applied to a variegated albumen; i.e., when Its substance is wrinkled or plicate, and the in- vesting membrane prolonged within the folds. Bundiate; resembling the teeth of amill-saw; somewhat pinnatifld, with the segments acute and pointing back- Runner. A slender shoot, producing roots and leaves at the end, only and at that point giving rise to another plant; exemplified m the strawberry plants. Sac. A membranous bag, or boundary of a cavity, ^acrai^; having, or being In the iorm oX^ a sac, or pouch, Sagittate; arrow-shaped; notched at base, with the lobes. (and frequently the sinusj acute. Salver-form^ or s iver-shaped; tubular; with the limli abruptly and flatly or horizontally ejroanded. Samara. A kind of akeue, or dry ind^hiecent pericarp, having a winged apex, or margin, as the maple, ask, elm. etc. Samaroid; winged or margined like a samara. Sarcocarp. The fleshy portion of a pericarp (ex. gr. of a drupe) between theepicarp and the endocarp. Sarmep,tose; having, or sending forth, or being in the fona of runners. Scabrous' rongh, with little points, or hairs. ,<, ,' Scales. Small thin plates, or leaf-like processes!; also the leafletH of the involucrOj in the ComposUm. 8ca>'dent: climbing, usually by means of tendrils. Scape. A peduncle proceeding directly from the root, an4 mostly naked. Scariom,' dry and skinny, generally transparent. Scattered; disposed or distributed thinly, without anj regular order. Scorpioid iuflorescence; rolled back from the apex (circi- nate) before development. Scrobiculate; having me surface excavated into little pits,. or hollows. . Scittellatf; shaped like, or reaembling, a target or shield. Seam.^ (See Suture.) Secu id; one ranked ; all seated on, or turned to, the same side. Seed; the matured ovule, with the embryo, or young plant, formed within it. Segment. The division, or separated portion, of a cleft calyx, leaf, etc. Semi: half; as ^emi-bivalved, half-two-valved, semi- terete, half round, etc. Sempervirent; always green; living through the winter, and retaining its verdure. Sepal. The leaflet, or distirct portion of a calyx, Sepaloid; resembling sepals: green and not petal like. Septicidal dehiscence. When .^ compound pericarp opens by splitting the dissepiments; i. e. the carpels separate- from each other, and open to the seeds by the ventral suture. Septiferous; bearing a septum. Septifragal dehiscence. When the dissepiments remaiiL attached to the axis, while the valves break away from them. Septum. The partition which divides the cells of fruit. Sericeous; silky; covered with soft, smooth, glosby ap- pressed hairs. Series. A division or comprehensive group of objects in natnral history; also, a contmued succession of things of the same order. Serrate; sawed; having sharp teeth on the margin, point- ■ ing towards the apex. I Serratv/res. The teeth, or sharp segments of * serrate- margin. Serrulate; finely serrate; having small teeth or serratures. Sessile; sitting closely; without any foot stalk o- pedicel. Seta (plural, setcE). A bristle ; a sti'fash elastic hair. Any slender or bristle-like body. Setaceous; bristle-like; resembling a bristle in size and. figure. Setose; bristly; having the surface covered with bristles. Sheath. A membranous expansion which is tubular, or convolute, and Inclosing or embracing astern. Sheahed; inclosed or embraced by a sheath. Sheathing; embracing the stem with a sheath. Shining; glossy, smooth and bright. Shrub. A small woodjr plant, branching near the ground, often without any principal stem. Shrubby; hard and woody; of the texture and size of ai shrub. Silicle. A little or short silique, nearly as vride as long. Silique. A lone; slender pod, or membranous seed-vessel of two valves, having the seeds fixed alternately along- both sutures. Siliquose; having eiliques, or resembling a silique. Simple; undivided; not branched; not compound. Simple umbel. When each ray terminates in a single; flower, instead of a secondary or partial umbel. Sinuate; having sinuses, scallops,' or gashes which art open and rounded at bottom. Sinuate-dentate, Sinuate-serrate; having teeth, or ser- ratures, with the clefts or openings rounded at bottom. Sinus. An open notch; a rounded Incisinn, or scallop. Solitary; standing alone; one only in a place. Spadix. A sort of dense flowered, fleshy or club-like- spike, usually enveloped by, or proceeding from, a. sheathing involucre called a spathe. Span; a measure of nine inches. Spathaceoi/s; havine; a spathe, or resembling a spathe. Spathe. A sheathing kind of bract, common calyx, or involucre, open on one side, often containing the spadix.. BOTANY 141 BOTANY Spathulate, or spatulate; like a spatnla: obovate-oblong or larger and rounder at the end, and tapering to tS baee. Species. The lowest permanent divieion of natural ob- jects. In a Bystematio arrangement; a group comprising all similar iudividaale. Speciflo; helon^ng to, or distinguishing the species. Sphacelate; dark colored, as if gangrenous, or dead. Sphugnout; full of bog-moss, or spnagnum. Spicate; in the form, or after the manner of a spike. Spike. Inflorescence in which the flowers are sessile on the sides of a long common peduncle, or racMs. Spi/eelet. A little spike, or subdivision of a compound spike. Spfnclle-efiapecl; (See Fusiform). ,65rfn«. A thorn ; a sharp process originating in the wood, i. e. pointed abortive branch. SpiMeUosej armed with minute spines. Spineicem; becoming thorny, or inclining to be thorny. Spinose; horny; armed with thorns. Spkiulose; covered with small spines. Spores, or sporules. The seminal equivalents, or anal- ogues of seeds, in cryptogamous plants. Spur. A tapering hollow production of the base of a pe- tal, or Bepalj usually called a nectary. Spnrred; banng a ipur, or spur-like elongations. Bquamose; scaly; covered more or less with scales. Squarrose; i&%g&i; having spreading tips, or divaricate points, all round, as the scales of some involucres. Stamen. The organ of a flower which prepares the pollen, nsually consisting of a filament and anther, and situated between the coroBa and pistils. Staminate flower. Having stamens, but not pistils. Stamin^feroue: bearing or supporting the stamens. Staminodia. Imperfect organs occupying the position of, and resembling stamens, being the transition stage be- tween petals and stamens. Stellate; like a star ; arranged like the rays of a star. Stellular; radiating after the manner of little stars. Stelhilar pubescence. Compound or fasciculate hairs, > with the branches spreading like rays. Stem. The main axis or body of a plant, the common supporter of branches, leaves, flowers and fruit. Stemtesi; having no visible or aerial stem: applied to plants where the stem is suppressed, or so short as to be apparently wanting. Sterile; barren, or unproductive; applied to flowers which produce no fruit. - Stigma. The summit of the style, or that portion of the pistil through which the pollen acts. Sttgmatic; belonging, or relating to the stigma. i.Stigmati/erous, or itigmatose;DeB,rmg, or belonging to, the stigma. ' ' Stipe. A little pedicel, or footstalk, of seeds, etc. Stipellate; furnished vnth stipelles; i. e. the stipules of leaflets, in compound leaves. Stipelles. The stipnlar appendages, or little stipules, of leaflets, in compound leaves. 8ti]Mate; having a stipe ; supported on a little pedicel. Stipitiform; resembling a stipe. rStiputar ; belonging, or relating, to stipules. Stipulate; famiBhed with stipules. Stipules. Iieaflets, or leaf-like appendages, at the base of a petiole, or leaf. Btotes (i. «., stolons— corruptly stools). The shoots, suckers, or ofl'-sets, ftom the base of the stem, or roots ' of plants ; nsually applied to young winter grain, as J wheat, etc. (See Tiller.) Btoloniferoua; having suclrers, off-sets, or running shobts (stolones), from the base of the stem, or crown of the root. Strim. Mne parallel ridges or lines. Striate; marked with longitudinal lines, or stripes. Striate-sulcate ; scored with minute longitudinal grooves and ridges. Strict; straight and rigidly upright. Strigose; armed with spreading bristly hairs, which taper from base to apex. Strobile. The cone, or collective fruit, of Pines, Mrs, etc. Stropliiole. A little crown, or fungous appendage to the ; hilnm of a seed. . Style. The columnar (nsually slender) portion of the pistil; between the ovary and the stigma, sometimes wanting. ■ Styliferous ; bearing or producing a style, or styles. , Siylopodiwn. The foot or thickened base of the style (or ' united styles), at the junction with the epigynous disk, ' as in Vnwelliferm. Suft," a preposition signifying under, or a division, as a snb-cla»s, sub-order, etc. ; also employed as a diminu- tive, or qualifying term, equivalent to almost, somewhat, or about, as sub-sessile, nearly sessile, etc. Suierose; of a texture resembling cork. Subulate; shaped like an awl-blade; linear or cylmdnc below; angular and tapering to a sharp point at summit. Suceulent; juicy; full of juice. Sucker. A shoot, or oflE-set, from the root, or base of the stem. Suffruiescent; almost shrubby. Suffrutic -se; somewhat shrubby ; shrubby at base. Suii ate; furrowed, or grooved. Super, or supra; a preposition signifying above or upon, beyond or more than, as super-axillary, situated above the axil. Super, or supra-decompound; more than decompound many times subdivided, or compound. Superior- above; a term applied to the ovary when it is above the calyx, or free in the flower ; also to the calyx, when the tube is adherent to the ovary, and the segments borne on its summit. Suppression; the non-production, or failure in the devel- opment of an organ. Surculose; bearing suckers, or ofl-sets. Suspended ovules, or seeds. When they are attached to the summit of the ovary, or pericarp, and hang perpen- dicularly in the cavity. Suture. The the line or seam, formed by the junction of two margins. Symmetrical flower. When there is an equal number of parts in each series, or verticil. Syngenesious, having the anthers united, as in the Oom- Synonym. Another name for the same thing. 2'eiiacious;Bticky or adhesive; also holding on by means of very small hooked points. Tendril. A filiform twining branch, or appendage, by which some plants climb^ or sustain themselves; in the grape vine, it is an abortive raceme. Terete; round, like a column, and either cylindric or taper- ing; applied to stems, or stem-like bodies. (See Orbicu- lar.) Terminal; situated at, or proceeding from, the end or summit. Ternary; arranged in threes ; consisting of three parts, or elements. Ternate; three-fold; three together, as the leaflets of clo- ver, etc. Tessellated; resembling mosaic work; in little squares, or cbeiJkers, like a chess-board. Testa. The outer integument, or proper coat, of a seed. Teiradynamous; having four long and two short stamens, in a crnciate flower. Tetragonoue ; four cornered, or ha- ing four angles. Tetramerous; consisting of four ports, or constituent portions. Tetrandrous ; having four stamens of equal length. Thorn. A sh rp process from the woody part of a plant, being a stunted or abortive branch. Throat. The oriflce or passage into the tube of a corolla. Thyrsoid; resembling, or being in the form of a thyrsus. Thyrsus. A kind of contracted, or dense, ovoid panicle, as in the lilac, horse-chestnut, etc. TUler. A sucker, or young shoot of wheat, rye, etc. Tiller, ovtillow; ioputforthsuckers,ornew shoots. from the root, or base of the stem, as wheat, etc. CS>:e Stole, or Stool!) Tissue. Web, or fabric; the intimate organic structure, or composition of bodies ; especially those which are, or have been, alive. Tomentose; covered with a curled, or matted, cottony pubescence. Tom&ntum. A matted downy or cottony pubescence. Toothed; (See Dentate). Torose, or torulose ; swelled out in obtuse ridges. Tortuous ; bent in different directions. Torus. The bed, or receptacle at Ihe apex of a flower- stalk, on which are inserted all the parts of the flower. Translucent; clear, or transmitting light faintly. _ Transverse, transversely; across ; crosswise ; at right an- gles with lengthwise. Triadelphous ;lia.^ixig the filaments united in three par- cels. Triandrous ; having three stamens. Triangular ; having three angles, comers, or points. Tribes, Groups of Kindred plants, intermediate between orders and genera. Tribradeate ; having three brftcts. Trichotomous ; three-forked; dividing by three equal Tricoccous ; composed of three separable indehiscient car- pels (or cocci). . Tricuspidate ; having, or terminating m, three sharp points. , a. i- Trifarious; facing, or pointing, in three directions. Trifld; three cleft; partially cut or divided into three segments. , , . . Trifoliate; having three leaves; or the leaves arranged in Trifoli'ilate ; three leaflets together. Trigonous ; three-cornered. Trigynous ; having three pistils. Trilobate; three-lobed. BOTANY 142 B0T8 Trimerous; consistiiig of three parte. Tripartite; three-parted. Tripetalous; having three petals. Tripinnaie: thrice-piniiate ; the common petiole three times divided, or with bi-pinnate divisions on each side. Trtpinnatifld; pinnaiely dissected, with the primary divisions twice pinnatifid. Triplifiersed; having three principal nerves from the . • base. Tricflietrous; having three angles and three flat sides, as' the cillmn of many eyperacea. Trisepalous; having three sepals. TWernale leaf. ViTnen the petiole la twice divided ter- nately, »nd each final branch hears three leaves. > Truncate; having the end blunt, as if transversely cut off. Tube. A pipe or nollow cylinder. Tuber. A. solid fleshy knob attached to roots. Tubercle. A small excrescence, knob, or point on a sur- face, making it rough or uneven. Tuberculaie; covered with tubercles. Tuber/feroi/e; bearing or producinir tubers. Tuberous, consisting of, or fleshy and solid like tubers. Tubular; having a tube, or constructed like a tub6. Tv/t. A bunch or fascicle growing from the same root, or originating nearly at the same point. Tumid; swelled, or enlarged like a swelling. Tunicate. Coated; having concentric coats, orthinlayers. Turbinate. ^ Top shaped; resembling an inverted cone. Turf. The gnen sward, or grassy soil. Turgid; swelled, hut not inflated. Tun-m. A thick, tender, young shoot of a plant, as of asparagus, hop, etc. Tuesocic. A dense tuft or bunch formed at the root, as in some species of carex, grasses, etc. Tmn; two of the same kind connected, or growing to- gether. Inkling; vrinding round and ascending spirally. Two-ranked, ov rowed. (See Distichous.) Type. Amodelorform; apattemindividualwhichunites in itself most completely the characters of a group. Untbel. A kind of inflorescence, in which the flower , stalks proceed from a common centre, like rays, or the ■ braces qf an umbrella. Umbels are simple or com- pound ;4Whlch see. Umbellate; in the form or manner of an umbel. Umb' llet A partial umbel ; one of the subdivisions of a compound umbel; which see. Vmbelliferous; bearing the flowers in umbels. Umbilicate. Navel like; having a central pit, or depres- sion. Ufnbona/e; protuberant, having a boss or elevated point in the centre. Unarmed; without thorns or prickles. Uidnate. Hook-shaped ; hooked at the end. Undulate. Wavy; curved, or rising and depressed, like waves. Unequal; the parts not corresponding in length, size, form or duration. Unguirulate; having a slender or narrow base, like an unguis, or claw. Ui'ijurm, or nniformly. In one form, or manner; equally and alike. UniUkteral. On one side; growing, or inserted, all on one side of a'stem, or common peduncle. UninexuiAA. Of one sex ; i. £. staminate or pistillate, only. Vreeolate. Pitcher-shaped, or urn-shaped ; swelling below, and contracted to a neck above. Utricle. A little sac, or thin membranaceous pericarp, which encloses, but does not adhere to, the seed. (See Oaryopsiii.) Yalvate aestivation. When the sepals or petals are folded together, and fit by their edges, without overlapping. Valve). The several parts of a regularly dehiscent peri- carp, especially of a capsule; also, the scales which close the rube in some corollas; and the chaffy pieces which cover the flowers of the grasses. For (varietas) ; a variety or modification of a speci'es. Variety. A new or unusual form, or modification of a plant, produced by accidental causes, such as crossing, soil, climate, culture, etc., but not permanently, or at least not specifically, distinct. -FosCMMT-plants. The higher orders of plants (including all above the mosses), composed more or less of woody fibres, and elongated cells or vessels, in the form of Blender tubes. Vaulted; arched over, like the roof of the month. Veins. The elongated vessels of leaves ; often synonymons with nerves. Veined; having the vessels variously branching over the sui-face. Venation of a leaf. The distribution of the veins, or frame-work, in the lamina or blade. Ventral; contained in, or belonging to, the beliy. Ventral suiure. The line or seam of a carpel, or folded leaf, formed by the nnlon of its margins ; the opposite of Ventricose. Bellied; swelling out in the middle, or below jt. Yernation. The mode in which young leaves are folded and packed in a bud. Verrucose. Warty;covered with wart-like excrescences. Versatile anther. TiVhen It is fixed by the middle on the p^iut of the filament, and moves round lightly and readily, as in the grasses, etc. Vertical, or vertically; in a perpendicnlar direction; from the zenith, or highest point, directly downwards. Vertical leaves. When they stand edge up, or presi>nt their margins and not theirfacee— to the earth andsky; indicative rather of phyllodia, than of true leaves. Yertldl. A whorl; flowers, leaves, or other organs, arranged in a horizontal ring, round a stem, or at its summit. Yerticilalster. A spnrious verticil ; a condensed cyme, or cluster resembling a verticil, as in many Labiatte. , VerticUlate; growing or arranged in a verticil, or, whorl, or horizontal- ring. Vesitles. Little bladder-like vessels. Vesicular, or vesiculosa; made of, or resembling little bladders. Vesportitie flowers. Those which expand in the evening. Venillum. The banner, or broad upper petal of a papi- lionaceous corolla. Vtllose, or villous. Velvety; clothed with -numerous, and rather long, soft hairs. Villus (plural, »jBi). The velvet-like pubescence' on u villous plant. Virescera; inclining to, or becoming green. Virgate. Wand-like ; long, slender, and straight. Y nd^scent; greenish. Viscid, Clammy; covered with a sticky or adhesive moisture. Viscid pubescent; with a clammy pubescence. Yittce. Fillets; linear receptacles of oily matter on the carpels of umbelliferous plants. Yivipq^rous; producing a collateral offspring'by.^eans of bulbs; or having the seeds to germinate befbte-they are detached from the parent plant. "'; VolubUe; ascending spirally, or climbing by embracing another object. (See Twining.) '« «, Wavy. (See Undulate.) ' '•'' Wliorl. (See Verticil.) Winged; having a thin, extended margin. Wings. The side petals of a papilionaceous corolla; also, . the membranous expansion at the summit or margin of certain pericarps, and on the sides of some petioles.' , "A Wooly; clothed with a long curled or matted pubeBcai0^# resembling wool. ' i^^; BOTS. These are the larvae of the two-winged dipterous insects, of the family CEstirid(B, named from the principal genus in the family, Harris says of these: Bot-flies do not seem to have . any mouth or proboscis; for although these parts do. really exist in them, the opening of the mouth is extremely small, and the proboscis is very short, and is entirely concealed in it, so that these insects, while in the winged state, do not appear to be able to take any nourishment. They somewhat resemble the Syrphians in form and color, and in the large size of their heads; but the eyes are proportionally small, jmd there is a large space between them. The face is swollen or pufEed out before. The antennae are very short, and almost buried in two little holes, close to- gether, on the forehead. The winglets are large and entirely cover the poisers. The hind body of the females ends with a conical tube, bent under the body, and used for depositing the eggs, which the insect lays whilst flying (poised). The larVse or young of bot-flies live in various parts of the bodies of animals. They are thick, fleshy, whitish maggots, without feet, tapering towards the head, which is generally armed with two hooks; and the rings of the body are surrounded with rows of smaller hooks or prickles. When they are fully ^rown, they drop to the ground and burrow in it a short distance. After this, the skin of the maggot becomes a hard and brownish shell, within which the insect turns to a pupa, and finally to a fly, and comes out by pushing ofiE a little piece like a lid from the small end of the shell. Many farmers suppose that the B0T8 143 BRAHMAPOOTRA. bot-flies infesting various animals are all one species. Such, however, is not the fact. More toian twenty different kinds of bot-flies are al- ready known, and several of them are found in this country. Some of them have been brought here with our domesticated animals from abroad, and have here multiplied and increased. Three of them attack the horse. The large bot-fly of the horse (QasUrophUus equi) has spotted wings. She lays her eggs about his knees; the small. Red- tailed species (S. TiomorrJwidalis) on his lips; and the Brown Farrier Bot-fly ((?. mterinus) under his throat, according to Dr. Roland Green. By rubbing and biting the parts where the eggs are laid, the horse gets the maggots into his mouth, and swallows them with his food. The insects then fasten themselves, in clusters, to the inside of his stomach, and live there till they are fully grown. The following are stated to be the symp- toms shown by the horse when he is much in- fested by these insects. He loses flesh, coughs, eats Sparingly, and bites his sides; at length he has a discharge from his nose, and these symp- toms are followed by a stiffness of his legs and neck, staggpring, difficulty in breathing, convul- sions, and death. No sure and safe remedy has yet been found sufficient to remove bots from the stomach of the horse. Bracy Clark, who has published some very interesting remarks on the bots of horses and of other animals, maintains that bots are rather beneficial than injurious to the animals they infest. The maggots of the (Sktrug boms, or Ox Bot-fly, live in large, open hoils, sometimes called wornils or wormals, that is, worm-holes, on the backs of cattle. The fly is rather smaller than the Horse Bot-fly, although it comes from a much larger maggott. The Sheep Bot-fly (OepTialemyia ovis) lays its eggs in aie nostrils of sheep, and the maggots ci-awl from thence into the lioUows in the bones of the forehead. Deer are also afllicted by bots pecu- liar to them. Our native hare, or rabbit, as it is oommonly called, sometimes has very large bots, which live under the skin of his back. The fly (CEstrus bueeatus) is as big as our largest bumble- bee, but is not hairy. It is of a reddish-black eolor; the face and the sides of the hind body are covered with a bluish-white bloom; there are many small black dots on the latter, and six or right on the face. This fly measures seven- eighths of an inch or more in length, and its wings expand about three-quarters of an inch. It is rarely seen. The larvae, when hatched in the stomach of animals, fasten themselves by the hooks or tentacles, and when mature are expelled with the dung of the animal. The bots infest- ing horses are the larvae of four species of gad- fly. The various species lay their eggs in the hairs of horses on the breast, shoulders and fore limbs. The animal in licking itself swallows the eggs, or else when deposited between the gums, they fall in the food and are swallowed, or else are taken when the animals lick eacli other. They are hatched, grow, mature and, are expelled as we have stated, when they burrow in the soil to again transform into the perfect fly. When the bots have once fastened themselves to the stomach and acquired their hard, horny coating, ttiey can not be dislodged, since they resist the strongest acids, alkalies, narcotics and mineral poisons. In autumn and early winter they are yet soft, and if suspected, in numbers sufficient to reduce the animal, give the following vermi- fuge: Two drachms powdered assafootida, one and a half drachms powdered savin, one and a half drachms calomel, thirty drops oil of Male Shield Fern. Make into a ball with molasses Follow this at the end of twelve hours with a purge of four drachms of Barbadoes aloes. Or, in lieu of the above, give one-quarter ounce of sulphate of copper, made into a ball, for three or four mornings in succession, and follow with the aloes purge, and repeat at the end of a week, if necessary. If the bots produce colic, give four drachms of tobacco, and repeat if necessary, fol- lowing with a mild laxative. Say one ounce of rheubarb and one- quarter pound of epsom salts. Feed liberally to support the strength of the ani- mal. In the summer when the bots are being expelled, this may be aided by a purge of aloes. To prevent the entrance of bots, trim off the long hairs in which the eggs are attached, or wash the places infested with soap suds. A daily application of oil will prevent the eggs from being- fastened. BOTTOM HEAT. In horticulture, heat pro- duced by fermenting dung, leaves, bark, etc. , for raising or forcing plants requiring a temperature higher than that of air. BOUND. In veterinary medicine, a term ap- plied to the bowels, to indicate want of natural action; to the skin (as hide-bound) or hoof (9,8. hoof -bound) indicating tightness or constriction. A tree is said to be bark-bound when the bark cracks and is constricted. BOUT. In plowing, one course of the plow. BOWLDER. A massive rock, dissimilar from the adjacent rocks in mineral character, and sirp- posed to have been transported by great floods, icebergs, glacial action, etc. BOX DRA.IN. A drain with square sides, presenting the section of a box. BOX ELDER. (See articles Acer and Maple.)> BOX TREE. The Buxus sempermrens and balemiea produce the dense yellow wood used by engravers, and also for making rules, combs, but- tons, etc. The Dwarf Box is a variety of B. aem- BRACCATE. Bracca, Breeches. In ornithol- ogy, when the feet are concealed by long feathers descending from the tibiae. BRACHALITRA. The name of an extensive- group of coleopterous insects, including all such as have the elytra so short as not to exceed one- third the length of the abdomen. BRACHIBM. The lower portion or forearm of the fore extremities. BRACT. In botany, the small leaflet situated under the flower. The flowers of grasses, sedges, etc. , are bracts which receive the names of glumes, and paleae. _ „ BRAHMAPOOTRA FOWLS. The Brah mas have long been favorite fowls with farmers, from their quiet habits, large size, and the quick- ness with which they grow to a marketable size for frying. In all the original breeds the deal ears, fell below the wattles, and this characteris- tic has constantly been sought to be perpetrated. The hackles should be full and spread well and evenly over the back and shoulders. Vulture hacks, especially, should be well avoided. The backs should be well furnished with soft curling feathers, and the legs booted (feathered) quite- down to the toes. This to apply to pure bred birds. In the farm yard, where birds are grown simply for market, nice qualifications are not. BRAHMAPOOTRA 144 BRAHMAPOOTRA ■essential, nevertheless the general characteristics should be preserved. As illustrating the two ■prominent breeds of Brahma-^Pootra fowls, we give two cuts one of dark Brahmas, and one of light Brahmas. In relation to the two varieties Lewis, in his Practical Poultry Book, says:' The Dark Brahmas are claimed by many breeders to be the best of the Brahma variety, but we opine there are just as many who stand ready to claim that the light are equally as good, if not a better breed. Still some breeders claim that the flesh of .the dark is richer and more palatable than that of DAKK BBAHMA. "the light. Our opinion is that the difference between the two colors is all fancy, one proving just as good as the other, under similar manage- ment. Having bred both colors, we have yet to learn the distinctive difference between them. The plumage of the dark does not show the same mussiness of feather as the light; still, if kept in a clean, dry hennery, as fowls always should be, •the difference is imaginary. So far as our indi- vidual opinion may go we like the dark fowls best, as bred to-day. The head of the cock : should be surmounted with what is termed a "pea-comb." This resembles three small combs running parallel the length of the head, the cen- tre one the highest; beak strong, well curved; wattles full; ear-lobes red, well rounded and falling below the wattles. The neck should be ■short, well curved; hackle full, silvery white striped with black, flowing well over the back and sides of the breast; feathers at the head should be white. Back very short, wide and flat, rising into a nice, soft, small tail, carried upright; back almost white; the saddle feathers white, -•striped with black, and the longer the better. , The soft rise from the saddle to the tail, and the -side feathers of the tail to be pure lustrous green- black (except a few next the saddle), slightly tipped with white, the tail feathers pure black. The breast should be full and broad, and carried well forward; feathers black, tipped with white. Wings small, and well tucked up under the sad- dle-feathers and thigh fluff. A good black bar across the wing is important. The fluff on the hinder parts and thighs should be black or dark gray; lower part of the thighs covered with soft feathers, nearly black. The inarkings of the hen are nearly similar to those of the cock. Both sexes should have rather short yellow legs (those of the hen the shorter) and profusely feathered on the outside. The carriage of the hen is full, -but not so upright as that of the cock. The «iarkings of the hen, except the neck and tail, are the same all over, each feather having a dingy white ground, closely penciled with dark steel gray, nearly up to the throat on the breast. Coming now to Light Brahmas, a cut of which we give below. The following are thecharacter- istics givei for those pure bred. They should be chiefly white in color pf plumage, but if the feathers are parted, the bottom of the plumage will appear of a bluish-gray, showing an import- ant distinction between them and White Cochins, in which the feathers are always white down to the skin. The neck-hackles should be distinctly striped with black down the center of eaci feather. The plume of the cock is often lighter than that of the hen; the back should be quite white in both sexes. The wings should appear white when folded, but the flight feathers are black; the tajl black in both cock and hen; in the, cock, however, it Is well developed, and the coverts show splen'lid green reflections in the light; itshouldstand tolerably upright, and open' well out laterally, like a fan; the legs should be yellow and well covered with white feathers, which may or may not be very slightly mottled with black; ear-lobes must be pure red, and every bird should have a perfect pea-comb, though fine birds with a single comb have occasionally beea shown with good success; but, as a general thing, the pea-comb fowl shows off to the best advan- tage, and attracts universal commendation by both the amateur and breeder. The Chittagong breed of fowls was looked upon as possessing a great deal of merit, but in these latter days of LISHT BBAHKA. Brahma and Cochin fever they have been lost sight of, and we scarcely hear the name of Chit- tagong mentioned; though we flrmly believe the Buff and White Cochins owe their parentage to a cross with the Chittagong and Shanghte breed Kerr's Ornamental Poultry Breeder says the plumage of the Chittagong is very showy and of various colors; the birds being exceedingly hardy. In some, gray predominates, interspersed with lightish yellow and white feathers in the pullets: the legs being of a reddish flesh-color, and more or less feathered; the comb large and single; wattles very full, wings good size; the model is graceful, carriage proud and easy, and action prompt and determined. The flesh of this breed is delicately white. The cocks, at eight or nine months of age, weigh from nine to ten pounds. BREECHING 14a BREEDING and the hens from eight to nine pounds. They do npt lay as many eggs during the year as smaller hens, but they lay as many pounds as the best breeds. The red variety of Chittagongs are smaller than the gray; legs being yellow and blue; the wings and tail short; comb single and rose-colored. An ordinary pair will weigh from sixteen to eighteen pounds. In the dark-red variety the cock is black on the breast and thighs ; the hens yellow or brown, with single serrated eoml^; legs yellow and heavily booted with black feathers. The Chittagongs, as a breed, are quite leggy, in many instances, the cock standing twenty-six inches high, and the hens twenty-two. The Cochin China breed is becoming more and more favorites with the general breeder, not only in England, but also in this country. They are deservedly high in the standard of merit among fanners on account of their hardiness and good laying qualities. In fact, although all the Asiatic breeds are persistent sitters m summer, they lay plenty of eggs in winter and early in fipnng. The Brahmas, however, are generally kept by farmers. They will average about 100 eggs per year, and furnish theSe at a season when eg^ are scarce, and consequently high. BRAMBLE. The genua Sulms. (See Black- berry.) BRANDY. Liquor distilled from the dregs of wine. It contains fifty per cent, alcohol; the color is fictitious, as the spirit is nearly transpar- ent. Burned sugar (caramel) is the usual coloring matter. BRASSICA. The generic name of the cab- bage, rape, broccoli family, etc. , They belong to the Crueifero) of Jussieu. ' BREAD. There are three varieties extensive- ly used in the United States — wheat, corn, and brown or Graham bread. Wheat bread is leav- ened, or rendered light and spongy by yeast, which is worked into the dough, and communi- cates to the starch of the flour, at a temperature above 60° Fahrenheit, a fermentation called the panary fermentation, in which sugar and alcohol are formed in small quantity, and the gluten of the flour diminishes even to two per cent. In these changes, carbonic acid gas is given off, and, ris- ing through the dough, produces the cellular tex- ture. When the process goes on too long, vine- gar is produced, and the dough becomes sour. The neat of the oven stops the panary fermentation, and hinders further change. Town bakers, by using every expedient to accumulate gas in their loaves, produce a spongy, tasteless bread. Corn bread contains no gluten, and will not rise with yeast. It is sometimes mixed with enough water to be almost as soft as sticking paste, and baked at once, but the best bakers use eggs as a means of rendering it light. Graham bread is commonly made of whole flour, or containing the bran. BREAKINGr. The old term for the training of horses and other animals. At the present day the term training is a more proper word since in- telligent trainers do not so much^ use brute force now as formerly. BREAKING UP. The plowing of meadows or other sod land. BRECCIA. A conglomerate formed with an- gular fragments of stones; some are calcareous, others silicious. BREECHING. That part of the horse's har- ness which enables him to push back the vehicle to which he is harnessed. 10 BREECH WOOL. The coarse short wool of the breech of common sheep. BREE l>. A variety among animals. BREEDING. Breeding, in agriculture, is the art of so coupling animals and of so rearing them as best to fit them for the purposes for which they are intended. The fact early became known that characteristics of the parents were transmitted to the offspring; hence the saying, true enough among wild animals, that like produces like. In natural selection among gregarious animals the strongest male takes the pick of the herd, dur- ing the years of his vigor, to be again and again succeeded by other strong males. Hence, among such animals we shall often find the same sire for two or three generations. This has now come to be a prelty well established law in breeding up, to breed in twice, and once out. This rule, how- ever, is only a general one, and requires close study of individuals to enable the breeder to ar- rive at the definite results he seeks. This rule however, coupled with that other rule founded on common sense, to breed only from the best, and aided by a close study of the peculiarities and ex- cellencies of the several animals, both in constitu- tion and physical development, is what makes the difEerence between the successful and progressive, because intelligent breeders, as against he who breeds at hap-hazard A critical study of the form and proportions of an animal with a view to their adaptation to the desired end, so that in animals intended for human food in connection with symmetry and physical excellence, the prime parts may be fully developed, as in animals for speed or draft, great heart and lung power, with corre- sponding development of bone, muscle and sinew, is necessary to any one who seeks to excel in the art of breeding animals. Early maturity is essen- tial in all animals, but especially so for those in- tended as human food. In animals intended for speed, it is of secondary moment, since precocity in every case tends to early decay of the natural powers. If the reader will turn to the article on cattle, several cuts of improved breeds of the last century, Ayrshire, Durham and New Leicester, will be found. Taking the difference in the en- graver's art as being 100 years ago and the present time, they may be taken as fair representations of the breeds as then existing. It will be seen that the New Leicester would be accepted to-day as a good steer. The others would now be called very bad. The model Short-horn steer here shown, and that of the Ayrshire of the present day in the ar- ticle Ayrshire Cattle, will form a good study, and will show the' great stride in improved cattle, true of all' other farm stock, and more eloquent than pages of descriptive writing. Therefore, in breed- ing any clslss of animals, a close and perfectly trained eye, and a correct knowledge of the ani- mal organization is what makes the successful breeder. Bakewell, who lived about the middle of the last century, may be called the father of scientific breeding. During the present century he has been followed by a host of correct breeders both in England and North America, in the sev- eral departments of horses, cattle, sheep, swine and poultry; and again, in the subdivisions, that arise as io the special use which the animals are intended. Thus, among horses, we now have those intended for speed in running and trotting, for style in the carriage, the heavy draft horse, and the horse for general utility. In cattle we have those eminently adapted to the production BREEDING 146 BREEDING ; of beef, for labor and for the dairy. These again being broken up into classes, as in dairy cattle, those giving milk, rich in butter, while the milk of others are as well fitted for the production of cheese. However much the breeder may under- stand of physiology, and the excellencies of the animal make up, if he fail as a feeder he fails en " tirely. A starved animal of any kind is a losing investment to its owner. Especially is this the case with he who seeks to breed up, or keep up to the standard those already excellent in their finish. The object of breeding being to improve the animals bred in such qualities as have a defin- ite value in the market, as the production of ani- mals capable of labor, or of producing superior meat, milk, or wool. The breeder must work strongly to obtain high development in some par- ticular quality. The time has long sinfce passed when mediocrity in several essentials, and excel- MODEL SHOBT-HOBN STEEB. lence in none will be accepted by the buyer. Oc- casionally two or more excellencies may be per- petuated. Thus, the Devons are noted for the ex- cellence of their beef, and their value as beasts of draft; yet their lack of early maturity, and the moderate weights of beef they attain has carried . the Short-horns and Hei/eford's far ahead of them, since, now-a-days, beef and not labor is what is desired in the steer. So the Short-horns were once fair n^ilkers and fair beef -makers. Some families are so to-day. Yet, those sub-families, that are eminently beef -makers, will far out-sell the others in any sale ring, and for the reason that we now have cattle eminently adapted to the production of milk. In breeding, heredity, or the power of trans- mitting characteristics should be studied and the tr?,nsmittinK of useless or injurious abnormal char- acteirs guarded against. IJr Miles, in his work. Stock Breeding, has collected many instances of acquired and abnormal characi ers a,nd illustrations of heredity in the transmission of highly artificial qualities, in many and various improved breeds of animals. As illustrating our meaning we ex- cerpt the following: The tendency to lay on fat rapidly and to mature early is inherited in the beet families of the Short-horns, the Devons, the Herefords, and other meat-producing breeds, ag we have shown, while the ability to secrete an abundant supply of milk is, in like manner, per- petuated in the Ayrshires, the Jersej's, and other dairy breeds. The certainty witli which these ac- quired qualities are transmitted constitutes one of the most valuable peculiarities of a breed. The American trotting-horse furnishes another illus- tration of the inheritance of acquired characters. The various breeds of dogs have peculiarities that have been developed by a long course of train- ing, which are transmitted with a uniformity that is surprising. Young setters, pointets, and retrievers, that have never been in the field, will often "work" with as much steadiness and ability as those that have had a long experience in sporting. In such cases, however, it will be found that the ancestors, immediate or remote, have been well trained in their special methods of hunting. The Shep- herd-dog is remarkable ^ for its sagacity and the persistence with which it carries out the wishes of its master; and it would be difficult, if not impos- sible, to train dogs of any other breed to equal them in their special duties. The Greyhound runs by sight, and the Blood- hound by scent, and their offspring all inherit the sam.e peculiarities. The curious fact was observed ' by Mr. Knight, that the young of a breed of Springing Spaniels which had been trained for sev- eral successive genera- tions to find woodcocks, " seemed to know as well as the old dogs what de- gree of frost would drive the birds to seek their food in unfrozen' springs^ and rills. A new instinct or peculiar chamcteristic has also become hered- itary in a mongrel race of dogs employed by the inhabitants of the banks of the Magdalena almost exclusively in hunting the "White-lipped Peccary. The address of these dogs consists in restraining their ardor and attaching themselves to no in- dividual in particular, but keeping the whole in check. Now, among these dogs some are found which, the very first time they are taken to the woods, are acqiiainted with this mode of attack, whereas a dog of another breed starts forward at once, is surrounded by the peccaries, and, what- ever may be his strength, is destroyed in a mo- ment. A race of dogs employed for hunting deer in the plateau of Sante Fe, in Mexico, is distinguished by the peculiar mode in which they attack their game. This consists in seizing the animal by the' belly and overturning it by a sudden effort, taking advantage of the moment when the body of the deer rests only upon the forelegs, the weight of the animal thus thrown being often six times that of its antagonist.^ Now, the dog of pure breed inherits a disposition to this kind of chase, and never attacks a deer from before while running; and even should tlie deer, not perceiving him, come directly upon him, the BREEDING 147 BREEDING dog steps aside, and makes his assault upon the flank. On the other hand, European dogs, - though of superior strength and general sagacity, are destitute of this instinct, and, for want of similar precautions, they are often killed hy the deer on the spot, the cervical vertebrse being dis- located by the violence of the shock. Mr. Lewes had a puppy taken from its mother at six weeks who, although never taught to "beg '"(an ac- complishment his mother had been taught), spontaneously took to begging for everything he wanted ; when about seven or eight months old, he would beg for food, beg to be let out of the room, and one day was found opposite a rabbit- hutch, apparently begging the rabbits to come out and play. A dog, owned by myself several years ago, inherited the same accomplishment from his mother, who had been trained to sit in an erect position and hold a stick in imitation of a soldier with a musket. This dog was taken from his mother when but a few days old, and before it had an opportunity of learning any tricks by imitation. Without any training, when a few months old, he assumed the erect position whenever anything was wanted, and, if that did not attract attention, he would "speak" with a short bark, as his mother had been in the habit of doing. Dr. H. B. Shank, of Lansing, in- forms me that a cat owned by him, had learned to open doors that were secured with a latch, and all of her descendants inherited the same peculiarity, while another family of cats, brought up with them, did not learn the trick, although they had suificient intelligence to ask the assist- ance of their more expert friends when they wanted a door opened. Girou de Buzarringues reports the frequently-quoted case of a man who had the habit,, when in bed, of lying on his back and crossing the right leg over the left. One of his daughters had the same habit from birth, and cqnstantly assumed that position when in the cradle. Darwin reports the interesting case of a boy who had the singular habit, when pleased, of rapidly moving his fingers parallel to each other, and, when much excited, of raising both hands, with the fingers still moving, to the sides of his face on a level with his eyes; this boy, when almost an old man, could hardly re- sist this trick when much pleased, but, from its absurdity, concealed it. He had eight children. Of these a girl, when pleased, at the age of four and a half years moved her fingers exactly in the same way, and, what is still odder, when much excited, she raised both her hands, with her fingers still moving, to the sides of her face, in exactly the same manner her father had done, and sometimes still continued to do when alone. The handwriting of membera of the same family is said to frequently present a marked resem- blance; and it has been asserted that English boys, when taught to write in France, naturally cling to their English manner of writing. There are families in which the special use of the left hand is hereditary. Girou mentions a family in which the father, the children, and most of the grandchildren, were left-handed. One of the latter betrayed its lef t-handedness from earliest infancy, nor could it be broken of the habit, though the left hand was bound and swathed. Dr. Eugene Dupuy states that he owed to his friend. Dr. Gibney, the opportunity of observing a family consisting of father and mother, five children and one grandchild. Of this family the father and mother were semi-ambjdextroua. All the children and the grandchild are ambi- dextrous to an annoying degree; all of the move- ments which they perform with one hand are simultaneously performed by the other hand. The girls are obliged to use only one hand when dressing themselves, or when cutting patterns, and hold the other hand down by their side, because the two hands perform the same move- ments at the same time, and would interfere with each other. Attention was called to the fact that the father of the grandchild is not semi-ambidextrous. Dr. Dupuy has made ex- periments upon these persons, and has found that, if the skin of the forearm on one side be kept well dry, and a rapidly-interrupted electri- cal current be used, so as only to caU fbrth refiex actions, it is possible to induce synchronous movements in the fingers of both hands, and also muscular contraction in the lumbrical muscles of the fingers, which are too rapid to be carried on by the will. Wild animals, living on islands not often visited by man, do not fear him, but allow the closest approach without hesitation. When the Falkland Islands were first visited by- man, the large, wolf-like dog (Cants Antarcticua) fearlessly came to meet Byron's sailors, who, mistaking this ignorant curiosity for ferocity, ran into 1 he water to avoid them. Even recently, a man, by holding a piece of meat in one hand and a knife in the other, could sometimes stick them at night. On an island in the sea of Aral, when first discovered by Butakoff, the Saigak Antelopes, which are generally very timid and watchful, did not fly, but, on the contrary, looked at the visitors with a sort of curiosity. So, again, on the shores of the Mauritius, the Manatee was not, at first, in the least afraid of man, and thus it has been in several quarters of the world with seals and the morse. Quadrupeds and also birds which have seldom been disturbed by man, dread him no more than do our English birds, the cows or horses, grazing in the fields. Dr. Kidder, in his description of the " Sheath-bill" {Chionis minor), on Kerguelen Island, says: When I sat down upon a rock and kept perfectly still for a few moments, they crowded around me like a mob of street boys around ah organ-grinder/ and all seemed perfectly fearless and trustful. That the descendants of such animals, inheriting the accumulated experience of their ancestors, become wild, is shown in the instinctive dread of man exhibited by the young of the same and allied species that are frequently brought into contact with him. 6. Leroy observes, that in districts where a sharp war is waged against the fox, the cubs, on first coming out of their earths, and before they can have acquired any experi- ence, are more cautious, crafty and suspicious, than are the old foxes in places where no at- tempt is made to trap them. Knight, who for sixty years devoted himself to systematic obser- vation of this class of facts, says that during that time the habits of the English woodcock under- went great changes, and that its fear of man was considerably increased by its transmission through several generations. The same author discovered similar changes of habit, even in bees. The marked heredity of habits has led some mod- ern writers to claim that the instincts of animals are but the experiences of past generations, that are accumulated and established through inherit- ance. Many of the most valuable characteristic* BEEEDING 148 BRfiEDlNG of the various improved breeds of animals have been produced by the inheritance of habits of the system, arising from the conditions and treatment to which they have been subjected. The remarkable records recently made by the American trotting-horse are the result of training and inheritance. The dairy breeds of cattle' in- herit a marked functional activity of the lacteal glands, which is1)ut a modified habit of the sys- tem. Pritchard, in his Natural History of Man, states that the peculiar ambling pace to which the' horses bred on the table-lands of the ©ordilleraa are trained, has, ~by inheritance, re- sulted in -a race in which the ambling pace is natural and requires no teaching. The Norwe- gian Jjonies, descended from animals that have been in the habit of obeying the voice of their riders and not the bridle, are said to inherit the same peculiarity, so that it is difficult to break them to 'drive in the ordinary way. The habit of migration at particular seasons of the year is inherited, and I have often olDserved it in Mallard Ducks bred for several generations in a state of donlestication. It must be admitted, however, that acquired habits are not in all cases heredi- tary, but it would be difficult, perhaps, in the present state of our knowledge of the subject, to fix a limit to their inheritance, so far, at least, as a predisposition is concerned. Acquired habits and the original traits of animals appear to be conflicting elements in their constitution, either one of which may. from its intensity, pre- dominate in hereditary transmission. Pigs have been taught to point game and to perform vari- ous tricks, but, in the hereditary transmission of their characters, nature has had a stronger 'afluence than culture possibly could have done. Carpenter, in discussing the heredity of acquired habits, says; There seems to be reason to believe- that' such hereditary transmission is limited to ac- quired peculiarities which are simply modifica- tions of the, natural constitution of the race, and would not extend to such as may be altogether foreign to it. From a practical point of view, however, the inheritance of acquired characters, so far as they are of any value, is, fortunately, without any apparent limit. Abnormal charac- ters are frequently hereditary, but they are not so likely to be transmitted as acquired habits that are in harmony with the original peculiarities of the animal. The following examples will suf- ficiently illustrate this form of inheritance : Gratio Kelleia, the Maltese, was born with six fingers upon each hand, and a like number of toes to each of his feet. He married when he was twenty-two years of age. The result of that marriage was four children; the first, Salvator, had six fingers and toes like his father; the second was George, who had five fingers and five toes, but one of them was deformed, showing a tendency to variation; the third was Andre — he had five fingers and five toes, quite perfect; the fourth was a girl, Marie — rshe had five fingers and five toes, but her thumbs were defonned, showing a -tendency toward the sixth. These children grew up, and, when they came to adult years, they all married, and of course it happened that they all married five- fingered and five-toed persons. Now let us see what were the result. Salvator had four children — they were two boys, a girl, and another boy — the first two boys and the girl were six-fingered and six-toed like their grandfather ; the third boy had only fire fingers and toes. George had only four children ; there were two girls with six fingers and six toes, there was one girl with six fingers and five toes on the right side, and five fingers and five toes on the left side, so that she was half-and-half. The last, a boy, had five fingers and five toes. - The third, Andre, you will recollect, was perfect- ly well formed, and he had many children whose hands and feet were all regularly developed. Marie, the last, who of course married a man who had only five fingers, had four children; the first, > a boy, was born with six toes, but the other three were normal. In a paper contributed to the Ed- inbur^ New Philosophical Journal, for July, 1863, Dr. Struthers gives several cases of heredi- ;tary digital variations. Esther P , who had six fingers on one hand, bequeathed this malforma- tion along some lines of her descendants, for two, three, and four generations. A S inherit- ed an extra digit on each hand and each foot, "from his father; and C^ G , who also had six fingers and six toes, had an aunt and a grand- mother similarly formed. A deficiency in the number of fingers, or in the number of the pha- langes or joints of the fingers and toes, may like- wise be transmitted, as shown in the following cases in Mr. Sedgwick's paper on the Influence of .Sex in Hereditary Disease: A pastry-cook at Douai, named Augustin Duforet, had but two phalanges to all his fingers and toes. This defect he inherited from his grandfather, who had three children with the same malformation; the eldest of them (a son) had three sons all with the same defect; the second (a daughter) has had five chil- dren, two daughters with three phalanges; and three sons who have oiily two; the third who is the father of Augustin, had eleven children, five daughters normally formed, and six sons, in all of whom there is a phalanx wanting in both fingers and toes. The mother of Augustin also had two male, still-born children, with the same deformity. Dr. Lepine reports the case of a man who had only three fingers on each hand, and four toes on each foot; his grandfather and son had likewise the same deformity. : Bechet records the case of a woman (Victorie Barrf) who, instead of hands, had on each arm one finger only, the other fingers and their metacarpal bones, with the exception of imperfect rudiments of two of the latter, being entirely wanting; while on each foot there were but two toes, apparently the first and fifth, but both very defective. ' She was twice married: by her first marriage she had a healthy and regiilarly- formed male child, and by her second maliiage two daughters malformed like herself; and her sister and father were also deformed in a similar manner. Another case is on record of the hered- itary absence of the two distal phalanges; in which the transmission of the defect for ten generations had been effected by the females only of the family. A supernumerary organ, when inherited, may occupy a different position from that obsg rved in the parent, as in the case of a woman withlhree nipples, published by Adrien de Jussieu. The ad- ditional nipple was placed in the groin, and served ordinarily for suckling, while in the mother of . this woman, who was born also with three nipples, they were all placed on the anterior region of the thorax. The fifth tpe of Dorking fowls, which i» one of the characteristics of the breed, has been in- herited, it is claimed, from a five-toed variety in- troduced IntoBritain by the Romans. Whether this is true or not, it is now impossible to determine, but the constancy of this peculiarity, even in the BREEDING 149 BREEDING produce' of other breeds crossed with the Dorking, would seem to Indicate that it is a character whidi has been fixed by long-continued inheritance. In the Houdan fowls, when first introduced into England from Prance, a fifth toe was rarely- seen ; but at the present time it is nearly as con- stant in this breed as in the Dorkings. Mr. Wright says: The abnormal structure of the Dorking- foot is very apt to run into still more abnor- mal forms, which disqualify otherwise fine birds for the show-pen. Birds are not unfrequently produced which possess three back-toes, or have an extra toe high upon the leg; or in the case of tlie cock, with supernumerary spurs which have been known to grow in every possible direction. This tendency to an increase in the development of an abnormal character that has become hered- itary has been observed in other cases, but we are as yet unable to present a Satisfactory explanation of them. In the case of the Dorking, the prac- tice of breeding only those birds that have the abnormal peculiarity might be expected to inten- sify the tendency to its production, by making it a dominant character; but, in the following case given by Dr. Struthers, it will be safe to presume that only one parent had the abnormal character, and yet we find the same tendency to its in- crease. In the first generation an additional digit appeared on one hand, in the second on both hands, in the third, three brothers had both hands, and one of the brothers afoot, affected; and in the fourth generation all four limbs were affected. In a fam,ily, says Sir H. Holland, where the father had a singular elongation of the upper eyelid, seven or eight children were born . with the same deformity, two or three other children having it not. Dr. Osborne reports the case of John Murphy, aged fifty-two years, a native of County Wexford (Ireland), who had fifteen brothers and five sisters, all of whom possessed the family peculiarity of tortoise-shell- colored eyes. The inheritance was derived from the mother. Slie had three sisters and one brother, who were all similarly affected, and who inherited the peculiarity from their mother, , whose maiden name was F . It is to this lat- tej: family that the peculiarity belongs, insomuch that in the part of the country where they re- sided they have been commonly recognized by this distinction, and celebrated for communicat- ing It to their posterity. In this case, for three generations the transmission of the defect has been restricted exclusively to the female sex. In the year 1770, as we learn from D'Azara, a horn- less bull was produced in Paraguay, which has been the progenitor of a race of hornless, cattle that has since multiplied extensively in that country. The polled breeds of Great Britain undoubtedly had a similar origin. According to Dr. Randall, a ram having ears of not more than a quarter of the usual size appeared in a flock of Saxon sheep in Germany. He was a superior animal, and got valuable stock. These were in- terbred, and a little-eared sub-family created. Some of these found their way into the United States, between 1824 and 1828. One of the rams came into Onondaga county, N. Y. He was a choice animal, and his owner, David Ely, valued his small ears as a distinctive mark of his blood. He bred a ftock by him, and gradually almost bred off their ears entirely. His flock en- joyed great celebrity and popularity in its day, but has been long broken up, and many years have doubtless elapsed since any of the surround- ing sheep owners have used a little-eared ram; yet nearly every flock that retains a drop of that blood— even coarse-mutton sheifep bred away f i-om it, probably for ten or fifteen generations, inso- niuch that all Saxon characteristics have totally disappeared — still continues to throw out an oc- casional lamb as distinctly marked with the pre- cise peculiarity under consideration as Mr. Ely's original stock. The Ancon, or Otter breed of sheep, that originated in Massachusetts in 1791, were characterized by the length of their bodies and the extreme shortness of the legs, which also turned out in such a manner as to render them rickety. They can not run or jump, and even walk with difliculty. This deformed breed is said to be descended from a ram in which the malformation was congenital. It is stated, on the authority of Colonel Humphreys, that this defect became so fixed by inheritance that it was uniformly transmitted. The Niata cattle, on the northern bank of the Plata, described by Darwin, have a peculiar malformation of the skull, that undoubtedly has been developed by the ' inheritance of a deformity pf some of the ancestors. In this breed the forehead is yery short and broad, with the nasal end of the skull, together with the whole plane of the upper molar teeth, curved upward. The lower jaw projeeiis : beyond the upper, and has a corresponding up- / ward curvature. A very singular abnormal pecu- liarity is hereditary in some families of pigs — the tail, which is perfectly formed at birth, hav- ing a tendency to waste away and drop ofl when the animals are a few weeks old. Cases are re- ported of families with a single lock of hair of a different color from the rest of the hair, which in one generation may be upon the right side, and in the next on the left. A family of my acquaint- ance have several abnormal peculiarities that are transmitted with great uniformity. The little toes lap over the adjoining toes, and the nails have a longitudinal groove that gives them a bifid ter- mination, so that when the nail is trimmed the part ctjt off is in two pieces. This same character of the nail is seen, also, on the index-fingers. In addition to these peculiarities, a cartilaginous pro- jection on the back of the ear is inherited. The paternity of an illegitimate child, in one instance, was traced to this family, from its inheritance of the peculiarities above mentioned. Dr. Andef- son says a gentleman of his acquaintance chanced to find a rabbit among his breed that had only one ear; he watched the progeny of that creature, and among these he found one of the opposite sex that had only one ear also; he paired these two one- eared rabbits together, and has now a breed of rabbits with one ear only, which propagate as fast, and as steadily produce their like, as the two-eated rabbits from which they originally were descend- ed. The same author gives the case of a bitch that was born with only three legs. She has had several litters of puppies, and among these several individuals were produced that had the same de- fect with herself. He also states that a cat belong- ing to Dr Coventry, of Edinburgh, which had no blemish at its birth, lost its tail by. accident when it was young. It had many litters of kittens, and in every one of these there was one or more of the litter that wanted the tail, either in whole or in part. Blumenbach affirms that a man whose little- finger of the right hand had l)een nearly demoUshed and set awry had several sons, all of whom had BBEEDING 150 BREEDDfa little fingers of the right hand crooked. In his experience with driiinea-pigs, Dr. Brown-S'quard observed that, in .those subjected to a particular operation, involving a portion of the spinal cord or sciatic nerve, a slight pinching of the skin of the face would throw the animals into a kind of epileptic convulsion. When these epileptic Gui- nea-pigs bred together, their offspring showed the same predisposition, without having been them- selves subjected to any lesion whatever; while no such tendency showed itself in any of the large number of young which were bred from parents that had not been operated on. Prof. Tanner says he knew a very striking instance of the loss of milk in a flock (previously celebrated for their supply of milk) being traced entirely to the use of a very well-formed ram, bred from a ewe singu- larly deficient in milk. It is stated on good au- thority that animals that have been branded in the same place for several successive generations, transmit the same mark to their offspring. , From the Aiany cases of inherited habits and abnormal pecuharities on record, we have quoted a sufficient number to show the great variety of such char- acters that are liable to be transmitted. And the many instances in the human family are given because these men seem to be recorded, while in animals only extraordinary cases are noticed. Another point the stock breeder must take into consideration in connection with heredity, or the transmission of peculiarities, is in all stock lia- bility to those diseases and disabilities considered congenital, as dilatation or contraction of the blood yessels, weak lungs, soft and flabby mus- cular systems, or limbs containing an unusual amount of cellular tissue inclining, in t^e horse, to swelled legs, weed, grease, etc., or conformation, tending to produce spavin or strains. These in breeding mustbe especially guarded against. As illustratmg this subject in the horse, Mr. Finley Dun, a competent English veterinary authority, says: A disproportion in the width and strength of the leg below the back, to the width and strength above the back predisposes to spavm. A straight back and a short os cdhis (heel bone) in- clining forward, gives a tendency to curbs. Round legs and small knees to which the tendons are tightljr bound, are subject to strains. And a pre- disposition to navicular disease is found in horses ■^ith narrow chests, upright pasterns, and turned out toes. Prom what we liav^ given, the careful reader will see the necessity of informing himself in relation to the physiology of the animals in- tendied to be bred. For defective adjustments or weakness in the several parts of an animal, if transmitted, may take years of breeding to eradi- cate. .Another important point to be observed, is never to breed immature animals or those over- worked. A male suffered to copulate unduly always gets weak animals, and a female insuffl- ciently nourished, which has not arrived at 'a proper breeding age, will prove unsatisfactory. In oviparous 'animals, the eggs of very young females are less in number and smaller; no't only this, they are less fertile, the yolk being deficient. 80 with all animals; very young dams always produce less young in number at a birth, or those deficient in size and vigor, than those fully de- veloped. The form of heredity termed atavism, and known among breeders as throwing back, breeding back, etc. , must not be overlooked. This ia shown in color, the lack of some important function or appendage, and may be transmitted, ' after many years, and from a single coition af '! b.ncestors, resulting in peculiar horns, peculiar col- ored noses, skin diseases, etc., are well established. Mr. Sedgwick, Dr. Struthers, Chadhome, Darwin, , Randall, and many others, acute observers, have given so many ii^stances of breeding back, that too much attention can not be given to prevent this reversion, by breeding together animals pure, and without taint. In relation to atavism, Mr. Sedgwick says: No fixed boundaries, recogniz- able by us, can be expected to limit its operation, for, like other general laws in nature, unity in principle coexists with variety in results; and it is chiefly because we are less familiar with the re- sults of atavism in disease than we are with many other productive phenomena, as for the sake of illustration, with memory, that we hesitate to ac- cept them, although they are not, in themselves, more exceptional or peculiar than some of those are which we not only never hesitate to accept, but with which this phenomenon in morbid de- velopment seems to be closely allied. For ata- vism in disease appears to be but an instance of memory in reproduction, as imitation is expressed in direct descent ; and in the same way that mem- ory, as it were, dies- out, but in some state al- ways exists, so the previous existence of some peculiarity in organization may likewise be re- garded as never absolutely lost in succeeding gen- erations, except by extinction of race. In relation, for instance, to a previous impregnation of a fe- male by a male, in which the peculiarities of the male was shown for years, although no succeeding contact was had, is too well authenticated to be doubted. Besides the celebrated case of a seven- eighths Arabian mare, covered in 1815 by. a Quagga, a zebra-like animal, the hybrid not only resembled the sire in color and other peculiarities, but the mare produced successively foals in 1817, 1818 and 1821, by a black Arabian horse, not hav- ing seen the Quagga since 1816, yet the foals all have the curious and unequivocal markings, of the Quagga. This, of itself should cause breeders io use the greatest care in the breeding of all pure animals, that they have not contact in any way with inferior animals. To still further illustrate this matter, the following statements taken from various sources are authentic: Mr. William Good- win, veterinary surgeon to Her Majesty, states that several of the mares in the royal stud, at ' Hampton Court, had foals in one year, which were by Actseon.but which presented exactly the marks of the horse Colonel, a white hind-fetlock, fotin- stance, and a white mark or stripe on the face; and Actaeon was perfectly free from white. The mares had all bred from ColoneUhe previous year. Alexander Morrison, Esq., of Bognie, had a fine Clydesdale mare which, in 1843, was served ty a Spanish ass and produced a mule. She after- ward had a colt by a horse, which bore a very marked likeness to a mule — seen at a distance, every one set it down at once as a mule. The ears are Jiine and a half inches long, the girth not quite six feet, and stands above sixteen hands high. _ The hoofs are so long and narrow that there is a difl5culty in shoeing them, and the tail is thin and scanty. A pure Aberdeenshire heifer was served with a pure Teeswater bull, by which she had a first-cross calf. The following season the same cow was served with a pure Aberdeen- shire bull; the produce was a cross-calf, which. When two years old, had very long horns, the parents being both polled, Mr. Shaw, of Leo- BREEDING 151 BREEDING chel-Cushnie, put six pure-horned and black- faced sheep to a white-faced hornless Leicester ram, and others of his flock to a dun-faced Down ram. The produce were crosses between the two. In the following year they were put to a ram of ther own breed, also pure. All the tombs were hornless and had brown faces. An- other year he again put them to a pure-bred horned and black-faced ram.- There was a smaller proportion this year impure ; but two of the produce were polled. One dun-faced, with very small horns, and three were white-faced — showing the partial influence of the cross even to the third year. A small flock of ewes belong- ing to Dr. W. Wells, in the island of Grenada, were served by a ram procured for the purpose — the ewes were all white and woolly; the ram was quite different — of a chocolate color, and hairy, like a goat. The progeny were of course crosses, but bore a strong resemblance to the i%iale parent. The next season Dr. Wells ob- ^^ned a ram of precisely the same breed as the ewes, but the progeny showed distinct marks of •resemblance to the former ram in color and cov- ering. Mr. Darwin cites the following case: Mr. Giles put a sow of Lord Western's black-and- white Essex breed to a wild boar of a deep chestnut color, and the pigs produced partook in appearance of both boar and sow, but in some the chestnut color of the boar strongly prevailed. After the boar had long been dead the sow was put to a boar of her own black-and- white breed — a kind which is well known to breed very true, and never to show any chest- nut color — yet from this union the sow pro- duced some young pigs which were plainly marked with the same -chestnut tint as in the first litter. Thus, the absolute necessity of care in the proper development of both sires and dams, and their progenitors, has been amply shown. The period of gestation in animals should also be known Youatt records the average period of g&tation in the mare at eleven months, but that it may be diminished Ave weeks or extended six weeks. In twenty-flve mares recorded by M. Gayot, the shortest period was 334 days, and the longest 367 ; the mean period being 343 days. M. Tessier records the period of 582 mares: The shortest period was 387 days, the longest, 419; the average being 330 days. In relation to the gesta- tion of cows, Eai-l Spencer has recorded the period in 764 individuals, the least period was 230 days; longest period, 313 days; mean, 285 days. He attests that he has not been able to rear a calf produced at an earlier period than 243 days. Four hundred and twenty ewes under the obser- vation of M. Magne, at Alfort, gave as the period of gestation: 149 days for eighty, 148 days for 'sixty-eight, 150 days for flfty-flve, 147 days for fflfty-flve, 151 days for forty-nine, 146 days for thirty, 153 days for twenty-three, 145 days for twenty-two, 144 days for fifteen, 153 days for thir- teen, 154 days for seven, 156 days for three, 143 days for two. Extremes. 143 and 156 days; en- tire period in three-fifths of the flock, from 147 to 150 days. M. Morel de Vinde has recorded the period of gestation in 463 ewes, as follows: 153 days in 118, 153 days in ninety-seven, 151 days in eighty-one, 150 days in fifty, 154 days in forty-two, 149 days in thirty-one, 155 days in eighteen, 148 days in seven, 156 days in six, 157 days in five, 147 days in four, 146 days in three. In three- flfths of these ewes the duration of gestation was from 151 to 133 days. That Merino and South- down sheep, when both have long been kept under exactly the same conditions, differ in the average period of gestation, as follows: Merinos 150.3 days; Southdowns, 144.3 days; Half-bred Merino and Southdown, 146.3 days; three-fourths blood of Southdowns, 145.5 days; seven-eighths blood of 'Southdowns, 144.3. In swine, the ave- rage period of gestation is about sixtCjen weeks. The extremes being according to thirty-five well attested cases from 101 to 123 days. Earl Spen- cer's table in relation to the gestation of cows, is as follows : Nnmber of days of gestation. i s 1 8 I n 1. a t3 H It So 230 1 1 1 1 1 . 1 1 2 2 1 1 Z 1 1 z z s 1 1 z 1 2 2 & 6 8 3 B B 15 14 18 S2 85 89 47 64 66 74 60 58' 42 45 23 16 10 8 7 6 2 1 1 1 3 1 1- "i" 1 "z" "i" 1 "i" ...... 1 1 336 233 1 1 334 * 335 239 242 1 245 .. 246 2 248 250 252 2 1 253 ^5 2 1 2 1 1 2 257 258 263 .... 263 266 1 268 2 "z" B 1 2 ■"2" 7 10 11 16 15 20 26 80 33 29 22 25 13 20 10 5 1 1 3 a 1 "'i' 1 3 1" 1 269 1 1 1 1 1 5 2 6 2 4 11 20 18 20 24 83 43 38 27 28 25 13 11 . 9 7 4 4 1 1 1 270 1 1 27;i 1 274 275 "i " 1 3 1 1 276 1 277 1 278 2 279 2 280 1 282 1 283 285 2 9Hfi 288 1 293 qqr J . ^07 • Thus it will be seen that no person can hope to succeed in the breeding of fine stock of any kind except he carefully study form, action, characteristics, the anatomy and physiology of the animals to be bred, together with the pe- culiarities desired to be perpetuated or to be avoided Even in the breeding of cold-blooded BREWING 152 BRiTTLE-HOOP animals, a misnomer, but w];iich lias been used by breeders, to designate especially ^ among horses, those whose pedigrees can not be traced, and which have come of sires and dams of the mixed breed of a country. The careful breeder, may do much to improve the quality of his stock by selecting superior and well formed animals to breed from. Yet in this day, it will be to him a losing game, since breeds of all farm animals are now so superior, that the special characteristics required may be more easily and more cheaply secured, by the purchase of improved sires and dams than to spend generations of time in secur- ing improvement by breeding up from inferior animals. BREWING. This is the process of obtaining the saccharine solution from malt, or other mat- ters, and converting this solution into Spirituous liquors, ale, porter, or beer. There is little doubt of the antiquity of this art. The Egyp- tians are said to have been the inventors of beer. The early Germans and the Saxon forefathers were as fond of beer as the modern citizens. The English process is as follows : In the grind- ing of the malt, as in many other parts of brew- ing, some prefer it ground between stones; others crushed by rollers; some prefer a fine grist, others a coarse one. The mashing may be performed in a vessel of wood, with a false bot- tom pierced full of holes; on this bottom the malt is laid; the water is then admitted, which, for pale ale, or pale spirits, should be of the temperature of from 170° to 185°, according to the quantity mashed ; the heat being increased as the mass diminishes. For porter, not higher than 165°, or lower than 156°. For the second mash an increased temperature of 15° or 20° will be advisable. For the first mash, for every quarter, twenty-eight pounds of malt, a barrel and a half of water may be used, and the grist well mixed with the water. The mash is per- mitted to rest for some time, and then allowed to run off into an under-tank, whence it is pumped into the boiler, where it is raised to the boiling temperature. When the wort is suf- ficiently drained from the mash-tub, another portion of hot water is added for a second mash. The hops are next added, and the boiling is completed, which in general requires an hour and a half, or until the wort breaks bright from the hops,, when a Sample is taken from the cop- per. The wort is let off into coolers— either of wood or iron — where, when sufficiently cooled, or else in proper fermenting tuns, the yeast or barm is added. The fermentation speedily be- gins, and when it is thought that a sufficient quantity of alcohol is formed, the fermentation is stopped, and the yeast is separated by running it into smaller vessels, and skimming off the barm; or else by allowing it to run oH from the bung-holes of the casks, which are, for this pur- pose, kept completely filled. A small portion of salt is commonly added, and occasionally, es- pecially by the professional brewer, a portion of isinglass or other finings. In all these opera- tions cleanliness is a most essential part, for without this it is impossible to have good beer. The quantity of hops to be added varies with the quality of the beer. Four pounds to the quarter of malt is sufficient for beer for present use, and from this to twenty-eight pounds have been used for beer for long keeping. The tem- perature of the fermentation should range be- tween 56° and 63°. Not more than 60° for ale wort, nor ipore than 62° for porter. Great care should be taken to have good, sound, healthy, and new yeast, and of this about two pounds per barrel are commonly needed. Good malt and hops, of course, are requisite; but the quat ity of the water is not of so much consequence as is very of tep considered to be the case. Some of the best ales in England are brewed either with soft or with hard water, and from rivers, or springs, or ponds. The quantity of alcohol, upon an average, in brown stout is about. 6.80, in ale 8.88, and in small beer from two to three per cent. The specific gravity of the' wort, when it is placed in the fermenting vessels, varies from 1.060, when it contains 1435 percent, of solid matter, to 1.137, when it contains 38.2 per cent. That of small beer varies from 1.015 to 1.040, the first containing about 3.5 per cent, of solid matter, the latter about 9.5 per cent. The chief use of the hops is to communicate the peculiar bitter flavor from the oil which is contained is them; partly to hide the sweetness of the sac- charine matter, and partly to counteract the tendency which wort has to run into acidity. Hops are by no means the only bitter which may be made use of for preparing and flavoring ales. Mixtures, in various proportions, of worm- wood, powdered bitter oranges, gentian root, and the rind of Seville oranges, will afford an excellent bitter, and are often used ,in home brewing, as were grounding by the Saxons be- fore the introduction of hops. Strasburg beer, which is much prized on the continent, owes much of its excellence to the use of avens (Oeum urbanum). A good beer can be produced from potatoes grated to a pulp, mixed with barley malt. In Ireland beer is made from parsnips. Cane sugar or glucose (fourteen pounds of cane sugar dissolved in ten gallons of boiling water, with one and one-half pounds of hops) is said to make excellent beer. The beer made in this way is pale colored, but color may be given readily by scorched sugar (caramel). Beer has also been made from jnangel-wurzel 150 pounds, and one pound of hops in sixteen gallons of water. It may also be made from the various cereal grains, and even from Indian corn. BRICK. (See Brick Earth.) BRICK EARTH. Any stiff clay containing fifty to seventy per cent, of real clay, and the rest sand . Bricks are made from various colored clays, the presence of iron making the brick red. Exceeding fine cream-colored bricks are made from a silicious clay found near Milwaukee, Wisconsin. BRIMSTONE. Roll sulphur, made by melt- ing and casting common sulphur. BRINING GRAIN. Is the practice of steep- ing it in pickle, in order to prevent smut and other diseases. The steep is made with common salt and water, of sufficient strength to float an egg; or of sea- water, with salt added to it till it is of the requisite strength. The seed should be well stirred in the brine; thus the light grains rise to the surface, and are skimmed off;- the rest is put to drain, and air-slaked lime sifted upon it; after being carefully mixed, and when a little dried, it is sown. Urine, kept until stale, is used in the same manner; but the seed should be sown at once Brining seed-wheat is a pre- vention of smut — a parasitic fungus. BRITTLE HOOF. An affection of the horse's BROOM-CORN 153 BROOM-CORN hoof, the result of bad stable management. A mixture of one part of oil of tar and two of neatsfoot oil, well rubbed into the crust and the hoof, will restore the natural pliancy and tough- ness of the horn, and contribute to the quickness ■of its gl-owth. BRIZA.' The generic name of the Quaking- grass (S. media). It is of no agricultural value BROMINE. A brown fluid extracted from salt-water and sea-weeds. It is very similar to chlorine in its properties. BROMUS. The genus of Brome-grasses (B. seealinm) is the well-known Cheat, or Chess. (See Chess; also Grasses.) BRONCHIA. The ramification of the wind- pipe in the lungs. BRONCHITIS. A disease in horses. A catarrh extending beyond the entrance of the lungs. The symptoms are quick and hard breathing, peculiar wheezing, and coughing up mucus. The chronic form is diflScult to cure. Acute bronchitis is relieved by soothing applica- tions to the throat, and such drinks as would be good for a common cold. BRONCHOTOMY. The operation of open- ing the trachea low down. BROOM CORN. A plant of the genus sor- ghum, a native of India, and cultivated for its branching panicles; almost universally used now in the manufacture of brooms for sweeping and whisks for brushing clothes. The plants of this genus are all more or less rich in saccharine matter. Sugar sorghum, of which broom corn has been said to be a representative type, is now extensively cultivated in many of the States north and south, for its syrup and sugar. The cultivation of broom corn for its heads has of late years become an extensive industry in a number of Western States, principally in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa and Kansas. The intro- duction of broom corn, as a cultivated plant in the United States is attributed to Dr. Franklin. Having seen an imported whisk broom in the hands of a lady of Philadelphia, he found a seed adhering to one of the straws and planted it. From this originated the industry in the United States. The cultivation is principally like that of Indian corn. The hills vary from three feet apart each way, to three and a half feet one way, by two feet the other way. It is also sown in drills ; but in the West this is not much practised, since it adds to the cost of culti- vation and handling. In the West less hand hoe- ing is required than in the Eastern States, but in the West the cultivation is not considered re- munerative except when raised in large fields, with ample shed-room for drying, and presses for baling, since so much depends upon the manner in which it is placed ih the market. The brush must always be cut before the seed is fully formed, usually when in the soft dough state. The Country Oentleman describes the manner of cultivation Bast as follows: Good crops of broom corn may be raised, with proper care and atten- tion, on any clean fertile land where Indian corn will succeed well. River flats are particularly well adapted to it, provided the nature of the soil or the situation gives them a good natural drainage. Uplands should be well underdrained if the subsoil is retentive of water. Drained muck beds are more liable to frost, are not com- pact enough, and are not well adapted to the culture of this crop. As the plants appear small and feeble at first, and are easily choked by an over-growth of weeds, it is more important that the soil should be clean than for the culture of common corn ; and, as complete success depends on fertility, more pains should be taken to have everything just right. A crop of broom corn, it is true, may be raised with a moderate degree of care and attention ; but the yield will be moderate, and perhaps it may prove a losing affair. In order to obtain the highest net profit, let everything be done in the most perfect manner. If the land is not perfectly clean, the best way will, doubtless, be to plant on a freshly inverted sod — a clover sod being decidedly the best, especially if the land is inclining to be heavy. The roots of the clover will loosen it in a better manner than plowing or harrowing alone can accomplish. An excellent mode is to spread old manure, the seeds of which have been killed by fermentation, or any other manure that is clear of foul weeds, on the clover the previous summer or early in autumn. Late in autumn or early in winter will be better than spreading in spring. The manure will soak into the soil during the several months before plowing, and become better dfiused than could be accomplished by any plowing or har- rowing. The time for planting is about the same as for common com — as early as will do to escape spring frosts. Before planting, let the soil be made perfectly mellow, and if to be in hills, mark out so that they may be as near together as will admit of convenient cultivation. The nearer they are together, or in other words, the more evenly and uniformly the plants are distributed over the surface, the greater will be the yield of brush. A common distance of hills is two and a half to three feet one way, and twenty inches to two feet the other. If planted in drills, a larger crop may be obtained, as a greater number of stalks will grow, but they are attended with more labor. The number of plants may be about three times as great as for Indian com. If a larger quantity of seed is planted, so as to require some thinning out, the crop will be more even and larger, but will need a greater expenditure of work. It is common to plant a dozen or more seeds in each hill, about an inch deep, and thin out to seven or eight — leaving a larger number if the hills stand two by three feet than if twenty by thirty inches. Drills are often placed only twenty-eight inches apart. Many regard the finfer and softer brush of thick growth as best. The cultivation of the ground should be commenced as soon as the plants make their appearance. It is very im- portant that they be not allowed to become en- cumbered or crowded with weeds. Keep the whole surface perfectly clean from the very start. Continue the horse cultivation once a week, as long as the size of the plants will admit. This is not generally attended to, but the constant stirring of the surface and breaking of the crust will make an important difference in the amount of the crop. When the stalks have sufficiently grown, or when the seeds are in the milk state, the breaking back is performed. It is done at a convenient height for the operator, generally so as to leave a foot or two of stalk from the base of the brush. Two rows are broken towards each other, so" as to admit a ready passage- be- tween the other two. The seed being rather diffi- cult to cure by drying, some cultivators give no attention to saving it, especially as it often fails to ripen at the North except in favorable seasons. BBUCHUS 154 BUCKWHEAT' If the stalks are broken back a little earlier, they form a better brush. In a few days they are cut, just above the break, and laid in bunches to dry. These must not be opened, to become wet by rain, as this would iniure their value. The seed are removed by hand, with a sort of coarse comb, where the plantations are not large; but when the crop is cultivated on an extensive scale, it is done with a machine driven by horse-power. The brush or tops are dried by laying them on horizontal poles, and successive tiers placed one above the other, leaving spaces for the air be- tween each. Sheds or lofts may be used for this purpose. Temporary structures for drying are made of rails, the brush being laid on pairs of rails placed horizontally, so as to form a structure twelve feet square, or equal to the length of the rails, and each successive tier formed by resting the horizontal rails on an additional rail plated under each of their ends. By selecting the larger rails for one side, this side gradually becomes higher than the other, and admits a board roof for the top when the height has reached eight or ten feet. The quantity of brush yielded from an acre is usually about five or six hundred pounds, but, in rare instances, it has reached as high as a thousand pounds. The price varies from five to ten cents. There is more uncer- tamty with this crop than with many others — not on account of the difficulty of raising, for with proper care it is reasonably certain, but from the uncertain or fluctuating character of the market. With the seed, especially, this un- certainty is great. Sometimes it is sold as high as three or four dollars per bushel ; at pther times for not more than fifty cents. The seed may, however, be profitably used as food for horses when mixed with oats or other grain. When the seed is not allowed to mature, several successive crops have been grown on the same ground with- out detriment, and with moderate manuring. BROOIS-GBASS. Andropogon purpurescens, A.furcatum, or forked spike-grass, and A. nutans, or beard-grass, are well known species. (See BROWN DYES. The commonest are the de- coctions of oak bark, common bastard marjoram, walnut peels, horfee-chestnut peels and catechu. O.ik bark and walnut give dyes without mordants, but are brightened by alum. Catechu (one pound) combined with blue vitriol (four ounces) gives bronze when used in a boiling solution. , The tints of brown are, however, so numerous that it is more common to use madder as a basis for the red tints, fustic for the yellows, and use solution of iron and copper as mordants, and even a gallnut bath afterward, to reach the proper shade. Dye- ing is now but little practised as a household art. BROWSE. The young branches of trees, shrubs, etc., upon which stock sometimes feed. BRUCHUS. A Linnsean genus of coleopter- ous insects, which deposit their eggs in the young grains or seeds of leguminous plants; a smafl family of under-sized beetles, always less than a j^uarter, and sometimes of one-eighth of an inch I in length. Dr. Le Baron, says the only tetram- erous beetles with which they could be conf ound- ed are the Curculionidse and the Chrysomelidae; but they differ from the former by having the labrum and palpi of the ordinary form and the head is but little prolonged anteriorly; and they difCer from the great majority of the. latter in *Jieir short, serrate atennse, and in having the tip PEA-VVEEVII.. of the abdomen uncovered by the elytra. The family contains but a few genera, and all our in- jurious species belong to the genus Bruehus. The most notorious species are Pea-weevil (Bi'u- chuspisi,) the Bean-weevil (B. obsoletus,) the Grain- bruchus (B. grananus). The latter is a Eu- ropean species which has been imported in small numbers into this country. The time of the hatching of the eggs is when the seeds have approach- ed to maturity, and then the larvae begin to feed upon them. The pea i ft ^^fflljIW' fl and bean wee- vil are well known forms of this genus; also some grain weevils They may be destroyed by fumigating the seed with sulphurous fumes. The cut shows the pea weevil, a beetle, enlarged; the natural size at the left. Also a pea showing the charac- teristic mark of the insect. BRl'CIA. A vegetable alkaloid, similar to strychnine, and poisonous. BRUSH DRAINS. Placing bushes or brush in the water-way of drains; the tops should lie with the current. It answers well enough for ten or twelve years, but is not so permanent as other means. In laying the brush, the buts should lap over the previous layer, so when pressed down, they will be higlier than the ends of the branches. BRYONY. Bryonia dioiea. A climbing herb, poisonous, used in medicine. BECK. The male of deer, rabbits, etc. The male of sheep is sometimes, but incorrectly, so denominated. BUCK-BKA>. Menyanthestrifoliata. Aswamp plant, with handsome flowers and bitter leaves. The latter are used as a substitute for hops, and are a mild tonic. BUCK-EYE. Two western trees b^ar this name, the Pavia lutea and Ohioenm; they belong to the same family as the Horse-chestnut, which see. They are wholly ornamental, the wood be- ing of no value as timber. BUCK-THORN. Bhamnus cathaHicus. A thorned shrub. The berries are cathartic and friping. The B. infectorius, a similar shrub, pro- uces the famous French or Persian yelldw ber- ries used in dyeing. The latter is not hardy north of Washington. BUCKWHEAT. Fagopyrum esculentum. A plant delighting in sandy soils, but growing tolerably on quite poor sands, and valued for its flour, of which the well-known buckt^heat cakes are made. Its flowers are a favorite resort of tne honey-bee from the abundance of saccharine they contain. The seeds are small, dark, and angular, yielding from ten to forty bushels per acre, ac- cording to soil and season, since it does not set its seeds until cool nights occur. It is a native of Persia and the first frost liills it. In the North it is sown from the middle of June to July first, according to the latitude, and cut when in full bearing, or immediately at the occurrence of frosts. It is then set up in windrows, without tying in bundles, and threshed immediately when dry. The seed is borne at the end of delicate BUDDING 155 BUDDING filaments, and hence it must be handled care- fully, when dry, to prevent shelling. The quantity sown per acre varies from two to four pecks, three pecks being the usual quantity. As a fallow crop, buckwheat may be used with economy, since it grows quickly and produces a thick mass of herbage, which should be plowed under as soon as it is in blossom. A crop once sown, and allowed to ripen, often re-seeds the BUCKWHEAT STALK, TLOWBRS AND LEAVES. soil, and hence many farmers object to it as a • crop. Like peas, it is valuable as a crop to entirely shade the ground, and to be plowed under when in blossom. Buckwheat is rich in starch and albumen, a!nd its ash is rich in potash and lime. In Germany, malt is made of the grain, and it is extensively used, wherever cul- tivated, as food for fowls. The Silver Hillled, or Silver Skin, all things considered, is the best variety, being prolific and making excellent flour. The composition of the green stalks, by analysis, is as follows: Water 82.5 Starch 4.7 Woody flbre ; 10.0 Albamen 0.2 Gums, etc., 2.6 100.0 The composition of the ripe grain in constit- uents, and also economically, is as follows: Water ' 14.0 Gluten 9.0 Starch 48.0 Gam 2.5 Sugar 2.5 Fat " 1.6 Woody flbre 20.8 Uineral matter 1.6 100.0 Or, economically: Water 14.0 Plesh-tormers 9.0 Pat-f ormere 52 . 1 Acceseories 23.3 Mineral matter 1.6 100.0 BUCKWHEAT. (See Supplement.) B D D. Weaned calf of the first year, from the horns then beginning to bud or shoot. In plants, the germ and envelopes for the succeeding year's growth. BUDDINGr Budding is not now practised to so great an extent as formerly, since with ordinary fruits, especially the pip fruits, grafting is fully as good, and very much faster, especially since the introduction of improved grafting im- plements. Budding, sometimes called inoculat- ing, is the insertion of a single eye or bud under the bark,, and is practised with the peach and other stone fruits, and in the multipUcation of varieties, when the economy of buds is an object. It is also practised by fiorists, more especially with roses and all that class of stock. • Among the advantages of this method is, under ex])i'rt hands, certainty of growth and rnpid perfoira- ance. It may be practised during a long season, according to the variety of trees and plants to be operated upon. Upon this subject Dr. Warder says: It has been claimed on behalf of the process of budding, that trees, which have been worked in this method, are more hardy and better able to resist the severity of winter than others of the same varieties, which have been grafted in the root or collar, and also that budded trees come sooner into bearing. Their general hardiness will probably not be at all affected by their manner of propagation ; except, perhaps, where there may happen to be a marked difference in the Ixabit of the stock, such, for instance, as maturity early in the season, which would have a tendency to check the late growth of the scion placed upon it — the supplies of sap being diminished, instead of continuing to flow into the graft, as it would do from the roots of the cutting or root-graft of a variety which was inclined to make a late autumnal growth. Prac- tically, however, this does not have much weight, nor can we know, in a lot of seedling stocks, which will be the late feeders, and which will go into an early summer rest. Mr. A. R. Whitney, of Franklin Grove, 111., a thor- oughly observing man and successful orchardist, holds that certain varieties of our cultivated fruits are found to have a remarkable tendency to make an extended and very thrifty growth, which, continuing late in the autumn, would appear to expose the young trees to a very severe trial upon the access of the first cold weather, and we often find them very seriously- injured under such circumstances; the bark is frequently split and ruptured for several inches near the ground. The twigs, still covered with abundant foliage, are so Sfected by the frost that their whole outer surface is shriveled, and the inner bark and wood are browned; the latter often becomes permanently blackened, and re- mains as dead matter in the centre of the tree, for death does not necessarily ensue. Intelligent nurserymen, have endeavored to avoid losses from these causes by budding such varieties upon strong, well-established stocks, though they are aware that these are not more hardy than some of the cultivated varieties; a given num- ber of seedling stocks has been found to suffer as much from the severity of winter as do a similar amount of the grafted varieties taken at random. In relation to the philosophy of bid- ding, and its similarity to grafting. Dr. Warder says, the latter process is performed when the plant life is almost dormant, and the corapted parts are ready to take the initiative steps of vegetation, and to effect their union by means of new adventitious cells, before the free flow of sap in the gi-owing season. Budding, on the contrary, is done in the height of that season, and toward its close, when the plants are full of BUDDING 156 BUDDING well matured and highly organized sap, when the cell circulation is most active, and the union between I he parts is much more immediate than in the graft; were it hot so, indeed, the little shield, with its actively evaporating surface, of young bark, must certainly perish from exposure to a hot, dry atmosphere. The cambium, or gelatinous matter, which is discovered between the bark and the wood when they are separated, is a mass of organizable cells. Budding is most successfully performed when this matter is abundant, for then the vitality of the tree is in greatest degree of exaltation. Mr. A. T. Thom- son, in his lectures on the Elements of Botany, says: The individuality of buds must have been suspected as early as the discoveiy of the art of budding, and it is fully proved by the dissection of plants. Budding is founded on the fact that the bud, which is a branch in embryo, is a distinct individual^ It is essential that both the bud and the tree into which it is inserted, should not only be analogous in their character, as in , grafting with the scion^ but both must be in a state of growth at the time the operation is performed. The union, how- ever, depends much more upon the bud than upon the stock — the bud may be considered a centre of vitality — vegetative action commences in the bud and extends to the stock, connecting them together. The vital energy, however, which commences the process of organization in the bud, is not necessarily confined to the germ, nor distinct from that which maintains the growth of the entire plant; but it is so connected with organization, that, when this has pro- ceeded a certain length, the bud may be re- moved from the parent and attached to another, where it will become a branch the same as if it had not been removed. The season for budding is usually in midsummer and the early part of autumn, reference being had to the condition of the plants to be worked; these should be in a thrifty, growing state, the woody fibre should be pretty well advanced, but growth by exten- sion must still be active, or the needful con- ditions will not be found. The cambium must be present between the bark and the wood of the stock, so that the fohner can be easily separated from the latter; in the language of the art, the bark must "run;" this state of things will soon cease in most stocks, after the forma- tion of terminal buds on the shoots. The suc- cess_ of spring budding, however, would appear to indicate that the cambium layer is formed earlier in the season than is usually supposed ; for whenever the young leaves begin to be developed on the stock, "the bark will run," and the buds may be inserted with a good pros- pect of success, ffi this case we are obliged to use dormant buds that were formed the previous year, and we should exercise judgment and care in the preservation of the scions, to keep them back by the application of cold, until the time of their insertion. The condition of the bud, says Dr. Warder, in Americaii Pomology, is also important to the success pf the operation. The tree from which we cut the scions should be m a growing statei, though this is not so essential as mithe case of the stock, as has been seen in spnng budding— still a degree of activity is de- sirable. The young shoot should have perfected Its growth to such an extent as to have deposited ^ts woody fibre; it should not be too succulent, but the essential condition is, that it shovdd have its buds welj developed. These, as every one knows, are formed in the axils of the leaves, and, to insure success, they should be plump and wel grown. In those fruits Which blossom on wood shoots of the previous year's growth, as the peack and apricot, the blossom buds should be avoided; they are easily recognized by their greater size and plumpness. In cutting scions, or bud-sticks, the most vigorous shoots should be avoided, they are too soft and pithy; the close-jointed, firm shoots, of medium size, are much to be pref elred, as they have well developed buds, which appear to have more titality. Such scions are found at the ends of the lateral branches. These need immediate attention, or they will be lost. The evaporation of their juices through the leaves would soon cause them to wither and wilt, and become useless. These appendages are, therefore, immediately removed by cutting the petiole from a quarter to half an inch from the scion; a por- tion of the stem is thus left as a convenient'- han- dle when inserting the shield, and this also serves afterwards as an ikidex to the condition of the bud. So soon as trimmed of their leaves, the scions are tied up, and enveloped loosely in a damp cloth, or in moss, or fresh grass, to exclude them from the air. If they should become wilted, they must not be put into water, as this injures them; it is better to sprinkle the cloth and tie them up tightly, or they may be restored by burjring them in moderately moist ^rth. The early gardeners were very particular as to the kind of weather upon which to do their budding. They recommended a cloudy or a showery day, or the evening, in order to avoid the effects of the hot sunshine. This might do in a small garden, where the operator could select his opportunity, to bud a few dozen stocks; but even there, wet weather should be avoided rather than courted. But, in the large commercial nurseries, where tens of thousands of buds are to be inserted, there can be no choice of weather; indeed, many nur- serymen prefer bright sunshine and the hottest weather, as they find no inconvenience arising to the trees from this source. Some even aver that their success is better under such circumstances, and argue that the pulp is richer. Most trees, in their mature state, make all their growth by ex- tension or elongation very early in the season, by one push, as it were; with the first unfolding; of the leaves, comes also the elongation of the twig that bears them. In most adult trees in a state of nature, there is no further growth in this way, but the internal changes of the sap continue to be effected among the cells during the whole period of their remaining in leaf, during which, there is a continual flow of crude sap absorbed by the roots, and taken up into the organism of the tree, to aid in the perfection of the various parts, and in the preparation of the proper juice and the several products peculiar to the tree, as well as its wood and fruits. When all this is transpiring within its economy, the tree is said to be in its full flow of saj) ; at this stage the young tree is in the best condition for budding, but it continues also, if well cultivated, to grow by extension for a greater or shorter portion of the season, and this is essential to the success of the operation as alreadjr stated. After the perfecting of the crop of fruit, the main work of the tree seems to have been done for the year, and we often observe, particularly with the summer fruits, that the trees BUDDING 157 BUDDING appear to §o to rest after this period, and begin to oast their foliage. Now, to a certain extent, this is true of the young trees. The varieties that ripen their fruit early, make their growth in the nursery in the early portion of the summer, they stop growing, and their terminal bud is formed and is conspicuous at the top of the shoots. Very soon the supply- of sap appears to be diminished, there is no longer so much activity in the circulation, the bark cleaves to the wood, it will no longer run, and the season of budding for those stocks has reached its terminus; hence, the liurseryman must be upon the look-out for the condition of his trees. Fortunately, those species which havp the shortest season, are also the first to be ready, the first to mature their buds, and they must be budded first. We may com- mence with the cherry, though the Mahaleb stock, when it is used, continues in condition longer than other varieties, and may be worked late. The plum and pear stock also complete their growth at an early period in the season; the apple continues longer in good condition, and may be worked quite late. Grapes, if worked in this way, should be attended to about mid- season, while they are still growing; but quinces and peaches may be kept in a growing state much later than most other stocks, and can be budded last of all. The stocks being in a suitable con- edition, as above described, they should, be trim- med of their lateral shoots for a few inches from the ground. This may be done immediately in advance of the budder, or it may have been done a few days bef or^ the budding. The stock may be one year old, or two years; after this period they do not work so well. The usual me&od is to make a T incision, through the bark of the ■stock, as low down as possible, but in a smooth , piece of the stem; some prefer to insert the shield just below the natural site of a bud. The knife should be thin and sharp, and if the stock • be in good condition, it will pass through the bark with very little resistance; but if the stock is too dry, the experienced budder will detect it by the different feeling communicated through his knife, by the increased resistance to be over- come in making the cut. The custom has been to raise the bark by inserting the haft of the bud- ding-knife gently, so as to start the corners of the incision, preparatory to inserting the bud; but our best budders depend upon the shield separat- ing the bark as it is introduced. The two illus- trations will show the difference between budding and grafting, and also the manner of cutting the bud — the slit or nidus— -for insertion, and also the manner of tying, with bast or other soft sub- stance, as the inner husk of corn, or woolen yarn, waxed. Some use strips of manilla tissue-paper covered with soft grafting- wax. (See also, articl* Grafting.) Make a cut from the scion with the the knife used for budding, which is entered half an inch above the bud, and drawn downward about one-third the diameter of the scion, and brought out an equal distance below the bud; this makes the shield, or bud. Some authorities direct that the wood should be removed from the shield before it is inserted; this is a nice operation, requiring some dexterity to avoid injuring the base of the bud, which constitutes its connection with the medulla, or pith, within the stick. Various appliances have been inr vented to aid in this separation; some use a piece of quill, others a kind of gouge; but if the bark run freely on the scion, there will be little diffi- culty in separating the wood from the shield' with the fingers alone. All this may be avoided by adopting what is called the American method of budding, which consists in leaving the wood in the shield, as shown in the cut, that should be cut thinner, and is then inserted be- neath the bark without any difficulty, and may be made to fit closely enough for all practical purposes. In budding, it is found that the upper end of the shield is the last to adhere to the stock; it needs to be closely applied and pressed by the bandage, and if too long, so as to project above the transverse incision, it should be cut off. Tying should be done as soon as conven- ient after the buds have been inserted; though under very favorable circumstances the laud may adhere and do well without any bandaging; no one thinks of leaving the work without carefully tying in the buds, and most budders lay a great deal of stress upon the necessity for covering the whole shield and cut with a continuous bandag- ing, that shall exclude the light, and air, and moisture. All ties should be loosened in the course of a couple of weeks, if the stocks be growing freely; otherwise they will injure the tree by strangulation. > Sometimes it will be necessary to replace the bandage to prevent the effects of desicqation upon the bud ; this is par- ticularly the case with the cherry, and other fruits that are budded early; but the tie is often left on the stock all winter, as a sort of protec- tion to the bud. When loosening the ties, the buds are inspected and their condition ascer- tained; if they have failed, theymay be replaced, the stocks continue in a suitable condition. Itis; BUDDING 158 BUG very easy to tell the success of the budding; the portion of the petiole left upon tlie shield is a very good index; if the bud has withered, this •will also be brown and will adhere firmly to the shield; but, on the contrary, the bud and its shield having formed a union with the stock, the leaf -stock remains plump, but changes color. Like a leaf-stem in the autumn, it assumes the tint of ripeness, and it will separate with a touch, and soon falls off. The common method of re- moving the ties is to cut them with a single stroke of a shai-p knife, when the bandage is left to fall off. Mr. Knight recommended two dis- tinct ligatures, and left the one above the bud for a longer time uncut. When the buds have not been very fully developed, and when the stocks are very thrifty, it sometimes happens that the excessive growth about the incisions, made for the insertion of the bud, completely cover up this little germ' of a future tree, which is then said to be drowned. Judicious pinching and shortening of the stock will prevent this effect, but care is needed not to pursue such treatment too far. The stocks are generally headed back to within an inch or more of the bud, just as vegetation starts the next spring; but early -set buds may be headed back so soon as they have taken, ,and will often make a nice growth the same season. This, however, is not generally preferred, and a late start in the growing weather of our autumns is particularly avoided, as the young shoot will not become matured before winter, and may be entirely lost. Spring budding is sometimes desirable, either to fill up gaps in the nursery rows, or to secure varieties, the scions of' which, may have been received too late for grafting, or when it is desirable to niultiply them as much as possible, by making every bud grow. When the operation is to be performed in the spring, the scions must be kept back, by placing them in the ice-house until the stocks are in full leaf, when the bark will peel readily, and the buds may be inserted with a pretty fair prospect of success; of course, the American method must be used in this case, as the wood and bark of the dormant scion will not separate. The stocks should be cut down as early in the spring as the buds begin to swell, with a sharp knife, applied just above the bud, and on the same side; the whole upper portion of the stock must be removed by a clean cut; this is better than to leave a stump of three or four inches, as is often recommended, as a sup- port to which to tie up the buds in their tender growth. All shoots from the stock should be rubbed out while young; this may need repeat- ing a second time. If the stocks were strong the buds will make handsome, sturdy trees the first season; the branched form may be assisted by pinching the points when a few inches high^ as recommended with the grafts. Two year old stocks should make pretty trees, at one year old from the bud. In propagation, the proper plan will be found to be as follows: Apple and pear, budding and grafting. Cheny, mostly by bud- ding, but succeeds well by grafting, if done very early. Peach and nectarine, by budding only, at the North; often succeeds by grafting at the South. Plum, by grafting, and also by budding, if the stocks are thrifty. Apricot, mostly by budding, sometimes by grafting. Almond, by budding, and som'etimes by grafting. Chestnut, lHy early grafting. Walnut, by early grafting, and by annual budding. Quince, by cuttings and grafting. Filbert, by suckers and layers, The finer sorts may be grafted on the more common, which reduces the size of the bush and makes them more prolific. Grape, by layers and cuttings; and, 'in rare instances, grafting is advantageously employed for new or rare sorts on old or wild stocks, producing rapid growth and early bearing. Raspberry and blackberry, by suckers, cuttings of roots, and layers; Goose- berry and currant, by cuttings, and sometimes by layers. In relation to stocks: For standard or orchard-trees, the pear and apple are grafted or budded upon seedlings raised from pips of any thrifty sort of each of these fruits. The Mazzard and Black Heart furnish good stocks for' grafting with the cherry. At the West, where the cherry is easily injured, stocks raised from seeds of the Dukes and Morellos are the hardiest for all kinds of cherries. The horse-plum makes a good stock when it will grow fieely for this purpose ; but, in localities where it will not, the wild or Canada plum, of the largest growing varieties, is a good substitute. The peach and nectarine are usually worked on common peach- stocks; but they make very hardy trees on the hard-shelled almond ; and, on the plum, the trees are hardy and of slower or more dwarfed growth. > The apricot does well on the peach or plum, or on its own roots. Cultivators differ as to which is the best on all accounts. For dwarfs, the Angers or French quince, is used wholly for the pear. The Doucin and Paradise are employed for dwarfing apples; the former being for the larger or medium-sized dwarfs, and the latter; for small ones, the apple-trees worked upon it not growing much larger than currant bushes. The Mahaleb is used for dwarf cherries, reducing their .size and vigor of growth but slightly, how- ever. It enables the cherry to grow better on heavy soils. The smaller varieties of the wild plum form, perhaps, the best stocks for the growth of dwarf plums. BUFFALO. The animal, called buffalo by the people of the United States, is really the bison. Bos Americanus. Of the true buffalo there are two species, the Bos bubaUs, of India, and the Bos Coffer, of South Africa: Zoologi- cally, they are separated as the Indian and Cape buffalo. The Indian buffalo is said to be fully a match for the tiger in bis native jungles, but the Cape buffalo, which inhabits the whole of South Africa, is not a match for the lion. Both species, in the wild state, inhabit low and swampy dis- tricts, and delight in wallowing in the mud. Both species have been domesticated, but have never been so far modified as to have lost their native ferocity. The true buffalo is short- haired, is destitute of the hump, and in other respects is quite dissimilar to the bison. An East Indian wild bull {Bos gaurus), is said to be in- termediate between the bison and buffalo. (See article Bison.) BUFFALO CLOVER. (See Clover.) BL'G. The word is ignorantly used by many for any insect; others again use the word for offensive insects, as blind beetles, and other beetles which sometimes annoy by flying against a person. The true bugs, however, are a small class, and are the true Hemiplera {E. helerop- tera), in which the wing covers are thick and opaque at the base, more or less transparent at the tips, laid horizontally on the top of the back, BUPRESTI8 159 BTJPRE8TIB and cross each other obliquely at the end. Some of these live on animal and others on vegetable juices. Among plant-bugs the well known squash-bug {Ooreus tristes) is often very destruct- ive to the whole cucumber family, even eating into squashes in the fall to such a degree as to cause their rotting. The cut we give is an- other form of plant-bug (Largus ' succintua), rare at the North, but not uncommon lat the South. The red bug, or cotton-stainer, of the South.is another vexatious pest in that region. There are numerous plant-bugs, many of them minute, which do little damage, except in particular seasons prolific in insect life. rLANx-Bno. The reihedy for all this class, and including also plant lice, is either picking or destroying them with crysalic soap-suds, or, in certain cases, where practicable, dusting with sulphur or a mixture of Paris green, or of London purple. Neither of the two last named must be used on plants where there is danger of the poison be- coming lodged in the fruit. BDHR-STONE, The mill-stonefor flouring; it possesses great hardness with little brittleness, is cellular, of a bluish gray, and feebly trans- lucent. The best kind has a texture nearly half cellular, and is entirely silicious; the pieces or panes are bound together by hoops of iron when set up for use. The great and valuable supply of buhr-stone is from hear Paris, in the lacustrine deposit, above the gypsum. It is the latest rock formation known. Buhr-stone of good quality is found now in several sections of the United States, especially in Georgia, above the shell ( limestone. BUILDINGS. (See Farm Buildings.) BULB. A rounded body, having the proper- , ties of a bud, usually growing in the ground, but sometimes produced by the flower stalk. Bulbs are tunicated, as the onion, and sg^asmoMS or scaly, like the lily. The adjectives, bulbous, bulbosus, are formed from bulb. The fleshy, solid root stocks of some plants are not bulbs but corms. BULBODIUM. An underground stem re- sembling the root-stock. BUPRESTIS. Saw-horned wood beetles. A genera of beetles with hard and metallic color- mg, and hard and inflexible bodies. They are principally a tropical family. In the torrid zone they attain great size and dazzling coloring. Dr. LeBaron says of the family that the larvae present two very distinct forms. The usual form is at once distinguished from all other Coleopter- ous larvse by the enormous development of the first segment of the body, into which the head is partly retractile. The other segments are narrow and slightly flattened. This form of the larvae has caused them to be compared with tadpoles, and the French authors describe them as re- sembling a pestle They are wholly destitute of legs. These larvae usually live under the bark of trees in a state of incipient decay, but some of them penetrate into the solid wood. Some of the smaller species inhabit the stems of small trees or, shrubs, causing them to enlarge so as to resemble galls. An example of the former is the flat-headed borer of the apple and soft maple trees (see Flat-Headed Borer); and an example of the latter is the raspberry cane-borer, or larvse of the AgrilusruficolliB. The other form of Bupres- tide larvae is that of the Brachyides or short- bodied Buprestidae. In these the first segment is not enlarged, the body is slender and tapering, and each of the three first segments is furnished with a pair of very small feet, placed wide apart. These species are all very small, and such of thein as are known are leaf-miners. In an economicalpoint of view, the Buprestidae occupy a peculiar position, intermediate between the genuine wood-borers (Cerambycidae and Scoly- tidaB), which bore into the solid wood of trees, and those kinds of wood-beetles which (like the Elateridae and many of the Heteromerous beetles) inhabit wood and bark in an advanced state of decay. In accordance with this position, they are usually the first insects to attack trees which have been injured by sun-scald, or which have otherwise had their vitality weakened. The largest North American species is the Chalco- phora Virginienm of Drury, nearly or quite an inch in length, of a dark coppery or blackish color, and a very uneven surface, caused by elevated lines and depressed square-shaped spots. The larvae inhabit the trunks of different kinds of pine trees, and the perfect insects are to be found, therefore, only in pine growing regions. The Dicerca divwricata. Say, is three-quarters of an inch or more in length, copper colored, with a granulated surface. It is distinguished at once by its tapering elytra, separated at the tips. Its larvae bore into the trunks of cherry and peach trees. We have another smaller and more ob- scure species, the D. lurida, Fab. , the larvaj of which inhabit the hickory. The Chrysobothris fenwrata, an obscure bronze-black species, rather less than half an inch in length, is the parent of the well known flat-headed borer, so injurious to apple trees, and also to the soft maple. The genus Acmaodera, Esch., contains a number of small species of a bronzed-brown color, some- times with purple and green reflections, and the' elytra prettily spotted with yellow. The colors are somewhat obscured by the surface being clothed with stiff, erect hairs. The A. tubulus, Fab. , and the A. pulchella, Herbst, are the most common species. They are often found in abundance on the flowers of the Coreopsis. The genus Agrilus, Solier, is easily recognized by the elongate, slender, and cylindrical form of the species The raspberry borer, Agrilus rufieoUis, Fab., may be taken as the American type of this genus. It is three-tenths of an inch long, black, with a coppery-red thorax. Buprestis, including Andiylochira, Esch., is composed of species mostly between a half and three-quarters of an inch in length, of a brassy-grepn or a brassy- black color, and often ornamented with yellow spots on the elytra; some also have yellow spotB on the sides of the venter. The species of Md- anophila, Esch. , are from three to five-tenths of an inch in length, black, sometimes with obscure bronze or purple tints. Some species' have four yellow dots on each elytron. The species of Antluma, Esch., are less than three-tenths of an inch long, brassy-black, and without spots. The head and thorax are sculptured with shallow- punctures, with the intervening lines forming a fine net-work. We have two common species of Brachys, Sol., the Ooata, Weber, and the JEroaa, Melsh. (terminansf Fab.), and several rarer species, some of which may be only varieties or races of the first. The B. ovata is two-tenths of an inch or more in length, of a bronze color. BURSA MUCOSA 160 BUTTIK' variegated with spots and imperfect transverse waving bands of whitish and copper colored pubescence. The B. terminana is smaller and less distinctly variegated, but most readily dis- tinguished by the pale tips of the elytra. Metonim, Say. {Paxihyscelm, Solier), has two species about an eighth of an inch in length; the Icmigatus, Say, wholly black; and th& purpurea. Say, black, with dark-blue elytra. The following are the genera of BapresUda : Acmceodera, twenty-three species; AgrUus, forty species; Anthoma, four- teen specisa; Brachys, eighteen species; JSupr«si'*ic?l © ^^T-l 1 rHii^lc^i'-'I^ic-il >^ 2 I j ! [ 1 ! ! © t-^ 1 ! ' ' 1 i ' PI ! ! ' 1 I 1 • r-\ ri I 1 [ 1 1 1 -1^ 1 [ 1 1 1 I m ' 1 1 ! ' I c3 d I , — 1 S ■« o 1 L-r ' lo 1 O' 1 o ! in 1 !-H 5 ISi O 1 c* t- l^ I o . (.- '^'O|00j^''^''^i CD O^t-'l ■31 1 Oi\ Cvf ! o 1 lo 1 oi\ (-1 4-5iOi 00lC0C">'+*iOiO5i qi^ fl=^<» j '^[tOi^lcOI'rt^iCOr o CQ cfi 1 J < 1 I f-i g 1 t ! ' 1 ! o <] =4-1 1 1 1 t 1 1 -tJ ' 1 1 ' ' 1 o ''III p3 ; 1 1 ; 1 1 -Ti 1 1 1 [ I 1 P 1 ' ' ! 1 I ft s -?? 1 I- ' c^ ' t' I "^ 1 -X" ! C<* 1 CO 1 T-H ' '^f <^ 1 ^t> o « 1 <:d ; C( I -* 1 ctj t- 1 'c^ ■< o'l t-' ! CO 1 GO 1 o 1 t-' 1 t-" 1 U-H CT CO 1 CO i-H C^ 1 C-i 1 -rH 1 '^i o « 1 1-1 j I 1 1 1 1 d o ! 1 1 1 1 ' I ' ' 1 1 I s cC ] 1 ( ' ' 1 CD 1 1 ' 1 1 1 feJD i ' i 1 1 1 c« 1 1 1 t 1 1 ?-( ^ ' 1 1 1 1 ' CD o 1 ' ' 1 1 1 ^ <1 OD' CO 1 X. 1 r- 1 =C ' -H ' t~ 1 1* a O 1 Z^' 1 O' 1 o; ] O 1 1— 1 1 ci CO 1 O I 1- 1 CO 1 ci 1 -H ] ^ id l-< 1 Tl 1 ^ , ^ 1 1^1 4_3 €©" ! 1 1 I 1 1 •r-H 1 1 t-^ ^ P^ 1 1 1 1 1 af 1 1 I ' ' 1 CD 1 1 ' 1 +^ _^ ' 1 1 ' I ' 03 o* 1 1 1 1 I 1 -t-i o c- 1 t^ 1 — 1 1— ' 1 '^"^ 1 <^ 1 m LC ^ w 1 — ' :? ' o 1 lo 1 o ^ 1 C( 1 1— 1 [ O 1 O 1 1— < CD CD t- 1 CO 1 OJ 1 03 1 C5 1 Ol ^ ' ! 1 1 1 -^ «■ 1 1 <^-l ii 1 1 ' 1 1 1 O o I 1 ' 1 1 ! S 1 1 ' 1 1 1 '© 1 1 1 I 1 • rH ^ 1 ' ' 1 1 —J '''II' ■'W r1 rH CC 1 1 1 1 1 1 rii) ' 1 1 ' 1 ' S 2 1 j 1 1 1 1 03 k.4 9 ! 1 1 t'! rH 1 1 M ■2J 1. ci ^ gi-gi.sj ^\E\ Si EH U2 o fe fll^^^^; t^ 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 w 1 1 1 1 1 ^ ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 ' i 1 I M 1 1 ' 1 1 1 o 1 r ' 1 1 1 p r-f Oi,\ CO 1 Tt^ 1 lO ] O t-.i cq Pi 1 1 ' 1 1 1 ' ' ' 1 ' ' 1 1 1 1>I o to '• ^1 BUTTER IGl BUTTER but his experiments show that if the milli is frozen at a temperature of 38° to 29°, they become Bolid, and remain in this condition after the milk is thawed. It can then be separated by churning, it is said, in two minutes, a result usually requir- ing eleven minutes, which is a point of great prac- tical importance. The conclusions of Tisserand, who has made an extended series of experiments upon the ^influence of low temperatures, varying from 33° to 97° (thermometrical quantities are Fahrenheit, raised from the Centigrade scale as given by Tisserand) upon milk and the production of butter, are similar to those of Soxhlet; for he finds that it renders the separation of the cream more rapid, increases its volume and the yield of butter, and improves the quality of the skimmed milk, butter and cheese. These effects increase with a decline of temperature. Dr. E. Lewis Stur- tevant,in a paper on the physiological considera- tions concerning the feeding for butter and cheese, states that milk derives its whiteness and opacity from the presence of innumerable globules of very minute size, floating in a water-like fluid or serum. These globules are composed of the butter-fats inclosed in a capsule or membranous covering, and vary in size from the 1,500th of an inch to gran- ules of less than the 27,000th of an inch in diame- ter. The variation in size varies with the breed; it varies with the time from calving, and it varies with the food. After describing the process of the formation of these globules, and indicating their source, he says they are found to be larger in the Jersey cow than in the Ayrshire cow, and the Ayrshire globules are larger than those from the American Holstein. These globules are cov- ered with a membrane of extreme tenuity, which 'protects their contents, and has to be ruptured through the process of churning before the contents of the different globules can aggregate into but- ter. This covering is more easily broken in some breeds than in others. The Jersey cream can be churned into butter more quickly tlian can the Ayrshire cream. These coverings are also differ- ently aflected by the acidity developed in the milk. Twenty-four hours' standing will hasten the churning of Jersey milk more than will forty- eight hours affect the churning of Ayrshire milk. The contents of these cells are in varying propor- tion, and the mixture seems in part physical. Thus, the butter made from the milk of one breed may be more waxy than butter made in a like man- ner from milk from a cow of a different breed. The butter made from the large globules of a milk appears to be of a superior grain to the butter made from the small globules of the same milk. Globules of a large size are more easily ruptured through the process of churning than those of a small size, and those of extreme minuteness can not be ruptured at all. Thus, the quantity of but- ter obtained in practice is not dependent entirely on the amount of fat in the milk, by analysis, but rests upon the form in which it occurs. By means of a microscopic study of milk, the ex- perienced worker can judge of the butter- value of a milk, and can quickly separate from a herd those cows which produce an unprofitable milk for the butter-pianufactwrer. He can also separate those milks which are the least valuable for the cheese- maker from those that are the most valuable. He can also tell, to a certain extent ,what food will make his milk best for his purpose. Of the effect of food upon the yield of butter, from milk of dif- ferent breeds, the writer says : The question of the 11 effect of food upon the butter is, therefore, prin- cipally a question concerning nutrition, of the di- gestibility of food, and of the ability to cause cer- tain constituents of the food to be taken up in a quantity sufficient for the wants of the animal as determined by sti-ucture. When a cow is produc- ing less butter than her structure fits her for se- creting, then must an increase of proper food in- crease her butler product When her food is unfitted, through its character or condition, to supply the blood with the requisite elements, then must a change of food for the better be beneficial- ly perceived on the butter-jicid. We have an in- dividual influence, however, which complicates the action of nutrition, for the superior cow is more a creature of art, the inferior cow more the ; production of nature, and accordingly the best and poorest cow of a herd being fed with an increased supply of food, in every case the better cow will respond to a greater extent than the poorer. The influence of the fats of the food in acceleratihg di- gestion and other chemical re-actions of the food is of importance in a practical view of the effect of the feeding. It is even probable that the nearer the food given approaches the state in which its elements are found in the product (if the food be digestible in this state), the better the result. It is even probable that the presence of certain oils or fats in the food may influence to some extent the proportionate quantity of the separate oils in the btxtter and the fat. It is hut as we regard an animal as a whole, and attefnpt to know her by the study of the history of how she came to be what she is, as well as what she is, that we can form an understanding of the action or product of any par- ticular part. We recognize the formation of but- ter as allied to the formation of fat, with this es- sential difference — the fats are formed and stored subject to the order of the animal economy; the butter is formed and thrown off, and thus discon- nected with the animal structure, is nominally subject but to the order of an external being, the calf or the milker. The summary of what would be indicated by the theory of the cow and her food is that each cow has a limit to production, gov- erned by structure, and the greater gain of butter is when her food keeps her to this limit and is not in excess. Second, that the character of the food must influence to a certain extent the character of the butter, but that in the presence of abundant and similar food, lieredity exerts a prepotent in- fluence. The third indication is that the propor- tion of the butter stands in no definite relation with the caseine, but that either may be increased within certain limits without a proportionate in- crease of the other. I call this an indication only, for we have not as yet presented the formation of caseine, but will here assume that it arises in the milk through an entirely different process from the butter, and although influenced by structure, yet in a different manner from that in which the butter element is influenced, and there is accord- ingly no necessarily direct co-relation between the quantity of these two products. A summary of facts indicating the same propositions as our theory is, first, that common experience has shown that one cow is always better than some other cow in a herd, and that no matter what may be the food the poorer cow can never, on the same kind of food, and both abundantly supplied, equal in pro- duct the better cow. Our second proposition is shown by the experiments of Thomas Horsfall, as given in full in the Journal of the Royal Agri- BUTTER 162 BUTTER,: cultural Society of England, xvii. 360; xviii. 150. Our third, is the fact that the difference between the butter percentage of various breeds is far greater than is the difference between the case in percentage; that a series of analyses of same milks at different periods from calving indicate no ratio between the two. In relation to the proposition . maintaining that superior cows Tyill always respond to increase of food to a larger extent than inferior ones, Dr. Sturtevant states that in iust so far as animals hEive been removed from the natural state through breeding will they be influenced in their product by a more nutritious and concentrated kind of food; for natural food may not be the best attainable under an artificial environment which not only exists, but has been of long continuance, although the same food may be the best in a state of nature. The art of man consists in intensifying natural conditions in the direction toward his own desires. The natural food of animals, although best for the wild condition, cannot be considered as natural food when the whole condition of life of the animal, and her habits and functions, have been modified to a very large extent from those habits and functions of the undomesticated state; for artificial methods of long continuance, and ar- tificial conditions brought about ■ through ar- tificial environment, tend to so completely change the conditions of being of the wild animal, that what in the wild animal might be an artificial food, may be the natural food for the .domesticated animal, and mce mrsa. In fact, the establishing of harmony between form and function, food and desired product, is the using of the laws of nature through man's power for man's own good. The practical fact, which is wortliy the attention of all those who keep cat- tle, is that an increase of food, gained by the feeding of meals and other concentrated and ar- tificial foods, may perhaps bring profit to the owner of superior animals, while the same course pursued by the owner of indifferent ani- mals would be surely done at a loss. One farmer can feed grain to his better cows and re- ceive a profit on the extra cost, while his neigh- bor, perhaps', with inferior stock, can increase his. product but very little by the same means, and then this increase will not be sufficient to compensate for the extra expense. Im- provement in breed, therefore, should go hand in hand with improvement in feed. The dairy- farmer who believes in artificial feeding, which experience shows to he the true course, must also, for the most profitable results, believe in an artificial breed. As tl^e milk-functions are entirely the creation, in their usefulness, of man, and are hence artificial, the superior cow will pay a larger profit on concentrated food than will another animal, her inferior, while the inferior animals, under the feeding requisite to •btain the best results from a herd as a whole, are kept at a loss. The following is a summary of conclusions from the propositions advanced ; First. That the production of butter is largely dependent on breed. Second. That there is a Btructural limit to the production of butter to each cow. Third. That when the cow is fed to this limit increased food cannot increase the product. Fourth. That the superior cow has Ais structural limit at a greater distance from •rdinary feed, and more ready tp respond to rtimuli than the inferior cow. Fifth. That con- sequently the superior cow is seldom fed to her limit, while the inferior cow may be easily fed beyond her limit; and, as a practical conclusion, increased feed with a superior lot of cows will increase the butter product, but if fed to an inferior lot of cows waste can be but the result. Sixth. That the character of the food has some influence on the character {Of the but- ter, but even here breed influences more than food. Seventh. That there is no constant rela- tion between the butter product and the cheese product. Eighth. That the caseine retains a con- stant percentage, and that this percentage does not appear to respond to increase of food. Ninth. That the caseine appears to remain constant, without regard to the season. Tenth. That increase in the quantity of milk is fol- lowed by an increase in the total amount of caseine. Eleventh. That insufficient food acts directly to check the proportion of butter, and has a tendency to decrease the caseine of the milk and substitute albumen. Twelfth. That the best practice of feeding is to regulate the charac- ter of the food by the character of the animals fed; feeding superior cows nearer to the limit of. their production than inferior cows; feeding, if for butter, more concentrated and nutritious foods than for cheese; feeding for cheese pro- duct succulent material, which will increase the quantity of the milk-yield. Mr. Curtiss, of Wisconsin, upon the subject of making butter, says: It is said that the small dairy farm cannot make good butter. That the odors of the kitchen from cooking, ^moke, etc., uneven temperature, and various contingencies, beyond the control of those manipulating the milk into butter, make it absolutely beyond their power to make a good article. From the usual stand- point I concede this to be a fact, but from an advanced stand point I do not. I much doubt if a better article of butter can be made by any other plan than the common tin pan, pro- vided a pure atmosphere and a temperature of 60° can be controled. "While I claim this, I concede the failure, because the small fa,nn dairies cannot control these unalterable require- ments. Whatever method is adopted to extract the cream from the milk, a uniform tempera- ture is required; that degree of temperature must be in proportion to the quantity of milk set in one body; therefore, if the common, open tin pan, four inches deep, requires a tempera- ture of 60°, a larger body of milk, set at blood heat, would require a colder temperature, or fermentation would take place before the cream rises. A colder temperature can be secured with ice. We also find a colder temperature in the earth, and that a uniform one of about 49°, at a point not exceeding ten feet froin the surface, provided we shut out the uneven atmosphere from above. It has been claimed that the raising of cream required air, but it has been proved that it does not— that it is all the better to ex- clude all air; hence it appears feasible to put in use this regular temperature of 49° in the earth, provided we set the milk in proper quantities. In doing this we find ourselves required to close the vessels containing the milk air-tight; this confines the animal heat, which must be consid- ered in concluding upon the size of the can to hold the milk. I have tried a great many experiments and finally used, for some three months, cans about eight and one-half inches in diameter \>j BUTTER 163 BUTTER twenty deep. The cover was made like a com- mon tin pail, only the flange going inside was two inches wide, and the top of the cover had a tube hole about one-fourth of an inch in diam- eter, soldered fast. The cans were filled and the covers pressed down, while the tube hole was open to allow the air to escape as the flange of the cover entered the milk. The tube hole was then closed with a cork, and then cans were lowered into the well about twenty feet, where they re- mained until the next milking, when they were withdrawn and set in some convenient place until the cream thickened from acidity; it was then easily removed by dipping oil with a saucer. I used these cans from the middle of last June to the middle of September, and it will be remem- bered as a very unfavorable time for making good butter. We found the butter made from the cream raised in this manner to be good; that which was not used or sold (some 300 pounds), was packed for fall and winter use. The un- favorable state of the atmosphere, so loudly com- plained of by others, did not seem to affect the quantity or quality of the butter. In relation to salting butter, and butter packages, Mr. C. C. Buell, of Illinois, very correctly, holds that it is a question whether salt preserves butter at all by acting directly upon it. It probably does not. Its chief use, is to season it. Butter put up for long keeping requires much more salt than that to be usfed new, for the reason that in new-made butter the fresh flavor is dominant and gives to the butter its chief attraction and value. In the long-kept butter salt plays a more important part, and without plenty of it the butter is likely to taste flat and insipid. Employed in the form of brine, distributed through and around the mass of butter, salt may, and undoubtedly does under favorable circumstances, prevent the in- cipient development of germ life; but it is only the incipient development that it can control. Butter already tainted it has no power over. The smallest number of these developed spores lurk- ing in churn, or worker, or ladle, or package, may be sufficient to spoil the whole 'inass, just as a piece of tainted meat, no larger than a walnut, is sure to spoil the whole barrel — and "salt can't save it." So, then, it is only the package for good butter, the well-made butter, the frpsh but- ter, in which is not yet planted the seeds of -decay, that we need particularly to discuss here. Perfectly-made butter, if exposed to the air even but a short time, is as sure to go to destruction as if it were bad at the beginning. Tlie air is full of these elements of destructive life, these spores or germs, and they fall upon the surface of what- ever is exposed to it, or whatever air is, under non-preventive conditiohs, admitted to it. There can be only two kinds, the good and the bad — the air-tight and brine-tight package and the open and the leaky package. We hardly need say more under this head. A package made of what- ever material, not injurious to the flavor of but- ter, and of whatever shape, if it preserves the brine— which should be within, around and over the butter— is a good butter-package for preserv- ing good butter. The commercial package, however, is usually quite a different thing. Its top is open, and its sides and bottom are not closed. The thin layer of salt spread over the top of the butter, the cross-grained, porous wood of stave and bottom, are the open ways of air »nd water. The oak firkin, which is the least used and least, acceptable to the trade, is un- doubtedly the best of the ordinary packages. The Welsh tub, in which most of the Western butter is sent to market, is a little better than the bail-box, which is only next better than the shoe- box and salt-barrel. Qualitative analyses of but- ter, have been tabulated as follows: BUTTEK-rAT. Compoeition. Palmatin. . . Olein Stearine j Arachin } I Biitin. . (■ Myristin . . . Butyrin J Caprin | . 1 Rutin, f . Caproin Capryliu... Discovered by — Heintz (Gmelir's Handbook) xvi. 343. Chevreul (Eeserches 6ur les corps gras) p. 205. Chevreul (Loc. cit.) GOssmasm aud Scheven (Ann.) Cli. Pharm, xcvii. Heintz (Pogg. Ann.) Ixxxvii. 267; xc. 137; xcii. 42fl. Chevreul (Loc. cit.) Chevreul (Gm. xiv. 4IS5). Chevreul (Gm. xi. 414). Lerch (Gm. xvii. 190). All of these fats are composed of three parts of acid united to one part of glycerine as a base; in such union three atoms of water are liberated. The reaction may be represented as follows : (CHOI ■) 20 40 2 f 3H 0-) C H O 2 Y 63122 6 Water. ) Arachin. ( C H O ( 3 H 0-) ,„,„_. ■; 3 8 3— { 2 }- Arachinic acid. ( Glycerine. ( Water. ) The fats, then, should be, more strictly speaking, called respectively, Tri-Olein, Tri-Palmatin, Tri- Stearin , etc. The following may be taken as among the important facts in the setting of cream. 1. The milk globule has a less specific gravity than the water or any other constituent of milk. 3. If the milk is allowed to stand at a high tempera- ture, conditions are immediately produced suit- able to the growth of the little fungus plant, peniciUium crustacevm, and the milk commences to sour before the cream has a chance to form. 3. Water and caseine, etc., grow cool much faster than the milk globules. 4. Since the diameter of the milk globule varies in different breeds, a system which would be practical for the milk containing the largest globules, might totally fail if applied to any other milk. What is needed is a system applicable to mixed milk. 5. While the milk globules expand more by heat, and contract more by cold, than the water of the milk, still they are poorer conductors of heat than the water and caseine of milk, and consequently ex- pand more slowly on the application of heat, and contract more slowly on the application of cold. It would not be difficult from these facts to reason that the proper system to be adopted is to place the milk in a room, the temperature ot which is a few degrees below the lowest pomt which it is desirable for the milk to reach. By adopting this means, the milk from a warm state is cooled gradually down, which sends the milk globules rapidly up, not only for the reason that the fluid in which they are suspended becomes cooled faster than the globules, but because at the same time it becomes heavier. The workmg of butter, packing and transportation, are of great importance in its manufacture. We once heard the late and lamented Charles Bragdon, a good iudee of butter, say, ' ' God bless the woman wh« works butter too much." This was in the days when butter working and improved machinery were little known. The washing of butter, an* BUTTER 164 BUTYRIC ACID taking it from tlie churn when yet in a granular state, and butter -workers, have left no excuse for over-working butter to get out the butter milk. Shown, are two of the best forms of butter workers ; they should be used in every establish- ment where butter is made in consider- able quantity for market The ac- companying cuts wUl show improved forms. In packing IMPllOVED BUTTER WORKERS. butter it should be pressed entirely solid, in such forms of packages as will best enable this to be accomplished. Orange county tubs and barrels makers, who have responsible agents for hand- ling their goods. It is carried in refrigerator cars, and removed to other refrigeratoranrnmedi--^; ately from the cars, "served fresh eVery'morning in time for breakfast — some makers getting as high as seventy -five cents per pound, however low the ordinary price may be. BUTTER, ADULTERATION OK. (See Butter.) BUTTER FACTORY. (See Creamery.) \.:l, BUTTERFLY. Insects of the genus Paimtt (Linn.) in the imago state. Many of them are^ ORANGE COUNTY TUBS AND BARREL. leave but little to be desired in this direction. They are easily cleaned, compact and quite water- tight; 1 another form is also much used, and is much liked by grocers, since the butter may be easily turned out for cut- ting up. If butter is to be transported in summer it must never be allowed to become even partially ,8oft. Hence, many de- vices have been invented for accomplishing this purpose, on^ of which is, shown with a dead air BUTTERrLT AND CAT£RFII,LAB. produced from caterpillars most injurious to cul- tivated plants and trees, as the gooseberry and cabba-ge butterflies; which see. They have four vrings, imbricated wjth downy scales. The body is hairy^ and the tongue convoluted in a spiral form. There are numerous species, now formed into a group, subdivided into tribes,, families and genera. The butterfly deposits its eggs, which hatch into caterpillars. These change to chrys- alides, which again, after ' undergoing hy- ■ bernation, come forth as the perfect butterfly. The food of the perfect insect is honey only, but the group, in the caterpillar state, con- space at the side, the butter so arranged that it is carried in pound pats, perfectly cold. In large cities, so packed, it brings high prices, when branded with the name of well-known respectable tains some most destructive insects to vegetation. The butterflies are among the ,most beautiful of the insect tribes. This, however, does not pre- vent their larvse from also being, many of them, most destructive to vegetation, probably quite ^ much so as the larvse of moths— another beautj-'; ful family, in their perfect state. Hence, they ,, should be destroyed wherever found. The cut shows a, catei-pillar; h, butterfly; c, d, sections of caterpillar enlarged. BUTTERNUT. (Bee Walnut.) ^ BUTTON-TVOOB. False Sycamore. The, Western Plane-tree (Platanus occidentals) is one of the largest and handsomest trees of America, ' and reaches its full dimensions only in the rich alluvion of the Middle- Western States, and on the banks of the Ohio. The wood is soft, and .decays rapidly when exposed, but is servicKibte» lor ^ carpentry if kept dry. The tree in the Northern States has been much injured by early frosts and BUTTS. The short ridges which are made by the plow in the corners of irregular fields. BUTYRIC ACID. An oily volatile acid found in rancid butter, and having a rancid smell; it is soluble in water, alcohol and ether; boils at CABBAGE 165 CABBAGE 213°. It is formed by the oxidation of the com- ponent of hutter called butyrine, and yields, by distillation from lime, butyrone a neutral volatile liquid. BUXU8, The generic name of the box plants. BUZZAKD. Among the birds injurious to the farmer, as generally understood, may be mentioned some of the buzzards: The Red-tailed Buzzard, or Hen Hawls \Faloo Borealis); Har- lan's Buzzard (i?*. Ra/rlani), and the Broad-winged Buzzard, or Broad-winged Hawlc, {F. Pennsyhan- ieits); the Large-footed Hawk (F. Peregrinus); the Sharp-shinned Hawlc {F. Fuseus) of Audu- bon, also belonging to this family. Tlie Red- tailed Buzzard is found in every part of tlie United States and Canada, and thence to the Gulf of Mexico. In very severe seasons it mi- grates, from the Middle States, South. In Louisi- ana, it builds its nest in February, but in the North not until about corn-planting time. Its flight is long-continued and firm, of ten very higli. It sails to great distances without apparent, mo- tion of the wings, and it has the habit, when it discovers its prey, of descending to a convenient distance, from whence, with closed wings, it darts upon it with great accuracy. Squirrels, rabbits, wood-rats and meadow-mice, are its favorite food; but when driven by hunger, it will make bold assaults upon the poultry of the barn-yard, and hence has come to be looked at as a dreaded enerjiy of the yard. It, however, takes but very few poultry, and the vermin it destroys constitute it a help rather than an enemy to agriculture. The range of the Broad-winged Buzzard is west of the Alleghanies, but is by no means rare east, even in Maryland and Virginia, about its south- ern limit, except in severe winters at the North, when it sometimes migrates even as far south as the Gulf States. The flight of this bird is easy, ; graceful and usually in circles. Sometimes when •high in the air, it will close its wings for a mo- ment, and glide easily along. Its food is any bird it may overcome, especially young chickens and ducks, also wood frogs, snakes, and such small quadrupeds as it can easily seize. In winter its food is insects, and various small animals, Harlan's Buzzard is a Southern species, and com- paratively rare. The flight is powerful, protracted and so rapid that it seizes its prey with apparent ease. They are destructive to farm-yard poultry, partridges, and the smaller species of ducks. The Large-footed Hawk is rather a rare bird, generally found in the Southern States and, if not identical, is nearly allied to the Wandering, or Passenger Falcon of Europe. Its astonishing rapidity and quick evolutions, when in the pur- suit of prey are admirable, and it is strongenough to even cope with the Mallard Duck. Wild and tame pigeons, black birds, other small birds, small ducks and water-hens are its usual prey. When ready to seize its prey, it descends like an arrow, and is recorded to have carried ofE wound- ed game within thirty yards of the sportsman. The Sharp-shinned Hawk is found in every State and Territory in the Union, but is more abundant in the Middle and Southern States, than farther North. It has no regular migration, but in severe winters follows the small birds South. In its flight it moves by sudden impetuous dashes; the flight, like the Gos-hawk, is irregular, swift, vigorous, and often protracted. It seizes its prey with great impetuosity, often dashing head- long into a clump of bushes or briers and emerg- ing successfully. For these reasons, Mr. Audu- bon has called it the miniature of the Gos-hawk. Sometimes two or three will unite in attacking a victim too large for one. Birds from the spar- rows to wild pigeons, small reptiles, insects and young cliickens are its prey. When it learns to take chickens, it will destroy large quantities of them, even in the presence of man. BYSSUS. A general name for the thread- like mould of cellars and caverns of vegetable origin. They belong to many genera, and to the family of fungi. o CABBAGE. Brassica oleracea capitata. Of the various classes of culinary vegetables the cabbage family (Brassica) is most ancient, as well as most extensive, being cultivated in all quarters of the globe frorn the Torrid Zone to the Arctic Circle. Of the 1,000 species enumer- ated by Dr. Lindley, all are harmless, and many of them are highly useful. It was a favorite Vegetable among the ancient Romans, and was introduced wherever their ,armies penetrated. Cabbage delights in a deep, rich, loamy soily though it will flourish in any soil, not too dry, if well manured. The cabbage is a gross feeder, and gardeners generally give the land at least forty loads of rich manure per acre. For extra early heads sow the seed in February or early in March, in a hot-bed, and transplant when large enough, four inches apart, in a cold frame. Just before corn-planting time the plants may be set in the open air in rows, nearer or further apart, according to the variety. Un- der ordinary circumstances, the seed may be sown in a mild hot-bed about the middle of March, or in a cold frame April 1st, and trans- planted to the open air when from four to six inches high. The cultivation consists in keeping the spaces bet ween the rows mellow with the culti- vator, and the earth about the plants frequently stirred with a hoe or narrow rake. The following is a list of varieties: Early varieties— Early Wakefield. Plant twenty inches apart between rows, and eighteen inches in the row. Early York, one of the earliest and most reliable sortsl Plant twenty inches apart between rows, and fifteen inches apart in the row. Winning- stadt. Plant two feet by eighteen inches. Ih- termediate varieties— Small Ox-heart; an excel- lent, firm, hardy variety. Plant two feet by six- teen inches. Large Ox-heart; about a week later than the preceding; excellent and firm head. Plant two feet apart each way. Fott- ler; a very firm variety, a constant header, and in good repute in the Western United States. Plant two feet apart each way. Early Flat Dutch; an excellent cropper, and siu-e to head. Plant thirty inches by two feet. Pomeranian; a medium sized cabbage, the heads like an elongated cone; the leaves are peculiarly twisted at the top; good for autumn or win- ter; solid and bearing carriage well. Plant CABBAGE BUTTERFLY 166 CABBAaE BUTTERFLY two feet apart each -way. Late cabbage — Pre- Kdum Plat Dutch; the best cabbage for general cultivation, doing well South or North; one of the best late fall or winter cabbages, keeping through the winter, and even to May, perfectly sound. Plant three feet by thirty inches apart. Stone-mason; a good, solid cabbage, tender and sweet. Plant three by three feet. ,Large, Late Drumhead; a hardy variety, rather loose in the head, but generally heading well. Plant three by three feet apart. Champion of America; this cabbage is of an immense size, sometimes attaining a weight of forty pounds; is a gbod, tender, well-flavored sort, but objectionable on account of its size. Plant three and a half by three and a half feet apart. There are many ways of saving cabbage through the winter. For use during the season of hard frosts the cabbage may be taken up and set in the ground on their roots, in the cellar. For late winter or spring use, dig a trench on some dry spot, four and a half feet wide, and to a depth of the head of the cabbage, not counting the root. Just before the ground freezes up, or when hard freezing nights occur, place the cabbage heads down, as thickly together as possible, throwing the earth over the whole as you extend the trench, so as to cover the cabbage up to the roots. So proceed until you have the whole buried. *When the ground freezes pretty solid — fully down to the heads — cover all over with straw (flax ^traw is best) to keep the frost in as long as possible. In this way the heads may be preserved intact, and in any quantity, until the first of May. The insects attacking cabbage are numerous. Cut-worms, Flea-beetles, and other insects, attack the young plants in the seed- bud; later, the most destructive are the larvaj of the Eiiropean and American Cabbage Butter- fly. These may be found under their appropriate names. CABBAGE BUTTERFLY. There are va rioua butterflies infesting the cabbage. Until the European form (Pieris rapm)- -was introduced, however, but little difficulty was experienced in keeping them in check We give an illustration of the southern species of larva and caterpillar (P. protodice). Dr. Riley says, P. verndlis is but the spring form of P. protodice. The illustra- tion will serve as a key to the various species which infest the cabbage. Of these pests. Dr. Thomas says: The Southern Cabbage-worm ^ee illustration, a, larva, and b, pupa on leaf.) BOCTHERN CABBAQE BUTTEnFLT. IB very widely distributed, being found even in the lugh altitudes of the nfountains; but for all that the name is appropriate, being more abundant m the warmer portions of the United States, and there often proving very destructive to the cab- ■age crop, taking the place in that sense, of the Rape Butterfly, whose latitude is further north. It is quite common in Illinois, but it has been injurious here only to a limited extent, apd that cmefly in the vicinity of the large cities. One of the reasons why it is not so abundant further north seems to be that the chrysalides are more susceptible to the influences of our long, cold winters, than some other kinds. This does not destroy the species, but only sef ves to lessee the number of chrysalides that pass the winter with- out injury, thereby lessening the number of in- dividuals of the spring brood of butterflies. The larva, or caterpillar, is of a greenish-blue color, with four longitudinal yellow stripes, and covered with black dots. When newly hatched it is of a uniform orange color, with a black SOUTHBKN CABBAGE-WOKM. head, but it becomes a dull brown before the first moult. The longitudinal stripes and blaek spots are only visible after the skin has been cast the first time. The chrysalis varies some- what in color, but is generally a light bluish- gray, more or less speckled with black, the ridges and prominences edged with buff or red- dish. The two sexes of the perfect -insect differ some in color. In the male the wings are white, with a large trapezoidal spot at the end of th«r discal cell of the fore Wings, and an oblique in- terrupted black band near the outer border, with a little black on the veins at the outer end. The hind wings are without spots. The female is darker, the black of the fore wings more in- tense, with the hind wings tinted with grayish. There are at least two broods of the worms in a season. They are to be found on cabbages, in all stages of growth, through the months of July, August and September. The last brood pass the winter in the chrysalis state, and be- come the first brood of butterflies in the spring of the next year. The European Cabbage But- terfly, since its introduction, has proved fear- fully destructive to the cabbage crop both East and West, and is now found even west of the Mississippi river. As yet, no sure means has befen found for counteracting its ravages. Its history in America is as follows: It was intro- duced from Europe to Quebec, Canada, about the year 1857, and from thence it went south- wards along the railway lines to New York, Philadelphia and Washington, and thence east and westward over the whole country from the Atlantic Ocean to west of the Mississippi>-and north and soutli from Canada to Virginia. This species is described as a pale green worm, an inch and a half long, finely dotted with black; a yellow stripe down the back, and a row of yellow spots along each side, in a line with th» stigmata or breathing pores. The eggs from CABBAGE BUTTERFLY 167 CABBAGE BUTTERFLY •which these are produced are laid on the under side of the leaves. There are at least two broods of the worms in a season, the first changing to chrysalides in June aiid hatching to butterflies in seven or eight days afterwards, while the second brood pass the winter in the pupse state. The chrysalis is variable in color, being sometimes yellowish-brown or yellow, and passing thence into green, speckled with minute black dots. The perfect insect is about the size of the Turnip Butterfly. In color the body is black in the male, the wings white, with the tip and a dot near the middle of the front wings black, and a black dash in the front edge of the hind wings. On the under side, there are two black dots on the fore wings, while the tip and the whole surface of the hind wings are lemon-yellow. ., In the female the upper side of the wings are a whitish- ochre, while the lemon-yellow of the under side is more intense than in the male, and there are two dots ,on the upper side of the fore wings in- stead of one. These caterpillars differ from the foregoing kinds, and also from the Turnip But- ^terfly noticed hereafter, in their manner of ' eating. While the larvae of the Southern Cabbage and the Turnip Butterflies feed mostly on the out- side leaves, going but little, if any, into the head ; these are much more destructive, as they have the habit of boring into the intei'ior of the head. "When about to change to chrysalides they, like the last, leave the cabbage and attach their chrysalides to the under side of sticks, pieces of board and stones that are above the ground, etc. — anything that can offer a shelter and support. In relation, to remedies. Dr. Tliomas says . Ad- vantage may be taken of the fact that the full- grown catei-pillars leave the cabbages for some sheltered place in which to undergo their trans- formations, 'by placing boards, that are raised a little from the ground, among the infested plants. By examining these boards every five or six days and destroying the chrysalides, the future work of the worms may be very materially less- ened. Where there are but few infested plants, the caterpillars may be destroyed by hand. As the worms work inside the heads more than either of the other species, chicken picking would be of but little service, as they would not find those that were doing the most damage. Heads that are so badly infested that they are past re- covery, should be burned, as by that means all the insects that might be in them in the different stages of development, as well as the eggs, would be destroyed. In addition to the above methods of attacking the insects in the worm and chrysa- Kde state, the butterflies that are seen flying over the cabbages may be caught, thereby preventing the eggs being laid on the plants. For this pur- pose a net may be used, made of musquito bar or other light material, fastened to a hoop of light wire attached to a stick about three feet long, for a handle. To be convenient to handle, the hoop should be about ten inches in diameter, and the wire not any heavier than is necessary to give it that degree of stiffness to keep its shape. The depth^of the net should be twice the diameter of the hoop. As with other insects, man is not •Miged to do all the fighting in this case; some species of birds, it is said, devour the larvae, and also the perfect mseot; but the most effective foe to this species is a small Chaltis V\j (Pteromalus puparum) that seems to follow close in the wake of its host. It had been supposed that this valuable little parasite was only a native of Eu- rope, and had been introduced into this country at about the same time as the Rape Butterfly, but Packard is of the opinion that it is a native of this country, and preys also upon the other species of Pieris. The chrysalides of the butterfly that were infested by this parasite, could easily be told by the livid and otherwise discolored and diseased appearance. In destroying chrysalides, such should not be destroyed, as by allowing them to remain, the parasites, instead of butter- flies, will hatch front them and then serve as so much additional help toward the destruction of the Cabbage- worms. The specific character is given as follows : Male — expanse of wings about 1.75 inches. Ground color of both wings above, white. The tip of the fore wings and a round spot near the middle, black. The hind wings have a dash of the same color on the costa a little beyond tlie middle. Both wings dusky at base. Underside fore wings white, with black spots, the second near the hind angle, and the tip lemon-yellow, the same color reaching a little on the costa toward the body. Hind wings uniform lemon-yellow. Both wings sprinkled somewhat near the base with gray scales. There is a variety of the male that has the same markings but the ground color above is lemon-yellow. Female — differs from the male as follows: The color above is a light ochre-yellow instead of white. The marks are the same, except a second black dot near the hind angle of the fore wings; under- side, the lemon-yellow on both wings is more intense, and expands along the costa and outer margin of the fore wings. The body is black above in both sexes, but light beneath. The Turnip butterfly {Pieris oleracea) is so nearly related to the foregoing, that we give place to it here. Dr. Harris describes it as follows: About the last of May and the beginning of June it is seen fluttering over cabbage, radish, and turnip beds and patches of mustard for the purpose of . depositing its eggs. These are fastened to the undersides of the leaves, and but seldom more than three or four are left upon one leaf. The eggs are yellowish, nearly pear-shaped, longi- tudinally ribbed, and are one-fifteenth of an inch in length. They are hatched in a week or ten days after they are laid, and the caterpillars pro- duced from them attain their full size whea about three weeks old, and then measure about one inch and a half in length. Being of a pale green color, they are not easily distinguished from the ribs of the leaves beneath which they live. They do not devour the leaves at its edge, but begin indiscriminately upon any part of its underside through which they eat irregular holes. When they have completed the feeding stage they quit the plants and retire beneath palings, or the edges of stones, or into the interstices, of walls, where they spin a little tuft of silk, en- tangle the hooks of their hindermost feet in it, and then proceed to form a loop to sustain the fore part of their body in a horizontal or vertical position. On the next day it casts off its cater- pillar skin and becomes a chrysalis. This is some- times of a pale green and sometimes of a white color, regularly and finely dotted with black; the sides of the body are angular, the head is sur- mounted by a conical tubercle, and over the fore part of the body, corresponding to the thorax of the included butterfly, is a thin projection having in profile some resemblance to a Roman nose. CACTUS 168 CALF The chrysalis state of the earlier broods lasts ten or twelve days, but the last brood does not come out till the following spring. Both wings of the butterfly are white, without spots, but dusky next to the body. The underside of the wings are sometimes quite .variable, the tips of the fore wings being greenish or lemon-yellow, with the veins of that portion bordered with gray scales, and the hind wings covered all over with these two colors; or, they may be less intense though the gray scales along the veins in the hind wings are usually very distinct. The body is a little lighter than the preceding species, and the an- tennae are tipped with light yellow instead of white. The expanse of the "wings is about an inch and three-fourths. The ranges of this pest in, the West for the last few years, has been so extensive in the market gardens of our large cities as to render the successful raising of mar- ketable cabbages almost impossible. Thus it is important that eveiy means should be used to destroy the insects. Unfortunately, the fact that the head of the cabbage, the edible part, is di- rectly preyed on, renders it dangerous to employ poisonous compounds. In fact, scarcely any of the many remedies proposed have proved effectual. Chloride of lime in solution, has been - reported to the editor of this work, by a success- ful German gardener, as the best known means in his country. Solutions of salt and various other compounds seem to have very little effect. Mr. P. T. Quih, of New Jersey, was successful in saving 75,000 cabbages with a loss of only five per cent, by using the following: Twenty parts of superphosphate, one part carbolic pow- der, and three parts air-slacked lime, all well mixed together and dusted freely over the plants and into the heads, at^ intervals of four days. The present season, 1880, we have noticed less than formerly of any of the species near Chicago, not enough to render anything but hand picking necessary. The probability is that persistent work heretofore)''and the^ increase of parasitic insects, have caused the decline, a fact worthy the attention of all cabbage raisers. Assistance to the natural enemiss always pays, where the destruction of any noxious insect is concerned, a fact not generally known outside of those circles where science goes hand in hand with practice. CABBAGE TREE. OMmmrops palmetto. (See Palmetto ) ' CACTUS. A tribe of fleshy plants, some of which are cultivated for their splendid flowers, and pleasant acid fruits, the whole family be- ing curious in their habit of growth. There are several species of cactus, the principal in cultiva- tion being Oereus, Echinoaactus, Mammillaria, and Opuntia. The well known Night-blooming Cereus, belongs to the first. The Hedge-hog cactuses to the second. The Prickly Pear be- longs to the Opuntias. Bpiphylhim, known as Crab cactus, is also a species containing many fine varieties. These are usually grafted on peres- kia stocks, especially E. ti'uncatum one of the finest of early winter bloomers and magnificent in every respect. The writer prefers Oerem Heza- gonm, or Bpedods^mus, one grafted at a height of two feet, then allowing buds of the Cereus to start, and again grafting when it has grown six or eight inches, makes a. very pretty combina- tion,difEerent varieties being used. Take a shoot of epiphyllum two inches long, pare off the outer skin or bark half an inch or less, at the base, and then cut that which is to be inserted in a wedge- shape. Make an incision in the angles of the stock, or in the top, with a pointed stick of the shape of the graft, insert it, fasten it with a thm sliver of wood, cover with moss, place them in a rather warm, shady place, syringe over the top occasionally, and they should unite in two or three weeks. All the cactus tribe should be kept quite dry during the season of rest. They should only be kept moderately moist at any time. They all root freely from cuttings, or sections of the plants, taken when they are in a growing condition, and it is better that they be allowed to dry for some days, after being cut off; especially if pretty succulent. The illustration. Pig. 1, page 169, shows the fruit of the Giant cactus, {Oereus gigan- teus); Fig. 3, fruit of Prickly Pear, (Opuntia); Fig 3, shows one of the Hedge-hog cactus. Echinoeaetus Wislkeni. There are many pf the cactus tribe well adapted to window gardening, from their well known power of withstiinding beat and drouth. At blooming-time, however, they ^require heat and moisture, not continual watering, but a soaking at intervals to keep the soil moist, and if an occasional watering be given with liquid manure, so much the better. CESAREAN OPERATION. The removal of a foetus from its mother by cutting into the womb. CA,FFEIN. A slightly bitter, white, silky principle obtained ifrom coffee, tea, guarana, paullinia and some other plants. Liebig and others have shown that it may act as an asSstant to other food in increasing the amount of bile formed, by furnishing nitrogen thereto. Aspara- gine' and theobromine, analogous principles, act in like manner. CALAMINE. An absorbent for ulcerous sores and extensive bums. It is an impure car- bonate of zinc, prepared by roasting. An, oint- ment made with calamine and lard is sometimes used to promote the healing of sores. CALANDBA. The gentis of wheat weevils. (See Weevil.) CALCARATE. Flowers having a spur like the larkspur are so called. The spur is also calleil a neetarivm. ' CALCAREOUS. Containing carbonate of lime, as calcareous marl, soils, sand, etc. (See Soils and Manures.) CALCINATION. The burning of subst|inces to ashes. CALCIUM. The metallic base of lime, which is an oxide of calcium. A few electro-negative bodies, as sulphur, chlorine, fluorine, form, salts directly with the metal, and are called sulphuret, chloride, fluoride of calcium, etc. ( 'A L< ' SPAR. Crystallized carbonate of lime. CALCULUS. Any solid, stony concretion formed in th? bladder, gall-duct, etc. CALEFACIENT. Medicines that produce the sensation of warmth, as alcohpl, are so called. CALF. The word signifies to throw out or vomit, thus the groove made in sawing, is called the saW-calf or carf . It also signifies a protuber- ance, as the calf of the leg — the swell of themus- cles between the ankle and knee. It is among animals applied to the young of the bovine fepecies, and among fishes to the young of the whale, and other warm-blooded species. In the rearing of calves, the farmer must have in view the purpose for which they are intended. If for beef, the young animals should be pushed forward, from COMPARATIVE WEALTH, INCOME AND DEBT OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES. ^^JSO-STJ, o^^-^ CALF 169 CALF the time of birth, as fast as possible, and as they begin to eat solid food, should early be learned to eat grain. The bulls should be castrated at from four to six weeks old, and the females spayed when they arrive at an age to bring them in heat. When the young are intended for workLing oxen, the dairy, or for breeding, it is not well that they be pushed so strongly, as when inteiMed for beef. When they are intended for veal they should have the same care as when intended for beef, being fully fed with new milk, until six weeks or twc months old, when thej - are ready for slaugh tor. Some feeders f oi veal, especially dairy men, remove the cal ■from the cow at tw( or three days, or week old, and feed b; hand, giving new mill \ for about ten days, anc afterwards skimmec Inilk; and later butter milli, supplemented with the mush of fla corn meal, and oi meal may be used Thus, if placed in i clean, airy, but some what dark, pen the; become very fa( When intended for breeders, calves should have the same general ■ treatment, but should be allowed to take full exercise. They should be k^pt in a well shaded pasture, with shelter where they may escape the flies. This ter should be which will ex- clude insects. Another, shelter should be sup- plied, to which they can retire at will — sim- ply a structure covered with boughs but ad- mitting the air freely — the ob- ject sought be- ing shade, and a cool retreat. Thus they will soon learn to seek the dark quarter secure from flies, or the other light- er, cooler shade for ' rest. In milk, or when the steers are intended for working oxen, there is no objection to their running with their dams and taking the milk. In this case there will be no necessity to give grain the first summer. When weaned, which should be at tile age of four to six months, they should be learned to eat grain — oats preferably— aild during the first winter should have suflicient grain to keep them growing, but not fat ; simply in good muscular reanng for breeders or dai:k, SPECIES -OF CACTUS. CALF 170 CALF condition. The same rule will apply to breeders and animals destined to become dairy cows. They, should not be kept fat, but in good growing, mus- cular condition. See articles on Cattle, Dairy, Live Stock, Working Cattle, etc. Upon the sub- iect of thorough-breds Mr. Charles Lowder, of iridiana, at a convention of Sh9rt-Horn Breeders, in relation to the management of calves, held the following: Upon the care bestowed upon them during the first year of their lives depends their size and value as neat cattle. Abuse and ill-treat- ment during the early life of the calf can never be overcome in subsequent years. The calf, when dropped, should be allowed to remain from twenty- four to forty-eight hours with the dam, unless some very extraordinary circumstances make it necess^iry to remove it. Calves will, in a inajority of cases, get upon their feet and take the teats in due time; but if one should be too weak from any cause to be up within one or two hours after birth, some of the first milk or biestings should be drawn from the cow and given to it. If the cow should, from after-pain or mere indifference, fail to give it proper attention, the herdsman should have it well rubbed with a woolen cloth until dry, and its hair nicely laid by means of a camel-hair brush. After one or two days the calf should be removed from the cow and taken to the stall, where it should be tied fast by means of a leather strap around the neck, or with a head-halter made to fit, ■ which is preferable. It should be allowed to suck the teat three times a day until about two weeks old, and should be led to and from the cow by the halter. If it has been well handled it will by this time be quite gentle and well broken. It may now be turned out so as to have fresh air, su^light, and plenty of exercise. If a steer, and intended to be fed for the shambles, this exercise is not necessary. In that case the more quiet and com- fortable he can be kept, and the more highly fed, the greater will be the net profits. If the calf, whether male or female, is to be grown to matur- ity for breeding purposes, the treatment should be quite different. In the first place the object is to develop the greatest possible amount of soft flesh and fat without any regard to the healthy development of the vital organs, as the heart, lungs, liver, etc. In the latter case due regard must be had for the uniform development and per- fect health of every organ and part of the system. Without exercise the muscular part of the system of young and growing animals is not fully devel- oped, and in the mature animal becomes enfeebled. The heart, being no exception to the law, becomes to soine extent diseased, while the liver and kid- neys share the same fate. With all the vital organs emeebled, the animal is not prepared to with- stand the sudden change of temperature to which it is sometimes exposed. As like tends to produce like, animals with diseased and enfeebled vital organs should not be selected to breed from. Those engaged in rearing calves have several , things to take into consideration. If the cow is an inferior beef -breed, the milk from hex may be worth more to make into butter or cheese than to be given to the calf. In that case the calf should be sent to the butcher as soon as old enough to kill. But if the calf is of good beef -stock, and is to be raised to maturity for that purpose, or to breed from, it should be allowed to suck tWice a day until four, five, or six months old. If an early- spring calf, it will learn to eat grass during the summer, and can be weaned in the fall without much, if anyy loss of flesh. If a fall calf, it will soon learn to eat oats, hay, bran, or sheltered corn, and as the grass starts in the .spring it can be weaned without any check to its growth, the grass answering the place of milk to some extent. When calves are allowed to suck twice a day, care should be taken that they do not get too much milk, as they may become sick, and fail to make as great gains as they would on a less quantity. In case of scours, a little chalk well powdered and placed in a trough, or in some place where it will attract their attention, will frequently be of good service to them. , Calves intended for steers should be castrated when about twe weeks old. The male calves that are to be reared and kept for breeding purposes, should be removed from the females at one or two months old, and placed in a lot , inclosed by a permanent fence, and should not be allowed to run with other cattle a;f terwards. The heifers at one year old should be removed from all other cattle, and placed in a lot by them- selves. At this age, if they have been well fed, they will express their desire for male compjmy, by a great deal of restlessness. If allowed to run with steers or older females they will be worried a great deal to no purpose. Heifers fifteen or eighteen months old are muck more likely to get, in calf than wlien they are kept from breeding until two or two and a half years old, especially if they are fed highly on grain, and are inclined to take on fat. The milking qualities of heifers depend much upon the kmd and amount of food they receiVe while carrying their first calf. They should be in perfect health and in a thriving condition, and kept in full flesh until after calving; If they have been -properly handled while calves, and up to the time when • they are milked the first time, there will be no trouble in breaking them. In relation to the artificial feeding of calves, the following will be interesting: Prof. E. W. Stewart, New York, fed a miscellaneous lot of ten calves wholly upon skim-milk. The milk was all weighed daily and the calves each week. It required of milk for one pound gain— first week, 11. 03 pounds; second week, 13.18 pounds; third week, 1317 pounds; fourth week, 13.40 pounds; fifth week, 14 60 pounds; sixth week, 15.05 ponnds; seventh week, 16.71 pounds; eighth week, 16.80 pounds; ninth week, 17.01 pounds; tenth week, 16.08 pounds; ,^ eleventh week, 16 pounds; twelfth week, 15.90, pounds. The decrease of milk to make one pound live weight, beginning the tenth week, was caused by the calves leairning to eat grass. These calves Were each weighed separately, as was the milk fed to each, and the gaiii was very unequal in different calves, as they were not a uniform lot; but the result stated is the average of the ten. In further illustrating this subject, Mr. A. L. Bradbury, of New York State, m reply to the question. How soon can we begin to substitute other food than milk for our calves! answered: Not the first week, for the calf should have the milk of its dam for one week at least. Now, if we wish to commence to substitute something instead of milk, he must be taken from the cow and taught to drink and. feed the same elements of nutrition the milk contains. Ode quart of milk contains about one and a half ounces of butter, one ounce of sugar, one and a half ounces of caseine, and seventy grains of bone matter. Experiments have shown that one pound CALF 171 CAMEL, of oil or fat is equal to two and a half pounds of starch or sugar; thus one quart of milk contains of flesh-forming material one and a half ounces, of fat or heat-giving material four and one-eighth ounces, or a total of five and flve-eighth ounces of nutritive elements. Now, if we take out one ounce of butter to a quart of milk, we shall have removed one-half of its value for the calf, which we must make up in quantity by doubling up, or substituting starch in the form of buckwheat flour, at the rate of two and a half ounces for every ounce of butter taken away. The better plan is to gradually substitute skimmed milk for the new by adding new milk with warm skimmed milk for its morning and evening meals, and giving it skimmed milk at noon, for it should be fed three times per day at least. When the calf is four weeks old it will do well enough on skimmed milk alone, provided it can have enough, with always keeping good sweet hay by it. Reared in this way, we have our milk for use in the dairy and get much better calves than in the ordinary way of letting them draw the milk themselves until they are ten or twelve weeks old, then taking them away at once. A calf should not be weaned until it is four or five months old. In a cheese-dairy whey and oatmeal can be substituted for skimmed milk, after the calf is two months old, with good success. Another method of raising calves is as follows : For the first week I let them have half of the miUi; then I take them off and teach them to drink. I let the milk stand from twenty-four to thirty-six hours, skim it, warm it milli-warm, and, give it to them, six quarts to a feed, twice a day for the first week or fortnight; then I in- crease the quantity so as to give them all that the cow will give. When they are about four weeks old, I put a little shorts, oatmeal, or oats, cooked potatoes or crusts of bread, in a trough where they can get at it. After they get so as to eat too much, I allowance them to about a pint and a half of oats a day, or something equivalent; and so right on until they are six or eight months eld, increasing tlie feed. I give them milk until they are four months old. If you want to carry the calves up to great growth early, keep them up for eight months; but I usually turn them out to grass when four months old. The first winter! feed some roots with good dry grass, not hay. I have by this system of feeding ma- tured my Jersey calves at seventeen months old. Mr. L. C. Fisher, of Vermont, raises calves as follows: At the age of two days old he takes the calf from the cow, and teaches it to drink its own dam's milk mixed with skimmed milk twelve hours old. At the age of ten days he feeds it exclusively with skimmed milk twelve hours old; at fifteen days, twenty-four hours; at two months, thirty-six; at three months, thick milk, with what dry shorts it will take. As often as once in six weeks he dissolves a piece of saltpeter, as large as a robin's egg, in the milk. He says: With plenty of milk, shorts, early-cut hay, water, and exercise, a calf can be grown from two to three pounds a day for a year. It will be seen from the extracts given, that the testimony of experts is in one direction to feed well, having consideration to the use intended. Yet not one farmer in one hundred does this, and hence the great bulk of calves are allowed to shift for themselves to a great extent, the owners depending upon extra feed at some time in the future, or else upon selling the immature animals to other feeders. The loss, however, always, comes upon the individual who has failed in hia duty while the animal was young; the loss of flesh during the winter having to be regained during the summer, so that the animal must be kept one or two years extra to make up this loss. A loss in fact never fully recovered. CALKS, or CALKINS. The parts of ahorse- shoe turned downward to prevent slipping on pavements and other smooth surfaces. Calking is the cutting, by the calk of the shoe, by step- ping on the coronet of the opposite foot, often, making a bad wound diflicult to heal. The cut should be covered with hot pitch, filling the- cavity, and then bound up to prevent the ani- mal getting dirt in it. In any case it should be kept clean and free of dirt. CALLA. There are four species, chiefly green-house, herbaceous perennials. The genus belongs to the Arum family. O PaVustris, is a native of Northern Europe, and is found in bays and marshes in the United States. The well- known CallaLily( CJSiliwpka) is common in many- windows in winter, and much admired. It is. strictly an aquatic plant, but will give a profusion of bloom if potted in a six or eight inch pot, according to the size of the tubers, in rather strong, rich loam, and freely watered with warm (tepid) water. It is all the better if the pot be- placed in a saucer, constantly kept full of water. The cool purity of its great spathes of pure white- flowers, and the length of time it remains ia bloom, make it a general favorite. When bloomed in winter, the pots should be plunged into the open ground about the first of June, and allowed to gradually dry off. The tubers may then be repotted in September or October, break- ing off all small off-sets, and will thus furnish yearly bloom, the plants increasing in size from year to year. CALLUS. ' When the bone of an animal is broken by accident, nature restores the union by depositing bony matter around the loose extrem- ities, and thus fixing them. This deposit is sometimes called a callus; it should be absorbed after the limb is reestablished. In a generat sense, a callus is any induration, as the palms of a working man, a tumor becoming indurated; in fact any induration of the skin or its tissues. CALOMEL. The sub-chloride of mercury. A medicine formerly much used to produce an increased secretion of bile and purgation, and a component of many live-stock medicines. It is now far less used for man or beast than for- merly. CALORIC. Heat, or pertaining to the matter of heat. Really the source of the phenomena in, nature producing force. (See Heat.) CALYX. The outer green ease of fioweis. It protects the internal parts. It is colored in many plants, as in tulips, hyacinths, etc. CAMBIUM. The viscid secretion separating^ the alburnum from the liber in the spring. It affords the materials out of which the new wood, and bark are partly made, and disappears in &. short time, or when the season's growth is finished. During the deposit of the cambium the bark easily peels. CAMEL. A genus of ruminant animals with- out horns, and probably among the first, if not the first of animals domesticated by man. So long has the camel (called the ship of the desert> CAMPHOR- '" 172 been domesticated that its original country" can not be definitely fixed; tliougli Diodorus and Strabo mention it as existing wild in the deserts of Arabia, and JDesmoulins asserts that it so existed there in the time of the Emperor Hadrian. The probability is, that even these aninials escaped from domestication, as have those, probably, still said to exist in the wilds of Central Africa and Asia. In desert regions it is the most valuable of servants. Attempts have been made to domesti- cate the camel in the United States. (See Article ■on Acclimation.) CAMELLIA JAPONICA. A beautiful ever- green, green-house shrub, much sought after for its •elegant flowers, in various tints of red to pure white. There are numberless varieties, but it is not adapted to house culture, since the plants are apt to drop their buds. CAMPANULA. Canterbury-bell. This is a hardy perennial, blooming profusely, in long spikes, the flowers being borne in succession along the &tem. It is of the easiest cultivation, OANTERB[JRT-BBLL. only requiring a well-drained soil, but is better, as all flowers are, for a covering in winter. Sow the seeds in the spring, and transplant to the border. If sown in a hot-bed and transplanted once before being finally put into the border, they will blossom the first season, but require the second or third year to come into their full vigor of blossoming. It is also called Bell-flower a name common to other flowers of the bell shape The cut shows the flower, natural size, and also plant reduced at the left. Of late years many of our old-fashioned flowers have been discarded for newer and more fashionable ones of less "eauty. The old-fa4hioned Canterbury-bell should not be one to be cast' aside. ^ CAMPANULATE. Bell-shaped; applied to *°;^era of that figure, as the. Canterbury-bell , CAMPHOR. A solid essential oil consisting of carbon and hydrogen It is a nervous seda- tive, soothing pain. It is obtained in the crude state by distilling the twigs, roots, etc., of sev- eral plants, chiefly the Lauras cwmplwra and - , , ■' CANCE^ Brydbiilanops eamphora, trees of .tropical Asia. Camphor is peculiarly disagreeable to in. sects which infest cloth and woolen goods. The solution in alcohol is the commonest form of the medicine. A solution in oil is an admir- able embrocation to painfiil sprains, rheuma- tism, etc. Camphor is found in numerous herbs, especially peppermint, rosemary, thyme, lavender, etc. The quantity is minute. CANADA THISTLE. (See Thistle.) CANADIAN PONJ. The Canadian pony is distinct in many characteristics and was, undoubt- edly, originally derived from the French horses brought oyer to Canada in its earliest settle- ment: Dwarfed by generations of exposure and semi-wildness, and subsequently crossed upon various stocks of horses introduced into Canada, these nervous animals are valuable in proper'-, tion to the characteristic points of the supposed-" original progenitors, the Norman, or PercheroB' Horses. Their characteristics are: Head rather large, biit lean and well-formed; forehead broad; ears wide apart, but upright; the eye small, clear, bright, and indicating spirit and courage; the shoulders strong, rather straight, with somewhat low, heavy withers, but with a broad, full chest; the body compact, inclining to flatness, but with firm, muscular t loins; the croup round and fleshy, with muscular thighs; the legs heavy-looking, with large joints, but with sound, flat bones; the feet are hard, tough, and of the very best, so that the limbs and feet are the perfection of form for beauty and endur- ance; the average height is about fourteen hands; the mane and tail are very heavy, and with a peculiar -wavy form, and the back sinews and fetlocks are also covered with long, and often shaggy hair. The principal colors are black and brown, but chestnuts are not infra-, quent.. Occasionally a dark iron-way is found, with black legs, mane and tail. These are es- pecially prized. Sorrels and dun-colored ani- mals are not uncommon. These have lighter , manes and tails than the darker colored ponies, and are probably the result of crosses with the English blood horse: The Canadian pony, though not speedy, is capable of pulling the trotting load of a horse at the rate of six to seven miles an hour, and this, day in and. day out, up and down hill, and on a level. They are easily kept, docile, spirited, of undaunted courage and perseverance, and sure-footed op the -worst possible ground. Crosses of thorough- bred, on Canadian mares of good form and action have produced , some wonderful trotting and pacing, as witness the get of St. Lawrence. We have one in mind, now, owned by a promi- nent butcher of Chicago,; a little black mare, now fourteen years old, that has pulled her owner to and from the city daily for six years, a distance of seven miles, never requiring more than forty minutes, and capable at any time of showing a three-minute gait, whether trotting or pacing. As a rule they are somewhat headstrong; but if properly trained, they make nice pony teams that an invalid lady may fearlessly drive. CANCELLATE. Pull of cells, as tlic ends of long bones. Cellular, as the porous structure of bones. In botany, consisting of a network of veins without intermediate parenchyma, as in the leaves of certain plants. CANCEK. A malignant tumor, at first hard and painful, afterward ulcerous, attacking glahds CANKER WORM irs CANKER WORM chiefly. The only remedy is extirpation, -wliicli should be done as soon as its nature- is dis- covered. Cancer of the eye is not uncommon in cattle and horses, produced probably by blows and ill-usage. CANE SUGAR. (See Sugar) CANIS. The generic name of the dog species. CANKER IN THE HORSE. The separation of the hoof from the fleshy parts of the leg, at- tended with a diseased growth. Pressure and caustics are necessary, with rest, for a cure. Cast the horse, and cut away all diseased growths, touch the diseased parts with nitrate of silver, pack with' dry tow and put on a leather boot, and apply pressure, moderately tight to the fetlock. Soak away the dressing in two days, and if fungous growths have not dis- appeared, dress the surface with nitrate of sil- ver, or, if deep-seated difiiculty is suspected, use a wash of forty grains of chloride of zinc and one ounce of water. This is excellent for all foul wounds and ulcers that can not be reached ■ by the pencil of nitrate of silver. The part may be freely syringed with the solution as given above. Canker should really be treated under advice of a veterinary surgeon. Canker in trees, is a /gangrene attacking both fruit and trees, shown by enlargement of the vessels of the bark of a branch, or the stem itself. Cutting out the gangrene, painting the exposed surface with collodion, and the application of liquid manure to stimulate growth are appropriate remedies. CANKER-WORM. The moth from which this destructive worm is produced belongs to the genus Anisopteryx, so named from the fact that in some species the sexes are very unequal in size, and in others the females are wingless. This is the case with the Canlter-worm. The cuts repre- sent the insect in its various stages' of develop ment. The following description of the Canker- worm is from Dr. Harris' Insects Injurious to Vegetation: Their general time of rising is in the spring, beginning about the middle of March, but sometimes before and sometimes after this time: and they continue to come forth for the space of about three weeks. It has been observed that there are more females than males among those that appear in the autumn and winter, and that the males are most abundant in the spring. The sluggish females instinctively make their way towards the nearest trees, and creep slowly up their trunks. In a few days afterwardg they are followed by the winged and active males, which flutter about and accompany them in their ascent, during which the insects pair. Soon after this,~the females lay their eggs upon the branches of -the trees, placing them on their ends, close together in rows, f onning clusters of from sixty to one hundred eggs or more, which is the number usually laid by each female. The eggs are glued to each other, and to the bark, by a grayish varnish, which is impervious to water; and the clusters are thus securely fastened in the forks of the small branches, or close to the young twigs and buds. Immediately after the insects have thus provided for a succession ot their kind, they begin to languish, and soon die 'The eggs are usually hatched between the first and the middle of May, or about the time that the red currant is in blossom, and the young leaves of the apple-tree begin to start from the bud and grow. The little Canker-worms, upon making theu- escape from the eggs, gather upon the tender leaves, and, on the occurrence of cold and wet weather, creep for shelter into the bosom of the bud, or into the flowers when the latter appears. A very great difference of color is observable among Canker-worms of different ages, and even among those of the same age and size. It is possible that some of these variations may arise from a difference of species; but it is also ti-ue that the same species vary much in color. When very young they liave two minute warts On tlie top of the last ring; and they are theu generally of a blackish or dusky-brown color, with a yellowish stripe on each «de of the body; there are two whitish bands across the' head, and the belly is also whitish. When fully grown these individuals become ash-colored on the back, anS black on the sides, below which the pale yellowish line remains. Some are found of a dull greenish-yellow and otjiers of a clay color, with slender interrupted blackish lines on the sides, and small spots of the same color on the back. Some are green, with two white- stripes on the back. The head and the feet partake of the general color of the body; the belly is paler. When not eating, they remain stretched out at full length, and resting on their , fore and hind legs, beneath the leaves. When fully grown and well fed, they measure nearly or quite one inch in length. They leave off eat- ing when about four weeks old, and begin to quit the trees ; some creep down by the ■ trunk, but great numbers let themselves down by their threads from the branches, their instinct prompt- ing them to get to the gi-ound by the most direct and easiest course. When thus descending, and suspended in great numbers under the limbs of trees overhanging the road, they are often swept off by passing carriages, and are thus conveyed to other places. After reaching the ground, they immediately burrow in the earth to the- depth of from two to six inches, unless prevented by weakness or the nature of the soil. In th& latter case, they die, or undergo their transforma- tions on the surface. We give cuts of the Fall Canker-worm, male and female, lai-va and chrys- alis. Pig. 1 represents ■ a, b, egg, side and top. Pia. 1. views- c d, joints of larva, side and top views, magnified; «, batch of eggs; /, full grown larva; g, female chrysalis, natural size ; A, top view of, akd tubercle of, chrysalis enlarged. Fig. 3 shows r Pig. 2. a, male moth; 6, female, natural size; c, joints. CANKER "WORM 174 CANTHARIDE8 of female antennae; d, joints of female abdomen,, magnified, to bring out their pecular marliings. The Spring Canker-worm (^. vernaia) is repre- sented by the cut as shown below, male and female, and also the larva or caterpillaV; a, sliows the eggs natural size; b, eggs magnified; c, cater- pillar; d, cocoon of the worm while passing to the chrysalis state; e, chrysalis of male; /, male moth (winged); g, female (wingless). In relation to means of extermination, the Spring Canlcer- worm {A. v&rnata), with its chrysalis in a simple •earthen cell, is severely injured and often killed, by late fall plowing. The Fall Canker-worm ■will not be Injured severely by plowing, since the cocoon is thick, yielding, and interwoven with particles of earth. Many plans for preventing the ravages of the larvae on orchard trees are adopted, among which, casing the trees with bands and circles of tin, tightly attached to the trees, and flaring from it. This is smeared with petroleum or castor-oil, or a mixture of both, which causes the worms to drop to the ground as soon as they touch it. It is evident that any means that will prevent the wingless females from climbing the trees will protecj; yet,' except in the case of fern trees, the expense has caused this means to be abandoned. In relation to reme- dies, Dr. Thomas says: Like most other cater- OANKER-WOBM. pillar foes, birds and predaceous ground-beetles help man in keeping them in check. Of the artificial means that have been from time to time recommended, the following seems to be the most desirable, as embracing simplicity with lightness of expense: First. To prevent the fe- males from ascending the trees to deposit their «ggs, a band of coarse cloth, six inches or more wide, may be put around the tree, and then smeared with tar or a mixture of tar and molasses. Second. A hay rope may be put around the tree, and over this a ring of tin, wide enough, so that there will be free tin below the rope, and the Whole securely fastened, being careful that there are no crevices between the tin and the tree through which the insects may pass. The tin should be smeared on the inside with a mixture of castor-oil and kerosene. In both these cases, the moths will lay their eggs below the bands if prevented from going above them. To insure fluccess, these should be sought and killed, as if allowed to hatch, it will be much more difficult to keep them from ascending the trees than it was the moths. Third. When the worms are al- ready in the trees, and if the trees are not too w,rge, a sudden jarring will cause them to be detached from the leaves or twigs, and hang sus- pended, when they may be swept down by pass- mg a switch between them and their support, and Uiejr may be destroyed. Fourth. "Washes of Pans green and other substances may be resort- ed to when they are in the tree, but it is probable that where the tree is small enough to make the application of washes practicable, a few times jarring will answer the same purpose. Fifth. If the worms have entered the ground and chang- ed to chrysalides, fall plowing will, if the ground be mellow, break up their slender cocoons, and expose them to the action of the weather, which, with the birds, will destroy most of them. In extensive orchards, jarring and catching ' the worms with a hay wisp fastened to a pole, and passed between the branches and ground as they drop and hang by their fine spur filaments, is effective, more so is showering the trees with a mixture of Paris green, or London purple, and water; the latter in about the proportion as used for the Colorado Potatoe-beetle. CANNABIS SATIVA. (See Hemp.) CANTER. An artificial pace to which horses are broken. It is much less fatiguing than the trot to the rider, but is distressing to the horse, if persisted in for some time, since to induce the gait the horse must be so far on his haunches as to destroy his equilibrium or natural balance. CANTHARIWES. The genus meloe is men- tioned by Kirby as apparently forming a con- necting Imk between the coleoptera and ortliop- tera, as having the head vertical, and the elytra lapping at the base. Dr. Le Baron says, the re- semblance is very remote. The ge- nus, Lytta, Fab- ricius, or Can- tharis, of Geoff- rey, contains the blistering beetles of the shops, and also the well- known ash-col- ored, black, and striped blistering beetles. Some entomologists divide them into two groups or sub-genera: I^tta proper, in which- the antennae are alniost monniform, and a little thicker towards the tip, and H^c-aatd, in wbich the antennae are filiform, or a little taper- ing, with the joints elongated. The latter group contains all our common species. Of the species usually found infesting our plants, principally potatoes, and beets, although thev are in a sense omnivorous vegetable feeders, they do not attack plants indiscriminately. Of these enumerated, and which comprise the most noxious species with us, the Striped Blister-beetle, the Ash-gi'ay Blister-beetle, and the Black Blister-beetle will suffice to give an idea of the whole tribe. Of these varieties Dr Riley says : The Striped Blis- ter-beetle is almost exclusively a southern species, occurring in particular years very abundantly on the potato vine in Central and Southern Illinois, and in our own State, though according to Dr. Hari'is, it is also occasionally found even in New England. In some specimens, the broad outer black stripe on the wing-cases is divided length- ways by a slender yellow line, so that instead of two there are three black stripes on each wing- case ; and in the same field all the intermediate grades between the two varieties may be mot with; thus proving that the four-striped indi- viduals do not form a distinct species, as was formerly supposed by the European entomologist, Fabricius, but are mere varieties of the game species to which the six-striped individuals ap- CAPILLARY ATTRACTION 175 CARBON pertain. The Ash-gray Blister-beetle (Lytta cinerea.'Fahx.) is the one commonly found in the more northerly parts of the Northern States, where it usually takes the place of the Striped Blister-beetle figured above. It is of uniform ash-gray oolor; but this color is given it by the presence upon its body of minute ash-gray scales or short hairs, and whenever these are rubbed off, which happens almost as readily as on the wings of a butterfly, the original black color of its hide appears. It attacks not only potato vines, but also honey-locusts, and especially the English or Windsar bean, and the Early Snap bean. It also attacks the foliage of the apple-tree, and likewise gnaws into the young fruit. The Black-rat Blister beetle (Lytta muriwi, Le Conte,) is some- times found upon the potato in the month of July, and early in August. The Black Blister- beetle (Lytta airata, Fabr.) is very similar in appearance to the Black-rat Blister-beetle; the latter being distinguishable from it only by hav- ing four raised lines placed lengthwise upon each wing-case and by the two first joints of the antennse being greatly dilated and lengthened in the males. The Black Blister-beetle appears in August and September, and is very common on the flowers of the Golden-rod. The Margined Blister-beetle {Lytta marginata, Fabr.) may be at once recognized by its general black color, and ♦he narrow ash-gray edging to its wing-cases. It , usual y feeds on certain wild plants, but also on potatoes. The same means of destruction will apply equally to all of the Blister-beetles. Let it be remembered that during the heat of the day, these beetles are ready with their wings and may be driven from the vines. Thus the most prac- tical and efficient mode of destroying them, is to drive them into a windrow of hay or straw, and kiU them by setting fire to it. They may also be driven entirelyfrom a field, when the weather is warm, by continued noise. If they can find feeding grounds outside they will not return. Occasional seasons, however, produce them so abundantly, and they swarm so suddenly, that all ordinary means of prevention from damage fail entirely. , CAPERS. The caper is a small prickly shrub, cultivated in Spain, Italy and the southern prov- inces of Prance. The large rose-formed flowers are pretty, but the flower buds alone are used in culinary art. They are plucked before they open and thrown into strong vinegar, slightly salted, where they are pickled. The crop of each day is added to the same vinegar tub, so that, in the course of the six months during which the caper shrub flowers, the vessel gets filled, and is sold to persons who sort the capers' by means of sieves. The smallest are the- most valued. The capers of commerce in the French market are distin- guished into five sorts, the nonpareille, the capu- cine, the capote, the second and the third; this being the decreasing order of their quality, which depends upon the strength of the vinegar used in pickling them, as also the size and color of the buds, the smaller buds being superior. The shrub grows in the dryest situations, even upon walls, and does not disdain any soil; but it loves a hot and sheltered exposure. It is multiplied by grafts made in a>}tumn, as also by slips of the roots taken off in spring. CAPILLARI ATTRACTION. Some fluids rise in fine glass tubes much higher than their levd. This elevation is said to be^ owing to cap- illary attraction. It occurs to greater extents as the tubes are finer, and is an affinity exerted by the sides of the glass upon the fluid. The cause has been shown to be electrical, and to depend upon the electrical conditions of the tube and fluid. If there be no affinity the fluid sinks. The minute tubes of plants assist in drawing up the sap by this attraction. So also if threads of wool are placed inside a vessel of liquid, and ex- tends over the edge, the liquid will rise, and, passing along the medium, drip from the ends. The moisture of the earth rises in the same man- ner, being communicated from one particle to another. If the soil is very coarse this is not easily accomplished. Hence the necessity that a soil be rather compact, to induce the attraction of moisture from beneath and enable it to with- stand drouth. CAPILLARY VESSELS. The minute ves- sels which exist over every part of the bodies of animals and plants. CAPITDLUM. That species of inflorescence in which the flowers are grouped together into a head, as in clovers. CAPON. A male bird that has been castrated. The removal of the organs of generation not only improves the flavor of the flesh, but the weight also, often to double that of ordinary birds. Caponizing is performed on Barnyard (Gallinaceous) fowls. CAPPED ELBOW. This is a callus or tumor formed by a bruise of the shoe in the horse in lying down. It is found on the point of the elbow, near the chest, and behind the shoulder. Capped hock is a soft swelling on the point of the hock. Capped knee is a soft tumor in front of the knee. In whatever place the difficulty lie; if thei-e is matter forming, it must be brought to a head, by the application of poultices, and allowed to heal with simple dressings. If it has assumed a hard, indurated form blistering must be resorted to. In the case of capped elbow, the callus is sometimes dissected out. Except in the case of a valuable horse, it will hardly pay to use any but simple means to remove the affliction: CAPROIC ACI 1>. One of the rancid acids of butter. Capric acid is very similar. CAPSICUM. The generic name of the red pepper. CAPSULE. In botany, a dry, membranous seed-vessel, generally splitting spontaneously into several parts, or valves. In chemistry, a thin porcelain or other ware standing heat, or a met- allic basin for evaporating fluids. CARAWAY. The' seed of Carum canti, used in confections and medicine, gi-atef ul to the stomach, and slightly stimulant. The seeds are sown in drills six inches apart, early in spring. The plants must be weeded and hoed, or the land otherwise kept clear. They flower in June, and the seeds ripen in autumn. The roots are perennial, and yield well for three years. As much as a ton of seed is taken from an acre in good tilth, but it is an exhausting crop, and in the United States is not much cultivated. CARBON. Carbon is one of the most common, as it is one of the most important substances in nature, occurring in a great variety of forms, in the animal, vegetable and mineral kingdoms. In both the vegetable and animal kingdoms it is the most considerable element. Charcoal may be con- sidered the type of carbon, since, prepared from animal and vegetable Bubstances, it is pure, or CARDAMOMS 176 CARROT nearly so. Lampblack is also nearly pure carbon. The carbon of anthracite coal is pure. The dia- mond is crystallized carbon, and when colorless, is pure and uncontaminated. Carbon resists the influence of many re- agents which powerfully affect other bodies, and to thb farmer it is one of the most importE],nt of the elements. In vegeta- tion it is taken up by plants as carbonic acid. If one atom of carbon is combined with two atoms of oxygen, it forms carbonic acid, and these ele- ments compose the organic part of all plants. This is contained in the air alone in sufficient quantity for the growth of plants. Although the air contains only 1-10, 000th parts of carbonic acid, yet so enormous is the supply that the atmosphere of the earth contains3,400,000,000,000 tons of car- bonic acid or about twenty-eight tons for each acre of the earth's surface. The supply is main- tained by the oxydation of carbon in the decay of all organic matter, in the respiration of animals, and in the combustion of fuel. In the animal economy carbon is one of the most essential ele- ments. Starch, sugar and the gum of plants, fur- nish carbon. The fat of animals is largely com- posed of carbon, and large amounts are exhaled in the form of carbonic acid by animals in the act of breathing. Carbon constitutes about 43.47 per cent, in sugar, 41.906 per cent, in gum, 43.55 per cent, in wheat -starch, 53.58 per cent, in the wood of the oak, and 51.45 in that of the beech; 46.83 in pure acetic acid or vinegar, 36.167 in tartaric acid, and 41.369 in citric. CARBONATES. Minerals or salts containing carbonic acid. These are all readily known by the effervescence they, produce when thrown into strong acids. The principal native carbonates are marble, limestone, and chalk, which are car- bonates of lime. CARBONIC ACID. The gas formed by burn- ing charcoal in the open air. It is also given out from fermenting and putrefying^ bodies. It is colorless, heavy, incapable of sustaining combus- tion.suffocating, arid soluble in water. It is formed of one atom of carbon (6) and two of oxygen (16) and unites wijth oxides in the proportion of 33. Fertile soils containing vegetable matter give it off during their decay. It is one of the principle articles of vegetable nutriment since from car- bonic acid is obtained the carbon of their wood, sugar, and othter principles. Light decomposes it m plants, and a part of its oxygen is thrown out by the leaves. The dissolved carbonic acid in rain and Spring water is invaluable in the Isoil, serving to disintegrate hard rocks and dissolve minerals necessary for plants. It is this ga^ that gives sprightliness to beer, soda water, champagne and other effervescing fluids. CARBONIC OXIDE. An inflammable gas • consisting of one atom carbon and one oxygen. CARBONIFEROUS. Relating to coal. Coal bearing. The carboniferous age is that geological age in which limestone and other carboniferous rocks and minerals were formed. So also the coal fields of the earth were formed during the carboniferous age. CARBURETS. Compounds in which carbon is united with a metal or other body. Plumbago (black lead) is a carburet of iron and one of the purest forms of carbon. CARBURETTED HYDROGEN. Marsh gas, and the gas used for lighting cities. CARCINOMA. A cancerous tumor. CARDAMOMS. The seeds of the Alpinia cardamomum of the East Indies. They are used, as an aromatic. CAR DIAC. Relating to the heart. CARDOON. The Oynara cardiincuhis. The stalks of the blanched inner leaves are used as salad, in soups, etc., the seecj is sown in April, in rich earth; it requires nearly a month to start; the plants must be thinned to five inches apart. Trans- plant , in June, and allow four feet each; dress each plant like celery. As they grow tie! up the leaves and earth up several times; they may thus be obtained two feet high. They are to be taken up during winter, like celery. They are in perfec- tion from autumn through the winter. An ounce of seed produces 600 young plants, For seeds protect the plant without blanching, through the winter, and it will flower in the following July. The cardoon is scarcely cultivated in the United States. CARDUUS. The generic name of numerous thistles. (See Thistles.) CAREX. The geijus of sedges and rushes. C.IRIES. Mortification or ulceration,of any bone. , It gradually produces the destruction of the part, and can only be arrested by scraping out , every diseased 'portion. Rotten bone, Necrosis, is a decay of the bone, from founder, poll-evil, or inflammations attacking the bone. The treatment consists in cutting down to the bone, scraping it, and removing all decayed parts; then wash the wound with diluted carbolic acid. This should be performed by a veterinaixsurgeon, or one who understands the anatomy of the horse. Caries of the face is called Big Head. This form is scarcely ever worthy an attempt at cure, even in the case of a valuable breeding animal, since it is no doubt hereditary, in some cases at least. < 'ARM IN ATIVE. Any medicine that dispels flatulency and relieves the uneasiness of tile stomach. The best are caraways, ginger, anise- seed, cardamoms, especially as tinctures or dis- solved in alcohol. Caraways powdered in doses of half a teaspoonful given in warm water, re- ' peated if necessary. Is one of the best remedies known for simple colic or flatulency. For tor- pidity of the digestive organs, a dose in the food may be given a horse once or twice a week with benefit . CARNIVORA. The race of animals that live on animal food. Carnivorous: eating animal food. CAROTID ARTERY. The large arteries, that carry blood to the head. There is one on each side of the neck, known by their strong pulsation. CARPEL. Each division or cell of a fruit is a carpel. The number of carjpels, or carpellaiy leaves, is as the number of divisions in the pistil, which is the uppermost part of the carpel. CARROT. This esculent root, {Danmis carota) is a half hardy biennial in the North, and is said^ to be indigenous to some parts of Great Britain. Wild, it is of no value; as a cultivated plant, it is used in various ways for the tuble, and is one of the most valuable, roots cultivated for stock. The carrot should have a good light, rich loam. If manured, it sliould have been done the pre- vious year, since green manure causes all esculent roots to grow forked and otherwise ill-shaped. The soil should be carefully and deeply plowed, brought into a state of fine tilth, and leveled smooth. In the kitchen garden, the drills may be as near as twelve inches, the plants thinned tt OASBlVA 177 CASTOR-OIL BEAN three inches, and subsequently to six inches if large roots are desired. In field culture the rows are made two feet apart, for ease in horse cultiva- tion, and the seed should be sown pretty thickly and at a depth of three quarters of an inch to one inch. All weeds must be kept down, and the plants idtimately thinned to a distance of three or four inches apart Sow in the spring, as soon as the pound is in good working condition. On loams it is better that the ground be fall-plowed rough, and the soil brought into tilth before sow- ing. All farm stock are fond of the roots. They are especially valuable for horses and milch cows, fed at the rate of a peck a day for horses, and half a bushel per day for cows. For garden cul- ture, the Early Horn is the most desirable for summer, and Early Half Long Scarlet for win- ter. The latter is also a good field variety. For field crops, the Yellow Intermediate, Long Orange, and Altringham are generally sown, the Belgian and other European field carrots not being in repute in the United States. An ounce contains 24,000 seeds, and will sow from 150 to 200 feet of garden drill. Three or four pounds per acre are usually sown in field culture, and the plants thinned first with a narrow tool, and ' subsequently by hand in weeding. CART-HORSE. (See English Cart-horse.) CARTILAGE. The same as gristle. It is almost identical in composition with skin, and yields, when perfectly dry, eighteen per cent, of nitrogen. It is one of the proteine compounds. CARTA. The generic name of the hickory, which see. CARYOPHILLOUS. Flowers like the pink and clove are so called. CASCARILLA BARK. The bark of a tree, Ckoton eleuthena. A drug having powerful tonic and aromatic qualities. C4SEINE. A substance identical in its com- position ,and properties with legumin, hence called ;yegetable Caseine, and found in certain leguminous plants. Caseine is the curd or coagu lable portion of mUk from which cheese is made. It is one of the proteine bodies, or albuminoids, divided into three sub-groups, the type of the first being albumen, nearly pure in the white of ■eggs; of the second fibrin, or animal muscle; of the third, caseine, or the curd of milk. Caseine, therefore, may be either animal or vegetable. Caseine contains in addition to carbon, oxygen and hydrogen, from fifteen to eighteen per cent, of nitrogen, with a small quantity of sulphur, and sometimes phosphates. Its chemical com- position is as follows : > PABT3. Animal. Vegetable. 53.5 7.0 23.7 15.8 53.5 7.1 Oxygen ... 23.4 Nitoogen 16.0 100.0 100.0 Caseine constitutes the most nourishing portion of milk, and, as a rule, those foods are most nourishing which contain the greatest portion of caseine. CASEOUS and CASEUM. (See Caseine.) CASHMERE GOAT. (See Goat.) CASSAVA. The starch obtained f rom vthe loots of the Jairophamanikot of the West Indies. 12 CASTANEA. The generic name of the chest- nut-tree . CASTOR-OIL BEAN. Bicinm communis, sometimes called Pahna Christi, from th^ shape of its leaves. In the tropics tliis plant attains an immense size and lives for years. In Texas jt strongly shows this perennial tendency. It, is cultivated for its seeds, from which is expressed the well-known Castor Oil of commerce, once used solely as a medicine, but now used as a lubricator and for other purposes in the indus- tries. It is cultivated as far north as 40 degrees, and constitutes an important agricultural indus- try. As showing its perennial tendency, and also yield at the South, we find that B. C. Franklin, of Galveston, had a plant in his garden the stem of which was seven inches in diameter, and that it had yielded seed for eight years. Captain Slaight, of Chapel Hill, relates a similar experi- ence. Mr. Mclntire, of Washington, reports having raised seventy bushels per acre, and E. Bell, of Gonzales, raised an hundred bushels on/ one acre. The plant is quite obnoxious to in- sects, and its freedom from their ravages is a strong point in favor of its culture in sections ravaged by locusts. The principal losses attend- ing its cultivation in the extreme South arise from planting the small, light-colored bean of Missouri and Illinois, instead of the large seed appropriate to the climate of Texas and Florida; from planting too thickly; and from mismanage- ment at harvesting. In the North the jdeld is from ten to thirty bushels per acre, according to soil and cultivation. It is not much cultivated north of 40° of latitude. The soil best suited to the plant is a light, riqh, sandy loam, although any dry, fertile soil will produce good crops. In the South the seed is planted in rows six feet apart. In the North it is planted at almost the same distance as Indian corn, leaving rows at suitable intervals wide enough so a horse and light sled may pass along in gathering the seeds. Three or four seedsi are usually planted, since the cut worms sometimes ravage the young plants. When the plants are six inches high they are thinned to one plant, the cultivation being pre- cisely similar to that of Indian Corn. The seeds begin to ripen from the first to the 20th of August, according to latitude, and will continue to ripen until the plants are killed by frost. Before the ripening of the seeds,, a yard for spreading the pods must be prepared. This is generally selected on some knoll, or other hard, dry spot. The ground is cleared and beaten perfectly hard and smooth, and if declining slightly to fhe sun so much the better. The first ripenings should stand until the pods on the, spikes, begin to crack. Later the spikes may be cut as soon as two or three beans begin to open. They are carried to the drying yard and spread thinly. The heat causes the beans to pop out of the pods. In warm weather two or three days will sufice. When all are out, the heads are raked off, and the seed cleaned through a fan- ning mill, with a suitable screen, and then sprtead on a floor, or other suitable place, safe from rain, being turned occasionally until quite dry. When the plantation is sufBciently extensive it is better that drying houses be prepared for the pods, and also moderate kilns for drying the beans; for thus much loss is obviated, in drying, from vret weather, and also from mold in the packages in which the beans are packed. But in dry CATALPA 178 CATECHU countries, as California this is not necessary. The analysis of Castor Oil Beans, French and Ameri- can, is stated to be as follows: PARTS. I. II. m. "MniHtiirp 4.40 46.95 6.35 8.875 3.788 85.50 S.90 4.35 47.78 4.20 9.81 3.10 37.83 8.90 4.10 Oil 45.55 Matter extracted by aleohal and 4.40 12.50 Albuminoids 2.40 27.70 2.94 98.763 99.36 99.59 No. I represents the composition of a sample of Bicinus sanguinarius grown in Texas; No. II, the same variety grown in Prance; while No. Ill represents that of a sample of Rieinus minor grown in France. It thus appears that, so far as the pil-contents of the seeds are concerned, the American y sample is about as valuable as the European. "The following are the results of an analysis of the mineral matters contained in the beans of the Bicinus sanguinarius: Chlorine 0.89 Potassa 29.52 Soda : 8.75 Lime 11.31 Magnesia ■ 7.33 Perojlde of iron ... , . 89 Phosplioric acid 38.65 ' Salpliuric acid 2 . 21 99.56 In the West, Southern Illinois, Central Missouri and Kansas, large quantities of Castor Beans are grown for the oil, and this industry is on the increase in Central ,and Southern Kansas. CATALPA. Of this most valuable timber and ornamental tr6e there are two varieties, Ca- taVpa/bigrumioides and C apeciosa, both North American species of excellence, although the variety isp«c«)«ffl was discovered and named many years ago by Dr. Warder. The two species, Tintil within the last few years, have, even by able botanists, not been considered distinct. The variety bignonioides is decidedly tender north of 40 degrees. It is a more spreading tree in its habits than 6'. speciosa) Which variety is the tree native to the West and indigenous to the forests of Central Indiana and Illinois, and the South, and hardy up to the latitude' of 43 degrees. It is a tree worthy of extensive planting everywhere south of 43°, being a; fast growing tree, erect and reaching a height tof eighty to ninety feet, with a diameter of two feet in its native forests. It is among tile most valuable of western trees for posts, or any use where extreme durability is required. It is superior to white cedar in re- spect to lasting qualities, and the timber takes a fine polish. Its leaves and flowers are handsome. The leaves put forth late and are bast after the first frost. The seeds are contained in a long. Blender cylindrical pod, often eighteen inches long. The seeds are arranged in along, narrow, membranous wing, peculiarly feathered. The committee on Forestry of the Iowa Horticultu- ral society, 1877, says of it: A variety now frown quite extensively in central Iowa seems as ardy as any of our native trees. The writer (presumably Mr. J. L. Budd) has trees now five years set, large enough for small posts for wire fences, which have had open exposure north of 42d parallel, during the past severe winters. Dr. Warder,- Mr. C. C. Barney of Ohio, Mt. E. Y.Teas, of Indiana, RobertDouglas and Jonathan Periam, of Illinois, and others, have done much to bring this valuable tree to notice, and this under the con- tinual antagonism of some eastern scientific men, who have persisted in stating that there is but one variety. The discussion on the catalpa is now substantially closed. It is demonstrated beyond doiibt that the hardy variety, O. speciosa, is not only distinct, but is a tree native to our western forests, superior in habit and hardiness to C. big- nonioides, and its equal in every other respect. . Planters, howevet, should know the source from whence they get their seed. It is not safe even that they be gotten from western trees, since oc- casionally the tender variety, widely distributed from eastern nurseries, may be found growing in the west, and bearing sbed. ,,The seed ot' speci- osa is somewhat larger than big7i/)nioides^ Imt the differences, either in the pod or seed, would not be noticed, except by a botanist. It is easily raised from seed, grows fast, and is in every way a valuable tree taywhere south of 43°,' and even north, in protected situations. Among the ornamental varieties not entirely hardy, G. Bun- geiis quite dwarf, and C Kcempferi/iixB Japan ' catalpa, is one of the most handsome. ; . CATARACT. An affection of the eye caus- ing blindness. Albugo, eye spot or white spot, causes defect in the eyesight. Moon blindness is periodic ophthalmia, or recurring at specific intervals ..until at length the animal becomes- blind. ' In buying a horse examine the _eyes particularly to see if they are exactly alike. If cataract is suspected, turn the horse's head from the strong light, dilate the eye by rubbing a little belladonna on the lid, shade the eye and examine carefully. ' Cataract is operated on by extract- ing or couching. By the first operation, an incision is made into the eye, and the opaque lens taken out; by the second, it is depressed by the point of a couching needle thrust into the eye, and, being carried to the lower part of the chamber of the eye or vitreous humour, it is left there to be absorbed. The first operation, is the more effective, but the more hazardous of the two, owing to the inflammation which succeeds. The second is tedious and sometimes fails, but it is free from the risk of inflammation. CATAERH. A cold. The u-ritation of the mucous membrane of the nostrils, a disease to which horses and especially ,hogs are subject in some of its forms. It may degenerate into nasal gleet, bi'onchjtls, or chronic cough, influenza, etc. For cold in the head use no purgatives,' or other harsh medicines. Do not bleed, or use irritants as drenches. This will apply also to- all diseases of the breatliing organs. "Keep the animal warm, steam the nostrils with the steam of hot water in which a red hot iron is placed. Dissolve two or three ounces of nitre in a bucket, of water for drink occasionally and, if necessary, one drachm each of belladonna and powdered camphor, made into a ball. If there is much fever, give two drachms each of ammonia and ether in half a pint of linseed oil or gruel. Good food and nursing, however, are all importajat. CATCH-DRAINS. The lower ditches of irri- fated lands which receive the water, that has owed over their surface, and return it to the stream. C.A.TECIIU. A drug of a very astringent or binding nature. It is also used in dyeing brown& and in tanning. CATERPILLAR 179 CATERPILLAR CATERPILLAR. Caterpillars are the young or larvsB of butterflies and moths, and being all Tegetable eaters and extremely voracious, inferior only to lociists and grasshoppers, may be classed as among the most destructive of insects to vegetation. They are found everywhere, in every climate vfhere vegetation exists, and are exceedingly fecund. The females lay from 200 to 500 eggs each, so that of the nearly 4,000 species enumerated, as belonging to the United States, their numbers in prolific seasons are almost beyond calculation. Caterpillars exist in a great variety of forms, from almost microscopic ones up to the immense tobacco and tomato worm. We give cuts of two smooth and two hairy species, which will serve for illustration. Dr. Harris, in Insects Injurious to Vegetation, 4eflnes caterpillars as follows : Caterpillars vary greatly in form and appearance,, but in general, Wieir bodies are more or less cylindrical, and are SMOOTH CATEBFILLAB. composed of twelve rings or segments, with a shelly head, and from ten to sixteen legs. The first three pairs of legs are covered with a shelly skin, are jointed and tapering, and are armed at the end with a little claw; the other legs are thick and fleshy, without joints, but elastic or contractile, and are generally surrounded at the extremity by numerous minute hooks. There are six very small eyes on each side of the head, two short antennse, and strong jaws or nippers, placed at the sides of the mouth, so as to open and shut sidewise. In the middle of the lower lip is a little conical tube, from which the insects spin the silken threads that are used by them in making their nests and their cocoons, and in various other purposes of their economy. Two lon^ and slender bags, in the interior of their bodies, and ending in the spinning tube, contain the matter of the silk. This is a sticky fluid, and it flows from the spinner in'a fine stream, which hardens into a, thread so soon as it comes to the air. Some caterpillars make but very little silk; others, such as the silk- worm and the apple-tree caterpillar, produce it in great abundance. Some caterpillars herd together in great numbers, and pass the entire period of their existence in society; and of these there are species which unite in their labors, and construct tents serving as a common habitation in which they live, or to which they retire occasionally for shelter. Others pass their lives in solitude, either exposed to the light and air, or sheltered in leaves folded over their bodies, or form for themselves silken sheaths, which are either fixed or portable. Some make their abodes in the stems of plants, or mine in the pulpy substance of leaves; and others conceal themselves in the gi-ound, from which they issue only when m search of food. Caterpillars usually change their skins about four times before they come to their growth At length they leave off eating entirely, and prepare for their first transformation. Most of thein, at this period, spin around their bodies a sort of shroud or cocoon, into which some interweave the hairs of their own bodies, and some employ, in the same way, leaves, bits of wood, or even grains of earth. Still other species of our caterpillars suspend themselves, in various ways, by silken threads, without enclosing their bodies in cocoons ; and, again, there are species which merely enter the earti to undergo their transform- ations. When the caterpillar has thus prepared itself for the approaching change, by repeated exertions and struggles, it bursts open the skin on the top of its back, withdraws the fore part of its body, and works the skin backwards until the hinder extremity is extricated. It then no longer appears in the caterpillar form, but has become a pupa or chrysalis, shorter than the caterpillar, and at first sight apparently without a head or limbs. On close examination, how- ever, there may be found traces of a head, tongue, antennae, wings and legs, closely press- ed to the body, to which these parts are cement- ed by a kind of varnish. Some chrysalides are angular, or furnished with little protuberances; but most of them are smooth, rounded at one endj and tapering at the other extremity. While in £he piipa state these insects take no food, and remain perfectly at rest, or only move the hinder extremity of the body when touched. After a while, however, the chrysalis begins to swell and contract, till the skin is rent over the back, and from the fissure there issues the head, antennse, and body of a butterfly or moth. When it first emerges from its pupa-skin the insect is soft, moist and weak, and its wings are small and shriveled; soon, however, the vpingS stretch out to their full dimensions, the superfluous moisture Of the body passes ofE, and the limbs acquire their proper firmness and elasticity. The con- version of a caterpillar to a moth or butterfly is HAIRT CATi:ilFnjI.AE, a transformation of the most complete kind, The form of the body is altered, some of the legs disappear, the others and the antennse become much longer than before, and four wings are acquired. Moreover, the mouth and digestive organs undergo a total change; for the insect, after its final transformation, is no longer fitted to subsist upon the same gross aliment as it did in the caterpillar state; its powerful jaws have disappeared, and instead thereof we find a slen- CATERPILLAR 180 CATTLE der tongue, by means of which liquid nourish- ment is conveyed to the mouth of the insect, and its stomach becomes capable of digesting only water and the honeyed juice of flowers. Ceas- ing to increase in size, and destined to live but a short time after their final transformation, but- terflies and moths spend this brief period of their existence in flitting from flower to flower and regaling themselves with their sweets, or in slak- ing their thirst with dew, or with the water left standing in puddles, after showers, in pairing with their mates, and in laying their eggs ; after whidi they die a natural death, or fall a prey to their numerous enemies. These insects belong to an order called L^pidoptera, which means scaly wings; for the mealy powder with which their wings are covered, when seen under a pow- erful microscope, is found to consist of little scales, lapping over each other like the scales of fishes, and implanted into the skin of the wings by short stems. The body of these insects is also more or less covered with the same kind of scales, together with hair or down in some species. The tongue consists of two tubular threads .placed side by side, and thus forming an instrument for suction, which, when not in use, is rolled up spirally beneath the head, and is more or less covered and concealed on each side by a little scaly or hairy- jointed feeler. The shoulders, or wing- joints, of the fore wings are €(jvered, on each side, by a small triangnlar piece, forming a kind of epaulette, or shoulder- cover ; and between the head and the thorax is a narrow piece, clothed with scales or hairs, slop- ing backwards, which may be called the collar. The wings have a few branching veins, generally forming one or two large meshes on the middle. The legs are six in number, though only four are used in walking by some butterflies, in which the first pair are very short, and are folded like a tippet on the breast; and the feet are flve-jointed, and are terminated, each, by a pair of claws. It would be difiicult and, indeed, impossible to artrange the lepidopterous insects according to their forms, appearance and habits, in the cater- pillar state, because the caterpillars of many of them are as yet unknown; and therefore it is found expedient to classify them mostly accord- ing to the characters furnished by them in the winged state. We may first divide the Lepidop- tera into three great sections, called butterflies, hawk-moths, and moths, corresponding to the %&netaX Pa/pilio, Sphinx, and Phalmnm of Lin- na3us. The"butterS.ies (PapUiones) have thread- like antennee, which are knobbed at the end; the fore wings in some, and all the wings in the greater number, are elevated perpendicularly, aiid turned "back to back, when at rest; they have generally two little spurs on the hind legs, and they fly by day only. The hawk-moths (0phinges) generally have the antennae thickened in the middle and tapering at each end, and most often hooked at the tip ; the wings are narrow in proportion to their length, and are confined together by a bristle or bunch of stiff hairs on the shoulder of each hind wing, which is retained by a corresponding hook on the under side of each fore wing; all the wings, when at rest, are more or less inclined like 'a roof, the upper ones covering the lower wings ; and there are two pairs of spurs on the hind legs. A few fly by day, but I he greater number in tlie morning and evening twilight. In the moths {Phakmce) the anten- nae are neither knobbed at the end nor thickened in the middle, but taper from the base to the / extremity, and are either naked, like a bristle, or are feathered on each side; the wings are con- fined together by bristles and hooks, the flrst pair covering the hind wings, and are more or less sloping when at rest ; and there are two pairs of spurs to the hind legs. These insects fly mostly by night. CATHARTICS. Medicines producing in- creased defecation. Aloes, castor oili senna, jalap, Glauber salts, Epsom salts and calomel are the principal cathartics. They should be used sparingly in man or beast, as they produce habitual costiveness after a time. In fact, strong cathartics are but little known in veterinary prac- tice, as they are also by the modern school of physicians. Hence if they are considered neces- sary, it is better to consult professional advice. CATKIN. A pendulous spike of flowers, which falls after a season, as in the willow. Amentum has the same meaning. CATTL rt. In the United States the term cat- tle is usually applied to the ox species, though sometimes to all hofned animals. In England they are termed neat cattle. In a primary sense however, the term cattle included not only horned animals, but horses and asses and, it has' been supposed, swine. We should use it in its distinc- tive acceptation to mean the genus bos, or the ox tribe. The distinctive features of domestic cat- tle are smooth, rotmd, more or less curved horns, forehead flat, longer than it is broad, the horns placed at the two extremities of a projecting line at the top of the forehead. In ail domestic cattle, • except in certain well fixed breeds, the colors vary ATBBHIKB BULL. exceedingly, no two animals being alike, varying from pure white to jet black, running througk all the shades of brown, red, dun, gray, and blue, including brindled', mottled, piebald, spotted and flecked. The Devons are the purest and most uniform in color, being light and mahogany bay. The Short-Horns, originally mottled ana flecked, or spotted are, of late years, being bred more to self colors. The Ayi-shires run to roan and piebald; AYRSHIRE COTV, the Holstein to black and white deflnitely marked; CATTLE 181 CATTLE DEVON COW. the Kyloes, to black, black red, and brindle, and the Heref prds to red with white faces and flanks, and the Alderueys to yellow red and black, or fawn col- or, with black points. In the Cam- pagna there is a breed of large gray and mouse-colored cattle. In Calabria there is a breed of snow-white cattle. The so-called wild , cattle of Chillingham are white or dingy white, with black noses, horns and hoofs, the ears tipped either black or red. In Hun- gary there is a curious breed of gray, or dark blue cattle, with immense, wide- spread horns. The Hindoo or Brahmin cattle have short re- flected horns, ' large pendulous ears, an enormous hump, and a dewlap of solid, fatty matter. Their hair is exceedingly sleek and (smcfoth, and they never seem to bei affected by the most in- tense heat of that oven-like climate. As diowing some- thing of the cattle of the last century in England, and by compari- son with im- proved stock of the present day, as illustrated in other portions of this work, we giye cuts, repro- HEREPORD COW. DURHAM COW. DITRHAM BULL. duced from a work of the last century, illustra- ting Ayrshire, Devons and Hereford cattle, three NEW LEICESTER. of the most celebrated of the old breeds of Eng- land, as they were known years ago. The Dur- hams, now called Short-Horn, were among the most noted of the beef breeds, of England in the latter part of the last century. The New Leices- ter, during its short-lived celebrity, it having soon degenerated after the death of feakewell, must have been a magpiflcent beef animal if we may credit the illustrations that have come down to us. The cuts illustrating the New Leicester and Dur- ham of the last century, will show what they were like. These and the ones preceding them in this article were reproduced by photo-engravingSjfropi the originals of the last century. Where cattle first originated, or when first domesticated, is lost in obscurity nor can you now find the animal in a wild state, except when escaped from domes- ticity. It is indeed recorded that Jubal, the son of Lamech, was the father of such as have cattle, but the term might mean other domestic animals, as the sheep or goat. That horned cattle were early domesticated is evident from the fact that the ancient Egyptians worshiped the bull, and the traditions of every Celtic nation, acknowledge the cow as among the earliest servants of man, and represent her as having divine attributes. L. F. Allen, in American Qattle, gives their history and introduction into America in the following words : The genus Bos, as a domesticated animal, ha^ been the useful and cherished companion of mah from the earliest date of history, either sacred or profane. That they were highly valued in days most ancient, we may know, from their being objects of labor, sacrifice, and worship, by differ- ent nations and people. They were esteemed articles of wealth and sources of prosperity, and were probably cared for and cultivated with"' equal solicitude as any other domestic animal attached to husbandry, or of use as food. What was their normal condition as to race or breed, as we understand races and breeds, little or nothing is known, nor is it necessary that we do know. That they were then, in their chief essen- tials, as now, we have no reason to doubt; and that they may have been improved, or that they deteriorated in condition as civilization progress- ed, or waned, with the people who held them in subjection, we have no reason to question. The hieroglyphics of Egypt, most ancient in date, rude as were their representations of man, things, and animals, give us no accurate likeness of what they might have been among that ingeni- ous and wonderful people, and they were proba- bly as highly cultivated among them as any- where else in contemporary times. The earliest representations or pictures we have, give them' rugged forms, enormous length of upright, or spreading horns, and a gaunt appearance. The, climates of the East permitted them to .live throughout the year in the open air, and we may well suppose that nature supplied them with the rough, long hair necessary for their protection, so usually represented in their portraits by the artists of more civilized nations. In .the modern world, among the more highly cultivated classes of society, in polite literature it has been consid- ered vulgar to speak of cattle, or illustrate them ■other than as appendages to scenery, landscape, and rural representations among a rude and un- cultivated people. So, too, with artists. The latter have composed cattle scenes, and intro- duced them as accessory to landscapes in their paintings, and so grossly have they misrepresented their forms for artistic effect, as to caricature and give the ugliest appearance to them. Claude CATTLE 183 CATTLE Lorraine, Salvator Rosa,, Poussin, and others of the most celebrated schools of landscape painting of olden time, as well as Paul Potter, Van Ostade, and others of more modern date, made their cows, bulls, and oxen vulgar and uncouth in shape, and wretched in condition. Even land- scape painters of the present day, with a silly- affectation of art, will put nothing resembling the noble contour of our improved cattle into a picture, but select some unhappy brute, depleted with poverty, and unkempt as a wild buffalo in appearance, to give piquancy and effect to their drawings. For such slanderers of these noble animals, we have no respect whatever, nor for the taste of artists in the way of cattle, while yielding an unqualified admiration to their fidelity and skill in other subjects. Our modern animal painters have done better. Landseer and Herring, among the English artists, have accorded somewhat of justice to their objects, while some of the Continental and American,, artists in that line, have drawn our improved domestic animals — cattle as well as others^ ' with admirable truth and fairness. The ancients had a high respect and admiration for their cattle. We cannot admire the Egyptian worship of their ox, apis^a magnificent tomb of which has been recently exhumed — nor do we look with com- placiency on the present worship of the Brahma bull, which has been from time immemorial, an , object of Pagan idolatry in India; but it is •evident that these subjects of adoration originated in a most devout appreciation of the admirable and useful qualities of the genus to which they : belonged. The author of the book of Job, which the eminent 'saered chronologist. Dr. Hales, dates back to the year 2,337 before the Christian Era— whether the author was Job himself, or one | of. his cbtemporari«s — had a most poetic apprecia- tion of the value of domestic animals. He makes Job, in the days of his revived prosperity, the owner of one thousand yoke of oxen, in the enumeration of his great wealth of goods and chattels. Jeremiah — B.C. 628 years — ^in one of his' prophesies, speaks of a fair heifer. Among the Piagan writers, Homer, 1800 years before the Christian Era, celebrates the noble bullocks with golden knobs, or balls, on the tips of their horns, and describes the manner of the artisan in put- ting them on. Among the heathen deities, Juno is nanjed as ox-eyed, in those, clear and liquid features of her countenance. Virgil, who wrote his .Geoygiacs just before the birth of Christ, cele- brates the beautiful cattle of the Roman Cam- pagnas, and their value in the agricultuje of the people. Oxen were used for labor in husbandry, anjlmore or less in commerce, in all countries where neat cattle were kept, and could endure the climate well, as being the most convenient beast of burden. It is probable that they were bred in their best estate by those Who used them, and the cows were cultivated for dairy and household uses in the family] As they spread West and Ijorth into the higher latitudes and , elevations of Europe, they somewhat changed their characters, and became, as now known there, acclimated and fitted to their new condi- tions, and inured to the habits of the people who kept them. We may suppose, too, that in the severer climates they were afforded somewhat of shelter, and more pains-taking in food and treat- ment, than in the milder latitudes where they had long rangW, and with such increased care, improved in quality and appearance. They took, , possibly, somewhat different shapes, and con- formed, more or less, to the uses to which- they were subjected. The Moors of Spain reared great herds of neat cattle, and from thenr descended the dominant races of Spanish herds. • They were there the progenitors of the savage and headstrong bulls still sacrificed in the arena of biill-flghts and picadores. The Gauls j)t France, bred the gentler. and more economical forms of cattle, adapted to a better husbandry. By what gradual, peculiar, or natiiral progresses these European cattle acquired their present dis- tinctive characteristics, we have no definite information". History is either altogether silent or obscure on these subjects, and we have no better guide than conjecture to inform us. Throughout Western Europe humerous different breeds exist, of diverse qualities, all more or less useful for the purposes to which they are ap- plied, and profitable to the people who breed and rear them. Italy, Prance, Spain, Germany, .^s, Switzerland, Holland, and other northern conn- ; tries, each have their peculiar national breed^, ;' while England, Scotland pAd Ireland have many varieties widely divergent iii character - and appearance. Indeed, it is not necessary, unless for speculation or curiosity, that we know the particulars of their histoiy or progress, inasmuch as we, in America, are already in possession of the best breeds of Western Europ^, fully answer- ing our own immediate purposes, and whicb have been successfully naturalized on our "soil. , It has been said, or conjectured, by some specu-. . lative antiquarians, that neat cattle were intro- duced to the Continent of America by the Northmen, who are Supposed to have made a descent on to the coast from North-western Eu- rope some centuries before the discovery of the ^ Continent by Columbus. This, however, is sim- ply a conjecture, as no cattle were known of here before they were brought' out by the Spanish and > , ;. Portuguese emigrants, a few years after the voy- ages of Columbus. In the year 1519, the Span- iard, Cortez, discovered Mexico. He fiist made a landing at Vera Cruz, and not long afterwards penetrated to the City of Mexico, then ruled by Montezuma. The object of Cortezandhis party was conquest. They were accompanied by a , troop of horses, on which his cavalry was mounted for military purposes; but we have n« . account of any cattle in his expedition., Mexico soon became a colony of Spain, and was rapidly, settled by emigrants from that country. Their first object was gold, and trade with the natives, and to their acquisitions followed agriculture, which brought in cattle from Spain. We may suppose that cattle wereiritroduced there as early as the year 1535, and in the mild climate and abundant pasturage which the country afforded, they rapidly increased. As Mexico became peopled and spread her population along the coast, and into the interior, in the course Of time Texas was reached, and there were spread the foundations for the immense herd of Mexican, or, as we now call them, Texan cattle. Cali- fornia was afterwards settled by the Spanish Mexicans, who drove their cattle thither and, in time, scattered over it numerous herds. la what is now the United States, the first English settlement Vas made in Virginia, on the James river, in the year 1607, by a colony of an hundred men, which, by suffering, disease, and want of CATTLE 183 CATTLE food, was reduced Trithin a year, to thirty-eight. In 1609, by new emigrants, the colony was increased to five hundred persons; but in a few months they were reduced by death to sixty. Many cows were carried from the West India Islands to Vii'ginia in 1610, and 1611. : In suc- ceeding years mlore adventurers came out, but in 1623, three hundred and forty-seven men, women and children were massacred by Indians, and the colony, in effect, broken up. Whether their cattle were lalso destroyed, we have no account; but the settlement was soon after renewed under better auspices and protection, and neat cattle were further introduced and propagated. New York was first settled in the year 1614, by the Dutch. That colony, after some vicissitudes, prospered. The first importation of neat cattle there, is said to have been in the year 1635, from the mother country, Holland, and they rapidly increased in numbers, both in breeding and fur- ports from which they sailed. In all probability, numerous importations pf cattle were annually made into the several colonies, during successive years, as the emigrants came in rapidly, and, the few early importations, with their increase, were insufficient to supply" their wants. That cattle multiplied, both by natural increase and impor- tation, is evident. We see it recorded, that in the year 16S6, a party of emigrants went out to settle the town of Northboro, Massachusetts, thirty miles west of Boston, and in a company of one hundred men, women and children, they drove with them one hundred ajid sixty cattle — and that was but twelve years after the first importation into the colony. From these diverse and miscellaneous beginnmgs, our native cattle originated. Of what distinctive breeds they were selected, if selected with reference to breed at all, we have no information, nor, at this dis- tance of time, can we be at aU certain. Distinct IMPROVED HBREFOBD BULL. ttier importation. In 1630, the English Plymouth colony landed in Massachusetts. In 1633, ; further English colonies came out and settled at Boston, and in New Hampshire. In 1634, the ■first arrival of cattle entered Massachusetts Bay. These were soon followed by other arrivals., New Jersey was settled by the Dutch in 1634, and Delaware by the Swedes in 1637, who ^p,ught cattle with them. The early records of ^^W Hampshire state that in the years 1631, '33 and '83, Captain John Mason made several impor- tations of cattle into that State from Denmark, to supply the Danish emigrants who had settled orf^Jhe.' Piscataqua river. These Danish cattle were coarse, large beasts, and yellowish in color. i^ttlerhents were made in Maryland in 1638; in ii&rth and South Carolina in 1660 and 1670; and in^yennsylvania in 1683, all by the English, who Mih^r with the first settlers, or soon after, brought eattle over, chiefly from the countries nearest the breeds did then e^ist, well defined in their char- acteristics, both in England and Scotland, and we are to presume, that needy and necessitous as the emigrants mostly were — going out for con- science sake, as many of them did, and in a hope to better their fortunes withal-^they paid little regard to breed or race in their cattle, so that they gave milk, performed labor, and propagated theirMnd. As the colonists grew in numbers, and prospered in gear, their cattle, ijow become a leading branch of husbandry, aided much ia their ' subsistence. Families of considerable wealth from home, began to add their numbers to the earlier emigrants, and brought with them domestic stock of various kinds, provided them for- age, and gave them shelter, and in some instan- ces, probably, selected choice specimens from favorite breeds in the localities from whence they came, with whi>2h to improve those previously imported, or their descendants, the then native CATTLE 184 CATTLE herds. But in a new country, harassed by hos- tile savages, difficult of locomotion and inter- course with each other in distant settlements, their cattle were localized and confined to their own immediate neighborhoods. Pushing out into neW districts only, with the adventurous parties forming settlements, whra-e they could, of neces- sity, pay little attention to selection or improve- ment in their herds, they took such as they _ had, or such as they could get, at the least possi- " ' ble cost, as browse for the first few years was their principal forage in winter, leeks in spring, and coarse grass in summer and autumn for pasturage. The best they could do was to pro- vide food for their families, and let their cattle shift for themselves. We presume however, that the earlier colonists, having become well settled and thrifty in circumstances, cared well for their herds and measurably improved their quality. Thus, Undoubtedly, stood the condition of the neat cattle of the, colonies down into the years 1700, and after. We have accounts that, as the merchants of the sea-coast towns grew rich, some enterprising oiies made importations of choice breeds from England, which were driven into the country neighborhoods, and very con- siderably benefited their common stock. In the year 1608, Quebec, in Lower Canada, was founded by the French, and soon afterwards, colouists came in considerable numbers from the western coast of France, and brought with them the little Normandy, or Brittany cattle, closely allied in blood, appearance and quality, to the Alderney cows of the Channel Islands. Their ^ descendants are now propagated in all Lower Canada, and throughout the many French seig- nories in large numbers, forming their principal stock of neat cattle. They proved excellent milk- ers, hardy, easy of keep, and profitable for the dairy. They are also tolerable for the yoke, and for beef. In their remote distance, and limited intercourse with the people of the English colo- nies^ it is not probable that their herds became intermixed. We have no accounts of the peculiar characteristics of the cattle then there. After nearly two hundred years of acclimation and breeding they show no relations with the New •Englandstockof our Northern States. As showing the gradual improvement in the weight of cattle from the yeair 1700, and the rapid advance therein within the last fifty .years, the following will be interesting: In the year 1710 the average weight of beef cattle of Smithfield was 370 pounds each. In a report of a select committee of the House of Commons in 1795 it is stated that since 1733 their cattle have increased in size or weight on an /average one-quarter or twenty-five per cent, mak- ing the weight at that time (1794) 463 pounds. Few ardmals then were fatted, even to this light weight, under five years old, while thirty years late? they were considered ripe at four years. At this last period we find a very striking improve- ment iii the weight of cattle at' Smithfield, 656 pounds being the average — an increase of nearly forty per cent, in thirty-five years; showing that the efforts f oi the improvement of the breeds of cattle were attended with far greater success than at first. Steadily within the last fifty years has maturity been attained earlier and earlier, so that now we have yearlings that will dress heavier than the four year olds of fifty years ago. Indeed, now, some of the improved breeds may be fat- tened ripe at the age of two years. According to the census of 1870 the number of cattle in the United States and territories, not including Texas and New Mexico, was 34,000,000. Those of Texas and New Mexico, were computed at 4,000,- 000. Of the improved breeds introduced into the United States the Herefords and Short-Horns are deservedly the most popular for beef and early maturity. The Devons as working cattle and in the quality of their flesh are acknowledged to be superior to any other. Of dairy cattle the Ayr- shire originally brought from Scotland, the Jersey from the Channel Islands, and the Dutch and Holsteins f rom Holland, andHolstein, have merits of exceeding excellence. The Ayrshire and the Dutch and Holsteins are noted for large messes of milk, rich in caseine, and the Jersey and Guernsey as cows giving milk exceedingly riqh in cream and consequently in butter. A writer in the report of the Commissioner of Agriculture for 1877, gives a statement of the early importation of the beef breeds of cattle into the United States in which we find that the imported breeds more especially valued on account of beef -pro- ~ ducing qualities are the Hereford, the Devon, and the Short-Horn. The first Herefords were brought to Kentucky by Henry Qlay, who was a great admirer and patron of fine stock, in 1816. But, notwithstanding their well-defined excel- lences and great superiority over the cattle com- mon to this country,' for some reason, not wholly explained, this breed has not been as widely dis- tributed nor attracted the public attention that its undoubted merits deserve. The race is highly ' prized in England, where, in some grazing dis- " tricts, it is held in fequal esteem with the Short- Horn, which it nearly equals in size and weight. ^ It is a distinct race, however, purely bred, it is claimed, from a time long anterior to the develop- ment of the Short-Horn. The Hereford, as gen- erally seen, is red in color, with white face, and frequently with white along the back alnd under- neath the body. In England there are other vari- eties, presenting a mottled face and a g];ay or roan body, which is deemed to be the original tjrpe^ In that country, according to an English writer, the truest standard of form is still consid- ered by many to be that of the mottled-faced breed, although, in other respects, the white-faced is undoubted^ superior; and as regards the form' of the shoulders the breed stands pre-eminent, and produces comparatively little coarse meat in those parts; the hips, loin, and rump are equally good. The ri))s do not spring out so wide as some breeds, but the sides can scarcely be found fault with; the twist ig unusually full and the chest well ex- panded. As a milker the Hereford cow is not highly valued. The fir^f importation of Devons from England was made in 1817 into Maryland, and another in the succeeding year by Hon. Rufus King, of New York. Others have followed at intervals, finding a permanent place principally in the Eastern States. As in the case of the Here- fords, they have not occupied as great a place in the public mind as their merits would fully war- rant. But there are nevertheless a number of fine herds in the country, the purity of which has been maintained. It is claimed for this race that, as a distinctive breed, it is the most ancient in tlie United Kingdom. Mr. George Turner, an agri- cultural authority in Great Britain, said of the Devon tribe some years ago: There is scarcely any breed of cattle so rich and mellow in its touch, so silky and fine in its hair, and altogether so ^^^= rsjF "'■%., ;"i' 1 z^***^ Ig « ■ fl 1"! \ J Uj »j ^ V / s / ^^^^ \ s 1 s / s. 1 ( ) ^ .a 5 ( o" / 5 i2 1 Co s \ V (N y ^ 1 o ^ -^ ^ ■p CO 1 t- 1 / -T^-^ ^ ^ 'S ^ / \ 3 1 3 V OS / CO \ 'S g 1 •4* MH ( 1-( CO ALPR 1 11 V, . Co 1 u o ^ \ >^ CER o ._^ «w j/^'"^ ^''S. ' o V i OS 1 Co 2 J CATTLE 185 CATTLE handsome in appearance as the North Devon; added to which they have a greater proportion or weight in the most valuable joints, and less in the coarse, than any other breed, and also consume less food in its production. These animals seem wanting in nothing except the size and weight which distinguish some other breeds, and which are therefore more sought after on account of larger g?DSS profits. But, the suggestion is made, large animals eat more than small ones, and it is stUl a vexed question, both with regard to sheep and cattle, whether small first-quality animals are not more profitable to fatten than those with more bulky frames tliat produce coarser meat and a larger proportion on the worst j oints. The Devon is red in color; in size, medium. For centuries bred, for the most part, in the hill regions of Eng- land, with little care as to shelter or prepared fod- der, the race inherits stamina and hardy constitu- 4i/^ 7 ' jf y^\^^ A^^w. ^ '% the River Tees, and beyond it, the cattle assumed a less gross and unwieldy form, but were ^till a very tall race, of varied colors, with horns of medium length, but which might be termed short with relation to the same parts in the LongHom breed. The race now distinctively known as Short- Horns is derived through the cattle of the Tees. Valley, upon which the brothers Charles and Robert Colling instituted breeding experimeiits about the year 1777. Their'buU Hubback was the progenitor of this now celebrated breed. The first importation to this countiy was made as early as 1785, and others have followed in more rapid succession that of Col. Saunders into Kentucky', in 1817. They now very largely outnumber all other improved breeds in the United States, the Herds-Book showing a record of more than 60, 000 well-bred animals. In England it is asserted that nearly two-thirds of the animals sent to Lon- ^^^t- . ^iJi"^ '■■■ ii 'f. IH'lilf t'#:fiPil»''.. -H^^^ HBEEFOKD COW, SHOWING BEEP POINTS. tions, and possesses milking traits in good degree, and easy of improveinent through cultivation for that object. Prof. Lowe, in his work on The Domesticated Animals of the British Isles, throws some light on the origin of the now admirable race of Short-Horns. He says: While Ireland and the western parts of England have been possessed for an unknown period of a race of cattle having long horns, and furnished with thick skins and abun- dant hair, fitted to protect the animals from long and continued rains, the eastern and drier dis- tricts toward the German Ocean have been inhab- ited by varieties of cattle having thinner skins,/ shorter hair, and horns comparatively short. In the fens of Lincolnshire and the other tracts of alluvial country toward the Wash, the cattle were of great bulk and coarse figure, and had, usually, a dingy color of the skin, and short, blunt horns. - More inland, and following the course northward of the vale of Trent, and thence across the Ouse, and through the central plains of Yorshire and don are Short-Horns or their crosses. Returning to the improvement in cattle, the illustrations given in this article, show some British breeds as they were delineated in the early part of the cen- tury. It will be seen that the Ayrshires, Devons and the Herefords, are the only breeds that would be at all recognized in the improved breeds of to-day, and the Herefords only in their general sym- metry and color. The cuts will be interesting as a means of comparison with the best animals as seen in our show rings at the agricultural fairs of , to-day, and in the illustrations showing the vari- ous improved breeds, to be found in their- appro- priate places in this work. It is important that every farmer, and especially every breeder, know the points of animals, especially those pertaining to prime flesh points, for, other things being equal, the animal that carries the most flesh on the prime parts, is the most valuable. On this page we give an illustration of a modern' Hereford cow, fat, figured to represent these. The inferior parts are CAULIFLOWER 186 CAUTERY 'Contained before the girtli place lying just behind the fore-shoulder, but again all the superior parts lie above the middle line drawn fromfront to rear. AH the best roasting pieces lie in a, ft, c, 3; and in a ft, c, 9; the best steak also lies in a, b,c, 9; next in a, 6, c, 10 and in 11, and the inferior in 13 ; but 13 is good for drying; 14, 15, 16 and 17, are ■used for soups and stews ; 4, 5 and 13 are the plate pieces best for coming. The brisk;et 7, Comes next; the neck 1, is also used for soups, for corn- ing and also for inferior steak, a, ft, 3, may be used either for roasting or for corning. So 13 may be used thus if necessary. Note 10 and 11 also for drying. In fact, there is plenty of room I for calculation in cutting up any animal for home use. .The illustration shows the parts from a butcher's stand point. On page 183 there is a cut of a model Hereford bull of to-day, which will still further Illustrate the difference in breeds as between the last and the present century. CATTLE PLAGUE. Various malignant dis- •eases, as catarrhal fever, foot and mouth disease, violent inflammations, murrain, pleuro-pneumo- nia,^etc., are sometimes called plague. In, fact, any disease, when it becomes epidemic, and con- tagious diseases of a malignant nature are apt to be so termed. When suspected aVeterinarian should be consulted and, if one be not near, ahumane phy- sician should not disdain to give advice as to proper means to be used in the case. Isolation is one of the first things tc be attended to, , as a ^preventive of infection by others. (See dis- eases herein mentioned under their respective ieads elsewhere.) CATYDID. The Catydids belong to the locust family, usually, but incorrectly, called grasshop- pers. So there is a large wingless cricket, (Ana- brus simplex) and the slender , meadow-grass- hopper," (Orchelimum imlgare.) The Catydid and the slender grasshopper. Fig. c, will enable these insects to be readily recognized. In relation to the habits of the Catydid it is well known that they live in trees, and their peculiar shrilling noise caty did, caty did'nt, is familiar to every child. It is however, not so well known that the male only produces the note. As a rule they are not found in such numbers as to be particularly injuri- ous, and bearing so strik- ing a reselnblance, as " many of them do, to the limbs, twigs and leaves of trees, in color and neuration of wings, it is quite difQcult to dis- tinguish their form. The eggs are deposited along the limbs and twigs in double rows, like partly flattened hemp seed, and by others it is laid singly in leaves, etc. The slender meadow- grasshoppers. Fig. c, are often numerous, and may be destroyed by catching in nets or by driving as recommended in the article locust. (See Katydid.) CAUDATE, (from coMda, a tail.) Furnished with a tail-like appendage. CAUDEX. The body of a root. CAULIFLOWER. (Brcmica Oleraeea, • mr.) Unlike .the cabbage, cauliflower and broccoli are strictly annual plants, flo-yrering and perfecting their seeds the first season. In fact broccoli in some of its varieties, is so like cauliflower that, as to the cultivation, no separate article will be required. So, the general care and cultivation necessary to the cajbbage will apply to the cauli- flower, except when the curds, the edible portion, are beginning to be fairly formed, the leaves must be drawn up and tied together, or broken over the end, to protect it from the sun. Both cauli- flower and broccoli, in the climate of the West, must be brought into head either before Uieheat of summer commences, or else late in the autumn. In late plantings, those that are not well headed at the time the groimd begjns to freezSe, may be taken up and transplanted in a light cellar, where they will go on and form fair curds, and often so continue until late in December or January. For early use so:w the seed in a hot-lDed early in March, in the North, or in any latitude as soon as winter is broken. Transplant when large enough, four inches apart, and about the time apples blossom, transplant into a soil made very rich with rotten manure, the rows 30 inches apart, the plants from 15 to 30 inches in the row, according to the variety. If the weather is dry liberal applications of water must be given, since the plant is impatient of heat and drouth. For the late crop, sow the seed in a sheltered prepared^ border as early as the soil can be worked, anC transplant when large enough. -Among the special applications to all the brassica tribe, salt has been found most valuable. It should be sown at the rate of about five bushels per acre, or two pounds per square rod. This may be applied at tie time of setting, or, at the first hoeing; So soon as the curds are well formed, and while yet compact and hard, cut for use. The varie- ties of cauliflower are comparatively few. The Extra Early Paris is the sort usually grown by market gardeners. The Erfurt is decidedly Ante The Large Late Asiatic stands drouth well, and the Walcheren, really a broccoli, is also weU adapted to drouths. Mitchell's Eariy cauliflower is compact, remains long without running to seed, and is valuable, if true to name, for the kitchen garden. Broccoli is so nearly like cauli- flower that the same description will answer for both. (For cultivation see Cabbage.) CAULIS. A stem. From this word comes cauliferous. CAUSTIC. In farriery, a substance which, by its powerful operation, destroys the testur® of the part to which it is applied. Corrosive sublimate is the best caustic; but, that requires skilful hands, for it is a dangerous remedy except in the hands of the veterinarian, ifes one drachm of powdered verdigris With one ounce of basilicon ointment and apply this upon a piece of tow; or a drachm of blue stone (sulphate of cop- per) dissolved in one ounce of water may bfe used, or lunar cauatic in a quill may be rubbed' on to the diseased part. CAUSTIC LUNAR. Nitrate of silver, sold in sticks, ready for use as a caustic; when used in solution, ten grains are mixed with an ounce of water. _ CAUTERY. 1. The application of the hot iron to diseased growths, as fungus, etc. It is cruel and barbarous, unless used with discretion, and with a full knowledge of the necessity that should call for its application. This is called the actual cautery. 2. Potential cautery is the application of any- caustic, as nitrate of silver. CELERY 187 CELLARS To cauterize a wound or affected part, is to kill the integuments, after which they slough off. (See Blistering.) CAVIARE. The salted roe of the sturgeon, prepared and dried. It is an unwholesome food used in Russia. CEDAR. The cedars (cedrus) proper are mostly natives of Africa, India, and the moun- tains of Lebanon. The so-called white cedar, Arbor i>itm, is a T?iuya(see Arbor vitse); and the so-called red cedar is a juniper (see Juniper). Among the more noted of the varieties used for ornamental planting, where they may be protect- ed from the summer sun, and in locations where they wUl stand the winter's cold, are the Deodar (0. deodara) and cedar of Lebanon (C Libam). There are many sub- varieties, some pendulous and some quite upright and conical. CEDAR BIRD. {Ampelis Cedramm). The cedar bird, or wax- wing, is properly understood as being a bird of but little practical use in ag- riculture. They do, indeed, eat some insects, but not to any considerable extent. In the nest- ing season they feed their young principally upon insects. They are destructive to the buds of some trees, and also to the small fruits, especially the cherry, strawberry, raspberry and blackberry. They have even been accused of boring }nto apples to get at the seeds. The bird is common all over the North, and sometimes in mild winters remains. Generally they make their appearance early in the spring, but incu- bate late. The evidence for and against this bird would seem to render it proper that they be killedwherever found; for while it is true that they live on insects at some seasons, and the seeds of weeds at others, and also that they feed their young on insects, the destruction to fruit, and to fruit buds, undoubtedly more than coun- Iwbalances this. CEDAR, RED. ,Junipe'rus Virginiana is found 01^ the sea-coast from Maine to the gulf of Mexico; attaining in the South forty feet, but is sanall inland. It is evergreen and ornamental. The heart wood is very durable, light, and odor- ous, .fed in color, but scarce in quantity. It is es- sentially a southern tree, but is hardy well up to the Canada line. (See Juniper.) CELERY. (Apium graveolens). This much cultivated plant is a half hardy biennial, being killed at about 30° below freezing. It is found wild and growing near the sea, and on the sides of ditches in England. It is esteemed when cultivated for its solid blanched leaf stalks. For the early crop in the North, the seed is sown in a hot bed in March, covered about an eighth of an inch deep, and kept moist until germination takes place. When the plants have made their third or fourth leaf, prick them out, transplant into a sheltered border, or in a cold frame, three inches apart each way, where they will make fine plants for transferring into trenches, from the twentieth of June to the first of July. Pre- pare the trenches by plowing two furrows apart, and as deep as possible, making the bottom loose and mellow, and from five to six feet apart between rows. In this throw fully four inches of rich, compost manure, working the manure and soil well together. Set the plants in this trench, six or eight inches.apart, just at evening; water, and if the sun be hot, shade for a day or two. The subsequent cultivation consists in keeping the stalks growing perfectly upright,^ by earthing from time to time, being careful not to allow earth to fall into the crown of the plant, or between the stalks. So continue from week to week, earthing as the plants grow. About the middle of September, or from this time to the middle of October, the plants will be blanched ready for use. The rows should be five to six feet apart. For the late crop, to be blanched in winter, sow the seed in a warm border, rather thin, and early in the spring; press the earth firm, and sift over a very little light earth, cover with brush just so as not to impede the sun's rays, and water lightly to keep the surface moist; or sow in a cold frame about the middle of April. The plants will be large enough to plant out about the middle of July, in soil made quite rich with compost manure, in rows three feet apart, by ten inches in the row, no trenches being required. All the cultivation needed will be to keep the ground free of weeds, and the stalks growing upright, by earthing up from time to time. In the fall, before the ground freezes hard, the plants must be lifted and placed in trenches for use. To do this, select a dry spot, throw out the soil about twelve inches deep, and three feet wide; in this place the celery on their roots, with what earth will adhere in digging. In earthing them up, hold the stalks so no earSi can enter between or in the crown. Pack earth firmly about the stalks, nearly to the tops of the leaves, and so one stalk may not come in con- tact with another. So proceed, packing row by row, until you have the plants all in. A cover- ing to shed rain is to be placed over the trench, and sufficient litter thrown over all to protect from frost. Market gardeners form this covering of brushy poles and hay. In this way the late celery will be ready for use about the first of January, and continue in use often until the middle of May. Boston Market and White Solid are the dwarf white sorts most used ; of the dwarf red varieties Cole's Superb Red, is solid and delicate in color, when blanched. Of the large red varieties, the Large Pm-ple Tours, or Red Solid is good; and of the large white sorts,' Seymour's Champion is compact and excellent, CELERIAC. This is a variety of celery hav- ing an enlarged root or tuber, and under f avora- able circumstances, attaining a weight of two or three pounds. The seed is sown precisely as is celery and, when large enough, it is transplanted into rows two feet apart, by two inches in the rows, and in very rich, rather moist soil. Keep the soil clear of weeds. When the bulbs are three-quarters grown, earth them over, up to the crown, to make them grow crisp. Their use is in soups, and also for boiling. "They may be kept through the winter, by packing in damp sand in the cellars. CELL: In physiology, the minute cavities in plants and membranes; the size differs from hundredths to thousandths of an inch in diam- eter. Cells may contain air, or fiuids and solids. . The cell is the first structure of all membranes, but subsequently it may be converted into a tube. "They are originally spherical, but become changed by pressure into cubes, dodecahedrons, and other figures. CELLARS. In all farm-houses the cellar is of special importance. Therd are so many things to be kept from freezing in winter, and, cool in summer, that no expense should be spared in making this part of the farm-house as CELLARS 188 CELLARS complete as possible. When Buffielent depth ean not be had so the cellar may be entirely under ground, freezing may be prevented by having thdt portion of the wall extending from two feet below the surface double, with a hollow space for dead air extending up to the first floor. Thus, with double windows, the cellar will be frost- proof in winter, and measurably cool in summer. The following general rules.will suffice to indi- cate the means to be used in building cellar walls: A simple, hollow space in which the air may be confined between the inner and outer surfaces of a wall is the most effectual and readiest mode of ^jendering it impervious to heat, and it makes little difference how wide or how narrow the space is, if the air within is entirely cut off from escajpe or change. Whether the material is wood or masonry, every good wall, where the retention or exclusion of heat is an object, should be built in this way. It is as essential for summer as for winter; at the South as at the North. Care, how- ever, must be taken that the inner portion of the wall I is not massive enough to absorb so much heat as sensibly to affect the temperature of contiguous rooms. A warm wall will almost always be a dry one. It is frequently, perhaps generally, thought that the moisture which stands on basement, and sometimes other exterior walls, is caused by water passing through them from the outside. A glance at a pitcher of iced water in a summer day, with its outside covered with dew, ought to correct such an opinion. If a wall is poorly built, it may become saturated with water, which shall escape by evaporation from the inside, and affect the air; or, in a severe rainstorm, it might, in . rare instances, be driven through, so as to trickl^ down the inner surface; but in neither case would it show in the manner spoken of. , If, as is sometimes said, the damp- ness is absorbed from the ground, the very capillary attraction .which drew it into the masonry would hold it there. Moisture collected in this way is vapor from the air of the room, ^ condensed by contact with a cold surface, and indicates both a bad atmosphere and a conduct- ing wall. ' Thick and solid masonry, of course, only aggravates the evil. The most damp and unwholesome rooms are found in buildings of the heaviest construction, where the substance of the structure acts as a great reservoir of caloric, receiying or giving out its supplies as the con- tiguous air, at different points or hours, may be warmer or colder than its own average tempera- ture. This average does not differ greatly from the mean temperature, day and mght, of the different seasons, and is considerably lower than . that by day in the summer months. In building cellar walls, stone will generally be used where quarries are found. They should, if practicable, be laid witji a flat surface down, and' made so solid as to keep out water and rats. Where it can be obtained readily, it will always pay to lay cellar waljs with hydraulic cement, on account of solidity and durability. As coolness is desii-- able in a cellar, there is no occasion to make cellar walls otherwise than solid at the bottom. They will then always be just as warm as the earth around them. So far down, however, as they are exposed to the air, or in contact with earth liable to freeze, they may be so cold as to endanger the contents of the cellar, and should be protected by a coat of lathing and coarse ■"'"itering, formed on wooden strips, a little way from the stone work. Brick walls for cellar purposes ought, whenever practicable, to be laid in hydrauho mortal?, and, in most soils, covered with a perfect coating of cement on the outside, as they are otherwise liable to absorb so much water as to affect the atmosphere inside and to impair their durability. The foundation should be level, and care must be taken that the surface of the trench on which it stands shall not have been broken or disturbed. If basement rooms are to be used for other than cellar purposes, it becomes necessary to make the walls double. When stone is used, this is to be dene by furring, with small wooden strips secured to themasOnry and covered by lathing and plastering. Brick walls may either be f u^ed in the same way, or laid as two separate walls, -two or more inchei apart, occasionally bound together by cross bricks, or, better, by small, flat iron bars; and then, if desired, the inner wall may be plastered ; directly on its surface. If openings are left in the air space, it greatly hastens the drying of the wall, but they should all be tightly closed when, the work is done. Such spaces are some- times u^ed as ventilating flues, with a total ignorance or disregard of their real value. Any ventilating or hot air pipes which may be needed may very well be inserted in suth spaces, but should be entirely shut off from the air cells. Another common mistake in building hollow walls, is making occasional vacancies, while the main part of the wall is solid, as thougb there were some virtue in the aiir, which would be diffused over the "whole mass. The solid portions must be just as small as may be consistent with strength, for even a single bond-brick will often betray its position by a damp spot on the plaster- ing. Wherever hollow walls are used, whetlier above or below ground, the builder must remem- ber that their purpose is not to save materials or cost, but to increase efficiency. He must not, as some do, make the entire thickness the same as if it were solid, filching the material from the middle, but must, for safety, add aU the thick-' ness of the air space, and spare no cost in the bonding, for safety is of prime importance. If properly built, a hollow wall is stronger than the sanie material laid solidly. There, neverthe- less,, are some thmgsin the way of its universal adoption, and, except for the greater danger in case of fire, the preferable mode of securing the required air space is that by furring. While we are below ground, let us examine the cellar bottom. If the ground is wet and springy,^ it will be necessary to cover it with a coat of con- crete, made of coarse gravel and hydraulic cement an inch or two thick. Where the soil is dry, hard gravel, or even sand, will do, if the occu- pants are careful people; otherwise, it would be better concreted, so that it may be the more .readily cleansed. Foundations, other than cellal walls, ought always to be laid on hard ground, and below the deepest frost, according to soil and and climate. The choice of material for the walls of the superstructure is to be governed mainly by location. Good sense and good taste, never inconsistent, both say it should be the most substantial which can be procured with economy. Stone is undoubtedly the most suiiable for any permanent building, when it, and the requisite lime, can be obtained of proper quality and wrought without too great labor and cost in comparison with other substances. Next to this CELLULOSE 189 CELLULOSE is brick. One great obstacle to the use of stone has been the supposition that it must appear smooth, or it would look badly; and another, the difficulty of forming 'the heads and jambs of doors and windows. Both of these objections (ire obviated by using bricks in combination with the stone, where much accuracy of finish is required, or where openings are to be covered. A natural and simple surface of broken stone, suggests an unassuming control of the resources of the neighborhood, which no far-fetched ma- terial can show. Stone walls ought always to be furred or built hollow. It is best never to build any wooden blocks into the masonry, but for nailing to, a thin strip may be occasionally laid in the mortar-joint, not more than two inches wide and less than half an inch thick. This will hold nails and will not weaken the walls. The ends of floor timbers are commonly built into the masonry, just as so many stones would be, but it is better, for the durability of the timber and the solidity of the wall, that, except on the bottom where they rest, they ahould touch nothing, a little space being left above them, and around their sides and ends. Bricks, if used, ought to be hard-burned, so that they may be left in their natural state, as much of the advantage of either brick or stone is lost if an External covering, demanding frequent renewal, is required for protection. It is useless to give any attention to outside cements, mastics, and plasterings of any name, since, while they are most objectionable for other than structural reasons, they form neither a permanent nor a cheap surface for exposed walls. The drainage from the cellar is of the first importance. There should, in any case, however dry the bottom, be a" line of tile leading away from the cellar to lower ground, whatever the distance required. If dry, this forms one of the best known means of in- troducing cool and pure air. If the bottom needs drainage the tile will serve the double purpose of drainage and ventilation. To serve this double purpose the tile should not be less than three-inJelh caliber, four is better, and should be protected at both ends to prevent the entrance of vermin, as rats, mice, etc. Ventilation is another matter of importance. One of the house chimneys should go entirely to the bottom of the cellar, with a fire place provided. This, in sum- mer, will pass ofE foul air, while the sub-earth ventilation will furnish pure air. In winter, close the fireplace, and insert a pipe into the chimney near the floor. This wiU provide all necessary ventilation, except when the weather is so mild as to allow the door or windows to be opened. The cellar should be divided into suit- able rooms, by brick walls, and if the bottom be not perfectly hard and dry, it should have a solid floor of broken stone and cement. Thus built, with soUd walls and properly floored, itwiU be proof against rats, moisture and frost. ■CELLULAR TISSUE. The membrane or tissue in plants and animals which consists of cells. It exists between all muscles, and under the skin in animals. (See Cells.) CELLULOSE. Cellulose is one of the most important of the organic substances of animals and plants. The group, or the amyloids comprise cellulose, starch, inulin, dextrine, . gum, cane- sugar, fruit-sugar, and grape-sugar. This group, in some form, comprises the larger part, esti- mated at seven-eighths of aU the dry matter of vegetation, and as a rule they are distributed throughout all portions of plants. Samuel W. Johnson, M. A., gives an account of cellulose, its composition and its amount in various plants, from which we make copious extracts- Every agricul- tural plant is an aggregate of microscopic cells, i. e., is made up of minute sacks or closed tubes, adhering to each other. The outer coating, or waU, of the cell is cellulose. This substance is accordingly the skeleton or framework of the plant, and the material that gives toughness and solidity to its parts. Next to water it is the most abundant body in the vegetable world. AU plants and all parts of all plants contain cellu- lose, but it is relatively most abundant in their stems and leaves. In seeds it fprms a large por- tion of the husk, shell, or other outer coating, but in the interior of the seed it exists in small quantity. The fibres of cotton, hemp, flax, white cloth and unsized paper made from these materials are nearly pure cellulose. Wood, or woody fibre, consists of long and slender cells of various forms and dimensions, which are deli- cate when young (in the sap wood), but as they become older fill up interiorly by the deposition of repeated layers of cellulose, which is inter- grown with a substance (or substances) called lignin. The hard shells of nuts and stone fruits contain a basis of cellulose, which is impreg- nated with ligneous matter. When quite pure, cellulose is a white, often silky or spongy, and translucent body, its appearance varying some- what according to the source whence it is ob- tained. In the air-dry state, it usually contains about ten per cent . of hygroscopic water. It has, in common with animal membranes, the character of swelling up when immersed in water from im- bibing this liquid; on drying again, it shrinks in bulk. It is tough and elastic. Cellulose differs remarkably from the other bodies of this group, in the fact of its slight solubility in dilute acids and alkalies. It is likewise insoluble in water, alcohol, ether, the oils, and in most ordinary sol- vents. It is hence prepared in a state of purity, by acting upon vegetable matters containing it with successive solvents, until all other mat- ters are removed. Though cellulose is insoluble in, or but slightly affected, by dilute acids and alkalies, it is dissolved or altered by these agents, when they are concentrated or hot. The result of t:he action of strong acids and alkalies is quite -various, according to their kind and the degree of strength in which they are employed. Pro- longed contact with strong sulphuric acid con- , verts cellulose into dextrine, "and finally into sugar. Other intermediate products are, how- ever, formed, whose nature is little understood, but the properties of one of them is employed as a sort of test for cellulose. BoiUng for some hours with dilute sulphuric acid also transforms cellulose into sugar and, under certain circum- stances, chlorhydric acid and alkalies have the same effect upon it. The denser and more im- pure forms of cellulose, as they occur in wood and straw, are slowly acted upon by chemical agents, and are not easily digestible by most animals; but the cellulose of young and succu- lent stems, leaves, and fruits, is digestible to a large extent, especially in the stomachs of ani- mals which naturally feed on herbage,, and there- fore cellulose ranks among the nutritive sub- stances. Cellulose is a compound of the three elements, carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. An- CELLULOSE 190 CELLULOSE aljrsis of it, as prepared from a multitude of sources, demonstrates that in 100 parts it con- tains carbon. 44.44; ihydrogen, 6.17; oxygen; 49.39, 100.00. The larger proportion of the cellulose structure of the nutritious fruits, foli- ' age, and grasses is easily converted into starch, and ultimately into sugar, hy chemical means. Fig. I. ANIMAL AND TEGBTABLB CELLULOSE AND STAECH. and hy animials when used as food, and knoTra as carbohydrates. The mycelium of microscopic fungi consists, for the most part, of cellulose: and, although the fungi are very low forms of plant-life; they are not only the principal formers of some of the organic acids, as the acetic, but they grow to maturity in them; while the woody cellulose of the higher plants , dissolves in the acetic ferment* and becomes food for the cryptogams. Borne varieties of mycelium take the blue stain by iodine and sulphuric acid, while . other kinds -are turned of an amber-color by the same tests. The amount of cellulose in plants is shown in the following table: Per cent. Potato tuber 1.1 Wheatkemel 3.0 Wheat meal 0.7 Maize kernel 5.0 Barley do , 8.« Oat do 10.8 Buckwheat kernel 15.0 Ked clovt-r plant in flower 10 Bed clover nay 34 Timothy hay 28 v Maize cobB; 38 Oat straw 40 Wheatstraw 48 Bye straw 64 The cuts shovping vegetable cellulose and starch, are ex- plained as follows: In the illus- tration. Fig. I, the nuineral I' shows the fibre of cotton in its natural state highly magnified; 3 shows the same, subjected to the action of strong sul- phuric acid; 3 shows how the cellulose is changed by being subjected; first to tincture; of iodine, followed by commer- cial sulphuric acid, and, im- mediately after, to concen- trated sulphuric acid. The fibres are thus reduced to a starchy condition, and appear in the form of discs or beads. 4 shows a fibre of flax, mag- nified, in its natural state; 5 shows the same treated with concentrated sulphuric; acid; 6 and 7, the same when acted on by the tincture of iodine and acids as described in cot- ton fibres. 8, 9 and 10 show some of the forms of heart, liver, muscle, etc. ; that is, structural cpllulose found in them. In Fig. II, the num- eral 1 is similar; 2 and 8, and the other forms not numbered, are produced from 1 by using extra acid, and sometimes fric- tion. The illustration is given simply to show the forms as- sumed by cellulose and starch under a high magnifying power.' When gun-cottaQj.. a nitro-cellulose body, is treated; very frequently with ipii|lM' and acid tests, it becomes jrellowor amber-colored; wid CHARCOAL when the fine sawdust of boy- wood is similarly treated, it appears, when viewed under the micro- scope, of three colors, amber, green, and blue; but the latter color appears in very small quanti- ties. Chitine, the cellulose of insects, is stained yellow, and is supposed by some chemists to be combined with nitrogen. Color can not be relied on wholly as a test for cellulose, since it assumes so many colors under treatment with iodine and acid. The following colors are frequently observed when treating cellulose and starch with iodine and sulphuric acid; purple, bluish- purple, green, yellow-amber, reddish-amber, pale-blue, deep-blue, and a translucent amyla- ceous white. When starch is acted on by sul- phuric acid alone, it dissolves, and is partially carbonized. CE illlE \ T. (See Cisterns.) CENTIGRADE. A division into one hun- dredths, as the centigrade thermometer. CENTRE OP GRAVITY. An imaginary point in_ the centre of any mass which has the same weight of matter arranged on at least two sides. When any substance is balanced on a point, as the finger, the centre of gravity lies immediately above that point. In falling to the earth, all substances take such a path that the , centre of gravity descends in a straight line. CEREAL GRAINS. This is a general term applied to wheat, rye, barley, oats, Indian corn, millet and other grain plants, the seeds of which are used either as human food or for the fatten- ing of animals, but applied generally to the edible grains. (See, also. Cereal Products, in Supple- ment.) CHAREON. Black Quarter, Bloody Murrain, Oonta'gious Anthrax, Spotted Fever. A malig- nant epidemic fever, from blood poisoning, of a typhus character, often following pneumonia, catarrhal fever, influenza, etc. Bad ventilation and want of proper care are the predisposing causes. The treatment should be under the care of a veter- inary surgeon. If there is constipation relieve the bowels by injections or by a moderate dose of oil. Give also, if a horse, half an ounce of chlo- rate of potash, twice in twenty -four hours, or give one ounce each of tincture of chloride of iron and oil of turpentine, and two ounces of solution of acetate of ammonia in a pint of gruel, and repeat three or four times a day. (See Blain and Murrain.) CHALYBEATE. Medicines or mineral waters containing iron : they are tonic. CHARCOAL, Any vegetable matter burned in a pit, or other place without free accessi to air, is converted into charcoal. It is usually burned as follows : Logs or billets of wood are piled either horizontally or vertically into a dome-shaped ■ mass, a cmmney being left in the centre about four or five inches square, and the rest covered close with sods and earth a foot deep, so that no smoke can escape through it; a small flue or channel for air may also be left along the ground, under the wood, on the windward side, and pass- ing to the central chimney; this is the simplest construction. Sometimes a pit or walled space is used, in which the wood is laid, flues being sunk to convey air to the bottom, and a central chimney left, the top being covered with earth, ashes, or cinders. The kiln is fired by placing in the central chimney leaves, straw, or twigs well lighted, and allowing the draught to remain open until the upper logs of wood are well fired, af ter- iai CHEESE ward closing the under flue. As soon as the flame dies away, the wood being red-hot above, close' the top of the chiinney and let the fire smoulder. It requires some six to ten days to burn a kihi, and constant attention must be paid. The average yield is sixteen per cent., by weight, of coal, but hard woods, well burned, sometimes furnish twenty-five per cent. , the hard woods yielding the most. In this process, nearly all the ca/rbon of the wood is left, the oxygen and hydrogen uniting in combustion to form water, and the object in view is to keep out atmospheric air, which would cause the combustion of the carbon also. Charcoal pos- sesses many remarkable properties. It has thepow- er of removing fetid smells from water, meata and manures; hence it is used in disinfecting- privies and manures. It removes the color of many fiuids, and is used in clarifying juices and solutions, especially in refining sugar. It is re- markably porous, and absorbs from the air, and other media, gases: one cubic inch of fresh coal from box- wood was found by Saussure to absorb, and condense ninety of ammoniacal gas, thirty- five of carbonic acid, nine and a quarter of oxy- gen, and seven and a half of nitrogen; this pro- perty gives it great value in putrescent composts, and as a manure. Charcoal is nearly unchange- able in common air at the ordinary temperature, but burns when heated to redness, into carbonic acid, if abundance of air be present. CHARRING. Burning so as to produce a crust of charcoal. It is a good way of preserving the ends of posts inserted in the ground of wet places, but the charring should extend some little distance higher than the point where the post appears above the surface of the earth. CHEAT. (See Chess.) CHEESE. A product of the dairy, obtained from the curd of milk. (See Caseine.) The analysis of cheese shows it to be one of the most nourishing of foods. Its manufacture from milk has of late years been reduced to a science, many of the best minds in the country having contri- buted to improvements in the manipulation of the milk, the chemistry of the various transformations and in improved implements and machinery for manufacturing and curing. In cheese-making, the utmost nicety must be used from the time the milk has been drawn from the cow until the product is boxed for sale, to produce a uniform article from day to day. The introduction of cheese-factories has rendered this possible. These exact conditions cannot be carried out in ordinary dairies, when the proper temperature and facil- ities are wanting, when any thing in the make up, as salt, rennet, scalding, etc., are guessed at. Hence cheese-factories have greatly stimulated production, until the manufacture of cheese in New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and particularly In the western States, constitute one of the most important of the agricultural industries. The report of the chemist of the Department of Agri- culture, in relation to the various analyses made from cheeses on exhibition at the centennial exhibit at Philadelphia, and, concerning the common mode of manufacture, that which yields whole-milk cheese, made from the whole of the milk, without skimming, is most elaborate in its details, the main points of which are familiar to all who are interested in the subject. Therefore we simply give below the results of the chemical analyses of several samples obtained from dif- ferent parts of the country, and represented ut CHEESE 193 CHEESE^ the collection; one unusually large, and contrib- uted from those known as the best manufac- turers. They are as follows: Designation. Water. fNe.l ISfew Tork factory-] No. 8 cheese 1 No,. 3 [No. 4 MassachuBetts , fac- i No. 1 tory-cheese ( No. 2 Maine factory-cheese, Jersey milt Wisconsin factory-cheese 31.41 35.68 36. 24 33.73 34.18 38.5 88.11 35.49 Ash. 3.53 3.60 3.!i3 4.05 3.03 8.73 2.71 3.34 Fat. 37.88 35.15 35.68 35.57 33.92 31.19 41.03 34.05 Caee- ine, sugar, etc. 27.18 85.57 25.85 86.65 28.88 86.58 28.15 26.18 Of the second method of manufacture, that by which the ordinary skim-cheese is produced, the Tisuai prbportion of cream being taken from the milk for the manufacture of butter, two va;rieties are presented. By the one method, and that which is in most common practice, the skimmed milk alone is used for manufacture into cheese; by the other method, the buttermilk is added to tbe skim-milk; the fresh milk is v heated to 130° Fahrenheit, copied to 65°, allowed to stand from twenty-four to forty-eight hours for the cream to rise, and the cream is churned sweet. The results of the analyses of the two kinds of cheese are given below: Designation. Water. Ash. Fat. Caseine etc. 'Common skim-cheese. Scalded mills: and but- termilk cheese 48.38 44.48 3.63 4.60 80.55 15.82 33.44 '45.80 While these ;analyses indicate a larger proportion of fat in the ordinary skim-cheese, there was nevertheless a marked difference in quality in favor of the other; the latter was softer and more.salvy, and probably more digestiljle. It may be said, further, that the (proportion of fat in skim-cheeSes is not so constant as in whole- milk cheese. Another sample of scalded skim- milk and buttermilk cheese analyzed in the laboratoiy was found to contain twenty per cent, •of fat. In the third important method of cheese making, as in the manufacture of skim-cheese, thej butter fat is mostly removed from the milk by skimming; but while the milk is coagulating .after the addition of the rennet, as much of a clean animal fat, manufactured from the beef's caul, is most intimately mixed with the forming curd as it will take up; the excess of oil floats on the surface after the coagulation is completed, and is skimmed off; a cheese is thus obtained which, as the analysis below shows, is some- jtimes richer in fat that the ordinary skim-cheese : Designation. Wa; er. Ash. Fat. Caseine etc. Oleomargarine-cheese . 40.56 3.98 20.43. 36.97 For some unexplained reason the curd will not always take up the same amount of fat, so that Its proportion in the cheese is variable; in the oase of other analyses of the same kind of cheese onade m the laboratory, the proportion of fat hag ranged from eighteen to 35.9 per cent. This fat that is added to the curd ,is sometimes called oleomargarine, and the cheese is hence con- veniently distinguished from other kinds by the name given to it above; in respect to quality, it is superior to the ordinary skim-cheese, although, as in the case of the comparison between the two varieties of skim-cheese already mentioned, the better cheese is not always found to contain the larger proportion of fat. The chemist found- but one veritable imitation of the styles of cheese so common on the continent of Europe. Lim- burger cheese is made In one place ^n the State of New York, somewhat in the same manner as it is made in Europe The analysis shows that it contains a large proportion of water— 43.67 per cent. ; and somewhat |ess than the usual proportion of fat that is found in whole-mjlk cheese, or about thirty per cent. In the manu- facture of whole-milk cheese, a considerable portion of the fat remains in the whey. In a few cases this fat is collected and made into whey-butter, that brings a fair price in the mar- ket; and the removal of this fat does not, it is asserted, lessen the feeding value of the whey. A sample and an analysis of this butter are pre- sented; but if a chemical analysis is no true test of the quality of a sample of cheese'^ still less is it so in the case of butter. Two samples, of factory-butter and one of butter made from the milk of Jersey cows are also contained ' in the collection, of which the last mentioned was by far superior to the others in quality; but no such difference is indicated in the results of the analysis given below. Designation. Water. Ash. Fat. Caseine etc. Jersey butter Factory-butter.< Whey-butter..^..'!!!!!! •11.29 18.36 8.«3 9.77 3.20 2.98 3.43 1.B7 84.76 83.41 ■0.75 1.25 87.75 88.56 " Mr. L. B. Arnold, of New York, one of the best American authorities on cheese-making, in rela- tion to the manner of making cheese and butter from the same milk, states the case as follows: There are different modes of managing milk in creameries. In some, the milk is set in the cheese-vats at night, and stirred and cooled as if the whole contents of the vats were to be made into cheese in the usual way. It is then left standing at 60°, as near as may be, through :the night, for the cream to rise. In the morning thB cream is taken off and made into butter, and the skim-milk is mixed with new milk that is brought to the factory in the morning, and made into cheese. In this class of creameries, there are two modes of working the cream into butter: One is to churn the cream as soon as it is taken from the vats, while it is sweet, and then put the buttermilk back into the vats with the milk, and work it into cheese. In this way the valuable properties of the milk are worked up very clOBtily, leaving nothing but a very poor whey. The other mode is to set the cream aside till it becomes sour, before churning. In this case the butter- milk cannot be worked into the cheese, and of course is cast out with the whey. In the former case the cheese always receives a peculiar flavor from the buttermilk, which some people fancy, CHEESE 193 CHEESE but which most people dislike, and hence it does not find favor in the general market. In the latter case, if the curd is cured rapidly and -with- out any cessation in the curing process, by expos- ing it to a temperature too low, the cheese can scarcely be distinguished from whole-milk cheese ; and where unprejudiced selections are made, it is often preferred for its better keeping quali- ties and the purity of its flavor. The butter in the two cases differs as much as the cheese. When milk is set for the cream to rise, the odor peculiar to new milk escapes slowly, and as the cream soon coats over the surface of the milk, the odor, in attempting to rise, becomes entangled in the cream, and is hence carried with it into the churn. In the process of churning, much of the so-called animal odor escapes, but enough is always left in it to modify the fine flavor of tlie butter, and to serve as a ferment to work its early destruction. In the other case, where the cream is kept till it is sour, the acidity developed neutralizes the objectionable odor, and destroys it, and leaves the butter with a better flavor and in a better condition for long keeping. As the best of the cream rises first, the butter made from this partial skimming is of the finest quality, and usually sells at an advance above dairy butter, when equal skill is used in its production. The amount of butter taken from milk in this way is, perhaps, one pound from 100 pounds of milk, in the middle of the season, increasing to a larger percentage as the milk grows richer in the fall. By tliis practice, the pounds of butter and cheese counted together generally exceed the number of pounds of cheese that could be made from an equal quantity of unskimmed milk. This dif- ference may be accounted for from the waste that always occurs in maldng vvhole-milk cheese, by particles of cream escaping with the whey, and irom the fact that more water is retained in a curd from skim-milk tiian in a curd from whole milk, when all other circumstances are the same. The purpose in this class of creameries is to make only so much butter as will allow of making a fine quality of cheese. In another class of creameries the purpose is quite different. It is to make all, or nearly all, the butter that can be made from the milk, and then to make a profit by converting the skim-milk into cheese instead of feeding it to swine. To accomplish this it is necessary to keep the milk sweet while it is stand- ing for the cream to rise. Cold water is the agent employed. At a temperature of about 60° the lactic ferment hardly makes any perceptible advancement. Hence, if milk is kept at 60° or\a little below, the cream rises readily, and the milk is preserved for a long time in a good condition for cheese-making. To effect this, a reservoir is made in the creamery, with mason work laid up With water-lime or cement, and kept constantly full, and of even temperature by a steady stream of water from a cool spring. The milk, as it comes to the creamery, is strained into a small vat, and thence drawn into tin pails, eighteen or twenty inches deep, and eight inches in diameter, and the pails then set into the reservoir, which is just deep enough for the water to rise around the pails as high or a little higher than the sur- face of the milk. This is found to be a better way of keeping milk thaij to spread it out in shallow vessels. The cream rises as quick, and Bome contend, quicker, in the deep as in the ghallow dishes, and much less surface is exposed to be injured by drying. The exposure is so little that the cream always remains soft and thin, requiring to be dipped off insteaij of skimmed. The time of letting it stand in these pails varies in different creameries. In some, the milk of one day is made into cheese the next, thus allow- ing the mornipg's milk to stand twenty-four hours and the evening's milk twelve hours. In others it stands forty-eight and thirty-six hours. When the cream is taken off it is set away to sour, and at the proper time is churned by an application of steam, horse, or water power. It is a singular fact, that after all the trials made with the great variety of churns that are being continually introduced, the creameries and the best butter-makers all fall back upon the old dash-churn, as the best, both for quality of pro- duct and convenience. Patent churns are in bad repute with the creameries. When the butter is taken from the churns, it is thoroughly washed in cool water before salting. However much washing butter may be condemned by others, the practice works well in the creameries. The idea that water washes out the fine aroma of the butter seems to be more fanciful than real, and certainly much less injury is done to the texture by washing out the buttermilk than by working it out. The working is usually done on an inclined slab, with a lever rounded on one side and held in its place by a universal joint at the lower end of the slab. (See article on Butter.) The salt- ing is generally lighter than in farm dairies, being usually only one pound of salt for twenty pounds of butter, and the inclined slab is used in working it in. The butter made at the creameries is gener- allyof superior quality, and commands a high price, and is beginning to exert an influence in the market. Creameries are educating the public taste to a higher standard. Though much may be said of the excellence of creamery butter, little can be said of the excellence of cheese made in this class of factories. Though rich in valuable nutri- ment — that might under more favorable circum- stances, be at least palatable food — the shape in which it now usually goes to market, rates it very properly with the poorest class of human food. It is so dry, and hard, and insipid, and indigestible as hardly to be reckoned as a whole- some means of sustaining life. It is little else than dried curd. It cures so slowly and dries out so quickly that the cheesing process is arrest- ed before it is hardly begun. There is a wide field open for improvement in the manufacture of skim-milk cheese. The valuable flesh-forming material with which it abounds ought to be, and will ere long be, presented in more attractive forms. I have no expectation that a fancy article will be made from thoroughly skimmed milk, but am confident that a cheese much more palatable and wholesome than those now made in creameries, can be made from milk in the con- dition in which it is there manufactured. The most that is needed is to make the cheesing pro- cess as complete as in curing other cheese. When dairymen shall have become familiar with the fact that the cheesing process is but the result of the continued action of the rennet upon the coagu- lumithasformed from the milk, they will findsome efficient way of keeping up that action, however much it may be retarded by depriving the curd of the stimulating inflhence afforded by the fatty mat- ter in the milk. When the manufacture and mir- ing of skim-milk cheese shall be adapted to the CHEESE 194 CHEESB altered condition of tlie milk, its value will be greatly enhanced. But even now the dried-curd, if I may so calT it, makes a better return than can be made by feeding the milk to pigs and calves. It requires just about four times as much milk to make a pound of pork or veal, as it does to make a pound of skim-cheese, while there is but little difiterence in their market value. The quality of milk varies so much, that no precise results can be stated when it is worked up in the different ways of inanufacturing it, but they will not vary much from the following: 10,000 pounds of milk, of average quality, willmakel,025 pounds whole- milk I cheese, 'the same quantity, if partially skimmed, will make 100 pounds butter and 975 pounds cheese, that will scarcely differ from whole-milk cheese. If deeper skimmed, it will mike 250 to 300 pounds butter and 700 to 775 pounds skim-cheese; or, if tlioroughly skimmed, it would make 350 to 370 pounds butter and 600 to 650 pounds skim-cheese. The cheese will vary considerably with the varying amount of milk taken off with the cream. Il the whole-milk cheese be worthy fifteen cents per pound, the partially skimmed will be fourteen to fourteen and a half cents, the deeper skimming nine cents, and the full skimming seven, cents per pound. The butter in each case will keep with the top of the market as it fluctuates. The cost of making the cheese and getting it ready for market is two cents per pound, and the butter five cents. From the foregoing facts, the reader may gather at least a general idea of the modus operandi in cream- eries, and of the results produced. They give a little greater return than making cheese only from the milk, but, considering the greater out- lay in building and apparatus, the results, finan- cially do not differ very widely. Tlieir general elfect upon the markets is to raise the standard of Anierican cheese. In relation to the manu- facture of cheese in various countries, and the means used, Mr. P. B Thurber, of New York city, presented much valuable and condensed information to the New York State Dairymen's Association at the Session of 1878. This was ■ collected during a visit to the late French Inter- national Exposition. It is as follows: The French SoquefoH cheese has a reputation which extends as far back into dim antiquity as the time of Pliny, who mentions it in one of his works. It is made from the milk of sheep and goats, prin- cipally from that of the former. In 1866, 250, OOO out of a flock of 400,000 supplied the milk for 7, 150, 000 pounds of cheese. The very fertile pasturage of these animals is an immense plain, eight or ten leagues across. In the evening, after the return of the sheep from the pastures, they a,re allowed to rest for an hour before being milked, after which they will yield the milk- more readily, and are milked as rapidly as pos- sible. From May first to the middle of July the yield of milk is the largest, and each animal giv6s nearly one pint. After the shearing the flow of milk diminishes. The Larzac breed of sheep, frjm the milk of which the Roquefort cheese is made, have unusually large udders; this is attrib- tited to tlie practice of beating them with the liand as soon as the milk ceases to flow, in imitation of the manner in which the young lamb seeks to get more milk. The evening's milk is heated almost to boiling, and set aside. In the morning it is skimmed, heated to 98°, and mixed with the morning's milk for coagulation. After the curd has been divided, by stirring with a paddle, and the whey drawn off, it is well kneaded with the hands, and pressed, in layers, into moulds with perforated bottoms, and usually a thin layer of mouldy bread is put in between each layer of curd, the object being to hasten the ripening of the cheese by supplying the germs of the greea , mould peculiar to cheese, the technical name of which is PenicMum c^vrtnceum. The bread for this purpose is usually made before Christmsi^ . of equal parts of summer and winter barley, with considerable sour dough, and a little vine- gar. The mouldiness is not sufiiciently develop- , ed in it until three months, unless hastened by warmth. When mouldy enough it is ground, sifted, moistened with water, and kept from con- tact with the air until wanted. The curd re- mains in the moulds under pressure three or four days, after which the cheeses are wrapped in dry linen and put to dry. They remain in the dry- ing-room three or four days, after which they are . taken to the village of Roquefort, where the ripening is completed in a very peculiar manner. This village is situated in a deep, narrow gorge, with high precipitous walls of limestone rock that overhang the houses, and often immense boulders may be seen between the houses, which have sometimp fallen from the rock above. Thie wall of rock is filled with caves and fissures, front which currents of cold air issue without cessa- tion, and it is in vaults constructed in these fissures that the ripening of the Roquefort cheese is carried on; and it would appear that the pecu- liar characteristics and excellent quality^ of thi* singular kind of cheese can only be obtained by ripening in these vaults. The currents of air are quite cold, so that even in the hottest weather their temperature is kept at from 41° to 44". Those vaults which are so situated that the cur- rents of air flow from south to north, are believ- ed to yield the best cheese, and they are conse- quently held in the highest estimation. The cheeses are brought in at all seasons by the shep- herds, and are bought by the proprietors of the vaults; sometimes these purchases are made several years in advance, so sure is the de- mand for the cheese when ripened. They are carefully examined when brought in, and classifl' ed according to merit. Salt is then sprinkled over them, and they are piled up one on another for two or three dayS; then the piles are taken down, the salt and brine rubbed in, piled up again, and left for a week. They are then scraped and pared, pricked through and through with needles driven by machiiiery in order to accelerate the moulding, and after this they are left in piles again for fifteen days, till they become dry and firm in texture, and begin to be covered with mould ; this mould by its brilliant whiteness, iti length — the filaments being sometimes five or six inches long — its succulency, and the thickness of its coating, indicates the quality of the cheese on which it grows, and the suitability of the vaults in which the ripening is perfected. An- other of the celebrated cheeses made on the Con- tinent of Europe, and which is exported to a considerable extent, is the Swiss Gruy re; but it is now extensively manufactured in France and Germany, and also to some extent in other coun- tries. This is made mostly in huts, called ch4- lets, high up among the Alps, in the time during which the pastures on the mountain sides are I accessible and the huts habitable, say from the CHEESE 195 CHEESE melting of the snow in May to the end of Sep- tember, when men and animals descend for the winter into the sheltered valleys thousands of feet below. The chalets are located in the midst of the mountain pastures, on a spot safe from ava- lanches, and generally near to a small spring or pond of water when such are available. Pro- ■visions from the valleys are carried up weekly to the chalets, and it is under such difficult and romantij circumstances that a cheese is made which for hundreds of years has been considered almost, if not quite, the best on ' the Continent. The milk, partly skimmed, or not, according to ■^e quality of cheese desired to be made, is put in a great kettle and swung on a crane over a gentle Are, where it is allowed to attain a tem- perature of 77° F., when the kettle is swung off the fire and rennet is added to the milk. When coagulation has advanced far enough, the curd is r3iCt61* CHENOPODIACE;E. A family of plants, of Which Clienopodium is a genus. They are her- baceous, growing on very rich lands, have a solitary carpel, stamens of the sanae number as the divisions of the calyx, without bracts or petals. Wormseed (CA. anthdminticurn) is the only medicinal species. Beets, spinach, and . goose foot belong to this family; the leaves, and indeed the whole plant, are mucilaginous, and may be eaten as food when not unpleasant to the palate. CHERIMOTA. Anona cherinwlia, a tree of tropical America. Anona, the custard apple. 'There are seventeen species, which grow from cuttings and seeds. CHERRY 204 CHERRY CHERRY. Prunus cerams. The cherry of horticulturists was said to have been brought from Ceresus, a city in Pontus, to Italy, after the defeat of Mithridates, by Lucullus. 'About one hundred and twenty years afterwards, or in A.D. 55, it was taken to Britain by the Romans. A fruit universally cherished, it became dis- seminated where civilization extended, and is now cultivated, in some of its varieties, in every climate where the tree will survive the winter. West of Lake Michigan, only the Kentish and Morcllo varieties are generally cultivated, since the sweet varieties are so subject to bark burst- ing and exudation of gum, as to render their cultivation unprofitable. Along the Eastern shore of Michisan, however, the sweet varieties are cultivated with measurable success, well up to the Northern limit of the lake. As we pro- ceed East and especially South, all varieties are more or less cultivated. The cherry is propagated both by grafting and budding, the latter prefera- bly. Grafting is done in the spring before the appearance of the leaf, and budding as soon as the terminal bud is perfectly formed, at the North generally in August ; and, in severe climates, at such height as is required for the head to be formed. For family uie we incline to the opin- ion that it is preferable to bud on Mahaleb stocks, and under the surface if grafted, since they are apt to kill at the junction. Thus we have no suckers, and the fruit is larger. On Morello stocks, however, we get earlier and more profuse bearing, and for market purposes, it is undoubtr edly best, in all that region where Early Rich- mond and Late Morello are the varieties planted, and this embraces the whole West and North- west, except where previously noted. BeloTr will be found a list of varieties, as revised by the American Pomological Society, and adapted to various latitudes of the United States. The columns explain as follows. Size — ^I., large; m., medium; s., small. Form — ob. h., obtuse heart shape; r. ob. h., roundish obtuse heart shape; r. h., roundish heart shape; r., roundish or round. Color — 1 r., lively bright red; d. r. dark red, almost black; a. m., amber mottled with red; y. r., yellow ground shaded and marbled with red. Class — H., Hearts, or NAMES. Arch Dnke Belle Magaifiqiie belle lie Choiay Belle d'Orleaus Bigarreau , (Graffon, Yellow Spauish.) Bigarreau of Mizel (Monstrueuse cle Mezel, Bigarreau Gaubalia.) BlactBagle '. Black Heart Black Republican Black Tartarian Battner's Yellow Carnation Cue's Transparent ] Donna Maria ". Downer's Late ] . Early Purple Guigne '.,'.'.. Early Richmond Elton. Governor Wood Gridley Hovey Knight's Biriy Black. Late Duke Lite Kentish Louis Philllppe May Duke Morello (English Morello, Large Morello.) Napoleon. (Royal Ann, in California and Oregon.) Osceola OhioBenuty Plumstone Morello '.'.'.[".[['.'. Pontiac ]. ] Red Jacket Keine Hortense '.'.'.'..'.'. Rockport '. . , Royal Duke Tecumseh Tiadescant's Blacn Heart. .'..".'.'!!.'.' (Elkhorn, Large Black Bigarrean.) DESCRIPTION. ob. h. h. h. ob. h. ob. h. oh. h h. h. h. r. h. r. h. r. r. h. r. h. r. r. h. ob. h, ob. h. r. r. r.ob.h h. r.ob.h r.h. ob. h. ob.'h, ob. h r. r.ob.h r. ob. h h. d. r. 1. r. a. m. y. r. y. r. d.r. d. r. d.r. b. d.r. y. a. m. a. TCI. d.r. y-r. d.r. 1. r. y. r. y-r. d.r. y. r. d.r. d.r. r. d.r. d.r. d.r. y-r. d.r. y-r. d.r. d.r. y-r. 1. r. a. m. d.r. d.r. d.r. K.M. K.M. P. F.M. F. M. F. IL F.M. F. M. F.M. F.M. P.M. K.M. F. K.M. P.M. F. M. K.M. P. M. F.M. M. F.M. F.M. K.M. K. K.M. K.M, K.M. F.M, F.M, F. M, K.M F.M F. .« F.M, F.M K.M. M. M. L. L. M. B. M. M. M. M. M. L. L. M. L. L. E. E. M. M. M. M. E. L. M. L. E. L. M. M. M. L. M. L. L. B. M. L. L. 8 A fine old variety, but by many supposed superseded. 14 Very haroy and productive. P. P. P. P. P. P. P. P. Am. P. P. P. Am. F. Am. P. F. F. Am. Am. Am. F. P. P. F. F. F. Am. Am. P. Am. Am. F. Am. F. Am. P. I.— 20 An old variety, very firm flesh ; carries well to market. CHESHIRE SWINE 205 CHESHIRE SWINE '■-lender fleshed sweet cherries; B., Bigarreau, or firm fleshed cherries; D., Dukes, having a char- acter in tree and fruit midway between the Hearts and Morellos; M., Morellos, having acid Iruit, and the tree of small, slender growth. tTse— F., family, for dessert; P. M., family or market; K. M., for kitchen or market; M., mar- .. ket, Season— E., early; M., medium; L., late. 'iQpigin — F,, foreign: Am., American. Value — , :' !*signifles doing well, adapted to ; ** well adapted, ^Tand t signifies on trial, or experimental. '- - ^llERT. A silicious mineral resembling flint. CHERTIL. OhcerophyUum saUmim'. A pot- hCT^ resembling parsley, used by the French and M^et. European nations, notably the Germans ofliifpollanders, in soups and as salads. The SflS. are sown in spring, in drills eight inches lliart, the plants thinned to eight inches apart, and kept free of weeds. It flowers in the fall, hut is little used in American cookery. ' „f HESHIRE SWINE. One of the breeds of swine, which have become more than locally popular are the Cheshire, originated in Jefflerson county, N.T.( They are a modified form of the Suffolk, having, like the SufEolks, been formed by crosses of Yorkshire and other white breeds of that cla^._ Chesliires are pure white in color, ha-s^e but little hair, as a rule, but individual pigs of a litter will vary much in this respect. The snout is rather long, but fine. The ear erect and fine. The shoulders wide, and the hams full. The flesh is fine grained and yields a large amount of mess pork, in proportion to the offal. The breed is not widely disseminated and they are not now bred so largely in their native locality as formerly, since they do not differ sufficiently from the Suffolk or Yorkshire, to make them sought after in preference to this latter breed, and in fact they do not seem to be an improve- ment on this admirable class of swine. So the Suffolk, which are but modified Yorkshires, have of late years ceased to attract the attention among breeders they once did, even in England. In the United States, all white breeds, when bred very fine, are not adaptepl to the sun, rain, and other weather that must be encountered, in thc> ordinary way of keeping. Hence among feeders' • 'JrOETHBEN DIVISION. ,'i ■■ Between 42° and 49°. n.— CENTRAL DIVISION. Between 35° and 42°. m.-SOUTH. DIVISION. Between 28° and 83° 1 c i 5 i a O s 9 a a s i 6 1 g. id .a a 1 5 o k Q 03 1 si 1 o X3 03 t3 1-1 d o bD P 1 * 1 * * ** * # * # *# # * * * * ** t © V * * * * * * * * * * If * * * * * d 1 C m * * * ♦ * * * * * * * * * * * * 'a > * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 1 S3 * * * * * * ** * * * * ** * ♦* * * * * * # 4* a ■z ■3 a * * if # t * * * * * * 5 > CO 1 if* ** ** ** * * * * * a * ** *# * * * 1 * * * 1 * * s o * ej' m 1 * ifif * 4< i * d s o O ■a 3 > a . 1 ~ II c <; S - 8 ^ 1 * 3 1 2 i 4 6 6 I 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 * * * 4 * * * * * * # * * ** •« * * * * ** * * * * * * # * * * * * * * 4I* ** #* * * * * * ** #* * * * * * * * * * * * t * t # * * * * * * * * * *♦ * * * * * * * * * * * # * # * * * ** * * * * * * * * * # * * " .. * * ' t If * * if * if * * v * ** * * ♦ * ** # * ** * * * * * V * * t * # ** if if t * ♦ * *]* * * * * + t t * * * # * * * * * ** * * v #* * * * if 25 28 28 29 30 81 32 3:) it* t if. if * S4 85 36 87 38 * * ** 25 An old excellent sort ; little known. I The latest ripening large sweet cherry. CHESS 206 CHESTER WHITE SWINl in the great com-growlng districts, the highly- bred black or black and white breeds are more popular than the finely-bred white breede. CHESS. BromiLS. Brome-erass. Dr. Dar- lington, in Weeds and Useful Plants, carefully and tersely describes this pest of our winter wheat fields, and also controverts the popular idea of transmutation. We know some other- wise intelligent men, who still believe that wheat will turn to chess, nay, that oats will turn to timothy. It is needless to say it is a botanical impossibility, as much so as that wheat could turn to Indian corn. The description of chess is as follows: This foreigner is a well-known CHESTER WHITB BOAB. pest among our crops of wheat and rye, — and occasionally appears in "the same fields, for a year or two, after the grain crop; but being an annual, it is soon choked out by the per- ennial grasses, — and the fallen seeds remain, like myriads of others, until the ground ia again broken up, or put in a favorable state for their development. The best preventive of this and all similar evils, in the grain-field, , is to sow none but good, clean seed. Among the curious, vulgar errors which yet infest the minds of credulous and care- less observers of natural phe- nomena, may be mentioned the firm belief of many of our farmers, (some of them, too, good practical farmers) that this troublesome grass is nothing more than an ac- cidental variety, or casual form, of degenerate wheat, produced by some untoward condition of the soil, or un- propitious season, or some organic injury, though it must be admitted, I mink, by the most inveterate de- fender of , that faith, that in undergoing the metamor- |)hosis, the plant is surpris- mgly uniform in its vagaries, in always assuming the exact structure and char- acter of bromus. A similar hallucination has long prevailed among the peasantry of Europe, in relation to this supposed change of character in the grasses. But, in the Old World, they were even more extravagant than with us; for they believed that wheat underwent sundry transmu- tations, first changing to rye, then to barley, tten to bromus, and finally from bromus to oats. I believe the most credulous of our countrymen have not been able, as yet, to come up with their transatlantic brethren, in this matter. This grass has been cultivated within a few years as Wil- lard's Bromus, and the seed sold at a high price. The farmers found that they not only did not get a valuable grass, but were really propagating a worthless and pernicious weed, being thus doubly cheated. The principal varieties are as follows: B. seeiMnus. Panicle spreading, even in fruit; spikelets ovate-oblong, eight and ten flowered; florets pubescent; awn short, sometimes very short or none; known as Cheat, Chess, Brome- B. racemosiis. Panicle erect, contracted in fruit; lower palea decidedly ex- ceeding the upper, bearing an awn of its own length; known as Up- right Chess, Smooth Brome-grass. It is a worthless species found in grain-flelds, as is B. mdUis, vi\x\ch resembles the preceding, but has long awned flowers whicA, as also the leaves, are downy, and the spikelets are closely imbricated.. By some, the two are considered as forms of the same species There are two native species, of the genus, of no agricultural value. All the varieties of Chess, are of but little value in agriculture, and should be treated as weeds, and, in fact, are so treated by intelligent farmers in all sections. CHESTER WHITE SWINE. The Chester County, or Chester White hogs, originated in Cliester county, Peinn., sometime in 1818, through the introduction of a pair of pigs said to have been brought there, from Bedfordshire, England, by a sea captain, James Jeffries. These were bred, and crossed upon the best white hogs of the country about, and by selection and care through many years, the strain eventuated in a race whose characteristics became constant, forming large, quiet, good feeding, and easily fattened hoga^ CHESTER WHITE SOW. considered excellent lard and bacon hogs. Upoa the introduction of Berkshire and also Suffolk, these breeds were intercrossed with the Chesters, but not satisfactorily. At one time they stood at the head of the large white breeds of the United States, East and West. They are exceedingly hardy in constitution, and will, North, still have many admirers among breeders of large hogs. The principal objection to them being that the/ CHEWING THE CUD 207 CHICCORY are rather coarse, from the stand point of fan- ciers of fine boned hogs, and they lack early ma- turity. They are, however, grad ually giving yvay, in the corn-zone of the West, to other breeds, no- tably the Poland-China and Berkshires, but further North they are still extensively bred. The illustra- tions we give, of a boar and sow in breeding condi- tion, will give a good idea of the breed. The Chester swine should have length and depth of carcass, a broad, even, straight back, large hams, and the shoulder carrying meat well formed, rather small bone, small head, with heavy jowl, face rather dished; and straight hair, and short iieck. It is, however, undeniably true that this breed varies much, probably from the fact of the many crosses taken, and the infusion of native blood in an early day. Hence the reason why of late years they have not held their own, except in the case of particular breeders who have kept their strains comparatively even in form and quality. CHEST FOUNDER. (See Founder.) ClIESTNUT. Oastinea Americana. This most valuable timber and ornamental tree has a wide range, being found from Maine to Michigan and South. In the States west of Lake Michigan it is not indigenous, neither is it found, we be- lieve, unless planted, west of the Mississippi river, either south or north. In the South it is common in the mountain forests. The chestnut requires a dry soil, but is not particular about its being rich. Rocky or dry, sandy or loamy ridges suit it admirably, and in all such situations it will well rep£«^ planting anywhere south of Central Iowa. The wood is most valuable for furniture and inside finishing, and the nuts always command a good price in any market. When the trees are large enough to fell, a new growth immediately springs from the stump, and thus the .plantation is renewed. The European variety (0'. i>esca) closely resembles the American, grows to an immense size, and the nuts are nearly the size of black walnuts. It is not hardy north of Washington, D. C, but in a climate ' suited to it it is said to bear fruit in seven years from seed. To raise a plantation, prepare the ground' by thorough and deep plowing; lay it off four feet apart, making the furrows so the nuts may be covered three inches; plant in these drills two feet apart. The second or third year, according to the growth, remove every other row, and the next year every other plant in the remaining row. Thus they will stand 8x4 feet. When the trees interfere, take out every other ' plant, and so continue until the trees stand one rod apart. At this distance they will make pretty large trees, but if they are to attain their full stature they must at length stand tuirty-two feet apart, or even 32x64 feet. This rule will apply to forest tree planting generally. The nuts of the chestnut must be kept in moist sand, from the timer of gathering until planted in the spring. Here again the rule will apply to all nuts, and forest tree seeds . All nuts may be planted in the autumn as soon as gathered, but thus they are liable to be destroyed by mice and other small animals Consequently it is better that they be kept in moist sand until signs of germination are seen. Thus they come up quickly, and much vexation is saved in weeding, as well as loss from the attacks of vermin. CHEWING THE CUD. The animals which chew the cud (Buminants) include the ox, deer. camel, and sheep. They are furnished with four pouches or stomachs; the grass gathered on the field is swallowed and reaches the first pouch, ia moistened by water from the second, and after- ward moulded into round balls, which are thrown up into the mouth and leisurely chewed, and re-swallowed into the third stomach, to be digested in the fourth. Such animals are essentially her- bivorous, and require rest during rumination. Any interference with this process is a sign of disease. (See Cud, loss of.) CHICCORY. Ciclwrtnm. This plant, also called Succory and Wild Endive (C intybus), is a naturalized foreigner, and, being hardy, where it gets hold is a troublesome weed. C. endivia, in Europe, is esteemed and used as a salad plant, when about a foot high, the tops being tied together, over the heart, and the sides earthed up, in order to blanch them. The seed should be sown early in the spring in drills sixteen inches apart, covered three-quarters of an inch deep, and ihinned, when large enough, to six or eight inches in the row. The cultivation and blanching of Endive is precisely similar and the plant is a much nicer bitter salad than chiccory. The principle use of Chiccory is f orthe roots, which when sliced and kiln-dried, are used in the adul- teration of ground coffee. It is raised by sowing the seeds upon very rich, deeply-trenched ground, in drills eighteen to twenty inches apart, keeping the rows clear of weeds, and thinning to about six inches in the row. In the autumn the tops are cut and the roots raised by a peculiar plan, -which cuts the tap root some eighteen inches below the surface, slightly lifting the roots; or by a plan which turns the roots out of the soil, at the same time covering the cut tops, the plan being to go around the field, one row being removed before the next is worked. With the sub-soil lifter, however, the earth is not turned, and this plan is preferable. The cul- tivation of Chiccory has been introduced into the United States several times, and abandoned. The following was the plan pursued at a plantation twelve miles east of Sacramento, California, in 18'i 8, the cultivation having since, we believe, been abandoned. The yield was reported at fif- teen tons per acre, of green roots; and the yield of the State was placed in that year at 5,000 tons. The farm near Sacramento, used for the cultiva- tion of chiccory, consisted of 180 acres, of which seventy acres were rich bottom-land. , Sixty acres of this were seeded to Chiccory in January and February, 1873, and were gathered in July, August, September and October. The land wa» prepared by deep plowing, replowing six or seven inches deep just before planting, thorough- ly pulverizing with a harrow The seed was put in by a drill-machine, in drills about one foot apart. As soon as the shoots appeared above ground, twenty-five to thirty -^Chinamen were employed in weeding and hoeing, working about ten weeks, till the weeds ceased growing. In harvesting, four Chinamen, with sharp hoes, cut ofE the tops, which were turned under by an eight-horse plow, while the roots were turned to the surface. Laborers following the plow threw the uncovered roots in piles, and others ,coming after with a potato-hook, uncovered whatever plants were not unearthed by the plow. Tha roots were then loaded and carried to the factory, where they were passed through a shoot in order to remove sand, etc. Prom thence the roota CHINCH BUG 208 CHINCH BUG were passed to the cutter, a knife-armed cylin- der wiiich, revolving rapidly, cut them in strips tveo or three inches loig by one-quarter-inch or more in thickness and width. These were raised to a large drying platform, where they were spread in a layer abo(it two inches thick, and stirred daily for a week, at the end of which period they I were sufficiently cured for roasting and storing. The roasting was done in tlie second story of the factory, which was three stories high. The roaster was a sheet-iron cylin- der, four and a half feet long by two jfeet in diameter, supported by shafts, and revolving in a brick oven. Five bushels constituted a charge for the roaster, and two hours were required for roasting. When this was completed, the' chic- cory was poured out, cooled, and passed to' the first floor, where it was ground in a mill. The chiccorywas then sieved, the coarser portions reground, and the rest passed through a fine sieve before barreling. The factory turned out five tons of chiccory per week, running in the day-time only, employing a ten horse-power engine for motive-power. The cultivation of chiccory has never proved remunerative in the United States, unless it may have been in Cali- fornia. It is to be hoped it never will, since its cultivation is simply for use as an adulterant to coffee. While its use can not be distinctly stated as injurious, it is, nevertheless, a fraud upon the buyer of coffee when mixed therewith. If the good wife chooses to furnish chiccory as a family beverage, wfeU and good, the pure chiccory can ,be bought or raised since its cultivation is as easy as that of the parsnip or carrot. CHICK, or CHICKEN. (See Poultry.) CHICK-PEA. Cicer arietinum. This is a pea much used in Europe, for flavoring soups and also for eating green in the south of Europe. Like the bean it will not stand frost. It is an upright, husky plant, requiring no support, and W|ill mature where Indian corn will, but is not valuable for cultivation in the United States. CHIGOE, or CHIGGER. An apterous min- , ute insect, which abounds in southern and tropi- cal America. It penetrates the skin of the foot and breeds therein, producing intolerable . itch- ing. Unless destroyed, or picked out with a needle, it finally brings about ulcerations. CHILIAN CLOVER. (See Alfalfa.) CHINCH BUG. Micropua leucopterus. This bug, when favorable seasons allow it to increase largely, is one of the most destructive of noxious insects. The Wheat Midge, the Grain Plant Louse, the Hessian Fly, destructive as they are in particular seasons, are, all combined, not to be so dreaded as this pest of the cereal crops. In- significant as' this minute scourge may seem, being Jittle more than an eighth of an inch long, yet when they appear in countless millions, covering fields black, and suckmg the life of the plants with their myriad beaks, the hopes of the farmer may well cease. Fortunately, they are assailed by nu- merous foes, and by fun- gus enemies. They may iij«o be successfully destroyed by persistent effort. The illustrations give this insect in all its stages of transformation, the hair lines at the bottom of the perfect insect and at the sides of other figures showing the natural size. %«;5 ^' Explanation: a, b, eggs; c, newly hatched larva; d, its tarsus (part of the foot to which the leg is joined); e, larva of the first moult; /, larva after second moult; g, pupa; h, leg of perfect insect; ,;', being the same still more highly magnified; i, proboscis in beak. Dr. Kiley gives the natural history of this pest, including some observations on insects in general, which is so terse and com- prehensive that we quote it nearly entire: In the four great and extensive Orders of Insects, naipely, the Beetles (OoUmtera), the Clear- winged Flies (HymeTwpteru), the Scaly-winged Flies (Lep- idoptera), and the Two-winged Flies (Diptera), and in one of the four small orders in its restricted sense, namely, the Net-winged Flies, (Neuroptera) the insect usually lies still through- out the pupa state, and is always so far from being able to eat or to evacuate, that both mouth and anus are closed up by membrane. In the three small orders, on the contrary, namely, that of the Straight- winged Flies in its most extensive sense (Ortlwptera including Pseudo-neuropiera), the Half-winged Bugs (&fer<)ptera)i and the Whole-winged Bugs {Homoptern), the pupa is just as active and just as ravenous as either the larva or the perfectly developed and busy insect, and the, little creature never quits eating as long as the warm weather lasts, except for a day or so while it is accomplishing each of its successive three, four or five moults^ As the Chinch Bug belongs to the Half -winged Bugs, it therefore continues to take food, with a few short internjissions, from the day when it hatches out from the egg to the day of its unlamented death. Most insects — iiTespective of the Order to which they belong — require twelve months to go through the complete circle of their changes, from the _ day that the egg is laid to the day when the per- fect insect perishes of old age and decrepitude. A few require three years, as for example the Round-headed Apple-tree Borer {Supetda bimt- tita,, Say) and the White Grub which produces the May-beetle {LmJinoisterna quercina, Knoch). One species, the Thirteen-year , Locust (Oicada tredecim, Riley) actually requires thirteen years to pass from the egg to the winged estate;, and another, the Seventeen-year Locust (dcaxteksep- temdeaim, Linn.) the still longer period of seven- teen years. On the other hand there are not a few who pass through all their three states in a few months, or even in a few weeks; so that in one and the same year there may be two, three or even four or five broods, one generated by the other and one succeeding another. For example, the Hessian Fly (Cecidomyia deatruetor, Say) the CHINCH BUG 309 CHINCH BUG common Slug-worm of the P^ar {Selnndria c&rad. Peck) the Slug-worm of the Rose {Selandria rosm, Harris) the Apple-worm and a few others, produce exactly two generations in one year, and hence may be termed two-brooded. Again, the Colorado Potato-beetle in Central Missouri is three-brooded, and not improbably in more southerly regions is four-brooded. Lastly, the common House-fly, the Cheese-fly, the various species of Blow-flies and Meat-flies, and the mul- tifarious species of Plant-lice {Aphis) produce an indefinite number of successive broods in a single year, sometimes amounting in the case of the last-named genus, as has been proved by actual experiment, to as many as nine. The Chinch Bug is two-brooded in North Illinois, and I find that it is likewise two-brooded in Missouri, and most probably in all the Middle states. Yet it is quite agreeable to analogy that in the more Southern states, it may be three-brooded. For instance, the large Polyphemus Moth is single- brooded in the Northern and Middle states, and yet, two broods are sometimes produced in this state, while in the South it is habitually two- brooded. Again, the moth known as the Poplar Spinner (Olostera Americana, Harris) is stated by Dr. Harris and Dr. Fitch to be only single- brooded in Massachusetts and New York, the insect spinning up in September or October, passing the winter in the pupa state, and coming out in the winged form in the following June. But Dr. Harris — no doubt on the authority of Abbott — states that in Georgia this insect breeds twice a year; and I have proven that it does so breed in Missouri, having bred a number of cocoons which were formed by a second brood of larvae. It is quite reasonable, there- ' fore, to infer that the Chinch Bug may produce even more than two broods in the more Southern states. It is these two peculiarities in the habits of the Chinch Bug, namely, first, its continuing to take food from the day of its birth to the day of its death and, secondly, its being either two- brooded or many brooded, that renders it so destructive and so difficult to combat. Such as survive the autumn, when the plants, on the sap of which they feed, are mostly dried up so as to afford them little or no nourishment, pass the winter in the usual torpid state, and always in the perfect or winged 'form, under dead leaves, under sticks of wood, under flat stones, in moss, in bunches of old dead grass or weeds or straw, ' and often in corn-stalks and corn-shucks. In the fall and winter of 1868, I repeatedly received corn-stalks that were crowded with them, and it was difficult to find a stalk in any field that did not reveal some of them, upon stripping off the leaves. I have even found them wintering in the gall made by the Solidago Gall-moth {Gfele- ■-' -Magallce solidaginis,) described in the first report. In the winter all kinds of insect-devouring ani- mals, such as birds, shrew-mice, etc., are hard put to it for food, and have to search every hole and corner for their appropriate prey. But no matter how closely they may thin out the Chinch Bugs, or how generally these insects may have been starved out by the autumnal droughts, there - will always be a few left for seed next year. Suppose that there are only 2,000 Chinch Bugs remaining in the spring in a certain field, and that '^ach female of the 2,000, as vegetation starts, raises a family of only 200, which is a low calculation. Then — allowing the sexes to be 14 equal in number, whereas in reality the females are always far more numerous than the males — the first or spring brood will consist of 200,000, of which number 100,000 will be females. Here, if the species were single-brooded, the process would stop for the current year and 200,000 Chinch Bugs, in one field, would be thought nothing of by the Western farmer. But the species is not single-brooded and the process does not stop here. Each successive brood increases in numbers in geometrical progression, unless there be something to check their i. crease, until the second brood amounts to twenty mil- lions, and the third brood to two thousand n.il- lions. We may form some idea of the meaning of two thousand millions of Chinch Bugs, when it is stated that that number of t^em, placed in a straight line, head and tail together, would just about reach from the surface of the earth to its central point — a distance of 4,000 miles. Dr. ' Shimer. of Mt. Carroll, 111., a careful observer, held that the insect only takes wmg' during the impulse of the sexual season. Dr. Riley, in relation to this matter, says: It is a notori- ous fact that Chinch Bugs do not all mature at once, and if they took wing only when making their courtships, some of them would be fiying during a period of several weeks and, as will be shown presently, there exists a dimorphous short- winged form of the Chinch Bug, which cannot possibly - make any such aerial love trips. It seems more agreeable to analogy that they take wing only when they have become so unduly numerous that they are instinctively aware that they must either- emigrate or starve. Be this however as it may, the fact of their being as a general rule, unwilling to use their wings, is well known to every practical farmer. It has long been known that the Chinch Bug deposits its eggs underground and upon the roots of the plants which it infests, and that the young larvae remain underground for some considerable time after they hatch out, sucking the sap frcyn the roots. If, in the spring of the year, you pull up a wheat plant in a field badly infested with this insect, you will find hundreds of the, eggs attached to the roots; and at a somewhat later period, the young larvae may be found cluster- ing upon the roots, and looking likei so many moving Uttle red atoms. The egg is so small as to be scarcely visible tn the naked eye, of an oval shape, about four times as long as wide, of a pale amber-white color when first laid, but sub- sequently assuming a reddish color, from the young larva showing through the transparent shell. As the mother Chinch Bug has to work her way underground in the spring of the year, in order to get at the roots upon which she pro- poses to lay her eggs, it becomes evident at once, that the looser the soil is at this time of the year, the greater the facilities which are offered for the operation Hence the great advantage of plowing land for spring grain in the preceding autumn, or, if plowed in the spring, lolhng it repeatedly with a heavy roller after seeding. And hence the remark frequently made by far- mers, that wheat harrowed in upon old corn- ground, without any plowing at all, is far less infested with Chinch Rug than wheat put in upon land that has been plowed. There is another fact which has been repeatedly noticed by prac- tical inen. This insect can not live and thrive and multiply in land that is sopping with water; CHINCH BUGS 210 CHL0EIDE8 and it generally commences its operations in early spring upon those particular parts of every . field where the soil is the loosest and the driest. The female occupies about thtree weeks in depos-. iting her eggs and, according to Dr. Shimer's estimate, she deposits about 50(5. The egg requires about two weeks to hatch, and the bug becomes full-grown and acquires its wlnss in from forty to fifty days after hatching. There are, as is well-known to entomologists, many genera of theialf -winged bugs which, in Europe, occur in two distinct dimorphous forms, with no intermediate grades between the two; namely, a Short-winged, or sometimes even a completely wingless type and a long-winged type. Fre- quently the two occur promiscuously together, and are found promiscuously copulating so that they can not possibly be distinct species. Some- times the long-winged type occurs in particular seasons, and especially in very hot seasons. More rarely the short-winged type occurs in a different locality from the long- winged type, and usually in that case in a more northerly locality, i^e have a good illustration of this latter peculi- arity i* the case of the Chinch Bug, for a dimor- Shous short-winged form occurs in Canada, and •r. Fitch describes it, from specimens received, as being a variety, under the name of apterus. Besides the cannibal foes of the Chinch Bug, and disease, heavy rains are destructive, sometimes killing them over large extents of country. In fact it is only in hot, dry seasons that they fairly swarm. So, also, they cannot hybernate in cold, damp ground, their natural home being in the dryest soils. The methods and agencies for tie destruction of the Chinch Bug will be pretty much included in the following: Their natural enemies. The plan of anticipating their ravages by sowing grain so early, in the spring, as to get in advance of their depredations. The attempt to save a part of our crops by preventing the ' .migration of the bugs from one field to another. The method of destroying them by burning corn stalks and other rubbish, in the fall of the year. The atteanpt to prevent their breeding, to any serious extent, by abstaining from the cultivaifion of those grains upon which they chiefly subsist. Among the important natural enemies of the chinch-bug, are the Spotted Lady-bird, (JSwpo- damia maaulMa); the Trim Lady- bird, {OoocineUa mwnlda); a Lace Wing Fly {Ghrympa phrabuTuia) and the Insidious Flower Bug (Antlweoria irmcLi- osus). This last resembles the Chinch Bug, and and has often been mistaken for it. Quail also eat the Chinch Bug, The secoi;id plan is the early sowing of grain. A modification of this plan" has been practiced as follows : With twelve bushels of spring wheat mix one bushel of winter rye, and sow in the usual manner. The rye not heading out, but spreading out close to the ground, the bugs will content themselves with eating it, until the ^heat is too far advanced to be injured by them. There will, of course, be no danger of the winter rye mixing with the spring wheat. Take common fence-boards, six inches or less wide, and run them around the piece, set edgewise, and so that the bugs cannot get under them. or between the joints, and then spread either pine or coal tar on the upper edge, and tJiey will not cross it. The tar needs renew- ing till the edge gets saturated, so that it will keep wet and not dry in anv more, and either kind of tar is effectual. Then dig holes close to the boards, about like a post-hole, once in four or five rods, and run a strip of tar from the top of the board to the bottom oh the outside oppo- site the hole, and they will leave the board, and in trying to get around the tarred stripe will slide, into the hole, where they will be obliged to remain till they can be buried at leisure, and new Jioles opened for more insects to drop into. In relation to the management of crops, etc., in the case of Chinch Bugs, Dr. Cyrus Thomas draws the foUowiilg conclusions: That it is useless to attempt to raise spring wheat or barley where Chinch Bugs have been present in any consider- able numbers the preceding year, unless we have reason to believe that they have been killed off by heavy rains. That in case the season should be favorable to the propagation of the Chinch Bug we always have it in our powfer to get rid of these pests by the abandonment of these two kinds of grain for one or two years. But to make this course effective there must be a concert of action by farmers over a "(ionsiderable section of the country. That the presence of Chinch Bugs the preceding year will not prevent the raising of com or any of the winter grains. With regard to oats the testimony thus far is that if this grain be sown where Chinch Bugs abound, and especially if it be sown exclusively, it will be damaged to a greater or less extent the first year, but that the bugs probably will not continue to breed in it to any great extent in succeeding years. CHINESE SUaiJB CANE. (See Sorghum.) CHINQUAPIN. Castanea pumila. A small tree or bush found south of 40°, the latitude of Washington ; ,the fruit is small and like a chest- nut. The tree is small, seldom producing wood large enough for any mechanical purpose; what there is is very durable. In neglected lands in some portions of the South, the tree is considered a nuisance. CHITINE, Chitine resembles cellulose. It is supposed by soine to be nitrogenous^ it forms the elytra and integuments of insects and the carapaces of Orustacea. It may be obtained by exhausting the wing-cases of cockchafers succes- sively with water, alcohol, ether, acetic, acid, and boiling alkalies. The final residue retains com- pletely the form of the wing-cases. CHIVE. (See Gives.) CHITTAGiONG FOWLS. (See Brahma Pootra.) CHLORIDES. The origm of the chlorides in the soil is not well understood. Dr. A. A. Hayes has detected alkaline chlorides in the primary rocks of Vermont, and Dr. Samuel L. Dana says: The possible existence of chloride of silicon has been noticed, and if this is not the source of the chlorine of plants, that it may be supposed to be evaporated from the ocean, and consejiuently to exist in that state dissolved in the air. An examination of the rain-water of each fall during the year 1843, in Lowell, Mass., has shown that this suggestion is correct. Sol- uable muriates are universally contained in rain- water. As, therefore, common salt, the chlorine and soda of plants, is derived from sea- waters, then as sulphate of lime has been detected in snow and hail, it becomes a question whether " other organic salts of plants may not have a similar origin, and exist dissolved in air. Chlorine has not been found beneficial when applied as a manure, though common salt, which contains largely of chlorine, has long been used and with CHOCOLATE 311 CHOKE benefit in certain cases, in stiffening the straw of srain. CHLORINE. A green-colored elementary- gas, produced artificially. It is pungent, poi- sonous, and of great chemical activity. It exists only in combination in nature; equivalent 35.45. When combined with metals the "substances are called chlorides, as chloride of sodium (conmion salt), chloride of hydrogen (muriatic acid). The latter is a powerful acid, much used in the arts, and known under the name of spirits of salts. Chlorine also unites with lime and soda, forming ' feeble compounds, the chlorides of lime 'and soda; these, especially the former, are extensively used in bleaching, from the continual escape of the chlorine. They are also disinfecting for the same reason. Chlorides are erroneously called muriates. Chlorine unites with five equivalents of oxygen, and forms chloric acid. One of its salts, the chlorate of potash, is of great value in the arts. CHLORITE. A mineral of a greenish color, common in slates, etc. It is chiefiy a silicate of magnesia and iron. CHLORO. In chemistry, a prefix to sub- stances containing chlorine, as chloro-carbonic acid, etc. CHLOROPHTL. The green coloring matter of leaves. It closely resembles wax, and is con- verted in the fall into a true .yellow fat. The presence of Chlorophyl is essential to the healthy functions ■ of the leaf, which ceases to absorb carbonic acid from the air when yellow or red. The autumnal tints of leaves depend on a change of this coloring matter, the yellow being called Xanthophyll, andtheredErjrthrophyll. The tints of many flower? depend upon its compounds, which assume every variety between greens, reds, and yellows. CHOCOLATE. From the fact that the pre- paration called chocolate, a product of the nut of the chocolate tree {Thedbroma cacao), is now eirtensively used, makes it deserving of more than a passing notice. Its name, Theobroma (food of the Grods), was given by Linnaeus, who was excessively fond of it. Its common name is from the Aztec (Ancient Mexican), name Chocolatl. This people it is said, were so expert that they raised the liquid preparation into a froth that was so firm, on cooling, that it could be eaten. There are several species indigenous to the inter-tropical regions of America, the oily nuts of which ace used for food. The trade in the nuts, for manufacturing into the chocolate cakes of commerce, is now very extensive. The West Indies, Mexico, Central America, and Brazil are the chief places of production. The cut shows a branch of the Cacao, with its leaves and nuts, and also section of nut sliced lengthwise. The fruit when ripening changes from a green to a deep yellow color; when ripe, it is gathered by ' hand, split open, and the seeds removed. The latter are then cleaned of the pulpy matter sur- rounding them, and subjected to a process of fermentation, for the purpose of developing their color, and when this process is completed they are dried in the sun and packed for transporta- tion. The seeds are prepared for use by roast- ing in revolving metal cylinders and then bruis- mg them to loosen their skins, which are removed by fanning. The cotyledons, com- monly called cacao-nibs, are separated in the same manner. The cleaned seeds are then crushed and ground between heated rollers, which softens the oily matter and reduces them to a uniform, pasty ma^; this is then mixed_ with variable quantities of sugar and starch, to' form the different kinds of cacao, or sweetened and flavored with vanilla or other substances for the formation of chocolate. The value of cacao as an article of food is very considerable, from the large quantity of nutritive matter it contains. In one hundred parts of cacao there are fifty-one of fat or butter, twenty-two of starch and gum, twenty of gluten, and two of the peculiar prin- ciple theobromine, which contains more nitrogen than the active principle of either tea or coffee. BRANCH OF CHOCOIiATB TRBE. As a refreshing beverage, it is much inferior to either of these well-known articles, which are used as an infusion only; but as cacao is taken into the stomach as a substance, it is an impor- tant article of nutrition, as it is of commerce. CHOKE. There are two forms of choke— the high and low choke. The high choke is ,the most quickly fatal unless reUeved. The cause is some substance lodged in the throat, as an apple, potato, etc., in swallowing. Some stable-keepers foolishly put an egg down the throat of a horse, out of condition, under the absurd idea that m some tnysterious way it is beneficial. An egg mixed in the food, or, indeed, three or four of them daily, is beneficial to a weak horse. In case of choking by a whole egg, it may be easily broken by pressure from the outside— not so a hard substance. Whenever the object can be reached by the hand, or the forceps, pull the tonajue well out of the mouth and do so at once first oiling the gullet. If it cannot be reached in this way, a probang mdst be used to push it down into the stomach. A probang is any strong, flexible rod, with an enlargement at one end. Gutta percha is best. The use of the pro- banff in horses is somewhat difacult, but witl i cattle quite easy. To do this, raise the nose n, CHOLERA OF SWINE 213 CHOLERA OF SWINE the animal as high as possible, so that from the mouth down it is a straight line, and keep it so while operating. • Introduce the probang care- ' fully down the gullet. When it reaches the ob- ject, press gently, but firmly, on it, for a few seconds at a time, and so proceed, after a few moment's relaxation, again and again, until the obstacle gives' way. Then keep it gently moving until the obstacle enters the stomach. Sometimes all such means fail. Assured of this, use the knife jiromptly to save life. While an assistant presses the off side of the neck to make a strong bulge, with a sharp knife cut fearlessly liii;ough skin, flesh and integuments down upon the offending substance, and remove it with the forceps. Make the cut long enough so there will be no difficulty in getting at the obstruction. Then bring the edges of the gullet together, stitch nicely with fine cat-gut, leaving the ends long enough to reach out of the cut. Then stitch the edges of the skin together in the same way, and feed on sloppy food until recovery. It should be remembered that a narrowing of the gullet is apt to follow this operation that may prevent the swallowing of solid food thereafter. Consequently, all other means should be exhausted before resorting to the knife. It should be used only to save life. CHOKE-DAMP. A common term applied to foul air. Carbonic acid gas, with or without a mixture of nitrogen. When necessary to enter wells for the purpose of cleaning, or any under- ground place, a fiame should be /&st let down. If it continues to burn freely, there is no danger to life. CHOLEIC ACID. Liebig regards the animal matter of the bile as choleic acid, the secretion being a soap formed by its Tjnion with soda. Ohoteic and choloidio acids are separated by alco- hol and other solvents, and are of secondary con- sequence. Redtenbacher discovered twenty-six per cent, of sulphur in choleic acid. CHOLERA OF SWINE. There are many forms of malignant disease that go under the name of Hog Cholera. Three different forms of disease, however, are popularly included under this name : Charbon or Malignant Anthrax, Con- tagious Pleuro-enteritis, and Epizootic Catarrh. The first is destructive to cattle, as well as hogs. The difficulty in all malignant diseases in swine is the difficulty in administering medicine and thus, in all malignant diseases, once it is well defined, it is better to kill at once, bury deeply and disinfect thoroughly the premises inhabited by the animals. Malignant Anthrax, Charbon, White Bristle, or Splenic Fever, is a blood poison localizing itself in a carbuncular swelling usually on the throat. The bristles on the spot turn white and are brittle. There is an apoplectic form, both "are acute and quickly fatal, and the blood, flesh and discharges spread the disease. Contagious Pleuro-enteritis is a specific con- tagious inflammation of the lungs and bowels, accompanied with red or purple blotches on the skin, and hence two of its names. Red Soldier, Purple and Blue Disease. Drinking water tainted with dead and decaying substances, filthy yards and pens, and also food inducing a sudden plethoric state are predisposing causes. Once it enters a drove, it is apt to attack swine of any f^e or sex. Like Anthrax, it is caused by BaeiUi, rod-like minute vegetable organisms, found, not as in Anthrax, in the blood but in the serous fluids and tissues. It appears in an ery- sipelatous form, and in the form of malignant sore throat. In the first form the animal is dull, loses appetite, hangs itsi head, and sometimes makes efforts to vomit. The bowels are gen- erally constipated, the, dung hard and dark colored. There is a cough, and urine is dark colored and passed with difficulty. Then arise dark-red or purple blotches, which pass to a bluish-black color, labored breathing ensues and paralysis, the discharges become watery and fetid and the animal dies. In the form of malignant sore throat, there is also the deep-red appearance of the throat, passing into purple. There will be difficulty of breathing, sickness at the stomach, difficulty in swallowing, and the animal may sit on its haunches, gasping for breath, with its swollen and livid tongue pro- truded. Sometimes the animal suffocates or chokes to death even before the other character- istic symptoms are noticed by the unprofessional observer. There is little hope of cure once the sjTnptoms are pronounced. The only hope is in preventive measures; something to check the virus. A specific agent is undoubtedly sulphate of iron. One pound of sulphate of iron, and a gallon of soft-soap boiled in four gallons of water, and mixed in the slop for twenty-five hogs, and as they begin to eat, add a solution of two pounds of soda in water, to make the whole foam well. Repeat tbe dose every three or four days, until three doses are given. The other remedy, chlor- ate of potash, (costing more than the other), may be used in special cases. One to two drachms"of chlorate of potash, to one half pint of water for each hog, may be given in milk or slop, three times a day. Prof. Turner has had excellent success in preventing attacks, by means of the following : Two pounds each of flowers of sul- phur, of sulphate of iron and of madder, one- halt pound each of black antimony and of nitrate of potash, and two ounces of arsenic, mixed with twelve gallons of slop, for 100 hogs, or a ~ pint to each hog. It is essential, in connection with any treatment, that absolute good care should be taken to guard from contagion. Thus, if the disease is feared, separate the sick from the well at once. Give all the swine a free range, in an open wood lot in the pasture, where there is only pure water. Let them have bituminous coal dust or charcoal and salt always within reach. Let their wallowing places be either pure water or pure clay and water. Feed plenty of roots, artichokes preferably, and let them have shelter from storms. In Malignant Epizootic Catarrh, the seat of the disease is the mucus membrane lining the nose, continuing to the wind-pipe and lungs. There is a hoarse cough, difficulty in breathing, a panting motion of the flanks, and the head will be held in a peculiar stooping, stretched-out manner. There is fever, the gait is tottering and stiff. There may be efforts to vomit, generally there will be constipa- tion, but sometimes diarrhoea. There may also be affection of the brain, partial or total blind- ness, staggering gait, enlarged glands, and even scrofulous ulcers. The duration of the disease is from five to fifteen days. If constipation be serious, give one ounce of castor-oil together with one drachm oil of turpentine, in milk or gruel. Dr. Detmars recommends to give at once, as an emetic, fifteen or twenty grains of powdered white hellebore in a half -pint of milk and, in two CHOLERA OF SWINE 313 CHOLERA OF SWINE hours after this has acted, give two or three grains of tarter emetic if the disease is in the lungs, or the same amount of calomel if the disease is in the bowels; repeat two or three times a day, as may- be necessary, giving the medicine in a piece of boiled potato. Rub also the lungs or the abdo- men (as the case may be) with the following blister: one ounce powdered cantharides and four ounces of olive oil, the whole to be heated for half an liour over a moderate Are. Repeat at the end of two or three hours if a good blister does not raise. As the hog gets better, give ten to twenty grains of sulphate of iron every day for a few days; and if the lungs have been severely affected add thirty or forty grains of carbonate of potash to each dose. Cleanliness, well ventilated quarters and pure water are of course essential. There has been much written on Hog Cholera by various profes- sionals of repute both medical and veterinary. It must be remembered that swine are particularly susceptible to inflammatory diseases from their artificial breeding, and the artificial manner in which they are kept. Prof. Law, of Cornell University, a high and practical authority on vet- erinary matters, doubts the existence of Charbon or Malignant Anthrax i n swine . On the other hand. Dr. Tellor believes swine to be subject to true Anthrax, fully as much as cattle or sheep, and he gives one of the forms, known as White Bristle, a carbuncular swelling, generally on the throat which extending inwards, involves the wind- pipe, ending in convulsions and death. Dr. Law however, in a report to the United States Gov- ernment, in an enumeration of various names, as included in the general term Hog Cholera, enumerates Typhoid Fever, Enteric Fever, Typhus Carbuncular Fever, Carbuncular Gastro- enteritis, Carbuncular Typhus, Pig Distemper, Blue Sickness, Blue Disease, Purples, Red Sol- dier, Anthrax Fever, Scarlatina, Measles, Diph- theria, and Erysipelas. His definition of the above, and the symptoms are as follows: A specific, con- tagious fever of swine, characterized by conges- tion, exudation, ecchymosis, and ulceration of the mucous membrane of the intestines, and to a less extent of the stomach ; by general heat and redness of the skin, effaceable by pressure; by small red spots, complicated or not by elevations and blis- ters; by black spots and patches of extra vasated blood on the integument, the snout, nose, eyes; mouth, and other visible mucous membranes, and on internal organs, ineffaceable by pressure and .tending to sloughing; usually by liquid and fetid diarrhoea, and by a very high and early mortality. The earliests ymptoms are slight dullness with, sometimes, wrinkling of the skin of the face, as if from headache ; shivering or chilliness, and a desire to hide under the litter, are not uncommon. Some loathing of food, intense thirst, elevation of the temperature of the rectum to 104° Fahrenheit, and increased heat and redness of the skin, are usually the first observed symptoms, and occur one or two days later than premonitory signs above mentioned. The increased heat of the skin is especially noticeable inside the elbow and thigh, and along the belly. By the second day of illness file whole surface feels hot, and in white pigs is suffused with a red blush, which may pass suc- cessively through the shades of purple and violet. It is usually more or less mottled at particular points, and a specific eruption appears as rose- colored spots of from one to three lines in diame- ter, sometimes slightly raised so as to be percepti- ble to the touch, and either pointed or more frequently rounded. The redness fades under the pressure of the finger, but only to re-appear immediately. The eruption is usually abundant on the breast, belly, and haunches, the inner side of the forearm and thighs, and the back of the ears. It stays out for two or three days, and may be followed by one, two, or more successive crops of the same kind. The cuticle is sometimes raised in minute blisters, a feature which distinguishes this from the rash of typhoid fever, and the liquid of such blisters inoculated on other pigs com- municates the disease. In addition to the rash, and simijltaneously with it, or soon after, there appear on the skin numerous spots of a dark red or black color, varying in size from a line to an inch in diameter, on the color of which pressure has no effect. These are due to the extravasa- tion of blood, or of its coloring-matter from the blood-vessels into the tissue, and they dry up into thin scabs or sloughs if the animal survives. Simi- lar petecchial spots appear on the muzzle, in the nose, and on the eyes, and in some instances they are confined to these parts. The tongue is cov- erfed by a brownish fur. From the first the animal is sore to the touch ; but, as the disease develops, the handling of the animal is especially painful, and causes grunting and screaming. The pig lies on its belly and, if compelled to rise and walk, moves stifBy, feebly, unsteadily, and with plaintive grunting. This weakness and prostration rapidly increases, and often ends in utter inability to rise or support the body on the hind limbs. A watery discharge from the nose, followed by a white muco-purulent flow is not uncommon. A hard, barking cough is frequently present from the first, and continues to the last. Sickness and vomiting may be present, but are far from constant. The bowels are often confined at first, and in certain cases, and even in nearly all the victims of par- ticular outbreaks, may remain so throughout, nothing whatever being passed, or only a few small black pellets covered by a film of mucus. These cases are quickly fatal. More frequently, however, they become loose by the second or third day, and diarrhoea increases at an alarming rate. The passages are first bilious, and of a light or brownish yellow when not colored by ashes, char- coal, or the nature of the food. But soon they assume the darker .shades of green and red, or become quite black and intolerably offensive. In such cases the elements of blood, inspissated lymph, and membraneous pellicles sloughed off from the ulcerated surfaces are usually to be found in them. The diarrhoea becomes more profuse, watery, and fetid; the pulse sinks so as to become almost imperceptible; the cough becomes more frequent, painful, and exliausting; the breathing is more hurried and labored, and the weakness increases until the patient can no longer rise on his hind limbs. At this period the petecchise (the peculiar purple spots of malignant fevers) become far more abundant. Before death the ani- mal is often sunk in complete stupor with, it may be, muscular jerking or trembling, or sudden starts into the sitting posture, and loud screams. In the last stages involuntary motions of the bowels are common. Exceptionally swellings , appear on the flank, with extreme lameness, and extensive sloughs of the skin of the ears or other parts. Palpitations of the heart also occasionally occur as precursors, attendants, or sequels of disease. U the disease should take a favorable CHOLERA OF SWINE 314 CHOLERA 'Of swine turn, slight causes may make an early and perfect recovery, a complete convalescence being estab- lished in three or four weeks. A considerable pro- portion of the survivors, however, linger on in an unthrifty condition for months, evideptly suffer- ing from the persistent ulceration of the intestines, or infiltration of the lungs. The mortality often reaches eighty Or ninety per cent, of all swine exposed, and in case of a certain number of the survivors recovery brings no profit to the owner. Dr. J. H. Detmars, who was employed for years by the United States Government in investigating so-called Hog Chplera in swine, classifies the diseases under the general head of epizootic and enzootic diseases of swine, or Epizootic Influenza of swine, but assuming different characteristics, as the catari'hal-rheumatic form, the gastric- rheuinatic form, the cerebro-rheumatic form, and the, i^mphatic-rheumatic form. The treatment which he recommends is as follows: The treat- ment may be divided into two parts, a hygienic and a medical. The former, which includes a removing of the causes is, in this, like in most other causes, of very great importance. If the causes are promptly removed, a great many sick animals not. already too far gone may be saved. If tlie same are not, the very best medical treat- ment will be of little avail. The sick animals must be separated from the herd, must be pro- vided with a clean and dry resting-place, must have pure air to breathe, clean water to drink and healthy, clean and easily digested food to eat. He recommends giving to each hog at the begin- ning of the disease a good emetic, composed either of powdered white heUebore (Veratnim album) or of tartar-emetic, in a dose of about one grain for each month the sick animal is old, provided the latter is of good average size. The largest dose to be given a full-grown animal should not exceed fifteen or sixteen grains. The emetic is best administered by mixing the same with a piece of boiled potato, or, if the hellebore (which he prefers) is chosen, strewing the powder on the surface of a small quantity of milk, as neither boiled potato nor milk will be refused by any hog unless the animal is very sick, and in that case it will be too late to make use of an emetic. After the desired action has been produced the animal will appear to be very sick, and will try to hide itself in a dark corner; but two or three hours later it will make its appearance again, and will be willing to take a little choice food, such as a few boiled potatoes, a little milk; etc. At this time it will be advisable to again give a small I dose of medicine, either a few grams (two or three to a full-grown animal and to a pig in pro- portion) of tartar-emetic or of calomel. Mix with a piece of boiled potato, or, if the symptoms should uot have returned, mix with a small pinch of flour and a few drops of water (sufficient to make a stiff dough) and form into small round pills. The doctor here remarks that a sick hog should not be drenched with medicine under any circumstances, for a drench, given by force, is very apt to pass down the windpipe into the lungs as soon as the animal squeals, and fre- quently causes instant death. The tartar-emetic has to bever. In these cases it is obvious that the substances which commonly prepon- derate in the sieve-ducts must pass through the cell-tissue in order to reach the point where they nourish the growing organs. Evidence that nutrient matters also pass upwards in the bark is furnished, not only by tracing the course of colored liquids in the stem, but also by the fact that undeveloped buds perish in most cases when the stem is girdled between them and active leaves. In the exceptions to this rule, the vas- cular bundles penetrate the pith, and thereby demonstrate that they are the direct channels of this movement. A niinority of these excep- tions again makes evident that the sieve-cells are the path of transfer, for, as Hanstein has shown, in certain plants {Solanacece, Asolepiadacem, etc.), sieve-cells penetrate the pith unaccompanied by any other elements of the vascular bundle, and girdled twigs of these plants grow above as well as beneath the wound, although all leaves above the girdled place be cut oflE, so that the nutri- ment of the buds must come from below the incision. The substances which are organized in the foliage of a plant, as well as those :which are imbibed by the roots, move to anyi point where they can supply a want. Carbohydrates pass from the leaves; not only downwards to nourish new roots, but upwards, to feed the buds, flowers and fruit. In case of cereals, the power of the leaves to gather and organize atmospheric food nearly or altogether ceases as they approach maturity. The seed grows at the expense of matters previously stored in the foliage and stems to such an extent that it may ripen quite perfectly although the plant be cut when the kernel is in the milk, or even earlier, while the • juice of the seeds is still watery and- before starch-grains have begun to form. In biennnial •root-crops, the root is the focus of motion for the matters organized by growth during the first year; but in the second year the stores of the root are completely exhausted for the support of flowers and seed, so that the direction of the movement of these organized matters is reversed. In both years the motion of water is always the same, viz., from the soil upwards to the leaves and this because the soil always contains more water than the air. If a plant were so situated that its roots should steadily lack water while its foliage had an excess of this liquid, it cannot be doubted that then the sap would pass down in a regular floW. In this case, nevertheless, the nutrient matters would take their normal . course. The summing up of the whole matter is that the nutrient substances in the plant are not absolutely confined to any path, and may move in any direction. The fact that they chiefly follow certain channels, and move in this or that direction, is plainly dependent upon the structure and arrangement of the tissues, on the sources of nutriment, and on the seat of growth or other action. From what has been shown, it will be seen that the circulation of the sap, like all other forces in nature, is guided by simple and yet perfect laws. The study of vegetable physiology is a most intricate and, at the same time, most interesting study. Scientists are con- stantly conducting experiments, bringing out something new. Nevertheless, there are very many questions still wrapped in obscurity, and probably always will be, since it is not likely that all the processes of nature will ever be laid open to the human mind, and for one reason, if for no other — the processes of nature are ever changing, according to the conditions present. CISTKENS. In all countries subject to a lack of water at certain seasons of the year, resort is had to cisterns or tanks for holding a supply. Few persons appreciate the large amount of water which may be supplied by the roofs of ordinary farm buildings, for family and stock uses. Throughout the West, from the Palls of St Anthony north, to Vicksburg south, the average rain-fall is almost - thirty inches. Thus the roof of a barn thirty by forty feet, would give) annually 400 hogsheads of water; a hogshead holds sixty-four pailfuls. Thus we have 35,600 pailfuls, sutflcient to afford nearly four pailfuls each, per day, to twenty animals, the year round. A hogshead is about eight and a half cubic or solid feet. A hole or cistern two feet two inches square and the same depth, will hold one hogshead of water; one twice that size and depth will hold eight hogsheads; one eight feet each way will hold sixty- two hogsheads; one ten feet each way will hold 120 hogsheads. A round cistern or well four feet in diameter and six feet deep, will hold over forty-six hogsheads of water ; one of the same diameter and nine feet deep will hold about fifty-flve hogsheads; one twelve feet deep, same diameter, aboilt ninety- three hogsheads. The foregoing form a con- venient basis from which to calculate. The roofage of a good dwelling will usually collect about as much rain-water as the barn roof, por- tions of which, if desired, may be collected in a reservoir in the upper story, for convenient use in bathing tubs, etc. Cisterns at the house, for drinking and culinary purposes, should be deeper and narrower than at the barn, say ten to twelve feet, (not a great depth from which to raise it,) that the water may be cooler and better settled. They should also be divided by partition walls through the middle, made of soft porous brick, without mortar, and with some style of filter near the bottom, through which the water may all pass before being used. Into one of these apartments the water should be conducted from the eaves, but should be drawn out as, used from the other; the one into which the water falls being a few inches deeper, that all impurities and sediment may settle to the bottom, and not be allowed to get into the other apartment, by which process there wiU always be clear water for use. Where the soil is clay, the woodeu cis- tern is unnecessary, and will cost more than three times as much as the labor and material to cement the cistern in the best manner, by plaster- ing the cavity, which is the best and cheapest mode of making cisterns water-tight. One coat GIVES OR CHIVES 223 CLAY is sufficient if tlie cement is good, and the mor- tar well mixed. A practical mason states the following: So much depends upon both cement and sand, that one can not direct any certain proportion of either to be used, unless we can give the material a practical test. Mixtures of one-fourth cement to three-fourths sand may m-ike better mortar than some other qualities of cement when using equal proportions of both; so that we must be governed more by the work- ing of the material when well mixed, by its tena,city, readiness to slip oflE the trowel, and quickness to set, than by measurement on pro- portions of the two substances without the work- ■ ing test. Measure each and test the mixture till you find the proper proportion, then continue to use those proportions. A coat of good cement mortar directly on the earth, one-quarter of an inch in thickness, is generally better than greater thickness; if too thick it is liable to crack in drying and settling. It is sometimes necessary to add- two coats of mortar, where spots of the earth wall are softer by removal of stones or roots, etc. In cases of cracks, mix a thick wash (Of cement and sand, and apply it to the cracks with a brush. To make good cement mortar, the sand and cement should be thoroughly and carefully mixed and incorporated before any water is applied; and as soon as practicable after it is wet it should be used. Cement work should not be exposed to frost for at least three or four months after being finished, as freez- ing would destroy it before it is thoroughly set. In relation to reservoirs: low places-in the fields, reservoirs for water, may be easily made in a dry time, to which water will flow during heavy rains. These should be as deep as possible, to prevent excessive evaporation; for instance, an excavation two feet deep will evaporate in about one third the time that one four feet deep will, and the deeper the tank the slower the evapora- tion from a given surface on account of the cooler temperature of the water. For the same reason the sides should be as steep as possible, say at about an angle of 45°, or a slope of one to one, except just where stock go to drink. Here it may be lete sloping and should be thickly graveled, or otherwise protected from poaching, so the water will not become muddy. When there is underdrained land on the farm the out- fall, of water should always be led into the tank, since it will furnish a large supply of cool, pure water, a most important consideration. So where a single line of tile runs through a field; in depressions where the tile comes nearer the surface than in others, cemented cigterns holding a good supply may be made, and the water easily pumped from thence to the surface. Indeed, we have seen many situations, where the water may thus be brought quite to the surface, so stock may drink at will, the outflow being carried away in tiles laid at a lower depth than that at which the water enters. CITRIC ACID. The sour principle of lem- ons. (See Acid.) CITRUS. The generic name of the orange, Ipmon, and lime tree. Citron is a fruit larger than the lemon, the rind of which is the citron of commerce. GIVES or CHIVES. AlUum sehomoprasum. A small species of onion growing in tufts. It is propagated by dividing the roots. Early in the spring set the bulbs eight inches apart, and eight or ten offsets together. Keep free from weeds. The leaves may be used for soups. In the fall, ' as soon as the tops die, dig the Cives and store for winter. The leaves possess the flavor of onions, are used iu soups, stews, salads, and the making of omelets. If not cut excessively, a bed (annually top dressed lightly) will continue to produce for years. CLARIFICATION. The process of clearmg or refining fluids, by which they are freed from sediment. The white of egg, the clear portions of blood,' clay, membranes of fish and oharcoaJ powder are clarifiers. CLARY. A species of sage. Salvia sclwrea. It is seldom cultivated in the United States, being inferior to the Salvia officinalis. * CLASS. A general division of natural objects, as classes of annual plants, etc. CLAVATE. In botany, being club-shaped. CLAY. The general name, clay, is commonly applied to all tenacious sub-soils of a homogene- ous nature. The name signifies viscous, or sticky. Pure clay is a mixture of silex (of which quartz, flint, and most sand and sand-stoneS are composed) and alumina — this latter being com- posed of the metal aluminum and oxygen. Alumina is the characteristic ingredient in com- mon clay, and is sometimes called pure clay. One of the purest kinds of clay is derived from the decomposition of granitic rocks, which rocks have been considered the original source of clay. In relation to varieties of clay, we find that silica combined with alumina, and holding a definite proportion of water, is deposited, and constitutes the purest form of clay, or kaolin. When separated from the uncomljined silica and uudecomposed feldspar that may be presettt, the plastic portion consists of alumina, 44.5; sil- ica, 40.0; and water, 15.5, in 100 parts. The water, from the difficult solubility of the com- pound in acids, does not appear to be chemically combined to form a hydrous silicate of alumina. But this simple compound of one atom of alum- ina and one of silica, with two of water, is not met with unmixed with other ingredients which modify the properties of pure clay. Iron almost always manifests its presence, when the clay is burned, by the red color of its peroxide. Carb- onates of lime and magnesia are detected by their effervescence with acids, and their rendering the substance fusible, an effect also produced by the salts of potash and soda derived from the feldspar. Mica, in a fine state of division, and some other minerals, may also be present. As clay-beds, in the process of accumulation, are often the habitats of shell-fish, and may con- stitute a soil covered with a vegetable growth, organic matters are also often found in- it. According to its purity it is infusible, and retains its color unchanged when burned. In a dry state it adheres to the tongue, is very absbrbent of water, and possesses a peculiar odor caJled argillaceous. Clay, being gradually heated, parts with its water and diminishes in bulk without cracking. Heated to redness, .it forms a solid mass, which retains its form even if placed, when cool, in water and allowed to absorb this into its pores. Free from foreign substances, it bears the most intense furnace-heat without melting, and is hence well suited for the manu- facture" of crucibles and fire-brick. When impure, it may melt at a high heat and form a glaze.- Substances are mixed with it to produce CLEFTS 233' CLEVELAND BAY this effect, as in ttie manufacture of porcelain. In the manufacture of brick and other objects, it is tempered with sand in order to counteract its tendency to shrink. Tlie most important varieties of clay are those used for the manufac- ture of porcelain, called China clay, or kao- lin; potter's clay, for the manufacture of earth- enware ; common clay, for the manufacture of brick; fire clay for flre-brick and crucibles; pipe elay, and a clay used in Europe, for making light, porous, bricks which float upon water. Brick clay is usually obtained from alluvial deposits, and the color depends upon the oxide of iron contained. At Milwaukee, Wisconsin, is a brick clay entirely free from iron, and hence the burned brick are of a straw or light cream color. Its brick has given the city the name of Cream City. Clay soils may be classified as fol- lows: Pure clay, or pipe clay, consisting of sixty per cent, of silica and forty per cent, of alumina, with or with- out some oxide of iron, and from which no sandy matter can be ;kiiechanically separated by decan- Vation. — Brick clay is the most tenacious clayey soil, consisting of pure clay with five to ten per cent, of sand added. — Clajr loam. This is pure clay, containing be- sides fifteen to twenty per cent, of sand. Loamy clay is composed of pure clay, with thirty to sixty per cent, of sand added. This last is,, with the addition of or- ganic, matter, the most fertile and easily worked of all the soils. Be- sides these mentioned all so-called - sandy loams or sandy soils (except pure sands, rarely found) contain more or less clay, some of them containing not more than ten per cent, of clay and yet, from the organic matter naturally con- tained or supplied, many of these soils are extremely fertile if plenty of moisture be present, for the more sandy the soil the less moist- ure will it absorb and hold, unless a supply be present below, to be supplied by capillary attraction. Pure sands are always infertile. So are pure clays, but from en- tirely different causes: Sand be- cause it is too open and porous, and clay because it is too close and : compact. Hence pure sands are made fertile by adding clay. Not so pure clays by adding sand, since twenty per i "cent, of clay renders a sandy soil compact, while it would require eighty per cent, of sand to render the clay friable. CLEAYAGE. Minerals which have a regu- lar crystalline form can only be split or cleaved with ease in planes corresponding to their sides; hence to discover the shape of the crystal, the mineral is split. The cleavage of wood ia always in the direction of the grain, hence if the grain is straight the cleavage will be free, but if contorted the cleavage will be twisted and difficult. CLEFT GRAFTING. (See Grafting.) CLEFTS. In farriery, cracks in the heels of horses. CLEMATIS. Virgin's Bower. There are fifty - species and many varieties of this beautiful genus of plants, mostly climbers, and many varieties being too tender to stand northern win- ters. The hardy herbaceous kinds are propa- gated by divisions of the roots, and the hardy deciduous kinds by layers. They thrive in any good, well drained garden soil. The stove and green-house species, are grown in light loam and peat soil and are propagated from cuttings. The Clematis is divided, in England, into sections or types, according to peculiarities, habit of blooming, etc., as, 1, Patens type, varieties which bloom in late spring or early summer, from the old or ripened wood. 2, Florida type, those flowering in the summer from the old or ripened wood. 3, Lanuginosa type, varieties with dispersed flowers, blooming during the summer and autumn, successively, on short lateral summer shoots.. ^ --* FLOWEB OF CLEMATIS JACKMANNI. 4, Viticella type, flowering in masses on sum- mer shoots, successively, in the summer and autumn. 5, Jackmanni type, varieties flowering in continuous masses, on summer shoots, during autumn and winter. The illustration shows the blossom and leaves, one half natural size, of, Clematis Jackmanni, considered one of the finest. CLEVELAND BAY HORSE. Prom remote times the Cleveland and the Vale of Pickering, in the East Riding of Yorkshire, have been cele- brated for their breeds of horses, adapted to gen- eral work, hunting, carriage horses, and all that class of labor requiring style, a good turn of speed, and excellent bottom— a term used to designate staving qualities in the horse. As time passed, especially since the beginning of CLEVELAND BAY 224 CLIMATE the present centiiry, vfery many modiflcations of this admirable kind was brought about hj cross- ing and selection, which, while preserving all ■ the good points of the old Cleveland Bay, have momfled them, so that to day, there is not an animal to be found, even In the East Riding of Yorkshire, of the pure, unmixed and unimproved blood. The improvement has been brought about by crossing staunbh' thoroughbreds upon the original stock, and by selection, so they are acknowledged now to stand as a type of all that is excellent, in a horse of medium weight, (1,300 to 1,300 pounds) combining style, muscu- lar activity, spirit, bottom, and good form in an eminent degree. On another page we give an illustration of the Cleveland Bay, of the present •day, in his best form. Theyare constantly gain- ing favor, especially in the West, where they are bred for horses for light and medium hauling, ' carriage horses, and all work where style and muscle are especially required. William Henry Herbert, Esqr , CP'rank- ^iorester) graphically describes the original Cleveland Bay, and the gradations by ^hich he was bred up. From this we extract as follows: The Cleveland Bay, in its natural and unmixed form, is a tall, power- fully-built, bony animal, averaging, I should say, fifteen hands three inches in height, rarely falling short of fifteen and a half, or exceeding sixteen and a half hands. The crest and withers are almost invariably good, the head bony, lean, and well set on. Ewe necks are, probably, rarer in this family than in any other, unless it be the dray-horse, in which it is never seen. The faults of shape, to which the Cleveland Bay are most liable, are narrowness of chest, undue length of body, and flatness of the cannon knd shank bones. Their color is universally bay, rather on the yellow bay than on the blood bay color, with black manes, tails and legs. They are sound, hardy, a,ctive, powerful horses, with excellent capabilities fpr draught, and good endurance, so long as they are hot pushed beyond their speed, which may be estimated at from six to eight miles an hour, on a trot, or from ten to twelve — the latter quite the maximum— on a gallop, under almost any weight. The larger and more showy of these animals, of the tallest and heaviest type, were the favorite coach horses of their day; the more wiry and lightly built, of equal height, were the hunters, in the days when the fox was hunted by' his drag, unkennelled and run half a dozen hours, or more, before he was either earthea, or worn out and worried to death. Then the shorter, lower and more closely ribbed up, were the road hackneys; a style of horse unhappily noy almost extinct and having, unequally, sub- -stituted in its place, a wretched, weedy, half- bred or three-quarter-bred beast, fit neither lo go the pace with a iweiglit on its back, nor to last the time Prom these Cleveland Bays, however, though in their pure state nearly extinct, a very •superior animal has descended, which, after several steps and gradations, has settled down jnto a family, common throughout all Yorkshire, and more or less all the Midland counties, as the larm-horse, and riding or driving horse of the farmers, having about two crosses, more or less, of blood on the original Cleveland stock. The first gradation, when pace became a desideratum with hoxinds, was the stinting of the best Cleve- land Bay mares to good thoroughbred horses, with a view to the progeny turning out hunters, troop-horses or, in the last resort, stage-coach horses or, as they were termed, machiners. The most promising of these half-bred colts were kept as stallions; and mares of the same type with their dams, stinted to them, produced the improved English carriage horse of fifty years ago. The next step was putting the half-bred fillies, by thoroughbreds out of Cleveland Bay mares, a second time, to thoroughbred stallions; their progeny to become the hunters, while them- selves and thMr brothers were lowered into the carriage horses; and the half-bred stallions, which had been the getters of carriage horses, were used as the sires of new. Improved cart-horses. Within the last thirty years, the Cleveland Bay has still further improved by careful ( selection. Yet they are constant and^uniform in color, fully as much so as the Devons among cattle. * The illustration we give would seem to leave but little to be desired in conformation and style. The editor has always regretted that this admi- rable breed could not have been disseminated in the United States, about the time the Morgan horse fever raged. If so, the horse stock of the country would not have been degraded in size, and many millions of money would have been saved to the country. It will take many years to breed out the mischief the Morgans have done, in dwarfing the size of our ordmary horses as found among the average farmers. CLEVIS. The draught iron of the plough; whippletrees, etc. , any iron segment of an oval connected by a pin. CLIMATE. Climate affects the agriculturist, so far as the product of the boU is concerned, la an important degree; heat, rainfall, huniidity, air currents, all operating for or against the fertility of the soil. The principal points collected from a variety of sources, as relating to the United States generally, are summed up as follows; The climate of the United States is a peculiar one. Most of it lies within the dry belt of the trade- winds, which, in our summers, make the dryness of, the California climate and of New Mexico, where the corn crop is dependent on irrigation. There are two of T;hese dry belts, one on each side of the equator, and their dry winds blow diagonally into each other, producing by their mutual action a belt of rain about five hundred miles in width under the equator, and directly under the sun. These winds are concentrated by the lofty • range of mountains in South America and Mexico, and turned northwards, carrying with them this belt of rains. In our summer they extend west as far as the middle of Texas; thence north, through the middle of Kansas; they curve gradually eastward and jjass to the Atlantic by the line of the great northern lakes, covering all the old States with the rains from this equatorial belt; extending no further west than the middle of Texas and Kansas, they leave the western portions of them. to the dry California climate. These rains, from causes not yet fully ascertained by science, ale in-egular as to time, quantity and duratioa. In the spring they are more coijcentrated, giving us the heavy, beating rains of March and April, and in July and August they cease almost entirely. We have no rains from the evaporations of our country; these we see in the form of dew only or, at most, they but slightly increase the amount of our equatorial rains. From this source of our rains results the extremes so peculiar to the (225) CLIMATE 236 CLIMATB American climate.- At one time our ploughed lands are saturated with water, our clay soilsare melted sind, in drying out, are compacted, so as to be much harder than the frosts left them in spring, before they were broken up. Then quickly follow droughts, parching and baking the soil, making it unfit, if worn, for profitable production. These influences of the climate so act upon the soil that the standing topics of our agricultural writers are drainage, thorough ploughing and constant stirring of the soil. The following tables show the rainfall at various points in the United States and also in Europe. They will be found an interesting study: ' AMEKICAK PACIFIC CLIMATES. . Inches of rain. Stations. to a 1 a a a 1 <1 I 3 California. 8.3 4.6 i.6 0.6 0.6 0.1 0.7 ,0.1 6.6 5.6 3.8 3.7 1.6 4.9' 1.2 6.9 8.8 5.5 0.3 1.0^ 13.5 17.8 Los Angeles New Mexico. 9.7 12.4 Albuquerque ' 8.4 AMERICAN ATLANTIC CLIMATES. Inches of rain. Stations. 1 5 a i d a e •3 Cincinnati-. lt.9 9.1 7.3 9.5 12.7 14.1 14.4 11.6 11.2 12.1 14.6 14.0 10.0 9.8 7.0 7.B 8.7 12.3 11.3 6.9 8.1 7.4 7.0 12.4 41 5 Cleveland 27 4 Pittsburg.... 36 8 Bt.Lonis 4J.5 Masliville BimOPEAN CLIMATES. Inches of rain. Stations. CO 1 n 1 IMrin, Piedmont 8.2 10.2 7.9 6.3 7.3 7.1 5.4 , 6.6 9.0 9.5 10.8 8.0 7.4 7.5 6 2> 3.6 ii.5 10.4 11.1 7 4 10.3 9.3 6.1 9.6 ■7.8 4 3 39 5.3 90 7 3 5.6 11.7 36.5 34.4 33.8 27.0 34.0 31.3 2i.3 31.4 Valley of the Rhone Vevay, Switzerland Bordeaux, West France.. Dijon, Ea6t France Chalons,Nortlieast France St. Michael's, Azores ; . . . These tables exhibit an average fall of rain during summer in Calif ornia of 0.3 of an inch, and in the Atlantic States of thirteen inches nearly, and in European vine-growing countries of 7.7 inches. The climate of California would be more favorable if it had more rain in sum- mer but, in moist situations, or where irrigation may be employed, it presents all that invites to grape production and, in fact, to the production of fruit generally. Stock also should be remu- nerative, since the dry summer climate enables the grass to retain its nourishment even when dry. In the smaller cereal grains 9,lso, the yield is good; but Indian corn can not be successfully grown except where the soil may be irrigated. The climate of the Pacific coast of America is a peculiar one in many respects, and especially interesting to the meteorologist.. Prof. E.'C. Merrick has compiled much valuable matter, in this direction, from which we extract as follows: The annual isotherm of 60° Fahrenheit passing through London, England, latitude 51° 30' north, is depressed southward more than 10° in crossing the Atlantic, striking the American coast near New York City, latitude 40° 43' north. The northern deflection of this isotherm on the Euro-; pean coast is obviously the result of the system of warm water currents springing from the Gulf Stream. These currents bear the heated waiters of the tropical seas diagonally across the Atlan- tic, ameliorating the rugged northern coast cli- mates of Europe, and placing: them upon a par with opposite American coast climates, at least 10° further south. The same isotherm of 50° Fahrenheit passes nearly west across the Ameri- can continent to longitude 103° west, where the elevation of the Rocky mountain plateau causes it to dip suddenly southward as far as the lati- tude of Sante FC; thence crossing the Bockj mountains westwardly it trends northwest; almost parallel with the Pacific coast to the north end of Yancouver's Island, latitude 51° 80' north, abou^ the same northing as upon the European coast, Mr. Blodgett's later examination of the meteorr ological observations made in Alaska bytheRuS sian government during a series of years, presents remarkable confirmations of the nortl^ward ten- dency of the isotherms on our western coast. The annual isotherm of 40° Fahr., coasting north- ward through the southern part of the Aleutian islands, bends rapidly southward on approach- ing the Asiatic coast. Maury, in his Physical Geograp.jy of the Sea, indicated the cause of thi^ isothermal elevation in a system of warm-water, currents, similar to ' the Atlantic Gulf Stream,- and its' branches. Only the rudimentary points of the Pacific system of currents were then known; but Maury's theory has since been ', amply verified by later and very careful observa- tion. Captain Kerhallet, of the French imperial navy, in his General Examination of the Pacific Ocean, has clearly traced the analogue of .the Atlantic Gulf Stream in the Japan current; of navigators, called by the Japanese, themselves, Kuro Siwo, or black strearri, from its dark color, in which, as well as in other remarjiable points, it strongly resembles its Atlantic congener. This Japanese current, or Kuro Siwo, results from two currents of heated water from the Indian ocean, one passing through the straits of Malacca and the China sea, and the other skirting the eastern coast of the Philippine islands, at the northern extremity of which they unite opposite the Japan islands; this united current again divides its main branch, trending east-northeast, and strikes our Pacific coast about midway between Vancou- ver's Island and Sitka Island. The waters of the current near its southern edge, latitude 12' 20' north, longitude 163° 20' west, were found by M. De Tessau, commander of the French frigate Venus, to be 4° 30' Fahrenheit hotter than those just outside the current; a difference which would have been much greater if the observation had been made with water from the main axial line of the current. The impact of the Kuro CLIMATE 227 CLIMATE Siwo upon our western coast is more feeble, on account of the greater mass of intervening ocean water, tlian the impact of the Atlantic Gulf Stream upon the European coast, and conse- quently it is less potential in directly elevating temperatures. But any deficiency resulting from this cause is amply compensated by the narrow- ness of Behring's strait, through which a much smaller volume of floating ice and cold Arctic waters is discharged than those immense masses of both which sweep down into the Atlantic, rapidly absorbing the heat brought up by the CruU Stream. The projecting peninsula of Alaska, with its out-lying islands, also deflects far to the westward the reactionary arctic currents, kind protects our western climates from their depressing influence. The southeast winds, laden with moisture from the tropical atmosphere of the ocean, prevail along the coast during the winter or rainy season. Their latent heat, set free by pre- cipitation, combines with the general influence of the Kuro Siwo in elevating the temperature and and bending northward the Isothermals. These faQts are sufficient to show why Puget Sound is on a par witli New York City, while Britisli Co- lumbia, and t le southern part of Alaska are found within tlie same climatic parallels as northern New ifork and New England. Another a" d very important difference between the climates of our Pacific coast and those of Europe is found in the comparatively narrow ran^e of barometric and thermometric oscillation. These are but the scien- tific expression of those conditions of majestic equability which first suggested the name Pacific, a name the significance and appropriateness of which become more striking as our knowledge of it increases For this very remarkable exception from extremes of variations our western coast is Indebted to the great width of the Pacific ocean The hurricanes generated in that mighty cauldron of atmospheric forces, the Gulf Stream, are hurled across the narrower volume of the Atlantic with a force suflicient to be severely felt upon the coast of Europe. Storms entirely analogous, and accom- panied by electric and calorific changes equally marked, prevail upon the Asiatic coast, and have been traced some distance along the Kuro hi wo; but the mighty mass of the Pacific waters calmly absorbs their fury, and prevents their disturbing force from reaching our shores. Tlie atmospheric changes of the Pacific coast are consequently more uniform and of minor range. Comparing the averages of winter and summer temperature along the Isothermal line of 50° Fahrenheit, the varia- 4ions on the Atlantic coast are found to be double those on the Pacific. As a specimen of extreme variation a little further south, it may be stated that the mean range of winter temperature at San Francisco from the mean of July is only 8' 80' Fahrenheit, whereas the variation at Washington, D. p., is 44° 30' Fahrenheit, or more than five times as great. A still more prominent point of diilerence between our Pacific climates and those of Europe is found in the periodicity of rain. The arrangement of the year into two seasons, wet and dry, instead of four, is found only in the lower latitudes of Europe and Africa. On the Pacific coast it is observable, north of the Columbia river, as far as the forty-eighth parallel. Nearly all the rain of California falls between November and June. According to Blodgett's hyetal (relating to, or the distribution of, rain) charts, the annual fall of rain in that State is about twenty-two inches, decreasing southward to the Colorado desert, where it is almost nothing. In the northern p^rt of the State, and on the western slope of the Sierra Nevada, the range is stated at thirty-five inches per annum. The general average is about half that of the States east of the Mississippi. This average increases northward. At Humboldt it is about forty-five inches, and at Vancouver's Island about sixty-five inches per annum. At Port Townshend, on Puget Sound, the distinction between the wet aud the dry season is practically obliterated, the fall of rain being distrilmted throughout the year. On Sitka Island it becomes excessive, the mean annual deposit being 89.90 inches. Coming now to the climate of the West and Northwest, east of tlie meridian near which Omaha is sitaated, we find a climate often intense- ly cold or at least variable in winter, but with plenty of rainfall, equably distributed, and with summers of strong heat so the grape may be ri- pened well up to and even into Minnesota. So the more prolific varieties of Dent corn, thrives as nowhere else in the world; also all cereal grains,sweet potatoes, tomatoes, egg plant, pepper, melons, and many other tropical and sub-tropical annuals. As a fruit growing region the prairie districts are not especially adapted thereto, yet with a little care many varieties adapted to the climate may be raised, and the timber districts are unsurpassed in the production of fruit, the peach and sweet cherries flourishing on the east shore of I ake Michigan, nearly to 45° nortli lati- tude. West of Omaha the climate becomes dryer and dryer until passing the hundredth meridian, or the central part of Kansas, the climate becomes too dry in summer for general agriculture, or the successful cultivation of fruit and the cereal crops without irrigation, but is eminently adapted to pasturage. Further north there is more rain, so that, in the latitude of Minnesota, cereal crops may be raised in the valleys through to the Pacific coast. Some years ago, Mr. James Lippincott, of New Jersey, gathered together a mass of facts in relation to climate and vegeta- tion, and the geographical distribution of vege- table and, generally also, of animal life in the earth. A glance at this work shows that the geographical distribution of plants is a subject of vast extent and importance. The nature of the vegetation covering the earth varies, as we have remarked, according to the climate and locality; and plants are fitted for different kinds of soils, as well as for different amounts of temperature, light and moisture. From the poles to the equator this constant variation in the nature of the flora is a shifting scene, passing from the lichens and mosses (the lowest vegetable forms in the arctic and antarctic regions) to the noble palms, bananas, and orchids of the tropics by a series of regulated changes through all the mul- tiform aspects of the vegetable kingdom. The same progress and graduated fitness is observed in the vegetation of lofty mountains under the equator, when descending from the summit to the base. From the scanty vegetation of Green- land, where the only woody plants are the Arctic willows, trees scarcely a finger-length in height, ,we may trace the expansion of vegetation as we move southward over the lichens and mosses to the saxifrages and cruciferous plantb, those resembling the cabbage and turnip in their mode of flowering;, then to grassy pastures, and by coniferous or fir-like trees, and amen- CLIMATE 238 CLIMATE taceous or birch and alder-like trees; to the north- ern borders of the United States. Extendirig our glance further southward we shall perceive that we enter the region of oaks, hickory and ash, of tulip, (JUriodendron) cottonwood button w;ood wal- nut, red and white cedars, sugar and other maples, sassafras, sumac, laurel, and many other trees and shrubs of the temperate regions of North Ameri- ca. In the districts further south we find an increase both of species and of genera, and more tropical forms show themselves, such as mag- nolia, Osage orange, honey locust, cypress, holly, bay, wax myrtle, the cotton plant, rice, the live oak, and enter the borders of the regions of the palmetto and the orange; thence to those of the ^ugar cane and pineapple, the coffee plant and thecocoanut, and the luxuriant vegetation of the equator and torrid heats. In this progress, as Humboldt, the father of geographical botany remarks, we find organic life and vigor gradu- ally augmenting with the increase of temperature. The numb;T of species continues to increase as we approach the equator, and each zone presents i its own peculiar features; the tropics their vari- ety and grandeur of vegetable forms; the north its mefidows and green pastures, its evergreen firs and pines, and the periodical awakening of nature in the spring-time of the year. Many causes intimately connected with the aspects of our globe have an influence in modifying the conditions of climate, and thus affecting the dis- tribution of animals and plants on its sur- face. The geographical forms of contour, the relief or elevation and depression of the terres- trial surface, the relations of size, extent, and position, each exert a very marked effect upon the climatic peculiarities of a district, The bearing or direction of the shores of a continent, the elevation of a mountain in one place rather than in another, the subdivision of a continent into islands or peninsulas, and other minor dif- ferences, have very important bearings upon the climate of a district. The depression of a fe^ hundred feet over some wide areas would reduce some regions to the level of the seaf, or sink them beneath its waves, or so modify the climate of the higher portions left above the waters as to render them no longer tenable by the life that once enjoyed a congenial clime. This is shown by the observation that some low islands scat- tered in clusters are covered with a vegetation entirely different from that of extensive plains, though lying m the same latitude. A change in the bearing of the shores would modify the cur- rente of the ocean, which would react upon veg- etation. Mountain-chains have oftentimes an influence upon the prevailing winds, and their height, or the plateaus from which they arise, modify the climate, and render it temperate or arctic under the fervent heats of the torrid zone. A mountain-fchain extending from east to west may form a barrier between the colder regions on the north and the warmer on the south, and thus protect the northern plains from the wanner winds of more temperate regions, and increase the heat on the southern slope. This is exem- plifled by t^e Alps of Switzerland, which reduce the temperature of Germany below the mean that would otherwise prevail but for their cool- ing influence. Under some of the high towers of this mountain-barrier against the assaults of winter, the palm, the pomegranate, the orange and the olive grow, in the open air, while a few miles to the eastward, in valleys open to the north, through which the hurricane-blasts of tlie Borra rush with terrific force and severity of cold, often sweepiiig vessels from anchorage, these more tender plants can not exist. A few thousand feet in elevation, which is insignificant compared with the mass of the earth, changes entirely the aspect and the character of a- coun- try. For evidence of this assertion we may compare the burning region of Vera Cruz-^ila tropical productions and its fatal fevers — ^with the lofty plains of Mexico, their temperate growths and perennial spring, or the immense forests of the Amazon, where vegetation puts forth all its splendors, and where animal life is ' abundantly prolific, with the desolate parainbs or Alpine regions of the summits of the Andes, rude, ungenial and misty.* Or imagine the interior plains of the United States, east of the Rocky mountains, to be slighty inclined towards the north, and the Mississippi river to empty into the Rrozeh sea or Arctic ocean, or into Hud- son's Bay, and the new relations of warmth and moisture incident upon this single chan^^of direction of the current of this river would^^6ct the most important modifications in the condi- tions of the vegetable and animal world, 'would exert a still greater influence upon the welfare of the inhabitants and, through them, upon the destiules of sodiety yet to be, and perhaps, upon the entire human race. The climate that would result from latitude alone is greatly modified by the presence or absence of extended sheets of water; and the distribution of heat through the year, for any place, whatever, depends essentially on its proximity to, or its distance from, the ocean or large lakes, and the relative frequency of the winds that blow over them. The equaliz- ing influence of large bodies of water, the tem- perature of which is less liable to sudden changes than tjie atmospheric air, is quite apparent. While in Ireland and the southwestern part of England the myrtle grows in the open-air, as in Portugal, fearless of the cold of winter, the sum- mer sun of these so genial isles does not succeed in perf ectljr ripening the plums and pears which , grow and ?ipen well in the same latitude on the continent. On the coast of Cornwall shrubs as delicate as ■, the camellia and orange are green throughout the year in the gardens, though in a latitude at which, in the interior of the continent of Europe, trees the most hardy can alone brave the winter cold. The liiild climate of England can not ripen the grape almost under the same parallel where are grown the vines of the Rhine, nor will our Indian , corn ever mature or attain there, even the size it will reach oh our most northern border, even of Maine, or in Canada. In relation to the definite amount of heat required by plants, it ajppears that the conditions which define the limits of a plant require that we should know the degree of temperature at which its vegetation begins and ends; that at which it will flower and will mature its seeds or fruit; and also the sum of the mean daily temperatures during these periods respectively. The hjrpothe- sis that a definite amount of heat is required ia order to develop each plant in its progress from one stage of growth to another was first advanced by Reaumer, belter known in America from the thermometer which bears his name than through the scientific labors which added largely to the wealth of his native France. This philosii>ph« CLIMATE 229 CLIMATE proposed to calculate the amount of heat demanded by a plant, by multiplying the num- ber of days required to pass through its growth by the mean temperature of the period. To Michael Adanson, a French naturalist, we are indebted for the hypothesis that, by adding together the mean temperatures of each day from . the commencement of the year, it will be found that when the sum shall have reached a certain figure the same phenomena of vegetation will be exhibited, such as foliation, blooming, and maturation of the fruit. Boussingault revived the hypothesis of Reaumer and enlarged its application. Many years' residence in South America, engaged in scientific observation and research, where vegetation upon moumain sides appears under almost every aspect and condition, ' combined with experience in the pursuits of agriculture on his farm at Brechelbronn, in Alsace, had taught him that if we multiply the number ofdays — the length of time a summer plant endures — by thp mean temperature of this period, the product will be the same in. all countries and in all years Baron Quetelet, of Brussels, experimented upon the amount of heat Required by plants, and proposed that it should be measured not by the simple product of tlie temperature of the several days by the number of days required, but that the squares of the mean teiineratures should be employed in lieu of the da ly mean. The younger De CandoUe has,, howeveri sought in vain in the researches of Quetelet and others for any positive facts show- ing the direct advantages of the variations of heat over continuous even temperatures, or for the evidence fully determining that one day hav- ing a mean of 30" centigrade, is of equal value with four days having each a mean of 10° centi- grade, as is assumed by Quetelet. Babinet coinpared the action of temperature to that of a force, which produces effects proportioned to the intensity of the cause and the square of the time. He lias not, however, made experience the basis of his hypothesis, and it is rejected by Quetelet as unsound. According to the latter philosopher, by the hypothesis of Babinet, if one day at 20° centigrade produces a certain effect, two days having a mean of 10° centigrade should produce four times 10° or the effect of 40° centigrade, and four days at 5° centigrade should exert an .influence equal to sixteen times 5° or 80° centi- grade — results which the general experience of horticulturists will not permit us to accept as true. Count Adrien de Gasparin, in his Course of Agriculture, suggests that the mean heat of the day should be derived in part from the direct heat of the sun, and not alone from that of the air, as is in general measured by meteorologists, because the motive power which induses the ' circulation of the sap is the heat derived from the atmosphere and the soil in conjunction with the direct rays of the sun. The rate of decom- position of the carbonic acid absorbed from the air must be measured by the activity of the chemical rays of the sun, and the growth of the plant is accelerated, we are aware, by exposure to its full measure of sunshine. This method can not, however, be readily verified in the pres- ent actual state of meteorological knowledge. This observer followed the vegetation of one vari- ety of vine growing near Orange, in France, from foliation to maturity, noted the minima of heat for each day in the shade, and the maxima shown by the thermometer in the sunshine, but protected by a slight covering of earth. The mean between these minima and maxima give, according to Gasparin, a more satisfactory number than that derived from other processes; and when multi- plied by the number of days during which vegeta- tion is influenced by this particular mean, results in a sum total of heat which varies but little from year to year at the locality where the observations were made. So nearly do these sums agree that the presumption is strengtliened that the process may be the correct one, and deserving of much more attention than has been awarded to it. The result of de Gasparin's experiments in 1844 was a sum of 4195°; in 1845, 4203°; in 1846, 4057°, and in 1847, 4100° centigrade. The principle that we must combine the values of temperature and time in our inquiries into this subject can not bo controverted, for all must perceive that heat acts proportionally as regards its duration and force. Boussingault, therefore, asserts that if a plant has required twenty days to ripen its seed, numbering from the period of flowering, and the mean tem- perature during those twenty days has been 50°, it will be found that the plant will have received 1000° of heat. The same number of degrees of heat might have influenced the plant during a lesser number of days had the mean temperature been proportionally higher. This is well illustrated by the rapidity with which some annual plants ger- minate in Arctic regipns on the return of midsum- mer heats. In these northern regions, where for a short time plants are subjected to an intense heat.often as high as 109° Fahrenheit in the shade, and which eajoy a longer continuance of tlie sun above the horizon than in more southern latitudes, the growth of some vegetables is said to be so rapid under assiduous culture and in genial situa- tions that their progress may be traced from hour^ to hour. In Norway, in latitude 70° north, peas grow at the rate of three and a half inches in twenty-four hours for many days insummer, and some of the cereals, probably barley and oats, grow as much as two and a half inches in the same time. Not only is the rapidity of growth affected by the constant presence of the sun's heat and light, but those vegetable secretions which owe their existence to the influence of the actinic force on the leaves are all produced in far greater abun- dance than in more southern climes; hence the coloring matter is found in greater quantity, the tints of the colored parts of vegetables are deeper, the flavoring and odoriferous matters are more intense, though in saccharine properties the plants of Norway are not equal to those of the south. "While there can be no doubt that different plants require different amounts of heat, from the time of sprouting to full maturity, though the time through which this may be f urnished^may be dif- ferent in different instances, and that a great heat may produce the same effect on plants' which is produced by a lower degree operating during a longer term, another principle of much import- ance must be observed in order to the successful cultivation of plants under natural or artificial cir- cumstances. This second principle is that each species requires for each one of its physiological functions a certain minimum of temperature or, as has been well said, each species of vegetable is a kind of thermometer which has its own zero or lowest degree at which it will vegetate. _ A tem- perature above a certain minimum of heat is found necessary for germination, another one for chenu- CLOUD 230 CLOVER cal modification, and a third for flowering, a fourth for the ripening of seeds, a fifth for the elaboration of tlie saccharine juices, and a sixth for the development of aroma or bouquet. A cer- tain intensity of light is also demanded to render green the tissues, and a due supply of humidity in the air and in the soil to furnish a vehicle for the materials of growth and prevent undue desic- cation. A plant is tlius not only under all the influences which affect tlie thermometer, but is likewise acted upon as is a hygrometer by hu- midity and dryness. Knowing as we do how much local influences; as supply of moisture, currents of air, elevatiorj, Capacity of soil for absorbing and holding lieat and moisture, and the various other conditions that may be seen by every observing person, alter the range of production in locali- ties, we have the key to many of the difficul- ties in the cultivation of crops, and thus may easily see why certain plants may be hardy and prolific in one locality and yet impossible to be auccessfully cultivated in another, not far distant. For instance the peach is at home in Western Michigan, near the lake shore, while in Illinois, not more than forty miles west, it can not be raised at all.. The climate of that State, modified by the unfathomable depths of Lalte Michigan, is cooler in summer and warmer in winter and they escape spring frosts, prevalent in Illinois in the same latitude. CLIMATOLOGY. (See Climate.) CLIN ANTHIUM. Th^ flat surface in which many composite flowers are arranged, as the sun- flower. CLINKSTONE. A hard, slaty mineral. CLIPPING OF HOR>ES. Tte clipping or shortening of the hair of a horse, in winter, is as vicious as it is distressing to the animal, unless in the case of horses used for fast driving, and ■which, both iii and out of the stable, receive the very best of attention and clothing. So the clip- ping of the long hair, about the lower limbs and fetlock, should never be allowed except the horse be kept out of cold drafts, when standing, and also is thoroughly washed and dried, by rub- bing, when brought into the stable. This applies to animals on the farm, and those used for slow draft. So far as horses in cities are concerned, if the owners have careful and conscientious grooms, there is to objection to clipping whatever. On the other hand, proper clothing not being provided, and used out of and in the stable, the case is very different. It 'may be commended both on the score 1 of appearance and of comfort to the animal, while being driven fast; but blanketing in no case must be forgotten, when the animal is not in motivjn. CLOACA. The common cavity in which the intestines and urinary apparatus terminate in fish, birds, reptiles, and some larger animals. CLOT B UK. (See Burdock.) CLODi). A mass of vapor suspended in the air. The height varies with the density, but seldom exceeds two miles, piouds differ in form, transparency, etc., according to the amount of vapor of water they contain and the wind which drives them. Meteorologists divide them into three classes, thus: Oirrus, which is a light, branching cloud; Cumulus, a conical mass of clouds; Stratus, which consists of horizon- tal layers. Every variety occurs, compounded of these primary forms. Clouds owe their origin to a partial condensation of the vapor of water, which air naturally contains. TJie condensation is produce,d by cold, and the operation of winda blowing in directions contrary to one another, and also to electrical action. A fog is a cloud. Its yondensation is mist which falls from rain in drops larger or smaller, according to the lati- tude. (See Air, Electricity, Rain, etc ) CLOVER. Trifolium,. Of the true clovers the principal varieties are, the Common Meadow clover; Mammoth, sometimes called Grape- vine clover; Medium clover or Zigzag clover; Alsike clover or Swedish clover, and White or Dutch clover. Other varieties of inferior merit, or else worthless, are Stone clover or Rabbit-foot, {T. arvense); Buffalo clover, {T. reflexum); and its uear relative, with its creeping runners, Run- ning Buffalo' clover, {T. stoUm^erum); Yellow or Hop clover, (3'. agrarium); Low Hop clover, (T. proeumbens). Some varieties of Melihius are also sometimes designated as clover,., as the Tree or Bokhara clover. White-flowered' Melilotus; also the Yellow-flowered variety. Among the varieties of Medicago, somstimes denominated clover, are the Alfalfa, (M- satwa)ot the Spanish, or Lucerne of the French, a most valuable plant in dry soils where it will withstand the winter? also Black Medick, or Hop-like Medick, (M. lupuUna). Of all these, the red clovers, in com- mon cultivation, Alsike clover. White or Dutch clover and Lucerne have been found generally valuable. Bokhara clover, so-called, and the other species mentioned, may be set down as of but little or no value for general cultivation. Two varieties of the clover family, Lespedeza striata or Japan clover, and Sichardsonia scabra or Mexican clover, lately introduced into the southern portion of the United States, have proved of value. We give illustrations of these, and their description will follow further on. The clovers belong to the great pulse family, a family containing many plants most valuable to man. Of all the varieties, the Red clover, or Meadow Trifolium, is the most valuable In the North, the Middle States, and the West, growing on vari- ous soils except those wet. One of the worst scourges of the crops is the clo- ver stalk borer, Hylesenus trifolii, which attacks the pith of both the stalk and root. We give a cut of the clover plant and insect, show- ing its work. The description is as follows: a, clover stalk and root, showihg the work of the insect in the crown and root; b, larva or grub; c, pupa; d, beetle or perfect insect; the figures all enlarged. The young larva, natural size, is shown by the mark at OLOVBB ROOT AND STALK BORBB. CLOVER 231 CLOVER bottom of boring in the orifice of the root. Red clover is beginning to be especially valued in the South, on rich and dry bottom lands, and also on the hill loams, as a pasture for swine, for hay and, especially, as a renovator of the soil. If pastured close, however, it is said to be killed. White clover is also well spoken of for thicken- ing up the bottom of other grasses, particularly Bermuda grass. Lucerne is also being experi- mented with, and is well spoken of. There are two varieties of annual clover sometimes culti- vated in gardens. The French Crimson clover and the NeaopoUtan clover, neither of which have any special value in agriculture. Besides the great value of clover as pasture and for cut- ting green for soiling and for hay, for all farm animals, except horses, its value in the rotation should not be overlooked. It not only destroys weeds from its dense shade upon rich land, but also by shading the soil causes the accumulatioa of nitrogen. The deep roots of clover penetrate far into a dry sub-soil, bringing up mineral matter Bnd depositing it near the surface. When turned under, both its roots and its burthen of tops fur- nish a large amount of humus to the soil, and the rotting of its deep tap roots affords drains to carry off superabundant moisture. Clover should be sown in the spring, if possible upon a crop of wheat, as soon as the frost begins to leave the soil. If sown alone, it will generally produce a cutting late in the season, and if sown with wheat, will give valuable pasture after the grain is harvested. The quantity sown may be from ten to sixteen pounds, according to the use for which it is intended — for seed, the first- named quantity; for hay and pasture, the latter quantity. When sown in connection with grasses, from four to ten pounds of clover should be used according to the quantity required in the mixture. The following analyses of the two principal varieties of clover, and also of Lucerne, will show their constituents and also their value economically, these all having been made at the time of flowering, at which time both stalks, leaves and blossoms are richest in assimilable constituents. The analyses of these important varieties, in the green and dry state, used for both fodder and hay, substantially, as given by Einhof and Crome, are as follows: Green State. Eed clover. White clover. Luc- erne. 76.0 1.4 13.9 8.1 2.0 3.5 0.1 1.0 eo.o 1.0 11.5 1.5 1.5 3.4 0.2 0.9 7B.0 Btarch 3.2 Woody fibre 14.3 0.8 Albumen Extractive matter and gum. ..... Patty 'matter 1.9 4.4 0.6 0.8 Or, economically: Green State. Red clover. White clover. Luc- erne. Water 76.0 2.0 3.6 17.4 1.0 80.0 1.5 2.7 14.9 0.9 75.0 1.9 3.6 18.7 0.8 As with the hay of the true grasses, the dried clover is more valuable than the green, as shown by the following table: Dry State. Eed clover. White clover. Luc- erne. Flesh formers 22.55 44.00 2t00 9.45 18.76 40.00 80.00 11.25 Fat formers 38 00 Accessories 38.00 13.24 Mineral matter The value of clover is increased instead of dimin- ished (as with the grasses) by a slow process of curing. It requires a longer time to "cure it pro- perly, and if exposed to the scorching sun it is soon injured even more than the natural grasses, since its succulent leaves and tender blossoms are quickly browned, and lose their sweetness in a measure, and are themselves liable to be wasted in handling over. Clover should be cut, there- fore, while dry and free from dew; it should be exposed to the sun only enough to thoroughly wilt it, .when it should be formed into small cocks, and permitted to dry until fit to place in the barn. Thus the tender and succulent leaves are secured in a form nearly resembling the green plant, which is a matter of vital importance in the economy of all tender leaved forage plants. Prom the oily nature of clover seed, its small size and heavy character, it soon deteriorates when kept in bulk. For this reason many far- mers prefer to keep it in the dry chaff, until ready for sowing Thus in buying seed one should always be assured that it is sound, and of the previous season's growth. Many of our best farmers test the seed, before sowing, by strewing it between folds of damp cloth and placing it in a warm situation, or by sowing the seed in a box, in the window, and keeping it moist until sprouted. If good, it should germinate inside of two weeks. In raising clover, for seed, the first crop should be mown as soon as it is in blossom and the seed taken from the second, or after-crop, since the first blossoms are usually infertile. The heads for seed should be left until quite brown, mowed, allowed to dry thoroughly, and then be placed on a scaffold in the barn, or carried up in narrow, ventilated stacks properly thatched, or covered with marsh hay, to secure all from ,wet. When properly cured it may be threshed by means of flails or, better, by a clover huller and separator. Much has been said and written in the Southern States concerning Japan clover, a recent emigrant from Japan. It is a low, perennial plant, not rising much above the ground but spreading widely on the surface. It belongs to the .legu- minous family of plants, which includes the common clover, bean, pea, etc. The leaves are very small, trifoliate, and very numerous. The flowers are exceedingly small and produced in the axils between the leaf and stem, and the fruit is a small flattish pod. Prof. Killebrew says concerning it: About the year 1849 it was noticed in the vicinity of Charleston, S. C, the seeds having been brought from China or Japan in tea boxes. A short time afterwards it was discovered at a distance of forty miles from Charleston, and still later near Macon, Ga. It seems especially adapted to the Southern States, not flourishing above 36°, but growing with PLANT OF JAPAN CLOVER. BKANCH OF MEXICAN CLOVER (333) CLOVES 234 COCHIN CHINA POWLS great luxuriance on the poorest soils, and retain- ing Vitality in its roots in the severest droughts. It is said to be a fine plant for grazing and, being a perennial, needs no re-sowing and but little attention. On soils unfit for anything else it furnishes good pasturage and supplies a heavy green crop for turning under and improving the Eind. Mr. Samuel McRamsey, of Tennessee, says: This clover made its appearance in that locality in 1870. It is fast covering the whole country; it supplies much grazing from the first of August until frost. It is short, but very hard. Sheep are very fond of it, and cattle will eat it. Mr. Chas. Mohr, Mobile, Ala., says: It was intro- duced from Eastern Asia and has, during the last decade, overspread the Southern States from the Atlantic- slope to the banks of the Mississippi. Cattle and horses eat it. Of its value as a nutri- tive food the writer does not state definitely. Mexican Clover (Bicha/rdmnia seabra) is an annual plaiy; of the Natural Order Bulnacem, which contains the coffee, cinchona, and ipe- cacuanha plants. It is a native of Mexico and South America. It has, within a few years, be- come extensively naturalized in some parts of the South. Under favorable circumstances it grows rapidly, with succulent, spreading, leafy stems, which bear the small flowers in heads or clusters at the ends of the branches, and in the axils of the leaves. The flowers are funnel- formed, white, about half an inch long, with four to six narrow lobes and an equal number of stamens inserted on the inside of the corolla tube. The stem is somewhat hairy, the leaves opposite and, like other plants of this order, , connected at the base by stipules or sheaths. The leaves are oblong or elliptical and one or two inches long. Mr. John M. McGehee, of Florida, writes as follows: We here call the plant Florida Clover, others call it Water Parsley, and others Bell Fountain. This plant is now attracting moie interest in this section than any other article of farming interest. It is very troublesome to farmers in the cultivation of their crops; its growth is very rapid. It contains a great deal of water, and is hard to cure as a hay. Some call it very good hay, others say it is worthless. For the last fifty years it has been regarded as a great pest to farmers. It is now coming into notice as an element in green-soiling, which has never been practiced in this section heretofore. Mr. Matt. Coleman, of Florida, writes: The tradi- tion is that when the Spanish evacuated Pen- sacola this plant was discovered there by the cavalry horses feeding upon it eagerly. Hearing of this I procured some of the seed and have been planting or cultivating it in my orange grove from that time to the present as a forage plant and vegetable fertilizer. I find it ample and sufiiclent. It grows on thin, pine land from four to six feet, branches and spreads, in every direction, forming a thick matting and shade to the earth, and aflords all the mulching my trees require. One hand can mow as much in one day as a horse will eat in- a year; two days' sun will cure it ready for housing or stacldng, and It makes a sweet, pleasant-flavored hay; horses and cattle both relish it. The bloom is white, always open in the morning and closed in the evening. Bees and all kinds of butterflies seek the bloom. (See Japan Clover, in Supplement.) CLOVES. The unexpanded blossoms of an Eastern tree, the Eugenia caryophyUata. They contain an oil highly aromatic, and grateful to the stomach in minute quantities . It is a tropical production. CLUPEA. The generic name of the herring and shad fishes, anchovies, sprats, etc. ; most of the species are migratory. ClJUSTEK. A bunch; in botany a raceme. COAGULATION. The formation of a solid body of a jelly-like character. Milk coagulates in souring. The juices of fruit coagulate in the preparation of jellies. COAL. Numerous varieties exist: that of Pennsylvania and Wales (En^.) is anthracite, difficult of combustion, producmg no flame, but intense heat; it is nearly pure carbon. Bitumin- ous coal, such as that of Virginia and Ohio and the Western States, contains hydrogen as well as carbon, and gives off gas and flame in burning. Wood coal resembles chaiTed wood, and shows the marks of wood: it produces much light. All coal is of vegetable origin, being, indeed, the remains of plants and trees. The chief beds of i,t are arranged in a ciirved form; hence the term coal basins. ' This variety lies above the old red sandstone, and is covered with sandstones and conglomerates. It is, therefore, a secondary formation in the West generally overlaid by shales and limestone. (See Geological Maps.) COAL TAR. A tarry fluid of a complicated nature, produced during the distillation of bitu- minous coal for gas. It is a cheap and excellent paint for iron- ware, railings, etc., and has some- times been used on roiigh work. It preserves the timber, and is not used except as a preserva- tion against wet, in damp situations. COCCI. > ELLA. The generic name of the lady-bird beetles. (See Lady-bird.) COCCULUS INDICDS. A poisonous East- ern berry used in medicines; it is sometimes employed, ■ to cause intoxication, in beer, or thrown into fish ponds to stupefy fish, which can be caught with the hand while suffering from its effects. The poisonous principal is pieroioxia. COCCUM. A dry, elastic seed-covering. COCCUS. The bark lice or scale insect family. COCCYX. The termination of the spinal column. COCHIN CHINA FOWLS. The introduc tion of these fowls into England dates back to 1843, and soon after that date, they were intro- PAETRIDOE COCHINS. duced into the United States. As an indication of the admirable qualities of these fowls, it will only be necessary to give the principal varieties COCHIN CHINA FOWLS 235 COCKROACH into which they have been broken up, to show the estimation in which they are held. These are, White, Buff, Cinnamon, Grouse or Partridge Cochin, Lemon, Silver Buff, Silver Cinnamon Black Cochin, Cuckoo, and Silky-feathered Cochin. We illustrate two of the best known of the breeds, the Partridge Cochin, and the Buff Cochin. Although among the largest of barn- yard fowls, they endure confined quarters fairly well. It must be admitted, however, that they are better adapted to the farm, where they can have range, than to the confined quarters of the city. Qn the farm, the White Cochins are sturdy birds and will forage, if allowed, long distances in search of insects. If kept in con- finement they must have animal fi>od, and also green food, daily, and if possible they should be BUFF CUrillNs, allowed a short ramble late in the afternoon, when they will not trespass much. As winter layers of eggs the hens are among the best of all the breeds of Gallinaceous fowls. They also cross kindly with other barn-yard fowls, and live contentedly with other breeds. The objec- tion to them is that they are rather coarse boned, inclined to undue accumulation of fat. The general characteristics of the Cochin cock are: comb single, fine, rather small, upright and straight with well defined serrations, stout at the base and tapering to a point. Head small and carried rather forward; eye bright and clear; deaf ears pendant and large; wattles large and well rounded on the lower edge. The hackles of the neck full and abundant, reaching well to the back. Back broad, with a gentle rise from the middle to the tail, and with abun- dant saddle feathers; wings small, the primaries well doubled under the secondaries, so as to be out of sight when the wings are closed. Tail, small, curved feathers numerous, the whole tail carried rather horizontally than upright. Breast deep, broad and full; thighs large and strong, well covered with soft feathers. Vulture hocks, those with long stiff feathers, are objectionable; the fluil should be soft and abundant, well covering the thighs and standing well out behind. Legs rather sliort, thick and bony, wide apart, and well feathered on the outside to the toes; toes stout and strong, the anterior and middle toes well feathered. The carriage not so upright as in other breeds. The hen should cor- respond with these points, but be more feminine in appearance, for instance, the comb should be single, very small, fine, low in front, perfectly straight with well defined serrations, and the tail, of course, lacking the sickle feathers. If birds are intended for exhibition they must not only be perfect in markings and make-up gen- erally, but. they must also be in the highest possible condition. The best age is just when the pullets are ready to lay. If strictly kept from intercourse with the male birds, they will then be in their full development and beauty of form and color. The cockerels should be two or three months older than the pullets. This, of course, applies to young fowls and not to fully matured birds. COtHI>EAL. The Coccus cacti, a Mexican insect which feeds on a Cactus opvntiti, a prickly pear. The best should be of a grayish exterior, and the lines of tlie body clearly defined. The brilliant scarlet of Cochineal is fixed in dyeing by a mordant of alumina and solution of tin, and brightened by cream of tartar. C< ' CHLEATE. Twisted like some shells. COCKLE. Agrostemma, which grows amid wheat, and whose black seed impair the color of flour if not well separated by screening. Ills an annual, to be destroyed only by a succession of fodder crops, cut for soiling before flowering, or by a clean fallow. COCKROACH. Of the cockroaches, the most common and the most destructive species, in this country, is the Oriental Cockroach. This insect is said to have been introduced from Asia into Europe, and from Europe into America, and it is presumed that there is not now a maritime nation in the world where it does not exist. This species is generally found in and near human habitations, prowling about at night in search of food, and is both destructive and offensive; but- we have also a number of native species, found in fields and woods, under stones, timbers and bark of trees. The female cockroach may be SQpietimes seen running around with a seed-like egg or capsule protruding from the caudal seg- ment of the abdomen, nearly half its size. This is not a single egg, but contains two sets of cells, arranged something like a double row of cart- ridges in a cartridge box, in each of which there is an egg. When the young, are hatched from the eggs within the capsule, they secrete a liquid which dissolves the mucilage with which the vent is united, and thus they make their escape, leaving their receptacle as entire as it was before they quitted it. After moulting, or cast- ing off their skins several times — for a few hours after which the insect is entirely white, but grad- ually changes to black or daik or light brown, according to'the species — these insects are finally developed into the full-grown individuals we see, all the males acquiring wings capable of bearing them in flight, whilst the females are either wing- less or have these appendages only short or rudi- mental. The remedies for the destruction of cockroaches are many, among which the follow- ing have been regarded as effectual •. Mix a table- spoonful of red lead and Indian meal, with as much molasses as will make a thick batter, and! place the mixture in and about such places as are infested with these insects at night. Another remedy is to mix a teaspoonful of powdered arsenic with a tablespoonf ul of mashed potatoes. COCKROACH 336 COFFEB and crumble it at night in such places as are infested with the insects, where they may dis- cover and devour it, continuing these remedies every night successively until all are destroyed. Various rat and roach remedies, kept; for sale at the drug stores and elsewhere, have also been considered as effectual for the destruction of these offensive insects. Great care should be taken, however, in the use of these remedies, as they are very poisonous. Various kinds of traps have been also recommended from time to time, which are nightly baited, and the contents thrown into the fire or scalding water in the morning. As these insects love heat and are usually found in and about ovens and fireplaces, this peculiar- ity in their economy may suggest the most proper places where traps or poisons should be deposited, !in order to secure them, or effect their destruc- tion. A deep bowl, glazed or. smoothed inside, with rough and easy approaches from the out- side, and baited with some substance that will attract these insects by its odor — old cheese, for instance — is considered a good form for a cock- roach trap. Boxes partly filled with water, and having a nicely adjusted tilting lid, form good traps. Roaches ai'e nocturnal in^ habits and hide in corners and crevices during the day, but at night they emerge from their retreats to feed. They devour both animal and vegetable sub- stances and, not only eat books, clothing, paper, leather, etc., but they also render the substances", over which they run, filthy and disgusting by discharging from the mouth a dark- colored, nauseous-smelling -liciuid. There are some few parasitic insects which destroy them both in the egg and Insect state, but they are too few to be of any practi- cal benefit in lessening their numbers. One oif our most plentiful and destructive species is the croton- bug, or German Cockroach, {Ectobia Germaniea) a, male; b, female. This is a medium-sized, or rather small, cockroach, generally of a light yellow or deep fawn color; both sexes are pro- vided with wings and are, sometimes, in summer, found under the bark of trees in the South. These insects are especially destructive and abundant in houses heated by hot- water pipes, as OBOTOK-BrO. OKIENTAL COCEBOACH. they seem to thrive best and multiply most where there is a combination of heat and moisture. They are almost omnivorous and devour cakes of paint, vermilion, cobalt and umber alike. Another very troublesome species is the Oriental Cockroach, (Stylopyga orientaMs) a,' male; b, female.) This is a very large and common speqiei, and is generally found most abundant in or near seaport towns. This insect is generally supposed to have been imported from India. It varies is color from chestnut to almost black, according to age and exposure. The wings of the males are much shorter than the body, while the wing* of the females are wanting, or are very rudiment- ary. They are very fond of heat, and hide ia cracks near furnaces and fire-places. Theip gen- eral habits and the manner in which the eggs are deposited are much the same as with the croton- bugs. The injury these insects do when numer- ous is very great, as they are almost omnivorous. There are several other genera , and species of cockroaches in this country, but they all have very similar habits to the above, and are neither so plentiful nor do so much injury; some of them live in) old rotten wood, under bark of trees, and live altogether out of doors, and therefore the injury they do to farmers or housewives is verj trifiing or of ho consequence whatsoever. C«>CK'S-POOT GRASS. (See Grasses.) COCOON. The web which covers the chrys- alis of an insect. CODLING MOTH. (See Apple Worm.) C(ELIAC. Relating to the belly or abdomen. COFFEE. This is an important plant in the agriculture of many intertropical countries. The coffee plant has been lately introduced int» the United States under the erroneous supposition that it might be acclimated, which is, of course, destined to result in failure. It is probablft . that the plant may survive in some portions of Southern California, ^.nd barely possible that it may not be winter killed in Southern Florida. That it can ever be profitably cultivated is out of the question. It was at one time stated that the coffee plant grew wild all over California. The ignorant persons, who started the story, sup- posed a plant allied to the Buck Thorn, {Pran- gula Califm'nieii) to bfe real coffee. Tie almost universal use of coffee among civilized nations has stimulated its cultivation wherever the plant could thrive. - Brazil is now the largest coffee producing country in the world. Of late years much interest has been excited over Liberian coffee on account of the superior size of the berry. There are several varieties of (Joffea Arabica, m Abyssinia and Central Africa. Liberian coffee was supposed to be one of these, but late investi- gations have determined it to be a distinct species, and it has been named Coffea Liberia^. The cut shows branch, leaves, and fniiCof coffee. An interesting work on coffee, published by Appleton & Co., gives, among other interesting matter, the composition of raw coffee. It is as follows: Woody matter 84 Water 13 Fattymatler 18 Gum, eiigar, and caflelc acid t...... 18 Caffeiue » Azoiizfd matter, analogons to jegumine JS Saline matter, essemial oils, etc 8 Total r lOD Also it is stated, as among the curiosities of chemistry, that a magnificent purple dye can be prepared from the alkaloid of coffee. It is analagous to the dye which produced the famous Tyrian purple, unsurpassed for its perfection and permanence of tint. Mention is made of the facts that voSee, although a native of the Old COFFEE 237 COHESION World, has long ^een one of the most important staples of the New. Meyen, in his inquiries concerning the principal plants on which the prosperity of nations is hased, says that he even found some coffee trees growing wild in Brazil, not far fmm Rio Janeiro, in the wonds of Cor- oorado. It is the great commercial staple of the empire of Brazil which, as before stated, is the freatest coffee producing country of the globe, ava being the next in order. The latter does not epntribute one-half the quantity of the former, yet it furnishes nearly three times as much as other markets. As showing the estimation in which coffee is held in the United States, the fact is referred to that the annual consumption is greater than anywhere else in the world; to the extent of six-fold larger than in some of the states of Europe. Germany and France stand next to the United States in the rank of great coffee drinkers. It has often been expressed as a matter of surprise where the supply of Java and Mocha coffee came BSANCB OV OOPFBE TREK. from, it being generally understood to be impos- Bible that these comparatively small regions could supply a tithe of the Mocha and Java used. Of course these countries could not, even under the most intelligent system of cultivation, a system not general there. These grades really come from Brazil and other South American countries, a state of things not difficult to believe by those '""Who inspected the many varieties shown at the ; j'Centennial Exhibition by the Brazilian govern- ment. It was extremely difficult to detect the dif- ference in form and color of the berry, a matter, however, apparent enough when the coffee was steeped. Coffee, like tobacco, owes much Of its superior quality to the climate and soil upon which it is grown. Since the introduction of Brazil coffee many of the drinkers of the old- time Java and Mocha seem to have forgotten the teste and fragrance of the real berry and, being .' accustomed to the taste of the counterfeit Java, seem well satisfied. rOFFEE DAM. In architecture and bridge- building, a case of piling or other material, water-tight, fixed in the bed of a river or water space for the purpose of laying the bottom dry for a space large enough to build the pier on. Under ordinary circumstances coffer dams are formed by a single enclosure or a double one, with clay rammed in between the two to pre- vent the water from coming through the sides. They are also made either with piles only, driven close together, and sometimes notched or dove- tailed into one another; or, if the water is not very deep, by piles driven at a distance of five or six feet from each other, and grooved in the sides with boards let down between them in the grooves. In order to build, in coffer dams, a very good natural bottom of solid earth or clay is required; for though the sides be made water- tight, if the bed of the water be of a loose con- sistence, the water will ooze up through it in too great a quantity to permit the operations to be carried on. The sides must be very strong and well braced in the inside to resist the pressure of the water. . Modern science adopts various ways of reaching the same end. In bridge-building, for instance, when it is necessary that the founda- tions rest upon the solid rock, immense caissons, iron tubes, are forced down, and the sand and earth pumped therefrom, subsequently to be filled with masonry. Thus the great Missis- sippi bridge foundations were laid, the bed rock being in places forty feet below the bed of the river. COHESION. The force which binds together similar particles. The strain which any wood - or metal bears is a measure of its cohesion. The following is a tabular view of the absolute cohe- sion of timber employed in building and carpen- try, showing the load which would rend a prism of an inch square, and the length of prism which, if suspended, would be torn asunder by its own weight: Name. Pounds. Feet. 12.915 11,880 9,6::0 12,235 14.130 9,720 9,540 12,S46' 12,240 36,049 3 .900 35,800 SB.MO ^ gh 42,080 Elpi 39,1160 40,500 55.500 42,160 The metals differ more widely from each other in their cohesive strength, than the several species of wood or vegetable fibres. According to the experimefats of George Rennie, the cohe- sive power of a rod an inch square, of different metals, in pounds avoirdupois, with the corres- ponding length in feet, is as follows : Name. Cast pteel Swedish malleable iron English " " Ca-t iron Cast copper Yellow Drass Oast tin Cast lead Pounds. 134,'35l) 72,064 5p,B7! ■ 19 096 19,072 17,958 4,736 1,824 Feet 39.455 19,740 , 19,740 6,110 6,093 6,180 1,496 348 COLIC 238 COMPRESSIBILITT COKE. The cinder of bituminous coal after being heated for gas. This variety of colie lacks strength, since all that pertains to gas is taken from it, but it is easily kindled. In making coke, for manufacturing purpdses, only the sulphur and other injurious elements of the coal ai-e taken out. Such coke gives off a steady, intense heat and is heavy, gray in appearance^ and, if struck together, gives ofE a metallic sound. COLCHICUM. Colchieum officinale. Meadow saffron, a bulbous plant, growing freely in moist, sandy loams. The bulb and.seeds are of the high- est value as a medicine in gout and rheumatism. In large doses it is poisonous. COEeOP I'EEA. Insects, the outer wings of which are hard or horny, the inner wings being large and very delicate. Borers, lady-birds, cur- culios, etc., belong to this race (See Beetles.) COLE WORT. (See Cabbage.) ' COLIC. An irritation of the stomach or intes- tines produced by various causes, inducing pain and griping; mild cases are readily alleviated by laudanum m the human subject. There are two forms of colic, spasmodic and flatulent. ' In horses, spasmodic colic sometimes runs into inflamma- tion. Sometimes one is mistaken for the other. In colic the horse is attacked suddenly; there are intervals of rest ; the pulse not m uch altered in the early stage of the disease; rubbing the belly gives relief; the ears and legs are of natural tempera- ture; motion gives relief and the strength is scarcely affected. In inflammation of the bowels, symptoms come on gradually; there is constant pain ; the pulse small and much quickened and scarcely to be felt many times ; the belly is quite tender and sore to the touch; the ears and legs are cold; motion increases the pam and the strength rapidly fails. The treatment of colic is to relieve pain by giving one ounce of sulphuric ether, two ounces of laudanum and a pint of raw linseed oil and, if not relieved in an hour, repeat the dose. Occasionally walk the horse about to e?ccite the bowels to action. The following is a good colic draft to have on hand : Take aromatic spirits of ammonia, one pint, sulphuric ether, one pint, sweet spirits of nitre, one and a half pints, gum opium (made fine), four ounces, camphor gum, four ounces, assafoetida, four ounces. Mix all together and shake frequently for twelve or fifteen days, then filter or strain through flannel and it will be ready for use. ]?ose: one tablespoonful, in a little water, repeated in thirty minutes. A larger dose may be given sometimes in very severe cases. In ^atulent colic, windy colic, etc., the horse is uneasy, hangs the head, and exhibits a few of the general symptoms of spasmodic colic, before there is any enlargement of the belly, but more particularly after, for as soon as the laelly swells the pawing commences, although it is not so violent as in spasmodic colic. There is but little rolling or kicking at the belly as in spasmodic colic and the horse is not inclined to move about much. After from one to four days tlie belly becomes much increased in size (if the disease is not checked) and the animal becomes restless. Try injections first, and if gas or wind come away with it the patient will most likely recover soon; but if no benefit is derived from the injection give the remedies as recommended for spasmodic colic. Let the horse be led around quietly until the medicine has time to take effect, so as to prevent his falling or rolling as it might cause rupture of the diaphragm. COLLAPSE. A loss of strength. Sudden failure of the vital powers, as at the commence- ment and ending of disease; a falling together, used in medicine to denote fatal prostration. COLLAR. In plants, that portion at the sur- face of the soil. COLLEGE. (See Agricultural College and Industrial Education.) COLLEY. The Scotch shepherd dog. COLLIQUATIVE. An excessive evacuation, diminishing the strength. COLLDM. The point where the roots diverge ! from the stem of plants. COLLYRIUM. An eye-wash. COLOCYNTH. The pulp of the Cucumis coh- ' cynth, a plant similar to the cucumber, bearing round fruit of great bitterness and purgative power: The cultivation is similar to that of melons. COLON. In anatomy, the large intestine. COLOPHONY. The dark resin remaining after the distillation of the spirit from resin. COLT DISTEMPER. (See Distemper.) ... COLTS-FOOT. (See Dock.) , .i': COMMON GOAT. (See Goat.) COMMON THISTLE. (See Thistle ) COLUMBARIUM. A pigeon-house. Oolwmr hidm. The pigeon family.' COLZA. A species of the (Brasded) cabbage family, considerably still cultivated in Europe for the oil contained in the seed, and formerly used for illuminating purposes. It is unworthy of cul- tivation in the United States or Canada. COMA. A propensity to sleep, amounting to a disease (stupor). Comatose is a derivative. COMBINATIOliir. In chemistry, the chemical union of atoms, whereby the sensible^ properties of tlie combining parts are altered. It takes place in well defined proportions. COMBUSTION. Burning. The chemical change of a body, attended with heat or light. For combustion, the body must be surrounded with a medium which enters, in part, into the change for instance. COMFEEY. Synvphytum officinale. A rough perennial plant, with coarse, rough leaves and large roots. The Prickly Comfrey was intro- duced into the United States, under the supposi- tion that it would be available as a forage plant. It did not answer the expectations accorded ; it- ^' and has pretty much gone out- of cultivation, since it has to be cut and carried to stock. COMMISSURE. In anatomy, a junction or union. COMOSE. Ending in a tuft or brush, like the top of a tree. COiffiPAISS. An instjTument used by mariners and surveyors to obtain the bearing of any place. The essential, part is a magnetic needle,* which plays over a card marked into the points of the compass. The needle if allowed free play, points constantly to the north. COMI'OSITJE. Plants like the sunflower,, ^ dandelion, lettuce, etc , the flowers of which are grouped together on a flattish surface. They are very numerous, and Arm the Syngenesia of Linnaeus. Pew are cultivated. Chamomile, wormwood, and a few others yield bitter med- icines. Their ashes abound in potash. COMPOST. Any compound of manures,, usually of vegetable matter for the most part. (See Peat, Lime, Vegetable Matter, etc.) COMPRESSIBILITY. This quality depends C0NE8T0GA HORSE 239 CONSERVATORY on the natural pores of bodies, -which enable the solid pans to approach nearer under great force, CONCATE. Having a hollowed surface. Concave surfaces in mirrors produce a magnify- ing effect, and condense heat and light. Convex la the reverse of concave, having a rounded fin "T'T fio ^ CONiCEPTACLES. The seed cases of ferns, lichens, etc. CONCHOID. Like a shell. The name of a curve. CONCRETE. In architecture and engineer- ing, a mass composed of stone chippings or ballqf t cemented together through the medium of lime and sand, usually employed in making foundations v^here 'the soil is of itself too light, boggy, or otherwise insufficient for the walls. The essential quality of concrete seems to be, that the materials used should be of small dimen- sions, so that the cementing medium may act in every direction around them, and that the latter should on no account be more in quantity than is necessary for that purpose. CONDENSATION. Rendering a body more dense. Commonly applied to the conversion of vapor into the fluid form. CONDITION. In horsemanship, the health and good appearance of a horse or other animal. CONDITION POWDERS. For a horse sus pected of indigestion, tlie following will be useful- One ounce powdered assafcetida, two ounces powdered ginger, five drachms powdered sulphate of iron, one ounce powdered goldenseal, two ounces powdered poplar bark, one drachm powdered capsicum, one pound oatmeal.' Divide tlie mass into sixteen doses; one to be given, in the food, every nighjt. For hidebound, when there seems to be no particular disease, give good nutritious food, and the following: Three ounces each of powdered sassafras bark, of powdered sulphur and of salt; two ounces each of powdered bloodroot and of balmony, and one pound of oatmeal. Mix and divide into twelve parts, and give one daily in the morning's feed. Unless there is a plethoric habit, too much blood, from standing still and want of exercise, reduce the food, give proper exercise and, if the ;dung be hard, give two to four ounces of aloes twice a wefek, and also an ounce of saltpetre in the water as often. If this does not bring the animal around, give twice a week of the following: one-half ounce each of Fowler's solution of arsenic, and iodide of potash, mixed in a pint of water, and ■ give with water or gruel. Avoid arsenic, how- ever, on general principles, to get up a sleek coat. It is valuable when properly used, but you must know what you are using it for. CONDUCTOR. In pliysics, any substance which allows the passage pf heat, light, or elec^ tricity, is said to conduct it. CONDYLE. The rounded ends of the long bones. CONESTOGtA HORSE. This once noble draft horse of the East, like the Vermont draft horse, may now be said to be practically extinct, as a variety and, unfortunately, as little is known of the history of one as of the other. Strong and able in every respect, they were a noble, honest, and quick stepping team horse, and from thirty to fifty years ago' were employed in Jong teams of six and eight horses, in transporting goods over the Alleghanies to the markets of Philadel- phia and New York. The valley of Conestoga in Pennsylvania, originally settled by Germans, is the original home of the Conestoga horse. Their height was from sixteen to seventeen hands, and their weight from 1,250 to 1,500 pounds. They had acquired a distinctive repu- tation before the war of 1813, and rendered etBcient service to the United States Army. If such magnificent draft horses are ever to be seen again, the best way now to attain the end would seem to, be to cross the Cleveland Bay upon Clydesdale or upon the largest and roomiest mares that can be found. CONFERVA. An extensive family of small water weeds, forming the green slime on stag- nant waters. They nourish innumerable insects and animalcules, CONGELATION. The act of passing into the state of ice or other solid forms from the fluid. CONGESTION. In veterinary and medicine, an increased accumulation of blood or other fluid in any part. It is to be relieved by bleed- ing, cupping, leeches or counter irritation. Congestion of the lungs is the first stage of pneu- monia. Active stimulants should be given, as whisky, ammonia, spirits of nitre, ginger, etc., and the animal allowed full power to breath. Veterinary advice should always be called when CONGLOMERATE. In geology, a compound stony mass, containing pebbles, etc., cemented together by iron, calcareous or other matter. CONIC. Relating to a cone, smaller at one end than the other. CONIFERS. The name of evergreen trees, the seed of which is borne in cones, as the pines, cedars, larch, etc. The word evergreen applies to all trees which continue to grow, or which hold their leaves green winter and summer, as many tropical trees and plants do, continuing their growth winter and summer. Tlie well- known wax plant (Soya), is an evergreen twiner, but not a conifer. The pine sub-family are con- ifers, and also evergreens, and include not only the pines, proper, but various varieties of cone- bearing trees. COMROSTERS. A tribe of birds with strong conical bills, as crows and finches. CO>IUM. The genus containing the poison hemlock. CONJUHCTIVITIS. See inflammation of the eyes CONNIVENS. In botany, any covering or arrangement by which the parts of a plant or flower are hidden— as the flowers of the fig by the connivent receptacle. CONSERVATORY. In horticulture, a glazed structure, in which exotic trees and shrubs are grown in a bed or floor of soil. Technically, it is distinguished from a greenhouse by the plants being planted in the free soil, and thus growing up from the floor, while in the greenhouse the plants are grown in pots placed on shelves, or on a stage or series of shelves rising one above another. They are exclusively employed for the preservation of plants which are in a growmg state during the winter. There are many forms of conservatories and greenhouses, including what are called propagating .houses, or pits, cheap structures used by professional florists for growing plants and flowers for sale. These are made to face the south, when built as a lean-to to another building, or they may be made as CONVERTIBLE HUSBANDRY 240 CORK shown in the cut below, separate, and about fourteen feet wide, when the roof slants both ways, the north slope being usually not more than half the length of the south slope. The propagating-bed is of brick, single width, and nine courses high; size, three feet by ten. Com- mon slate is laid on the top, supported by brick, laid up for the purpose from I he top of the flue. A space of lialf an inch may be left between the slates.-' Oh the side, a few openings should be left for ventilation, so arranged as to be closed at pleasure. Make a frame the size of the top of the bed, of plank, ten inches wide by one and a quarter thick; set this on the top of the bed, and run an iron through the center to prevent the sides from spreading. In this frame, and on top of the slates, place three inches of, pebbles about the size of hickory nuts; then one inch of fine gravel; then, filling the bed with fine sand, it is ready for use. Charcoal may be substituted for pebbles. The house should front south or ioutlieast. The front glazing should be lower than the back ; and may be within eighteen inches of the ground. An evaporator, or large pan of zinc or boiler-iron, shoi^ld be placed upon the flue to render the air moist. Hanging shelves may be introduced if needed; they are very con- venient fo'r bringing plants near the glass. If it be heated by flues direct from the fire, they should be of Ijrick, and run around the house, retiirniug to the same end from which they started, or may be carried directly under the propagating bed. By such means a small house may serve a family and furnish all the plants and flowers during winter, and tlie females of the household will derive much pleasure in attend- ing to it. When the house is only to be a small one, we should advise that it be a lean-to, com- municating directly with the house, CONSTIPATION. Costiveness, want of regu- lar evacuations from the bowels. CONSTITUTION. The general strength and liability to disease of any person or animal.' CONSTRIC I'OR. Any muscle which has the power of closing the openings of the body. CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. Contagious and epizootic diseases in farm animals are Apthous Fever. Malignant Anthrax, Canine Madness, Contagious Pleuro-pneumonia, Cow-pox, Dis- temper or Strangles, Cholera (Hog and Asiatic), Glanders, Rinderpest, Typhoid and Bilious Fever, Scab, Mange; Itch, etc. In Malignant Anthrax, Malignant Hog Cholera (Intestinal Fever), Glanders, Canine Madness, and Contagi- ous Pleuro-pneumonia, the diseases being well defined, it is cheaper to kill and bury deeply than t6 attempt a cure. Rinderpest we have never had on this continent. Contagious diseases incident to this country will be treated of under their appropriate names. CONTRACTION OF THE HOOF. In far riery, a distorted state of the horny substance of the lioof in horses and also of cattle, producing all the mischiefs of unnatural and irregular pres- sure on the soft parts contained in it and, con- eequently, a degree of lameness which can only be cured by removing the cause. Contraction of the hoof rarely happens, however, except to those animals whose hoofs, for the convenience of _ labor, aye shod. The best remedy is paring, thinning the contracted parts, and a summer on a soft, rather moist pasture. CONYERTIBLE HUSBANDRY. A term impljdng frequent change in the same field from tillage crops to grass, and from grass back to tillage crops; an alternation of wheat, rye, etc., with fallow and grass crops. In all new coun- tries mixed husbandry only comes to be carefully practiced as settlement increases, and markets are provided for various products. Mixed hus- bandry and manure are the best means of bring- ing exhausted land back to a state of fertility. CONVOIVULACE^. A family of plants, including the bind weed, sweet potato and jalap. The stems are commonly twining, and the large roots purgative; the flowers are of ten beautiful, and tlie, cultivated varieties, as the morning glory, are varied in color. CONVULSIONS. An unnatural action of*he muscular system produced by ^ derangement of nervous power. Staggering is a convulsion originating in an excess of blood being diverted to the, head, and is relieved by bleeding; the use of hot baths to the lower extremities is also use- ful. Worms frequently produce convulsions. (See Apoplexy.) COPAL. A resinous body which forms an excellent varnish when dissolved in linseed oil and mixed with turpentine. COPING. The top course of a wall, usually of stone, and wider than the wall to save it from rain. COPPERAS. Green vitrei, sulphate of iron. COPPICE. A young wood. Wood cut every ' few years. COPROLITE. The fossils resembling cones, which are formed in the ancient calcareous formations, and are the petrified dung of carniv- orous reptiles. CORALS. The calcareous basis of some marine animals, Corals sometimes contain two per cent, of bone earth. CORD. A measure for wood, stone, etc., equal to four feet high and wide, and eight feet long. CORDATE. In botany, heart-shaped. The heart on playing cards. CORD GRASSES. Coarse, salt-marsh grasses of the genus Spartina. CORDIAL. A stimulating, stomachic med- icine. COREOPSIS. A yellow, composite, garden flowef, the fresh flowers of which yield a yellow dye. Named from coris, a bug, from their peculiar smell. CORIANDER. Ooriandrum sattmim. An umbelliferous plant cultivated for its arQinatio seeds, which are Used in confectionery^ and medicine. The plant requires a dry soil, the seeds are sown in tlie middle of spring, in drills eight inches apart, and half an inch deep; the plants to remain where sown. The only culti- vation required is to thin them to eight inches' distance, and to have them kept clear of weeds throughout their growth. They perfect seeds in early autumn, coming in flower in the early part of summer. CORK. The bark of the Spanish oak. Querela guber. It would flourish wherever the live oak grows, and indeed up to the latitude of Tennes- see, but requires a dry granitic soil. The tree is evergreen, yields sweet acorns, and begins to supply good cork at forty years old. The cork 1« stripped every eight or ten years afterward. It is taken in July, a perpendicular cut being made the length of the trunk, and a circular one above I ,\ 1 ^ i to; fl' .2' es s ^ ^ ^""^^"^^ ^ *m si Q :i'';'.uu CORNS 241 ~ COROLLA aud below, down to the new bark, but not into Ihe young wood. Plantations of the cork oak have never yet proved profitable in the United States, but there is no reason why they should not. CORMUS. The solid swelling between the stem of some plants. CORN. In Europe, wheat, or a mixture of peas, beans, and oats. In the United States the name is applied only to Indian corn, Zea Mays. (See Maize; also, Corn, In Supplement.) CORNEA. The transparent membrane in front of the eye. Any opacity injures vision; it should be carefully treated by bleeding and T\l jgf"PJ*g CORN, MEASURING THE BULK. The following rule for this purpose is given by "William Murray. It is not to be regarded as strictly accurate, but an approximation : Having previously levelled the corn in the house, so that it will be of equal depth throughout, ascertain the length, breadth, and depth of the bulk; multiply these dimensions together, and their products by four; then cut off one figure from the right of this last product. This will give so many bushels, and a decimal of a bushel of shelled corn. If it be required to find the quantity of ear corn, substitute eight for four, and cut off one figure as before. For Western corn, or Dent corn, add one-third, since three half bushels of ears make a bushel shelled. CO|JNS. Small swellings or tumors on the sensitive sole iUjthe triangular space between the bars and the wall of the heel, generally in the . inside and, always on the fore feet, are called corns. They are usually the effect of bad shoe- ing, but sometimes occur from a bruise of the sole, when barefooted If there is fnflammation, poultice; if there is matter, open and let it out. If not, simply pare away the hoof over the tender spot, but without touching the bars or frog. Then take one half to one ounce of verdigris, two ounces of oil of turpentine, and one half pound of beeswax ; melt together, at a gentle heat, and apply over the' part, being careful to keep out dirt, or dress simply with tinctuj-e of myrrh. Give the animal rest in a moist pasture, until recovered. The illustration, sliowing the sole of the horse's hoof, will give a correct idea of the several parts and also of the location of corns, which occur between d and g. ■OS, a 1, and a3 is the toe; b 1, and b 3, the por- tion on each side midway between the toe an-l heels; i, i, the heels; /, f, the bars; d, d, d, tue sole; the shaded surfaice ending above h, or h, k, I, is the frog; fc, is the cleft of the frog. Corns 16 are of two sorts, the true and the false corn. A competent veterinary writer, in a report to the United States Government, in 1870 says of these, that the locality of the true corn is the angle caused by the inflection of the bars, and is . between the burs and wall. Iil this space the pos- terior extremities of the coffin-bone move freely in the movements of the foot. By the irritation of frequent, prolonged, and severe use, a thick- ening of the laminsB is produced. This hardens and ultimately becomes a semi-corneous tumor. It may remain in this condition, or it may become a smooth, dense horn, more dense than any other part of the hoof. It is a constant source of pain and consequent lameness The more common false corn is a bruise of the sensi- tive sole which lies directly under the heel of the coffin-bone. This occurs most frequently in feet having a flat, level sole, deficient in the arch. It may occur in any variety of foot which is kept ^ badly shod. A shoe with a broad web level upon its foot-surface, and seated for its whole width upon the wall and sole, will aid in the production of this form of disease. Several varieties of the false corn are described, but they are simply different stages of the same disease The true corn is essentially incurable. -For the false, in its early stages, the general principles of treat- ment to kbate local inflammation may arrest the disease. If suppuration can be prevented, the duration of lameness will be much limited. Care should be taken that the shoe should have its bearing only on the solid border of the wall, and a very slight portion of the outer border of the sole. To this end, a shoe should be used with a narrow web, but little over half an inch in width; or the sho* with a wider web should be seated so that its bearing-surface would be narrow. Supposing the case has been neglected and suppuration has occurred, the pain and lame- ness will be great until the matter is evacuated. The sole must be carefully pared away until the horn is very thin, when an opening must be made through it, and the pus evacuated. If great pain is inflicted by the attempt, the foot should be soaked in a warm alkaline bath, by which the horn will be softened, and the extreme tenderness abated. If possible, the foot should be kept in a poultice for a day or two, or three, according to the previous severity of the disease. After that, the shoe may be reapplied, care being taken that the opening through the horn be so protected that no dirt or gravel can enter. A condition similar to false corn may exhibit itself in any portion of the giound surface of the foot as the result of a severe stone-bruise. If detected early, the warm foot-bath, with rest, will be sufficient treatment for it. CORN SALAD. FediaoUtmria. Lamb lettuce. This is a mucilaginous, pleasant herb, esteemed for the early period it is found in the market. Sow the seed in drills six inches apart; weed carefully. The seeds are small and light. In England it is sown in August or September, on clean, rich land, covered with straw during cold weather, and brought out at the earliest period in spring. In the United States it is not much cultivated. COROLLA. The colored part of flowers, usually. If there be no green calyx, the colored envelope is called a perianthium. The corolla is either in one piece, or monopetalous or, in many, polypetalous. (See Botany.) CORVDS 242 COTSWOLD SHEEP CORONET BONE, Tlie second of , the con- solidated phalanges of the horse's foot. CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE. Bichloride of mercury. Deadly poison. The antidote is albu- men or white of eggs. A weak solution destroys vermin and preserves wood, hut so dangerous is it that it should not be used. ' CORRUGATE. To wrinkle. The folds on the skin of some animals, as the sheep, are called corrugations. CORTICAL Eelating to the bark. CORUNDUM. A claSs of extremely/ hard minerals, composed of nearly pure alumina. CORVUS. The generic name of the crow and isTen. They are omnivorous or camiTorous. (See Crow.) CORTZA. Catarrh, or running at the nose. COSMOGONY. Speculation concerning the origin of tlie earth. COSTATB. Ribbed. In botany, a term used to designate the bundles of woody fibre in leaves, also called nerves and veins. COTSWOLD SHEEP. The Cotswold are an old English breed of sheep and, as improved, rank as among the very best of the long wooled breeds as they are among the largest. They began. to be imported into the United States about 1832, sitce which time they have been generally dissem- inated, giving gQod satisfac- tion, everywhere, but have grown in the estimation of breeders, especiaijyin Can- ada, the Western States and the more northern of the Southern States. As com- I)ared with the Leicester, CotsWold are more prolific, and have better constitu- tional vigor. They have been improved in form, fleece, and early maturity, so that they may be sent to the butcher at from four- teen months to two years old, giving twenty pounds of mutton, per quarter, at fourteen months, and thirty pounds, per quarter, at two years old. So their fleeces will go> in exceptional cases, up to eighteen j)ounds per fleece, a most wonderful weight, when we take into consideration the fact that the wool shrinks but little in washing, in comparison withthefine, gummy wooled sheep. The superior hardi- ness of the Cotswold, the good nursing qualities of the ewes, their good flesh, and their prolific qualities, have rendered them especial fav- orites in the great prairie region of the United States. If to this we add the fact that they cross kindly with the Leicester, improving their quality, and also with the Southdown, Increasing the size and the wool, it seems not too much to say that they will not only hold their own but, year by year, become more and more liked. ^ On this and the next page we give illus- trations, showing a superior strain of Cotswold yearling ewes, as they appear in spring before shearing, and the improved Cots- wold also carrying a full fleece. Cotswold wool shrinks but eighteen to twenty per cent., while the shrinkage m Merino wool ranges from forty to seventy per cent. ; thus a pound of Cotswold wool will produce as much clean (scoured) wool as two and a halt pounds of Merino wool, allow- COTTON 243 COTTON ing the latter shrinks sixty-eight per cent., which the more gummy will. South of the Ohio river, the Cotswold is reported as wintering without artificial feeding, unless in exceptional years. The same is true west of the Mississippi, in a latitude below the mouth of the Missouri. This fact is true, however, of sheep generally, except some of the more tender breeds, or those not well inured to our climate. One thing should always be remembered in connection with the keeping of all long and even middle wooled sheep. They will not do well in large flocks, as is usual with the Merino. Flocks of 100 are quite lai'ge enough, and shoiild never be exceeded. Thus the long wools, and middle wools, are especially adapted to those farms where but few sheep are kept, especially near markets where superior lambs and mutton bring extra prices. COTTON. {OossypiumJierbaeeum.) This, one of the most important bf agricultural plants, and cultivated in every civilized and semi-civilized country of the globe where it will mature, belongs to the mallow family. Botanists are uncer- tain as to the number of distinct species of this plant. De Can- dolle describes thir- teen species, in hi Prodromus, and men tions six others, but considers them all ur certain. Swartz think they may be all from one original speciee of which many varie ties have been pro duced by cultivation and by the effect of different climates The plants inhabit dil ferent parts of trop ical Asia, Africa and America, and many of them are cultivated for their cotton in cli- mates adapted to their growth. It, is believed to be indigenous to ,Asia, as well as to America, but is cul- tivated largely in most of the sub-tropical countries, of both conti- nents. It requires a certain duration of warm weather, as well as an amount of moisture, to perfect its seeds and, in the United States, can not be profitably cultivated north of the latitude of Kentucky, Tennessee and Virginia. Cotton is divided, commercially, into Sea Island — fur- nishing fibre of the most superior quality — and Upland. The varieties are numerous, many localities having one or more considered as peculiarly adapted to the soil and situation. Cot- ton cultivation has grown up in the United States almost pntirely within the last hundred yeara, for, until the invention of Arkwright, in 1769, for the spinning of cotton, in England, and the spinning-jenny of Hargreaves, in 1770, the fibre could not be made available in a great in- dustrial way. Comparatively little cotton had been raised in our Southern states previous to 1793, when Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin. Up to that time the difSculty of freeing the cot- ton from the seed had been such that one hand could clean but a pound a day, and even at the high price of twenty-five or thirty cents a pound it could not be made profitable. By Whitney's invention a hand, instead of one pound, could clean 360 pounds a day. At about the same time steam was introduced as a motive power in England, and that, with the great improvements in carding and spinning, enabled one man to do the work which it had previously required 2,200 men to do, in the same time, by the old methods. Machinery had introduced an entirely new con- dition of things. The effect of it^was to produce a vitiil change in the state of affairs at the South, and cotton growing very rapidly grSw up to immense importance, constituting about a third part of the whole exports of the country. Each decade showed an increase of about 100 per cent in production, till, in 1840, it had reached 744,000,000 pounds, six times the product of 1820. The quantity of cotton exported in 1793 was only 138, 338 pounds. The quantity exported IMPROTED COTSWOLD RAM. in 1860 was 1,765,115,735 pounds, or 4,412,789 bales of 400 pounds each, but the quantity pro- duced in 1860 was 3,079,330,800 pounds, or 5,198,077 bales. This production had fallen off somewhat in 1870, when the quantity produced was reported as 3,011,996 bales, or 1,304,798,400 pounds. The statistician of the United States Department of Agriculture, in 1876, compiled exhaustively on cotton, from which we quote: In 1858 and 1860 the receipts from America con- stituted four-fifths of the British imports. In 1863 they amounted to a fraction of one per cent. ; in 1864, one and a half per cent., and in 1863 but two and a half per cent. Starting at thirty-seven per cent, in 1866, in 1876 the pro- portion reached sixty-two per cent., and the pro- portion of India cotton had fallen to eighteen and a half per cent. The price, as an index of quality, tells the stoiy of India's inability to compete with the United States far more elo- quently than all special pleadings, since climate COTTON 344 COTTON and climatic conditions "speak by the card." The average value per pound, in pence, of British imports, is thus given: Country. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1876. 1876. Cotton of theTJnitedStatee 9.9 7. 9.1 6.4 8. 6. 7.7 5.7 6.4 5.1 American seed and American planters have in vain been introduced into India; the fibre inevit- ably deteriorates, becomes short; dry, harsh, and brittle, with a low rate of fibre product. The details of production, during the two periods named, are thus given,, the pounds per bale being the average net weight of Liverpool receipts, which include a large portion of each crop: Tears. ■' • Bales. / Weight per bale. Pounds. 2,355,257 3,015,0a9 3,262.882 ■ ?,930,0iJ7 2,847,339 3,527,845 2,939,519 3,113,962 3,851,481 4,669,770 3,656,006 416 428 428 430 434 420 444 442 447 445 477 ' 441 444 443' 437 434 4.38 439 ' 440 4;M 439 436 979,786,912 1,290,432,412 1851 1852 1853 1,396,513,496 1,269 911 610 1854 l,2.i5,746,126 2,481,694,900 1,305 146,4:36 1855 1856 1857 1 876 371 204 1858 1859 1860 ,.. 2,721.612,007 2,078,047,650 1,7.34,914,862 36.169,117 15,869,116,6. 5 1865 3,193,987 ' 2,019.774 2,593,993 2i439;039 3,154,946 4,352.:il7 2,974.351 3,930,5U8 4,170,398 3,832,991 4,669,288 967,548.2bi' 1866 896,779.656 1867 1,149,138,899 1868 :..... 1 066,860,013 1869 1,369,246,564 isro 1,906,314,846 1871 , 1872 : 1,305,740,089 1,729.42:3,520 1873 1,8:30.800,332 1874: 1,683,683,049 1875 2.0 5.809.568 36,a31,582 15,939,344,833 Few are aware of the rapidity in cotton produc- tion since the prostration of the war period. It is not generally known that the aggregate pro- duct since 1865 exceeds that of a similiar period prior to 1861. If we include the crop of 1876, the excess of its production in the period of twelve years, from 1865 to 1876 inclusive, is a^out 3,000,000 bales more than from 1849 to 1860, inclusive. Lea,ving out the large crop of 1876, similar periods of elever years make a com- parison also favoring the production of the later. : The aggregate of the crop movement of the former is 36,169,117 bales, or, 15,869,176,615 pounds, averaging 3, 288,101 bales per annum, or 1,443.652, 419 pounds. A similar statement for 1865 to 1875, inclusive, reads, 36,831,583 bales, or 15,939,- 344,833 T)ounds, averaging 3,'302,871 bales per annum, or 1,449,031,348 pounds. An average increase of nearly 15,000 per annum'. The great crop of 1859 was but two per cent, larger than that of 1875. Three crops since the war are each larger than any prior to it, with the above single exception; these are in order of size, 1875, 1870, 1873. The crop of 1872 was larger than that of 1858, and every crop preceding the latter is sur- passed by every crop of the seven past years, with one exception, 1871. This is a remarkable result, which is a surprise to planters themselves, and an indication of what can be accomplished in the future when the cotton area shall be an essential part of a rotation, and fertilizers shall be not the least important product of the plantation, and two bales are made to grow where one grevv before, as can easily be accomplished on. many acres of present slovenly cultivation In relation to the cotton crops of 1877, 1878, 1879 and 1880, we find that in the first named year was estimated at 4,500,000 bales; in 1878 it wa« 5,200,000 bales; in 1879, it was 5:078,530 bales; and in 1880, 5,761,353 bales. As to cost of pro- duction and price, in 1876, we find the State averages as follows, in cents and fractions, per pound, of Upland cotton: State. Cost. ~^%t Price. M SO 09.3 9.4 9.3 8.7 9.9 9.8 9.7 8. 9. 9. ^ «0 09.8 '41 9 3 '•.»; Souili Carolina Georgia, 10 1 Mississippi 10 2 Louisiana ■ '^f% li'M Tennessee % This gives to Texas the largest proportion^ of profit, or eleven mills per pound; Arkansas, nine; Tennessee, eight; the others two to five; the average slightly exceeding half a cent, being $3.60 per average bale; making the net profit to the cultivators $11,500,000 in round numbers, in' an aggregate of about 305,000,000: This is within a fraction of six per cent. 6f the gross receipts and, if assumed to be substantially correct, is too small a margin for a good season. It illustrates the necessity of increased returns. How shall they be obtained? By increasing the yield and diminishing the cost of supplies. Both ends I are reached "by a single operation: the adoption of. a restorative rotation, which involves animal production and green nr anuring, a cheap- ening of fertilizers and supplies for man and beast, a partial protection of the soil from wash- ing and waste, a large yield at a minimum cost, and increase of fertility instead of exhaustion. The seed of cotton yieldsia valuable oil and is now largely expressed for this purpose. The cake or residue, after pressing, is valuable as a manure. For a long time, in the South, the seid was used whole as manure Of late years, however, cotton seed oil has come to be a mer- chantable article, and large quantities are now •yearly exported to the North for the oil it con- tains. Large quantities of oil are also beginning to be Inade in the South. With improved sys- tems of cultivation and careful rotation there is no reason why this crop should be an exhausting one, and the experience of the last few years shows it not to be so, where an intelligent sys- tem of cropping is practiced. The greatest drawback to the profitable cultivation of cotton is really the insects injurious to the plant. _ Of these the boll worm is one of the most destruc- tive. Another is the necessity of diversified farming, and manure. Up n this question one of the reports of the Commissioner of Agriculture says • Every farmer should rely mainly upon his stock for manures; hogs should be fattened upon field-pease; and horses should be penned at night in deeply -littered yards. Accretions to the man- ure pile may be rnade from a great, variety of COTTONWOOD 245 CRAB- APPLE sources, including all decaying vegetable and animal matter, waste and wash from the kitchen, muck from the swamps, and pine straw or leaves from the forest. There are many special fertil- izers in the South ample for a perpetual supply of all possible dram upon the resources of the soil. The coast-line from Virginia to Texas, including all the sounds, inlets, bays, and estuaries, has an aggregate extent of thousands of miles, and every mile can furnish abundant stores of fish and sea- weed for manuring adjacent fields. Oyster-shell lime is atlso plenty and cheap in the tidewater regions. No mineral manure is more abundant than marl, which is found in the whole tide- water section of the Atlantic coast, in the Mississippi Valley and in Texas. It underlies wide belts at various depths, often very near the surface ; it is, in many localities, easily obtained in large quantities; and its value, though vari- able, is undoubted for application for soils needing lime. Gypsum can be obtained from native beds at no great distance from any locality in the South. Lime is abundant in the mountain valleys from Virginia to northern Alabama ; and therotten-limestone formations of Alabama and Mississippi are unsurpassed for fertility. All these home resources should be used in bringing up the average cotton yield from one hundred and ninety to five hundred pounds per acre, and obtaining from half of the present acreage all of the fibre needed, leaving free a sufficient area to produce the bread, the fruits, the vegetables, the beef and mutton, necessary for the home popula- ^ tion, and a surplus of the lighter products for exportation. (See Cotton, in Supplement.) COTTON ' SEED. The seeds abound in a mild oil, and are very nutritious. A bushel weighs thirty pounds, and yields two and one- third quarts of oil, and twelve and a half pounds of meal. They are used as food in some orien- tal countries. The oil is readily obtained by pressure ; the cake can afterwards be used for fattening stock and as a manure for crops. To some extent, the whole seed is used for cows and fattening in the South, and is said to afford well- flavored milk. COTTONWOOD. In the Western States the name Cottonwood is applied to the Populus monUifera, a tree of the largest size, found grow- ing generally along river bottoms, and other - moist, alluvial soils. Far west, along the Platte ( hbttoms and up to the base of the Rocky moun- ■ tains, two other species of poplar are found growing with it, P. augustifolia and the balsam poplar, P. baUamifera. The balsam poplar is also found, but quite rarely, over the West. The class are all large trees, and of late years have been used extensively in the settlement of the vast open region west of the Mississippi, for forming belts and groves, both from the certainty with which it may be grown from cuttings and its sure and fast growth. The wood is not last- ing, except when kept perfectly dry, but is use- ful for poles and for fuel, burning freely when seasoned. All the poplars are dioecious — that is, bear male and female flowers on separate trees. The female, or seed-bearing trees, fill the air with cottony down during the season of ripen- ing — hence the common name. This renders the tree particularly objectionable for planting near dwellings, or for street planting. This, however, may be avoided by selecting cuttings only from staminate (male) trees. .COTYLEDON. The seed-lobes. Jussieu divides the vegetable kingdom according to the number of parts or cotyledons in any seed. Thus dicotyledons, or plants with two seed-lobes, are the ordinary inhabitants of the temperate zone. -Mbnoco!;y?e(fons.are the palms, grasses, etc., which are most luxuriant in tropical regions, and pos- sess but one seed-lobe. AcotyUdons are the same with cryptogamic plants, and contain no apparent cotyledons. COUGH GRASS. Several varieties of repent grasses, with perennial stems, as TriUeum repens, Agrostis repens, etc. Hoed crops, thorough plowing with harrowing, to collect the fragments, and heavy liming or salting, is the only way to destroy them. COULTER. The knife of a plow. And also used to designate a one-pronged cultivator in the South. COUNTER. The breast of a horse. COVER. Any sheltered place in which game can lie hidden. COVEY. A small flock of partridges, quaU, etc. COW. The female of the genus bos or ox tribe, which, within the last two hundred years, by selection, careful breeding and scientific cross- ing, has been broken up into many valuable sub-families. Of these, the Short-horn and the Hereford are accepted as most superior beef- making cattle; the Devons for working quali- ties, combined with superior flesh, and the Alder- ney, the Ayrshire, and the Holstein, bs superior dairy cows. COWAGE. Doliclios prvriens, the pods of which are set with small bristles, which produce great irritation on the skin, sometimes called cow- itch. COW-BANE. (See Wild Parsnip.) COW-BIRD. Cow black bird. Cow bunting Mohthrus pecoris. This bird is common in spring and summer in the North, both East and West, arriving early in the spring, and remaining well into the fall. They do not mate, as other birds ' do, and rear their young, but remain in small flocks during the season, laying their eggs, one only in a place, in the nests of various small birds, chiefly in those of the warblers and sparrows. This bird subsists on various seeds and fruits, and also consumes great numbers of insects and their COW PEA. The Southern bean, one of the most valuable forage and fallow crops of the South. COWPOX. In farriery, a disease affecting the teats of cows. This disease appears in the form of small bluish vesicles surrounded by inflam- mation, elevated at the edge and depressed in the centre, and containing lymph. By the use of the virus of this disease has priginated the present system of vaccination, as a prevention of the dreaded small pox. CRAB- APPLE. P^rus. The cultivated apple is supposed to be descended from the wild crab of Europe, the JPynis malus. The Siberian cnib is P. baecata. The native crab of the United States is P. coronaria. Nuttall found, in the maritime portions of Oregon, in rich alluvial forests — ^the natural soil for the whole family of apples— another species P. rivularis. The following is the list of the finer sorts of cultivated crabs, as recommended at Ihe last session of the American - Pomologica! Society: Byer's Beauty, Cheriy. CRANBERRY 246 CRANBERRY Glover's Early, Haas, Hyslop, Ladjr Elgin, Mar- engo, Montreal Beauty, Red Siberian, Spitzen- berg. Sylvan Svreet, Transcendent and Yellow- Siberian. Among the most beautiful and fine of western crabs, if indeed it be a crab, is Whitney's No. 20, which, so far as we have learned, succeeds weO generally and is, from its great beauty and excellence, steadily gaining favor. Hewes' Vir- ■ gihia (crab) has long been famous for cider. Among the new. crab seedlings of 1879; are Mar- garet and Sarnia crab, both highly commended for hardiness and pleasant flavor. (See article Apple.) CBANBEREY. The, Cranberry ( Vaccinium) is a native of bogs in various parts of the United States, North In the Northwest, there are vast tracts covered with the vines, principally in northern Indiana, Michigan, Wisconsin and Min- nesota. The species is highly valued for its grate- ful acid fruits, for preserves and tarts, and large quantities are yearly sent East, and also exported to Europe. The principal wild vairieties 'are VoBoinium macroca/rpam, or the large fruited Cranberry; V. oxycoeous, rather rare, with smaller fruit, spotted when young. In cultivation, the Cranberry will succeed in situations much dryer than when found in the wild,state. The 'cilltiva- tion of the Cranberry, of late years, has become an important industry in various States, where the climate arid soil are adapted to its growth, and large sums of money have been invested in, the preparation; and cultivation of the marshes, a situation where the beds may be flooded, or not, at will, being essential as a precaution against frost and the attacks of insects peculiar to the plant. The chief difficulties in Cranberry culture are late spring frosts and insects. Among the more destructive of these are the tip worm, the vine or fire worm, and the fruit worm. Mr. C. S: Whittier, of Wisconsin, has furnished, to a late volume of the Wisconsin Horticultural Society, a condensed paper on the Cranberry, from which the reader can get defi- nite information as to the management of the crop, and from which we extract as follows : The Cranberry demands a light, porous soil, that water can easily pass through; that will not bake and hold the water until it becomes stagnant. ' Hence peat, gravel aud sand are each good soil for cranberries. Sand and gravel have the ad- vantage of holding heat and will therefore sometimes protect a crop from frost. On the other hand, peat will retain moisture the longest, which is a great advantage when there is not an adequate supply of water. Too rich soils should be avoided, as the plant then goes all to vine. On too poor soil it does not grow at all. J. J. White, in his Cranberry Culture, says: The best soil is an equal mixture of sand and muck; but I should rather have the sand on the top, to catch the heat of the sun, and the muck under- neath, to retain moisture and furnish sustenance. In the spring of the year, when the blossoms are out and the new wood is very tender, there may occur a late frost that will jipt only destroy the blossoms but also cut off the new wood, a nd therefore prevent the formation of the fruit bud for the following year's growth. Such a frost will therefore destroy two years' crop at once. The remedy for this is to have the vines entirely covered with water and therefore kept from starting until the heaviest frosts are over; then take the water oflE sufficiently to let the vines start, but still keep some water standing, among the vines, so that -when the temperature goes down to freezing the exposed water will protect the blossoms and the vine. The theory of this protection is, that when the plant has frozen, the water in the cells of the plant expands in freez- ing, and in thawing contracts, and this expansion and contraction breaks up and destroys the structure of the cells, and causes the death of the plant. If, in the immediate vicinity of the plant, there is exposed water, it will congeal first and throw off latent heat or, in other words, will absorb the cold in the atmosphere around the plant, and it escapes, in the same manner as water in a cellar will protect vegetables from frost. Early fall frosts will also destroy cran- berries, but the riper they are the less injury they will sustain. The way to guard against these fall frosts is to get the vine started as early in the spring as possible, keeping water among the vines all tae time when there is danger of frosts, and harvi3st as early as possible. The Vine or Fire 'WoTia{Anchyl<^eravacemiana — Eig. l)isaii insect that makes its appearance generally in June, and spends its short existence feeding on the pulpy part of the leaf of the vine. There are two generations of this insect each year. The last, being much more numerous, does the greater part of the damage. They will feed upon a leaf until there is nothing left of it but the frame work, or skeleton and, when they are numerous, will soon so thoroughly destroy a marsh that it will look red, as though a fire had spread over it, and hence the name, fire worm. The history of this insect is,, that the moth deposits its eggs early in the spring, upon the vines, and they hatch out the first generation of worms, and these, if not destroyed, feed a short time, enter the chrysalis state, and soon appear as a moth, which soon lays the second brood of eggs, and does the main damage to the vines. The remedy for this pest is to have the vines all covered with water during early spring (it will not do to trust to early spring rains). In my experience of ten years I have never known of a case of destruction by this pest where the vines were absolutely all covered with water early in the season. If covering with water, after the eggs are deposited, would destroy them, then when the dam has been broken in spring and repaired, there should be no trouble; but we have known a number of instances where the furious ravages of this pest followed such breakages when reflooded. The Fruit Worm seems to hatch out inside of the berry itself and, after eating there until it has destroyed the berry, eating its way out, it enters another, and so on until it has destroyed a large number of berries. Some believe that a fly punctures the skin of the young berry and deposits an egg inside; others hold that the eggs are d^osited in the blossoms and, as the fruit sets and develops, they are enclosed. Whichever may be the fact, we know that water will clieck its destructive powers. A heavy rain will sometimes almost entirely rid a marsh pf them and, acting on this suggestion, we should flood the marsh suddenly, when the worm is at work, and then draw the water off quickly before it has had time t» injure the vines or fruit. There is another class of enemies, however, that water will not control; plants that flourish under the same treatment with the Cranberry, as the feather leaf aad the CRANBERRY 247 CRAHBERRT INSECTS rush. This class of pests must be fought on our marshes as thistles, pursley and other weeds are upou high lands, with the hoe, the spade, the knife, the scythe and the hand; that is, in any way you can reach them. The great requisites, in the culture of cranberries, are a suitable soil, and an abundant supply of water under absolute control. It is comparatively easy to find the suitable soil, but to find it properly located, with reference to an ample supply of watert and get that absolute control is the great trick of the trade. The man going into the cranberry busi- ness should first study his location thoroughly. He should go over it, around it, through it and across it, until every feature is familiar to him, and even then, though it looks all right to him, he should get some expert to examine it. If no serious defect is found, a reliable engineer should be employed to ascertain the comparative height of the marsh and the source of water. It will not be suflicient to. calculate the fall, from the highest point at which the water stands at its source to the lowest point in the marsh, but the estimates should be made from the lowest point to which it will be necessary to draw the water, at its source, to the highest point that you want to cover on the marsh. This is to show whether or not, when th,e marsh is nearly full of water, and the water is drawn low at the source, there is still a fall oa to the mai-sh. When one is sure that he has an ample supply of water, with an absolute fall on to the marsh, and another fall from the marsh, so that he can drain it in time of flood, and flood it when necessary, he may then turn his attention to laying out his improve- ments on it. No two marshes are alike, neither are any two sets of improvements the same, any more than any two mill ponds or mill dams are alike. Every man must keep in view the objects to be attained by the use of water, and shape his improvements to that end. He should first locate one or more main dams; the number, location, length, height, manner of building, etc., to be determined by the size, shape and inclination of the marsh, and the materials at hand to be used in building. These dams being used for winter flooding, their height should be sufiicient to cover all parts that are to be flooded at ajl to a depth of one foot or upwards. Their strength should be in exact proportion to the depth of the water to be held,regardless of the size of the pond; but it will be well to bear in mind that the wash of the waves will be in proportion to the size of the pond. The next thing is to lay out what may be termed sub-dams; that is, small dams between the large ones, and so near together that the fall will not be more than from four to eight inches from one to the other. These dams should be built upon ground of nearly the same level from one end to the other, even though it should make them very crooked. In each dam there should be a waste gate, and the sluice-boards, in these gates in the small dams, should be very narrow. There should be a main ditch running entirely through all the marshes, passing through each dam at the waste gate ; also a ditch parallel to each dam and just above it, and I tWnk (this, however, I have not tried) there should be a ditch from just below each main dam, starting at the main ditch and run- ning each way to the side of the marsh, and thence down on the outside to the next main dam below. There should be a waste gate on the upper side of the marsh, so arranged as to let the water on or shut it oil at will; an ample ditch or canal to bring the water on to the marsh, and another to conduct it off. When these improvemen|| are made, the cultivator of a native marsff is ready to begin to handle the water; and now, a few words as to how to handle it- In the fall of the year, when the vines begin to turn red, go to your upper sub- dam and close the waste gate; let the pond fill until the water runs over the waste gate (not over the dam), and then you can see whether the dam is Strong enough. If not, now is the time to fix it. In this way proceed down the marsh, testing each dam before you fill the pond below. Next go to your upper main dam, close and watch and strengthen it, if necessary; and then to the main dams below, ^ just as you did with the sub-dams. The strain on a dam is greatest ^hen there is no water standing against itUn the pond below, and if it will hold when the pond below is empty, it is strong enough. The waste gates should be high and wide enough to carry all the water off in a time of freshet, and not let the water run over the dam. When the spaces between the main dams are covered with water, sub dams and all, your work for the season is done. In the spring, when the heaviest frosts are over, open the main dams and let the water off down to the sub-dams. The sun will soon have an effect on the water and the vines, and those at or near the surface wiU start, and the water covering the vines will protect them from injury from frost. Gradually lower the water by taking out the narrow sluice-boards in the sub-dams, and the vines, which are very tender and easily frozen when first uncovered, will gradually harden; and more and more of them will start as the water recedes, and your marsh will soon be under way. If at this season there should be sudden changes of weather, and there is danger of frost, raise the water again, but lower it as soon as possible. When managed in this way, there will be no trouble from the Vine Worm, for the vines were all covered in early spring. If the Fruit Worm appears, close the waste gate at the head of the marsh, and collect, as soon as possible, sufficient water to fill the upper pond, then open the waste gates and let the flood into the pond below, filling it full, and so on until each part has been entirely covered with water. The next great danger, that water will prevent, is drought. If you have an ample supply of it, in a dry time, you can close the main ditch, just below each main dam, force the water out to the sides of the marsh, and then let it soak or trickle through the soil, back to the main ditch again, to be forced out at the next dam, and so on, keeping the marsh constantly moist. In the fall you should be weather-wise, if ever, for while the fruit is ripening, too much water checks its progress and, if there comes a frost, it is necessary to have a plenty of water to protect the fruit. When there is a change in the weather, and there is danger of frost, you should hold the water to save the fruit, and draw it off as soon as possible when the danger is over. CRANBERET INSECTS. The study of insects injurious to the Cranberry, has not been prosecuted to so great an extent by entomologists, as have insects injurious to other crops. This prob- ably from the fact, that until within a few years, the Cranberry has not been extensively cultivated. CKAKBERRY INSECTS 248 CRANBERRY INSECTS ORANEBRRT VINB WORM. the principal dependence having been upon wild vines. In looking over the various data in rela- tion to insects destructive to the Cranberry, we find, in the Transactions of the 'Wisconsin por- ticultural Society, in which State Ae Cranberry is receiving much attention, a sen" of illustra- tions, showing the more important insects, which we have reproduced. The descriptions are from the obseryations of Prof. A. L. Packard, Jr., of the United States Entomological Commission, who also prepared the cuts. The Cranberry Vine and Fire p; j Worm, (Anchylo- pera vacdniand. Pig. 1,) hatch out from eggs that have remained on the leaves of the plants all winter. They commence to feed on the ten- der shoots of the vine, drawiiig the leaves together, with their web, for a shelter. If very numerous, they soon destroy the leaves ai\d tender shoots, and give the bog a dark, red appearance, as though a fire had run over it; hence the name Flre^Worm. Having reached maturity, they spin up among the , leaves on the vine, or on the ground. After remaining ten oT thirteeh days, ,in the pupa state, the moths hatch out and deposit their eggs on the leaves. This second brood hatches out in five or six days; it is this brood that is most destructive. They reach maturity for the most part, and go into the chrysalis state, before the twentieth of July, but may be found on the vines until September. The second brood of moths appears in July and August, and lay the eggs which hatch the f oUow- ingj spring. The only sure way to destroy them is to cover the bog with watei' for twenty -four hours. The moth is of a dark, ash color, with small yellowish-brown bands on the fore wings, alternating with white, narrow bands. The apex of the wing is dark brown. The cut shows a, larva; b, pupa; e, moth; hair line natural size. The Cranberry Bild Weevil J^^Antlumom/us suturalis. Fig. 2,) ' is a very small, reddish-brown beetle, with a snout which is half as long as its body. The elbowed antennas are inserted just beyond the middle; the head is' darker than the body, being brownish-black. The pro- thorax is a little darker than the wing covers, and covered sparsely with short, ' whitish hairs. The scutellum, at the base of the wing covers, is Y^te. It is a line in length ihcluding beak. This weevil lays its e^gs iri the buds of the Cranberry; it selects a bud not quite ready tp open, works its snout deep into the centre, and then deposits the egg in the hole made; going back to the stem, it cuts it off just below the bud, which falls to the ground and decays; a dull, whitish worm hatches out and feeds on the bud. Having attained its growth, it changes to the pupa state, and the perfect beetle eats its way out from the bud. This brood of beetles may be found on the vines soon after the blossoms have disappeared. As they are never seen on marshes flooded 'to. the winter, Kg. 3. CKANBERRT BUB WBEVrL. it is thought that water will hold them in check. It is proper, hdwever, here to state that, in using; water on a marsh to destroy insects, care must be taken not to injure the vines, for when in a state of growth, they will not bear flooding for any considerable length of time. In the case of the insect in question, it is probable that winter flood- ing wiU be effectual, and then water is beneficial in preserj?ing the vines. It must be remembered, however, that the Cranberry is not an aquatic j plant. It will not grow in permanent water, ' It is not even partly aquatic,. since its natural location is on the edges of low ridges and marshes, just between dry and wet. Its roots require con- ; stant moisture, but the plant will grow in any soil where moisture is present near the surface, i To return to the subject of flooding, to kill . insects, the water must be .Used with the greatest care during the period of growth, and not at all i during the period of inflorescence. It is proba- ■ ble that thirty-six hours is the maximum, and twenty-four or thirty hours would be better, ; The Two- winged Cran- beny Gall Fly (Fig. 3) lays its eggs on the vines, from which are hatched out pink-colored mag- gots, which raise tumors onthe leaves. Its habits are yet unknown. The cut sliows at a, egg on vine; 6, maggot; c, pupa; d, fly;' e, antennae en- larged. The Red-striped Cranberry Worm (Pig. 4) is seen on the vines at the East about thelast of September. It draws the leaves together by a few threads, and eats ofE the parenchyma from the upper side; sometimes it spins a tube of silk between two leaves. The worms are less than Fig.' 3. CRAHBERRT SALL PLT. Fig. 4. Fig. B-a. RED-STRIPED CRAN- BEBRT WORU. TBLLOW OBANBBKBT WORM. CKESS 349 CRICKET Fig. 5-6. TELLOW OKAMBEKKT WOBM. half an inch in lengtli, long and slender, pale green, with six longitudinal, pale, reddish, broken, irregular lines. The parent is as yet unknown. The Yellow Cranberry- Worm, {Tortrix vaccinu- I'oriina, Fig. 5,) is very destructive to the vines in New Jersey. It is of a pale, honey -yellow color, and the moth has yellow wings, mottled with deep ocherous spots. It ex- pands half an inch. Fig. 5-11, shows the larva en- larged; hair line natural size. Fig 5-ft, shows chrys- alides of Yellow Cran- berry Worm enlarged, side and front vifiw; haii:^line natural size. The great injury the various cran- berry insects accomplish, renders it necessary that every possible means be used in their destruction. CREAM. The lighter, fatty portions of milk containing some caSeine. (See Creamery.) CREAMERY. A factory where butter and also cheese is made under systematic nianagement. These creameries are worked as a distinct branch of dairying, on large estates, or by the associated system ; the milk being furnished twice daily from adjoining farms, or in some cases, the cream alone being supplied, this latter plan, being now feasi- ble, by means of late improvements in the raising of cream, in apparatus occupying a small space, and by the use of very cold water or ice. (See article Butter, and also Dairying.) CREOSOTE. A colorless, acrid and oily liquid obtained from wood tar. It is singularly antisep- tic, imparting that property to smoke, wood tar, et(j. CREMOCARPIUM. A two to five celled inferior fruit, cells one-seeded, indehiscent, dry. When dry, separating from a common axis, as in the UmbelUferm. (See Botany.) CRENATE. The edges of leave?, which are divided into curved notches. (See Botany.) CRESS. Peppergrass. Lepidium sativum. A hardy annual, a native of Persia. The leaves of cress are eaten, when young, as a salad, either separately or mixed with lettuce or other salad pla.nts, thus imparting their warm pungent taste. To] cultivate Cress the soil should be made very firm, and the seed sown^as soon as the soil may be worked — rather thickly, in drills eight inches apart, covering but slightly. Sow at intervals of a fortnight until the middle of May, for succes- sion, since the plants become acrid when they get old. About 14,000 seeds are contained in an ounce and this amount is usually sown in 100 feet of drill. There are a number of varieties Broad- leaved, Curled-leaved, Golden cress, etc. Water cress {Nasturtium officinate) is a hardy, aquatic perennial, found, growing naturally, along spring brooks, ponds and wet ditches. In cultivation it succeeds best, when grown in running water, in gravelly soil. The roots are planted in spring in water from four to eight inches deep. There are three described varieties. The small, Bitown- leaved, the hardiest; the Green-leaved considered to be the easiest of cultivation, and the large. Brown-leaved; the last the best, and the only one that can be grovm in water not quite shallow. Indian Cress {TropcBolum majus) common nas- turtium, is a brilliant, yellow-flowered, climbing plant, the fruit of which resembles capers. Sow late in spring in good, strong iioil and open situa- tion; put but in rows, allowing six inches, between plants; set sticks f Or them to climb. They flower in June and July. The fruit is excellent for pickling,- when full-sized but green. They are put in vinegar or a suitable pickle as soon aa gathered. There are many varieties, both running and dwarf, much used by florists for their elegant bloom. CRETACEOUS. Of the nature of chalk. CRIB. A feeding-stall; used in the United States as the name for the place of storage for Indian corn in the ear. CRIB BITING. A habit in horses proceed- ing from derangement of the stomach usually. It is a vice, but does not constitute unsoundness unless severe. CRICK. A common term signifying inability to move the muscles of the part, as the neck, back, etc. , CRICKET. AcTieiadSB. Crickets belong ta the jumpers, which include crickets, grasshop- pers and locusts. They are by far the most prolific and most destructive of orthopterous insects. There are a number of varieties, of which the common black cricket {Acheta abbre- viata) is the most abundant. Like the locust, scarcely anything in the way of herbage, seems to come amiss. They are also destructive ta many dry substances, as woolen or cotton clothes, left in the open air during the season of their feeding, especially in the fall One of the most curious of the genus is the Mole cricket {Oryllo- talpa). Its short fore legs are admirably adapted to burrowing, and hence they are seldom seen. Crickets may be poisoned by laying, in their -way, grated carrots or potatoes mixed with a- small quantity of arsenic ; but it is not feasible, since when scarce they do comparatively little harm, and when they swarm in countless numbers this, means is not practical. Hogs are fond of them, and hunt them assidiously. Crickets eat such insects as they can master. They lay numerous, eggs, which they deposit in the ground by means of their ovipositor. At the approach of cold weather the greater part of them die, but a few hybernate, sheltering themselves beneath stones, or other places secure from water and the in- clemency of t-he winter. The American crickets, unlike the European species, do not make their homes in houses. Those found in living rooms are chance individuals which have wandered there. The large wingless crickets, or grass- hoppers {Anabrus simplex, etc.) generally live on the ground, or on low growing plants; some are found in caves or under stones, while others are found on wild grasses and herbage. Some spe- cies are found in immense numbers on the -fresterh plains, where they feed upon weeds or any green plant that may occur in their vicinity. In the Eastern States many species inhabit woods or dark, damp places and, if disturbed, hide- under stones or rubbish; they are, however, at present not known to destro^y the crops to any considerable extent; and if they do, the same remedies may be applied as above. The fleld- crickets of Europe form burrows in the ground in which they live, and are said to be' very vora- cious, and even cannibal in their propensities, killing and devouring their own species whenever CROUP 250 CRYPTOGAMIA. they can overcome them. The crickets in this ■country injure grass, melons, squashes, potatoes, and other roots and fruits. The eggs of field- crickets are deposited in the autumn in the •earth, and hatch the following season, some of the old insects surviving throughout the winter under stones, dead fallen trunks of trees, etc. To 'destroy house-crickets, vials half filled with beer, milk, or any liquid will attract and drown them. A deep, glazed earthenware Jar, having a little food, such as boiled potato or sliced cucum- ber in it) will serve as a trap for cricketfi, for when once in, they are unable to jump out again. Pills made of arseriic or Paris green and flour, or these poisons mixed with grated carrots or mashed potatoes, will poison them; but if such deadly poisons are ever used, great care should be taken that the dead insects do not fall into any of the domestic kitchen utensils, nor should they be swept where domestic fowls can find and eat them. If field -crickets are very numerous and annoying, many of the same remedies, recommended for grasshoppers, such as plowing up the earth and exposing it to the winter's frost or rains, or rolling the ground very early in the morning, will be of utility; but fowls, turkeys, and insectivorous birds are of inestimable value in destroying such insects as are found around gardens and houses, if they can only be kept out of the gardens themselves. Toads should never be killed in gai'dens, as they feed entiA;ly on insects, and are entirely harmless to man, how- ever the prejudice to the contrary. ' CRISTATE. Having the appearance of a horn, or crest. CKOP-OUT. /More properly out-crop. In gebldg;y, the exposure of rocks above the surface. Sometimes used in breeding, but inpprrectly, when the peculiarity of some ancestor is shown in the progeny. (See Heredity.) CROPS, ROTATION OP. A system of fanning where certain crops follow each other in regular succession. CROSS-BRED. (See Cross Breeding.) CROSS BREEDING. In plants this consists in fertilizing the female organs with the pollen of the male organs, both being of the same species. The resulting seed will produce a -variety or varieties. In animals it is the cross- ing of two animals of the same species, birt of different breeds, as for instance, the Devon or the Alderiey, Short-horn, etc., or vice versa. In plantp crossing is extensively used, in the formation of new varieties, and in^ animal hus- ' bandry it is sometime^ resorted to for the pur- pose of giving stamina; yet, in the latter case, it is often of doubtful utility. (See article on Hybridizing, Heredity, Grades and Breeding,) CI?OSS FURROW. A water-furrow running across the ridges or lands. Sometimes deepened with a spade or opened with a double-mould- board plow. , " CROTALTJS. A genus of sna,kes, including the C horridus,oT rattle-snake. They are all fur- nished with a rattle, and their wounds are «xtremely dangerous.. Sucking the wound, cup- ping, and the use of stimulants are remedies. CROTON oil. An extremely active purge, obtained from the seeds of the Oroton! tigKum. CROUP. An acute inflammation of the throat and windpipe, attended with a' shrill wheezing and suffocation, occurring in children. It runs its course rapidly, and must be treated with decision. HogS are subject to this disease; and if attacked, blood should be drawn freely from the neck, and active fomentation practiced. CROWj Of all American birds few have so bad a reputation among farmers, or are more ' disliked than the Crow; and arising solely from the fact that, in, planting time, they will pull, a little corn. This, however, may be avoided by the same means used with blackbirds; give thea plenty of cheap soaked corn with which to vary their diet of insects. There are few of our wild birds more --persistent in hunting verminous . animals and insects than crows. They' also eat such substances as would otherwise putrefy and taint the air. Consequently they are always worthy of preservation, and should be harbored rather than be hunted to death. So persistent has ignorance followed them up that they have become the most wary of birds and, as cunning asi a crow, has passed into a proverb. The ' crow is easily domesticated, and easily instructed to do many tricks, and even to speak. When domesticated they become much attached to those who pet them, and *ill spon learn to follow them about the fields. It must be con- fessed, however, that they are very mischievous, and are inclined to carry off and hide any small article they may find. CROWN or A -LAND. The central part of the ridge. CROWSFOOT. Several species of ranunow- lus, which are acrid and poisonous. CRUCIBLE. .A chemical vessel used to expose bodies to a strong heat. For common purposes the Hessian crucible, made of sand and clay, is used. Porcelain crucibles are necessary for finer work, and where the platinum will not answer, but are destroyed by fixed alkalies. The platinum crucible is the finest, from the ease with which it may be cleaned and managed, but is unfit for the treatment of lead, arsenic, mer- cury and a few other metals which alloy with platinum. A black-lead crucible is used for coarse work, and resists a stronger heat than the Hessian. In delicate operations, the platinum crucible is placed within another of coarse por- celain, or in a muffle. They are not used in agriculture, except in calcining earths in analy- sis. CRUCIFEROUS PLANTS. Plants which have a fiower consisting of four peta^ arranged as a Maltese cross, as the cabbage, cress, turnip, mustard, radish, etc. They requirfe rich' land, abound in pungent oil, and when grown for seed are extremely exhausting. They are essentially sulphur and potash, or soda, plants. . CRUOR. The clot of blood.- CRUPPER. The horse's rump; the harness strap which passes under the tail is the crupper strap. CRURAL. Belonging to the thigh or leg. CRUSTACEANS. A tribe of animals, as crabs, lobsters, etc., with a crust, and destitute of vertebrae. CRIPTOGAMIA. An immense tribe of plants which have no flowers or apparent sexual organs, but produce sporules or minute seeds, in cases, on their sides, backs, or on stalks. Perns, mosses, fung:i, sea- weeds, lichens, and the minute , parasites which infest plants and d^ad wood, as '^. rust, mildew, rubigo, etc., are of this tribe. The' ' sporules of some of them are so minute that they appear as dust under a strong microscope. CUCUMBER BEETLE Ml ( CULM CRYSTAL. Any transparent solid with a natural and regular geometrical figure CRYSTALLINE LENS. The lens of the eye, which refracts light, so as to produce clear vision. ^It is situated behind the aqueous humor. CUCUMBER. O'icumis sativus. This plant, although possessing but little nutriment, is uni- versally cultivated, where it will mature in the open air, andis largely raised, wholly under glass, where it will not mature. In all northern coun- tries it is forced in advance of the natural season , by gardeners. It is a tender annual plant, a * iiatiye of the tropics, and supposed, originally, to have been brought from the East Indies. The varieties are all creeping, or running vines, hold- ing themselves secure by means of tendrils. The seeds should not be planted in the open air until the groimd becomes permanently warm, or about the time that corn is raising the soil. The plants require a distance of five to six feet each way, not more than three plants being allowed to remain permanently in each hill. Prom ten to twenty seeds should be scattered in each broad hill, and the plants thinned when all danger from cut worms, striped beetles, and other insects have passed.. For pickling cucumbers, the seeds are planted from June fifteenth to July first in the North. The vines will come into full bearing about the middle of August, and continue until frost. In the cultivation of cucumbers, we have always had the best success by opening furrows six feet apart, filling with half rotted manure, and then plowing the soil back in regular ridges. With a two-horse plow we then strike furrows across the ridges, six feet apart, and at the crown of the ridge, in the cross furrow, throw a shovelful of compost manure. Over this a slight hill is formed and the seed planted, covering them about two inches. The subsequent cultiva- tion can be principally done with the plow, except weeding the hills and thinning. The varieties used generally for slicing fresh, are Long Green, and White Spine. There are a number of long fancy varieties. When fresh they are easily digested, but otherwise are an unwholesome arti- cle of diet. The English people prize these sorts. Some of them are two feet long. In the United States the long, fancy varieties are not cul- tivated except as a curiosity. The principal vari- eties used for pickling, are Early Frame and Short Prickly. Near cities the raising of cucum- bers, for pickling, is an important industry, fields of twenty to forty acres being not uncommon. CUCUMBER BEETLE. {Diabrotica viUata.) This insect is very destructive to young cucum- ber, melon, and squash vines, and even to the blossoms of the pear, cherry, and apple trees. The Cucumber Beetle, in May and June, eats the bark of cucumber and other plants, and the larvae perforate and hollow out the lower part of the stem which is beneath the surface of the ground, and the upper part of the root. Occa- sionally when the supply below fails, they are found in the vine just above the ground. The larva arrives at maturity in about a month or more after the egg is laid, and is found boring into the squash and cucumber vines as late as October. The pupa is formed in a smooth earthen cavity in the ground. There are iwo or three generations each year, according to latitude and length of winter. The perfect insect does great damage by eating holes in the seed, leaves, and young foliage. This is one of the Fig. 1. most destructive of the insect tribe to gardeners, among vines, coming as they often do suddenly and in countless numbers. Both the larva and the perfect beetle are destructive. The beetle however is not especially destructive after vines, cucumbers, melons, etc., acquire their rough leaves. The cut (Fig. 1) shows the beetle, and Pig. 3 and 3, the larvae ; the short lines showing the natural size. Their depredations may be avoided by covering the plants with glazed boxes or with . boxes covered with ^ gauze. Gardeners, howeveV, depend upon killing them by hand when wet with dew. When the weather is hot iand dry, they may be rendered in- capable of fiying by being slightly, drenched with cold water from awater- ingpot. The plants are also protected by being dusted with London pur- ple, in the propor- tion of one pound Fig. a. Fig. 3. to ten of fiour. CUCUMIS. The generic name of the cucum- ber family. CUCURBITACEJ!. A family of plants, mostly vines, monoecious, with infefipr fmit, inhabiting warm couijtries. The melon, pump- kin, cucumber, gourd, squash, colocynth, and bryony are examples. CUD. The pellets formed in the first stomach of ruminants, which are afterwards raised and rechewed, passing then into the third stomach to be fully digested in the fourth stomach. CUD, LOSS OF. This, difficulty is simply ceasing to ruminate, from some disorder in the system as indigestion, impaction of the rumen, or other disability. The real difQculty must be discovered and treated, when, the organs being restored, the animal will again resume rumina- tion, as chewing the cud is called. CULEX. A genus of insects including the gnat (C Pipi'ens). It is a type of the Culieidm. CULINARY VEGETABLES. Plants culti- vated in gardens, and sometimes in fields, for culi- nary purposes. They may be classed asleaf plants, such as the cabbage tribe, spinaceous plants^ salads, pot and sweet herbs; stalk plants, as aspar- agus, rhubarb, sea kale, etc. ; roots, as the turnip, carrot, potato, etc. ; seeds, as the pea and bean; fruit, such as the cucumber, pumpkins, squashes, tomato, etc ; and the entire plants, such as onion, leek, mushroom, etc. They may be oiherwise arranged, as the cabbage family, the leguminous family, esculent roots, spinaceous plants, alUa- ceous plants, asparaginous plants, acetarious plants, pot herbs, sweet herbs, plants used in tarts, confectionery and for seasoning and con- diments, and edible fungi. CULM. Stems which, like the straw of grain, sustain the flowers at a distance from the leaves. It is also used as a synonym for anthracite ia England. CUPSL 252 0UECDLIO CULMIFEROUS PLANTS. Cereals and CULTITATIOy. Cultivation is that branch of agriculture which relates to causing increased ■ growth, by mearis of implements for loosening the soil; thereby enabling the dew and rain to penetrate easily;" and also in the destruction of weeds. This cultivation gives the soil proper aeration, and ehkbles the roots to easily penetrate the soil and readily assimilate proper nutriment. In cultivation the operator must understand the nature and necessities of various plants, in order to know whether deep 'or shallow cultivation is proper; also those varieties of plants which require earthing up to assist growth; whether the hills should be made previous to planting, as in the sweet potato, or during the season of growth, as in the common potato, and also at what stage of growth the hilling should be per- formed. The planter^ must also distinguish between sijch plants as require level cultivation, as cereal grains and garden crops generally, and also those plants which, at some seasons of ■ growth, are benefited by slight removal of the earth next the plants, as the onion; and again those requiring slight earthing, as size is attained, as with the beet and Indian corn. Still the cultivator piust understand those classes of plants where the principal cultivation musfbe performed before the seed is sown, as in cereals sown broad- cast, and also those classes of plants — melois, cucumber3, the .tomato, etc. — where benefit and' ease of cultivation is secured by slightly ridging before planting. (See articles on the various plants.) CDLTITATOB. Implements for stirring the ,' earth by 'horse power; extensively used in the IJnited States for running between the rows of Indian corn and other crops planted in drills or rows. Their operation is somewhat between that of the plow and ,the harrow and, as they do not penetrate very deep, they leave, below, the manure and vegetable matter turned. under by the plow, and at the same time do no injury to the roots of the plants under culture, unless these are too far advanced in their growth. The cul- tivator should generally be run through a crop twice at a dressing, jnd if the soil be stiff or grassy, it may be passed oftener or renewed at short intervals. The implements most preferred in the United States bear a string resemblance to the horse-hoes of Europe. The invention of' the straddle-row cultivator, by which k row is cultivated in going once through, has cheapened the cost of the corn crop one half, doing away, as it does entirely, with the hand hoe. CULVERTi An arched channel of masonry built for the purpose of conducting water-undet a road or canal. If the water to be conveyed has nearly the same level as the canal, the cul- vert is built in the form of an inverted siphon, and acts on the principle of a water pipe. ' The word also signifies any arched channel for water under ground. CUMIN. Ouminum cyminum. A plant culti- vated in Sicily for its bitter aromatic seeds; used in confections, and to flavor cheese. CC»JEATE, CUNEIFORM. Any surf&,ce, fingular, with the length considerably exceeding the width. CUPEL. A shallow earthen vessel, some- what of a cup shape, generally made of bone earth. It is used ip. the assays of the precious metals, which are fused upon a cupel with lead. Cupellation means the refining of gold or silver upon a cupel. CUPULliFERjE. A natural order of arbor- escent or shrubby exogenous plants, inhabiting, all temperate and some hot climates. They are distinguished, by their amentaceous flowers and peculiarly veined leaves, from all European trees; and from other plants by their apetalous calyx, fruit enclosed in a husk or cup; and by their nuts, which contain but one cell and one or two seeds. This order comprehends the oak, , hazel, beech, chestnut and hornbeam CURB. This is a strain of one of the liga- ments of the foot, and presents itself sometimes as a sniall hard swelling, on the lower part of the rear portion of the hook. The animal must have perfect rest. If the .foot is hot, bandage, and keep constantly wet with cold water and sal^ petre. When the heat is removed, if the swelling remain, cut off the hair of the swelling and rub, with considerable friction, once a day, with an ointment composed of one drachm biniodide of mercury rubbed up with one ounce of lard. Con- tinue the application until a free watery dis- charge is produced., Then foment with hot water to promote the flow. If this does not reduce the swelling repeat with the ointment as before directed. CURCULIO. This>,is a name given by the ancient Romans to the Com Weevil. The weevils belonging to the family Onrculioniam, are short, thick beetles, the antennae bent or elbowed near the middle, the first joint being longer, than the rest. .Peelers not perceptible. They vary in the Fig. 1. PLUM ODRCUHO. form, length and direction of their snouts. Those most destructive to fruit are the Pliim Ourculio and the Plum Gouger, both of which attack Fig. 8. APPLE CUBCULIO. various fruits, even the apple, though preferring the plum. Although there is a distinct Cu^culio CURCULIO 253 CURCULIO attacking the apple, as there are also weevils attacking gram, peas, beans, and -various other fruits and farm products. In the accompany- ing illustrations (which are given herewith) Fig. 1 shows the destructive Plum Curculio {Oonotrachdua nenuphnr) magnified; a, being the larva, 6, the pupa, a, the chrysalis, and d shows a young plum, with the peculiar crescent-shaped Fig. 8. PINE WBETIL. mark, and the dot in which the egg is laid— also the peirfect insect on other side, natural size; the hair lines also show the natural size of the insect in its vaiious transformations. Fig. 3 is^the Apple Curculio {Antiionomus quadrigibbus), a, natural size, 6, side view, and c, back view. rig. 4. Fig. 5. ELM TEEB TTEBTIL. Fig. 3 is the Pine Weevil {Pissodes strohi), a, larva; I, pupa, andc, the perfect insect; hairline, natural sizBi Pig. 4 is the Elm TreeWeevil {Magdalis curmicoUis)., a^\axY&, h, pupa; the central figure, the perfect insect; the hairline showing natural size. Fig. 5 shows the Long Snouted Nut Weevil {Balaninua ncmcus), the figure to the right show- ing the larva, and that to the left the perfect insect. Fig. 6 shows the New York Weevil (/%- cerus ncnieboracensis), a, the work of the female where she lays her egg under the bark; 6, the lar- va or grub; o, the perfect beetle. In presenting these and •the following cuts, ■Vrhich embrace some of the more important of the Curculio or Weevil family, we have selected those working in fruit, nuts and wood. For some other of the more destructive species, as the Pea Weevil, the reader is referred to arti- cles imder the distinctive titles or names. The tgures wiU give a good general idea of several NUT WEEVIL. Fig. 6. NEW YORK WEEVIL. of the most destructive species, for, it miist be remembered, that the curculios, which em- brace the weevils are numerous and especially noxious, from the fact, that the first destroy the fruit, and the latter the ripe grain and seeds, both ultimate products. The late and lamented Dr. Le Baron, of Illinois, describes the Curculi- onidm, or Snout Beetles, as follows: Their bodies are always of an oval lorm, never being very much elongated or de- pressed. The snout fjrj varies extremely; being sometimes short and broad, and sometimes as long as the body and almost as slender as a hair. Their most im- portant organic charac- ter is the negative one of the absence of the labrum and the rudi- mental condition of the palpi. Like all the plant-eatine Tetramera their tarsi are clothed with a dense brush of short stiff hair on the under side, and the last joint but one is" strongly bilobed. Another very distinctive character is the bent or elbowed form of the antennee, which is caused by the first joint being much longer than the others, and forming an angle with them. The antennae are almost always knobbed at the end The larvse are soft and white, slightly narrowed at each extremity, and usually lying in a curved position. They are always destitute of feet, but in their place we often find little elevations or papillsB which are some- times surmounted by a coronet of fine biistles. They always occupy the substance of plants, and therefore require but little locomotion. Though they are emphatically the occupants of fniits and fruit-like galls, yet there is no part of a plant which is not inhabited by the larvse of some one or other of their numerous species. The snout-beetles consequently furnish a greater number of species which are injurious to the agriculturist than any other family of beetles. In depositing their eggs the females first puncture a hole with their snouts, then drop an egg at the aperture and lastly, with the aid of the proboscis, push the egg to the bottom of the cavity. In harmony with this mode of egg-deposit is the organic character observed in many species, of the female having a proboscis, considerably longer than that of the male; of which our Apple Curculio {Anthonomus quadrigibbus) fur- nishes an example.. The classification of the Curculionidse, on account of their great num- bers and the small size of the great majority of them, taken in connection with the rudimental state of some of the organs, namely, the labrum and the palpi, which, in other insects,' often furnish valuable generic characters, presents a difficult study which will tax both the patience and the ingenuity ef the student. They are divided primarily into two large sections, accord- ing to the length of 'the rostrum or snout, and the point of insertion of the antennse, and desig- nated as the Brevirostres or short-snouted Cur- CUEING MEATS 254 CURBAITT culios, and the Longirostre8 or long-snouted Curoidios. These sections not being sharply- separated from each other in nature, Lacordaire has adopted, as the basis, of the primary division of the Curculionidae, the relative position of certain parts of the mouth; but these parts are often so minute and obscure that the characters derived from them are very difficult of application. We have therefore followed the more popular classification of LatreiUe and Schoenherr, so far as respects this primary divi- sion. These are : Section 1 — Brmirpstres. Ros- trum short and broad, , never much longer than the head; scrobes extending to the end of the rostrum, and the antennae inserted at or near their extremities., Anteri&r coxse contig- uous. Elytra covering the whole of the abdo- men. Section 3 — Longirostres. Rostrum usu- ' ally much longer than the head, narrow and cylindrical; scrobes very rarely reaching the end of the rostrum, and the antennse usually inserted at a greater or less distance from its extremity, generally near the middle, and sometimes at its base. Coxse and elytra various. The Longiros- tres, which are much the most numerous, are divided by Lacordaire into two sub-sections, accordingly as the anterior coxae touch each other, or stand more Or less apart. The former he names Syrvmerides, meaning thighs contiguous, and the latter Apostasimeriies, (which we have contracted to Aptmerides) meaning thighs sepa- rate. The iword scrobe, used in describing the Curculionidae, is the name given, to the channel on each side of the rostrum for the reception of the antennae. The term occulsjr lobes refers to the form of the anterior and lateral margins of the thorax, which, in this Case, curve forwards 80 as to touch or partly cover tne eyes. Scape is the same as pedicel, and is the name of the elon- gated first joint of the antennse. The rostral canal is the name of the groove in the prester- num of some species for the reception of the ros- trum when it is' bent under the breast in repose. It is necessary to bear in mind that as the Curculionidae are, for the most part, smallinsects when compared with the Coleoptera in general, the terms large and small, when applied to par- ticular groups or species, have a modified signifi- cance. A curculio halt an inch or upwards in length, is comparatively large ; one a quarter of an inch is medium; and one an eightii of an inch or less is small or very small. CllBD. The coagulum of milk. (See Cheese.) CURING MEATS. The curmg of meats, by means of salt, has been known from quite remote antiquity. The simple use of salt as a ^preservative was not specialfy improved on until within the present century. Since that time, the use of saltpetre has come into general use, and later, sugar and pepper, alsp in the curing of all lean meats. The art of curing meats b^ drying in the sun, aided by artificial heat and smoke, is undoubtedly the first effort made by savages in its preservation since it was not only practiced by the Indians of the Atlantic coast, but also by the Digger Indians, of the region between the Rocky and the Sierra Nevada mountains, than which no more degraded savages can be found. The preservation of food by canning, in the fresh state, has now been brought to a great state of perfection through the aid of scientific appli- smces and machinery; with this we have but little to do. In the canning of fruits, it is sim- ply a question of expelling the air, by immersion of, ihe cans in hot water, and quickly sealing. This is more promptly accomplished by wax sold by evei'y grocer, the cans or glass jars being self- locking. To return then to meat, the preserva-" tion is first by salt. In the case of fat meats, as side pork, it should have all it will take, a full half bushel to the barrel of 200 pounds. Hams and shoulders of swine, mutton hams, beef tongues, that are to be smoked or dried, are to be preserved in sweet pickle. The same rule will also apply to bacon. Here again a modification may be used, that is, the meat may be dry salted in proper proportions of salt, sugar and saltpetre. In the operation of salting, whether it be dry salting or pickling, the first operation is to free the meat of blood. This is important, and is accomplished by rubbing thoroughly with salt, as hot as the hand can bear, and placing it in layers to drain for thirty-six hours. It is then ready for the final process of salting. Prepare a table with a grated bottom so the juices i can run away, and rub with salt, in the proportion of one quarter pound of saltpetre to each eight pounds of salt, heated as hot as the ,hand can bear. Repeat this three or four times at intervals of three or four days. To this brown sugar may be added at discretion up tb four pounds of sugar to e^ch eight pounds of salt. This applies to beef and mutton. Hams, shoulders and bacon are better rubbed cold. The meat may tlien be either dried or smoked as the taste indicates! If the meat is to be pickled, that is immersed in brine, prepare enough to cojer it as follows ^ To each four pounds of coarse salt used, add two pounds of brown sugar and four ounces of saltpetre. This to be dissolved in two gallons of water, and scalded and skimmed clear. ' When cold .pour over the meat, using bline enough to cover. It may remain in the brine from four to six weeks if cold, and then dried or smoked. This is a good recipe for corned beef, but the meat will not keep longer than about May. If required to be kept during hot weather the brine must be scalded, further strengthened with salt, and again poured over the meat. Use brine enough to fully cover the meat and keep it under by means of weights. An ordinary pickle for beef or hams is made by saturating water with salt until it will bear out an egg the size of a quarter dollar. Then for every fifteen pounds of meat, add an ounce of saltpetre and one pound of brown sugar. Scald, skim and pour over the meat as heretofore directed. In the spring pour off the brine, add more salt, scald, skim and again pour over the meat. It may be hot for beef and* cold for hams. CURRANT. Hibes. The general character of all the varieties of the Currant is, they are low growing shrubs; smooth stemmed; leaves more orlesslobed; flowers yellow, crimson, or white; fruit red, black, and white. The species from which our cultivated varieties have been pro- duced, are credited with being natives of North- ern Europe and, until within the last one hundred years, have not attracted much atten- tion. The old Greek and Roman writers do nbt mention this fruit and, indeed. Turner in his list of fruits (1557), does not name the Cur- rant. Gerarde, more than forty years later, only notices it as a smooth stemmed gooseberry. The principal wild species of the United States are the Fetid Currant, (Bibes proatraium) Missouri Currant, (JR. avreum) Red Flowering Currant, CURRANT WORM 356 CUT WORMS (B. sanguineum) and Wild Black Currant, (R floridum). The varieties cultivated are the red, the white, and the black currant, all originally natives of Europe. The cultivation of the cur- rant is exceedingly simple. They readily strike from cuttings, taken in the fall, when kept in moist sand through the winter and planted in the spring, six inches apart. Thus by autumn they will be well rooted and may be planted four feet apart each way, in rich soil. Keep the ground free of weeds; cut out the old wood from year to year; destroy_ insects, especially the borer, if it appears; give an annual top dressing of compost and you wUl be rewarded by full annual crops. The Eiong Bunched Red ; the White Grape, and the Black Naples are among the best varieties of their several classes. . CURRANT WORM. The two principal pests of the currant, are the European Saw Fly, Fig. 1. mPOBTED GOOSEBERRY SAW FLT. (Nematus ■Dentricosus) imported, and the native Saw F\j,{PrigHp7wra grossularice). TheEijropean species first began to attract attention, in the Pig. 3. show. Pig. 1, a, a, a, larvae; 6, a magnified joint of body, showing black tubercles; Fig. 2, shows the perfect insect; a, male; b, female, the cross lines showing the natural size. The native species is not unlike the Eiuopean one, the cut, Pig. 8." lUBOPBAN OUBBANT SAW FLT. Eastern States, about 1857, since which time it has spread over the United States. The cuts NATIVB dTRRAHT SAW IXT. Fig. 3, being suflBcient to distinguish it; «, shows the larva or worm feeding on ^ leaf ; J,, the perfect insect The native species is only about two-thirds the size of the European one, in all its states, and both infest the gooseberry, as well as the currant. Fig. 4 shows a leaf infested, 1 showing eggs along the ribs of the leaf; 2 and 3 show the holes made by the minute Fig. 4. young insect in feeding. The remedy most effectual is dusting white hellebore on the leaves, . when wet with dew, or else sprinkling the leaves in the proportion of one pound of the fresh powder to twenty or twenty-five gaUons of CURRYING. The preparation of leather by which it is polished and rendered soft. CUSCUTA. The generic name of the dod- ders. CUTANEOUS. Relating to the skin. CUTICLE. The external delicate membrane , of the true skin; the epidermis of plants. CUTTING ICE. (See Ice Harvesting.) CUT WORMS. (Agrotididm.) The larvae of the May-beetle, the White Grub Worm, and the larvae of the Click Beetles (Wire Worms) are, in connection with the true Cut Worms, very often incorrectly called Cut Worms in.many parts of the United States. The true Cut Worms are smooth caterpillars, the larvse of moths. There are many species, all of them destructive, some species which eat the plant, severing it deep CUT WORMS 356 CYPRESS "bfelow the ground; others climbing fruit treSs to feed on the tender buds; still others eat the plant just at, or above, where it enters the ground. The natural history of the most of the Cut Worms is given by Dr. Riley, in his First Missoiu:i Report, from whiqh we extract:' The parent moth attaches her eggs to some substance near the ground, or deposits them on plants, mostly dur- ing the latter part of summer, though occasion- ally in the spring of the year.- Those which are deposited during late summer, hatch early in the fall and the young worms, crawling into the ground, feed upon the tender roots and shoots of herbaceous plants. At this time of the year, the worms being small and their food plentiful, the damage they do is seldom noticed. On the approach of winter they are usually about two- thirds grown, when they descend deeper into the ground and, curling themselves up, remain in a torpid state till the following spring. When spring returns, they are quite ravenous, and their ,' cutting propensities having fully developed, they ascend to the surface and attack the first green succulent vegetation that comes in their way. Pig. 1. MOTHS OP STKIPEp CUT WOBM. Fig. 2. KUSTio cnr wokm, laeva and uoth. Fig. 3. BBISTLT CUT WORM, LAKVA AND MOTH. When once full grown they descend deeper into the earth, and fprmfor themselves oval chambers, in which they' ctange to chrysalides. In this state they remain from two to four weeks, and finally come forth as moths, during the months of June, July and August, [in the North, Editor,] the chrysalis skin, bemg in most cases so thin, that it is impossible to preserve it. . These moths m time lay eggs, and their progeny go through the same cycle of changes. Some species, how- ever, are most likely two-brooded, while others pass through the winter in the chrysalis state. The only practical remedy against their depre- dations is hunting for the caterpillars just at daylight in the morning. They will then be found feeding, or at rest, just beneath the sur-' face, and may be easily found by the cast or mark they leave at the surface of the ground. The group of cuts illustratingCut Worms , shows,- in Pig. 1, the moth of the Western Striped Cut Worm (Agrotis subgothica); Pig. 2 shows the. Climbing or Dark-sided Cut Worm. {Agrotis Coehranu)\arva,a,nil moth; Pig. 3 shows the small, white, Bristly Cut Worm, {Celama reniger^ larva and moth. There are various other Cut Worms, one of which attacks corn, {Agrotis nigricans,: variety maizi); also the Wheat Cut Worm, and others. The illustrations given will sufiBce to give a fair comprehension of these destructive species. CTTANITE. A massive and crystallized mineral,' of a pearly lxistre,i translucent, and of various shades of blue; it is a silicate of alumina, with a trace of oxide of irpn. Found in primitive rocks. ' CYANOGEN. A gas which burns with a. blue flame, the bicarburet of nitrogen;" it is a compound radical, forming acids with oxyg^,; {cyinie) and hydrogen (Jiydrocyaaiic or prussip}-.'-\ The gas is poisonous: it combines directly widii< many metals, forming cyanides. ♦ CYANURIC ACID. A product of the action of heat on urea. CYCADEjE. a small family u| dwarf palms which are gymnospermous. The sago palm is {Cycas circinnalis). CYCLOSIS. A circulation of the elaborated sap in the higher plants in delicate anastomosing vessels. The latex circulation. CYDONIA. The generic name of the quince CYIINDEK. A solid, the height of which exceeds the diameter, which is constant ; it ofEers a circular section at every part whfc made at right angles to the axis. Round stacks are nearly cylindrical. Thus their contents may be found by the formula for a cylinder (one-half of the top should be measured). The solid contents are equal to the height multiplied into the arfeaof the base or section; CYME. An inflorescence; the flower stems spring from one part', but are afterward variously subdivided. CYNARACEJE. Plants like the artichoke, ■thistle, etc., with the flowers included in a scaly aapitulum. CYNIPS. A genus of hymenopterous insects without stings. They insert their eggs, in parts of living trees, causing tiimors, of which the gall nut is a specimen. • CYNOSURUS. A genus of grasses. , CYPERACEjE. Prom Cypems, a genus. The tribe of plants consisting of rushes, sedges and other marsh grasses without nodes or joints. They are of trifling value; the C^^«nSSOMS. part of an inch. Yet matter is not infinitely divisible as has been supposed by some. DOCK. This is a name applied to a variety of plants, especially to a class of tap rooted per- ennials of the genus Eamex, {R. arisp'us) Sour Dock, Curled Dock, or Narrow Dock, as it is Tariously called. S. obtusifoUvs, Bitter or Broad- Leaved Dock; and B. acetoseUa, Sheep or Field Sorrel, are the most noxious: all foreigners, and introduced from Europe For the two first- named, clean cultivation, and the last, manure and lime, are corrections. Another plant, known as Colt's F'oot {TussHagofa/rf'ara), is also some- limes called dock. It is not especially noxious. An infusion of the whole plant is considered valualile for coughs and pulmonary complaints, being mucilaginous, and tonic. The leaves dried and smoked in a pipe have also been recom- mended for asthma."* DODDER. A weed consisting of thread-like stems, which bind together the plants among which it grows. It is occasionally destructive to small crops, such as flax. DO'DEC AH EDRON. A solid of twelve sides. In crystallography there are two varieties: the rhombic and angular dodecahedron, according to the figure of the sides. DODECANDRIA, The class of plants con- taining twelve stamens. DOE. The female of the deer. DOG'S-TAIL GRASS. {Gynosurua cristaiui,} , DOG'S TOOTH GRASS. Doub grass. (See Bermuda Grass.) DOGWOOD. Comus. The^e are a number of varieties, some of them ornamental, chiefly small trees. C. Jlorida is a tree fifteen to twenty and occasionally forty feet high, and in rare case* eight to nine inches in diameter, remarkable for its flower-like in- volucram and fiim wood. It is rather common in wood lands North and South, but in the West somewhat rare. Of this tree Dr. Darlington says: It is valuable for many purposes in mechanics. Cab- inet-makers sometimes employ it in the' msinufacture of small arti- cles of furniture. The wood-chop^ per selects it for wooden wedges. The young, straight stems make good hoops, and the slender branches once furnished distaffs. The bark is an excellent tonic, said to be almost equal to the Peruvian in efficacy. In the last century, according to Kalm, there was so much faith in the virtues of the Dogwood that, when the cattle fell down in the spring, for want of strength, the people tied a branch of this tree on their neck, thinking it would help them, a superstition that has riow given place to com- mon sense. As an ornamental tree, it is worthy of a place in land* and yards. Some farmers plant Indian corn when the involucres of the Dogwood are first devel- oped, as do others when the bud» of the hickory are the size of a squirrel's foot. Some of the orna- mental varieties are vel'y beauti- ful. Tlie cut shows the flowers of the White Flowering Dogwood, natural size. There are several other species, with flowers in large, flat cymes, common in thickets. They all posses* more or less beauty. DOLERITE. A trap rock, consisting of augite and feldspar. DOLOMITE. Magnesian marble, or granular limestone containing magnesia. DORSAL. Belonging to the back. DORSET SHEEP. Doisetshire, England, has long had a race of sheep peculiar to itself, heavier in every respect than the Highland Sheep and, like them, with exceptionally heavy horns. They may possibly become of value when the mountainous region of the United States, between the Mississippi and the Pacific slope, becomes set- DRAINING 277 DRAINING tied. The fleece Js light and, like that of the Highland Sheep, it does not mat together. The mutton is excellent, in quaFity, as is Uiat of all sheep fed in mountainous countries. Fortunately in the United States, there is comparatively but little country so mountainous and inclement as to require stock of any kind, adapted only to extremely severe climates. The cut we give of a Dorset Ram will serve as an illustration of this breed of sheep, now but little raised even in its native English locality. DRAGON-FLY. A common name for neu- ropterous insects. The neuroptera, lace-wings, ent lion and white ants are all predacious and thus useful. DRAINING. The subject of drainage is one of the most important that can interest the farmer. Modern appliances aided by science has now ren- dered the task of thorough drainage so simple and «asy that there seems no excuse for allowing the soil to lie water-soaked, for perhaps two or three weeks at a time in the spring, rendering the soil sour, or sodden to that degree as sometimes to reduce its value permanently, and always one-half ■during the growing season, when an ex- pense of from ten to fifty dollars, according to the amount of drain- age required per acre, will place it in the best possible condition for the cultivation of crops, add from two to three weeks to the length of the season, and add also from ten to twenty bushels of grain, and in far great- er proportion to the fer- tility per acre in some other crops. In fact in all crops in the garden, nursery and orchard, there are but few natural soils but will pay for draining. Whether this is to be ' accomplished by means of <)pen ditches and superficial drains (water carriers) is a question each farmer must decide for himself. Wliere tile are to be bad near at hand and at reasonable prices, these are in «very case cheapest, except in the case of bound- ary fences, to be formed by a ditch and embank- ment. Even here, it is an open question, depend- ing entirely on the value of the land. The objection to open ditches and banks is, they are constantly filling up, are harbors for vile weeds and vermin- ous animals, and serious obstacles to clean cul- tivation generally. Thorough drainage is always to be considered in the light of a permanent invest- ment. The work done and well done but little expense is thereafter required. Thus if a piece of land requires drainage, lines of tile at regular intervals, it may cost fifty dollars per acre, in particularly difficult cases, more. Hence, taking fifty dollars as the average, if the crop is increased five dollars per acre, the cost of the draining pays ten per cent, per annum. The labor of cultivation is always largely reduced on drained land over that/undrained. Hence, this must also be taken into consideration. There is another matter, and one not less important than the others mentioned. The value of the land is not only increased in dollars and cents, but the fertility of the soil is also increased, both from its greater friability, and also, its power of absorbing fertilizing matters from the air, and the conservation of the artificial fertilizers em- ployed. These are notable facts, which will be fully attested by every intelligent man who has undertaken thorough drainage in a systematic manner, and carefully noted results. The follow- ing are lands that may be considered to require thorough drainage, by covered ditches, contain- ing a water-way beneath: Any soil so retentive that water will stand in a hole, for forty-eight hours after a heavy rain. Any soil where clover or wheat is liable to be killed in winter. Any soil having a very retentive sub-soil within two feet of the surface. Any soil where tufts of wild grass, or semi-aquatic plants make their appear- ance from time to time. Flat lands near the dwelling house, or those to be used for gardens or orchards Slopes of hills where water rises to the surface, along impervious strata cropping DORSET SHEEP. out, or which, at certain seasons contain seeps, as they are termed. And, in certain cases, where special crops are to be cultivated, any soil that can not be plowed within thirty-six hours after a heavy rain. In relation to the size of the water- way at the bottom of the ditch; this will depend on the quantity of water to be carried away, the declivity (gradient) of the tile, its uniform slope, smoothness, etc. In article Tile will be found tables showing capacity, etc. In preparing for thorough drainage, the first thing requisite is to find the slope and fall of the land. Where this is slight, an engineer must be engaged to get the contour lines, establish gradients, and pegs for determining the depth of the ditches. Under ordinary circumstances, however, especially where single lines only are required, the eye, with the help of the water running in the ditch, will be suflicient. One thing, however, must be remembered; the gradient must never be decVeased from below the starting point, without increasing the size of the tile, and a catch basin- should always be placed at this point. 1 hat is a barrel or structure of brick, to catch and pass off DRAINING 278 DRAINING the inflow of the small tile, and at a lower level than that of the inflow from the small tile. The material for water ways in the covered ■ ditches should always be of tile if possible. In (ome timbered, and in some stony countries, however, where tile is npt easily had, the ditches may be filled with brush, poles^ slabs, stones or other refuse material. If stones, are plenty, they may be thrown in irregularly, filling the ditch to within twenty inches of the top, and if the clay be rammed hard over them they will last indefipitely, yet it is far betier that a row of small stones be laid along each side and covered with flat stones, or round stones of a size ■ufficient to leave a water way below. If the Fig. 1. Fig. 3. rock is Shelly but solid, flat slabs are best, as shown in Fig. 1 and 3. The manner of using poles and slabs, or poles entirely, is shown in Fig. 3 and 4. If a very great quantity of water is sdmfetimes to be carried, a combina- tion of tile and stone may be economical. The tile and stone drain .is shown at Fig. 5. Fig. 6 and 7 show two manners of forming the bot- toms of ditches with earth sides to hold the covering, of plank or stone. In fact, , in stiff adhe- Fig. 8. Fig. 4. nve clays, if a channel be carefully cut, with •boulders, as shown in Fig. 6 and 7, planks or even sods will make a covering to the water way that will last for many years. It should,l3e remembered however, that when plank, slatis, •r poles are used for covering, they should be •awed of proper length to fit across the ditch, Jkfince the necessity of accuracy in paring the sides of the ditch. Sometimes it is desirable to make a drain subserve a double puipose of draining the land and affording a supply of water for stock and other purposes. All that is necessary to accomplish this is to select depressions, where the tile may come near the surface; i;aake a tight box sunk so its top is just even with the top of the ground; allow the water to flow into this box at the surface of the earth, covering the tile with a mound sufficient to keep out frost and prevent the poaching of cattle. In situations where this may not be feasible, an excavation ten or twelve feet wide on two sides may be made as shown at Fig. 8, so that stock may come and drink, the whole Fig. 6. to be so guarded that stock cannot enter the,, trough. In conclusion, something of the history- of draining from the earliest times, will not be uninteresting. There is no record of under- draining — carrying away superfluous water from the soil — until the time of Augustus. Tiberius and Columella, who lived then, first spe^k of under- ground causeways, while preceding writers, a» Cato, Varro, and Virgil, wrife only of open ditches. Columella speaks of both open and closed ditches three feet deep, the closed ditches filled to half their depth with pebbles, stones and facine* (bundles of brush). Captain Walter Bligh, who wrote about 1653, advocates drains un- derground three to four feet deep, or the depth of an iron shovel, below the area of oozing water. He has been credited with being the father of underdraining, but it is evident he got what he knew from clas- sical sources. Prob- ably Oliver de Sen-es, Fig. 7. a French writer, whose Theatre of Agricul- ture was printed in the yea^ 1600, is the first modern writer who really taught thorough.drain- age. He not only advocated Sie single ditches of Columella, but treats of successive lines, describ- ing also the main lines to be covered,, and also the precautions necessary to secure eSectivr DRAINING 279 DRAINING drainage. ^He insists that for tlie best results the ditches shouid be at least four feet deep. This accords with the best experience in underdrain- ing to-day. The invention of tile for draining has also been ascribed to England. This, how- ever, is again a mistake Again it is the French ■who are ahead. A letter to the late John H. Klippart, written by a member of the Frencli Agricultural Society, states that within the town of Maubeuge, France, stood a monastery, the date of the erection of which is not clearly known, but it is in the pure Gothic.style. The lands attached to this monastery were renowned for their fertility. After the French Revolution the estate was sold. In excavations, made in the process of alterations, iwo regular systems of pipe drains were found laid at a depth of four feet, one with the pipes radiating to a sinking well, the other of pipes all parallel, ending at a collecting pipe, which discharged into the cellar. These pipes are represented as having been ten inches long, four inches in diameter, one end expanding into a funnel shape, the other taper- ing into a cone, made of earthen ware, vitrified in burning, and evidently made in a lathe and by hand. Of the age of these drains, nothing is known, but a grave of 1630 was over one of the I drains. The most interesting fact in reference to this piece of drainage is, the masterly manner in which it was laid, to have remained draining the land perfectly for nearly three hundred years, and in .. dimensions, materials and system nearly like that of the present day; a most eloquent substantiation of the imperish able nature of properly laid underdrains,' as it is of the fact that underdraining must be considered a permanent investment; and also that whatever the cost of flrst- rate work, it is a good in- vestment upon all lands re- quiring underdraining, provided always that the value of the crops raised will pay the cost. In other words, lands upon which draining will pay the interest of fifty dollars per a,cre, may be drained as a good investment. Elking- ton, an English farmer, in 1793, is probably the first man who, in modern times, carried out a Bystematic plan of draining, the result of his dis- coveries from time to time while engaged in exper- iments in draining his lands. Yet Elkington's skill, however, lay in the use of the auger to tap Bu"bteiTanean sources of water, that could not be reached by the ditches. From this came the idea, later, of boring' through impervious strata, into a loose and dry one to get rid of surface water. The shape of the tile has long been a matter of discussion. The horse shoe tile, the worst possible shape, has long been abandoned. The sole, single and double ■ prevents the rising of tlie bottom of the ditch into the tile, but 80 does the round tile. The objection to sole tile is their weight, and that they can not be fitted with collars when necessary. Hence, sole the aiso have been pretty much abandoned. _ The perfection of shape for the inside of tile is the egg shape, hut, since all tile distort more or less in drying and burning, no tile that must be laid one particular side down, can be made to show perfect joints. Hence round tile, both as to the outside and inside, are now generally adopted. With these, joints sufficiently close may be had, rendering collars unnecessary, except in peculiar situations and soils In relation to the mains and their proper size, the lateral tiles running to them, may be quite small, two inch tile being the size generally used in the United States. 3 the drains are forty feet apart, the proper dis- tance, except in the most tenacious clays, 1.000 tile per acre will be required. An important consideration in buying tile is that they should be smooth, hard burued, and give a clear, metallic sound on being struck. TUe, however, should not be so hard burned as to vitrify, or glaze. So all crooked tile should be rejected. In making a drain, as is sometimes required along a loose piece of land, or perhaps with laterals running from them, for the first 2,000 feet of drain two Inch tile will generally suffice; for 7,000 to 10,000 feet three and a half inch tile will suffice, and for 30,000 feet of drain four inch tile will usually carry all the water. Experiments have shown that a one and a half inch tile, laid with a fall of one foot in each hundred feet, will discharge over 13,000 gallons in twenty-four hours, or equal to v>^ Fig. 8. a rainfall per acre of 350 inches jn a year, or nearly nine times the average rainfall per acre in the United States. Yet six and even twelve inches have been known to fall in twenty-four hours, or twelve to twenty -four times the capacity of the pipe named. Yet this is of so rare occur- rence that it Is not worth considering. One inch in twenty-four hours Is uncommon, hence, practically, a much smaller pipe than is usually considered necessaiy may be used. Another advantage of small pipes is, that the thorough flushing they sometimes get, serves to clear them entirely of sediment. Thus we have given the main points in draining, so any person should be able to lay underdrains where the fall is pal- pable In fine gradients we must have recourse to a drainage engineer, and to works especially devoted- to drainage, remembering always that the cost of careful engineering Is probably the best investment, where critical work is needed, and is cheaper than any other part of the outlay. As to the capacity of tile in carrying away ^water so much depends upon inclination (fall) that tables are of but little practical value. It hM been found, however, by experience, that laid at a depth of four feet, that one and a quarter inch pipes will carry away all the water ot a DRENCHES 280 0ROUGHf saturating rain in twenty-four hours, quickly enough for tlie good of the soil. This size will drain two acres. Tliat two and a half inch tile will carry away the water from eight acres, and three and a half inch tile will carry the water of twenty acres. In closing this article, it seems necessary that the beginner be advised against \ making the ditches too wide, especially on the bottom. The ditch should not be wider on the bottom for small tile than four inches, and for ijo large tile should they be wider than the size of the tile. Thus for a ditch four feet deep to be dug entirely by hand, from sixteen to eighteen inclies in wiJtii at the top is fully wide enough, provided the proper draining tools, long bitted narrow spades are used. These should be of the lighest possible description, combined with Buperibr temper, and may now be found at any re.spiectable agricultural implement warehouses. (See Underdraining and Moisture, page 1121.) DRENCHES. The giving of medicines in a liquid form, is called drenching. A common utensil from which to give, is a horn properly prepared. A "Strong, long necked bottle is better. In giving the dose, hold the animal's head up so the line of the nose is horizontal. Draw out the tongue, but do not pull violently on it and allow free movement of the lips and jaw, and also sufficient movement of the tongue to assist the act of swallowing. If tlie animal make an effort to cough, release, to prevent choking. Induce an effort to swallow by gently rubbing the throat, aindpressing in the space between the lower jaw bones. In giving drenches to horses, the nead may be held up, by means laf a forked stick supporting a loop passed over the upper jaw. In giving drenches to cattle, unless very unruly, by pressing the back to the shoulder, passing the left hand over the face, putting the thumb in the nostril and with the fingers open- ing the mouth between the nippers and grinders, the animal may be held still and the drench administered by allov^ing it to trickle gently down the throat. If poured down quickly it will enter the first stomach where it should never go. In case of locked jaw, or paralysis of the organs, both food and medicine may be puinped into the stomach through the nostrils by means of a flexible tube. This, however, should always be done, if it be possible, under the advice of a competent veterinary surgeon. The following formulas, for drenches, are by tlie late Dr. Dadd, and will be found useful : Physic Drench cathartic. — six drachms pulverized aloes, one ounce of syrup of buckthorn, one ounce of tincture of ginger. Alterative Drench, to change morbid action, -one ounce of sulpliur, two drachms powdered mandrake, one pint of thin gruel. Antispasmodic Drench, for spasmodic action, either nervous or muscular, — one ounce tincture of assaf oatida, one ounce tincture of valerian, three ounces syrup of garlic, one pint of gruel. For spasmodic cough, -one-half ounce balsam copaiba, three drachma sweet spirits of nitre, one-half drachih sulphuric ether, one-half ounce tincture of musk. Half of the above quantity to be given, night and morning, in gruel. Tonic Drench, for weakness and debility, —three ounces port wine, one-half ounce tincture of cinnamon, four drachms powdei-ed goldenseal. To be given in thin gruel. Should the bowels be torpid, omit the port wine and substitute one and a half ounces of pale brandy. Diuretic Drench,— one-half ounce fir balsam, two drachms sweet spirits of nitre, on* ounce tincture of assafoetifla. To be given in a thin mucilage of slippery' elm. Nauseant and Diaphoretic Drench, to increase the function of cutaneous exhalants in febrile diseases, — two, drachms powdered lobelia, one drachm powdered bloodroot. To be given in warm water, repeated at given intervals. Stimulating Drench, — one-half ounce tincture of capsicum, one-half ounce tinc- ture of ginger, one-half ounce tincture of^cinna- raon. To be given in gruel. Narcotic Drench, to relieve pain and induce sleep, — three drachms tincture Indian hemp, one-half drachm of chloro- form. To be given in warm water. An infu- sion of poppies, or hops, is a good anodyne. Sedative Drench, to lessen arterial action, — four drachms tincture of arnica, one pint of water. To be repeated, gradually lessening the dose. Cooling and Refrigerating Drench, for fevers or thirst, — one-half ounce cream of tartar > To be given in an infusion of lemon balm. Hithisical Drench, for phthisis pulmonalis, — ten grains pow- dered iodine, twenty gi-ains powdered hydriodate of potassa. To be given daily in a decoction 'bf comfrey (Symphytum officinale). Vermifuge Drench,'— four drachms, aloes, twenty drops oil of wormseed, one ounce powdered male fern (aspidiumfelix mas). To be given in one pint of weak soap suds an hour before feeding. Partur- ient Drench, given to arouse the uterus in protracted labor, — three and one-half drachmi spurred rye {secale cornutum). To be given in a decoction of birthroot {triUmmpurpureum). Ant- acid Drench, to correct flatulency, — two ounce* lime water, one-half ounce tincture of gentian, one-half ounce tincture' of ginger. To be given in an infusion of horse mint (monarda puiietata). Lithontriptic Drench, for urinary calculi, — two ounces of lime water, four ounces honey, one pint infusion of sassafras. To be given daily, for a fort- night or more. Saline Aperients, — either of the following is a dose : twelve ounces epsom salts, twelve ounces glauber salts, eight ounces rochelle s^lts, one to two ounces sulphur. Demulcents, intended to lubricate and sheathe mucous sur- faces, — mucilage of slippery elm, mucilage of gum acacia (arable), mucilage of gum tragacanth, mucilage of Iceland moss, mucilage of benne leaves (sesamum indicum), mucilage of licoVice root. The mucilage is made by pouring boiling water on a certain quantity of either of the above articles, named under demulcents, and stirring until the required /Consistence is obtained. The dose is as often as may seem to be required. The late Mr. Stewart, a well known English authority, during his life insisted, and we think properly, that draughts, particularly when pungent or dis- agreeable, are dangerous. That by no care can the danger be altogether avoided. That no draught should be given unless the horse be in danger of dying without it. That a draught is seldom or never absolutely necessary but in dis- eases that make the horse lie. (See Ball. Bolus.) DRESSINCJ. The application of plasters, etc., to wounds. The application of manure. DRILL. A long, straight line, in which plants are grown. Drill husbandry is the cultivation of crops in drills instead of broad'cast. DROSOMETER. An instrument for measur- ing the quantity of dew that collects on the sur- face of a body exposed to the open air during the night. DROUGHT. The question of moisture suffl- DURAMEN 281 DUCK cient for the growth of plants, in particular sea- sons especially, is one of the most important prob- lems which the farmers beyond a 1 ine one hundred miles west of the Mississippi, have to solve. As we proceed west the integer becomes an increas- ing one. Where irrigation may be practiced, (see' Irrigation) only in isolated localities, and the land is of sufficient value to warrant the outlay, the difficulty is surely overcome and maximum crops may be raised. On all that vast area, east of the Rocky Mountains, which may not be susceptible of irrigation, on account of the absence of streams, tlie only feasible plans are those mechanical means for the resistance of drought.andsuch methods as will tend to induce moisture. Tlxe planting of timber belts, to induce rainfall, and the deepening of the soil so that it may drink up and conserve moisture, are among the many important. The history of the settltement of the trans-Mississippi region, has shown that as the country was opened up, and timber planted, the rainfall was increased. Water for stock is pretty surely obtained by the digging of wells, and thorough cultivation has been shown to have so conserved moisture that, except in extraordinary seasons, the crops have been good. This is important as showing the value of cultivation, and the thorough disinte- gration of the soil, as a means of alleviating the effects of drought in particular seasons, all over the West and Southwest. It is not the yearly amount of raihfall that is so important in the maturing of crops, but its periodicity. England, with a moist, wet, sloppy climate; has not much more than half the rainfall of some of ths Western States; yet England seldom suffers from drought, while the West often does. Some portions of the South Pacific coast never have rain, and yet produce good crops from the large deposition of dew, and the frequent mists through condensation of the moisture of the air at night. Although much light has been thrown upon the questions relating to meteorology, within the last^jten years, the science is yet in a crude state; yet that precipitation of moisture may be accom plished by human means, there is no doubt. How it may be done to give supply to now Eartially arid regions, remains to be discovered, omething has been done through the planting of timber belts and groves, and much moisture may be conserved to the roots of plants by thorough and careful cultivation. These two means, if we except that of artificial irrigation, are the best known for alleviating the effects of drought. DRUPE. In botany, a one-celled, one ortwo seeded, fleshy fruit; as the cherry, plum, peach. DRY ROr. The name of a diseasfe which attacks wood by destroying the cohesion of its ■parts. It frequently depends on fungous plants. The fungi most destructive are MeruUus Utcry- m in.% PHyporua destructor, and several species of Spurotrichum. Defect of ventilation is a prolific c.iuse in the timbers of buildings. DUCTILITY. The property of being drawn or beaten into a fine film. Gold, platinum and silver are the most ductile of metals. DUCTS. The tubes or tubular vessels found in the wood, roots, leaves, etc., of plants. DUODENUM. The intestine immediately next to the stomach. DUR'l MATER. The fibrous covering of the brain DURAMEN. The heart wood. DYKE. An embankment. In geology, a mass of condensed mineral matter, as granite, porphyry, basalt, trap, etc., and intersecting strata, and evidently produced by injection, in a molten condition, through the strata. DYNAMICS. The science which examines the Uws and condition of motion, in contradis- tinction to mechanics, which investigates the conditions of rest and action of forces not pro- ducing motion. DUCK. Anas. The family comprises many varieties. The domestic varieties; as compared to the wild, are but few. The most import- ant of the domesticated ducks are, the Mal- lard, the Aylesbury, the Rouen, the Musk, or Brazilian duck, incorrectly called Muscovy, and also Guinea duck, the black East Indian, the Wood duck, the Mandarin and the black Cayuga duck. Of these varieties the Wood duck isprincipally valuable for the brilliant and varied plumage of the males. The common duck of our barnyards is a mongrel made up of numerous varieties, and has nothing to commend it in this day of pure breeds. They are of almost every mixture of gray and white, many of them resembling the wild Mallard, showing in a striking nianner, by reversion, one of the origins of this bird. The period of incubation of the duck is from twenty-eight to trirty-six days, depending on the season, the variety, and the temperature of the air. In suitaWe localities ducks are profitable, and any locality is suitable where they may be able to reach a pond, run- ning stream or marshy land. In all such loca- tions they will, in a great measure, provide for themselves during the summer. If kept in confinement they soon pine, and if fed exclu- sively ,on artificial food the cost of keeping will be more than the value of the ducks. The young of. all ducks are great insect destroyers, and among the most agile of young fowls. Hence in the garden, or on the tarm, a few broods, hatched under a hen, and the coops placed among rows of vegetables where insects abound, will be found to amply pay for them- selves. They are also prolific layers, laying about one hundred eggs in a year. The first food of young ducks should be curds, hard boiled eggs chopped fine, rubbed upi with bread crumbs, and moistened with milk. At the end of a week they will greedily eat Indian meal- mush in which a few onion tops, chopped fine, have been mixed. The A,ylesbury is the largest, except the White Musk, and by far the best white duck. It is distinguished by its large size, its cream-white plumage, and its characteristic lio-ht yellow or cream-colored bill and orange legs. When well bred, adult Aylesbury ducks weigh from eight to ten pounds per pair, while the best specimens will reach twelve. This duck takes its name from the town of that name, where it has long been bred witli great care. The Aylesbury 'is a prolific layer, it being not unusual for the duck to lay more than one hundred eggs, and in some instances one hundred and fifty, in a single season. The average weight of their ego-s is about three ounces. Early-hatched birds sometimes lay in the fall. It is quiet and e^ily fattened, and fine for the table. The Black East Indian or Buenos Ayrean duck, a native of both sections that contribute to its name, is not aa well known as it deserves to be, though it u more remarkable for its beauty and exceUent DUCK 283 D.UCK, game flavor than for its size, being less in size than the Aylesbury. Metallic tints, varying with the light from green to a gilded purple, decorate their form of uniform velvet-black, their bills and feet being of the same hue. The female has the same general color as her mate, and is nearly as beautiful, while lier disposition is far more amiable. These ducks require but common feeding to be fit for the table, their flesh being prized for its high game flavor. The Mallard duck is only interesting as being generally regarded as the progenitor of our common domestic duck, and oi the Aylesbury and Rouen. It is found all over the northern part of both continents in its wild state, congregating during winter in vast flocks. It is breain Englaiid and Ireland, in marshy districts in a partially reclaimed state, under the name of the Marsh duck. It is small, hardy, prolific, dark gray, and is esteemed as a game bird. The Musk duck is a native of Brazil, South America, where it is still found in large numbers in its wild state. It is occasionally called the Brazilian duck. In their wild state these ducks are very dark colored, while with us they are changed to yarious mixtures of brown, black, and white, and sometimes a blending of brown and drab. The adult drake weighs from nin^ to ten pounds, while the duck rarely exceeds half his weight. They have 'long bodies, short legs, and a very clumsy appearance upon the ground, which they much prefer to large bodies of water. They like to perch upon the branches of a low tree, a fence, or a low building, especially during the night. They do not rank high for the table, even when young; and the males are tyrants in the poultry yard. Time of incubation from thirty-four to thirty-six days. The Rouen duck has for a long time been as distinguished in France as is the Aylesbury in England. It is the largest and, in some respects, the best duck of all our domestic varieties, though less beautiful in form than the Aylesbury. Its color is pleasing, closely resem- bling the wild Mallard. These ducks have broad, cluinsily-built bodies, and when highly fattened they are very ungainly in their movements. They are remarkably quiet, easily fattened, and are most excellent layers of very large eggs, and have no equal for the table in the domestic family of ducks. The adult Rouen not unfre- quently reaches . from twelve to fifteen pounds per pair. The Wood duck, so called from its habit of building its nejt in the hollows of trees, and also from its frequenting the edges of river groves in search of acorns — one of its principal Foods jin the autumn — is one of the most beauti- ful of the duck tribe and easily domesticated. It is, however, quite rare in collections, its small size inaking it unprofitable either for its eggs or flesh. Mr. Townsend Glover mentions as among the rare ducks, at the Paris Exposition of 1865,the following. The Red-billed Tree duck, (Dendroeygna antum/nalis) from Guinea and Brazil, appeare'd to be quite domesticated, and when I saw it it was feeding upon the short turfy grass in its enclosure in a very goose-like man- ner. It is a very ornamaatal bird, the bright red bill and legs forming a striking contrast to the shaded gray and black color of its plumage. The White-faced Tree duck from Brazil, in the Bame paddock, is also one of the perching ducks, but is of a smaller size, with bluish bill and legs. And instead of the usual quack given by our tame duck, this bird makes a kind of whistling sound. Our common wood or summer diick is also domesticated here. This species of duck ought to be more highly prized by our country- men than it now is, and most probably it would be were it a foreigner and cost a very large sum of money to import. In these gardens it is a& tame as our domestic Mallards, and reproduce* with as little trouble. The Mandarin ducks, from the north of China, were all in very plain plumage, but, when in full summer dress, the male is said to be the most beautiful bird of the duck tribe. It somewhat resembles our summer duck in size, shape, a,nd color, but is said to be infinitely more beautiful. These ducks were introduced into Holland about 1850, and repro- duce very readily in a state of domestication. , The Bahama duck, Atims (dafik^ Bahnmenm, is- very easily domesticated, and resembles a small Mallard with a pointed tail, but the bright red color on the base of its bill renders it a most beautiful . object when swimming. Of these varieties we may remark that, the Mandarin dupk is generally disseminated. They were originally imported to the United States in 1854. In its plumage it resembles the wood duck, but is more beautiful and elegint. It is chiefly valuable as an ornamental species. Of the Cayilga Black duck, one of the most superior,' as it is among the largest of either American or foreign ducks, Mr. C. N. Bement writes as follows: Of the origin of the Cayuga duck I can not give anything reliable. This duck has been bred in the country so loilg, that all trace of the origin is lost. Tradition says they are descended from a sort of wild duck that stop in Cayuga lake and Seneca river, on their passage north and south, fall and spring; yet from hunters i have never been able to obtain or hear of any closely resembling them, either in weights or feathers. Yet they are called the Big Black duck, Cayuga, or Lake duck. The Black Cayuga duck In perifection, is black with a white collar on the neck, or white fleclis on the neck and breast — rarely black without white, and as the white seems inclined to jncrease, we usually select them nearly or quite black for breeding. The duck has a faint green ' tint on tlie head, neck, and wings. The drakes usually show more white markings than ducks, and the green tint on head and neck is more strongly marked. They differ from the East Indian and Buenos Ayrean ducks very materially; they are much larger, longer in body, and shorter in leg, better feeders, but are not so intense in color; indeed, beside the East Indian, the Cayuga looks brown. When well fed, the duck begins to lay about April, and usually gives an egg every day until eighty or ninety are laid, when she will make her nest and sit, u allowed ; if not, she will generally lay a litter in September. The Cayuga ducks are hard}', of good size, and for the table are superior to other ducks; the flesh quite dark and highly flavored. If welt fed, they become very fat; can be. readily made so fat that they can not raise themselves from the ground by their wings; twelve pounds to fourteen pounds to the pair would be a good average Weight. I once had a small flock that averaged, at six months, sixteen pounds the pair, but they had been forced to their utmost,' and never gained weight after six months.- The Cayuga diick is very quiet in its habits; they DUCK 283 DUCK are rarely able to rise from the ground, a fence one foot high will turn them; they are. not disposed to wander from home ; they commence laying about the last of March and lay fifty to ninety eggs, when they wish to sit, which they do well, but they are careless mothers; they cross readily with other ducks, and produce is certain. Of the other varieties of ducks', val- uable for ornament or peculiar qualifications, Tegetmeier says: The title Call-ducks is given to two small varieties of the domestic duck, that bear the same relation to the full-sized birds that Bantams do to ordinary fowls. They are known as the grey and the white Call; they both differ from ordinary breeds in their very small size; for show birds, the smaller the better. The ~ shape of the head is also distinct; they are most esteemed when possessing a full round forehead, with a broad, short bill. In color, the grey Call should be an exact counterpart of the Rouen knd wild breeds, not only in plumage, but also in legs, feet, and bill. The white Call should be clothed in feathers of pure and unsullied white; the biU, however, is not. flesh- colored, as that of the Ayles- bury, but a bright clear un- spotted yellow, any other color being regarded as dis qualifying the birds from success in a severe compe- tition. Call-ducks, as their name implies, are remark- able for their loud and con- tinuous quacking, in a shrill, high note, which can be heard at a great distance, and whicji ren- ders them admirable as decoy ducks to allure the wild species to their destruction. As fancy V w^ter-fowl on ornamental pieces of water, both varieties are very attractive. The Penguin duck is characterized by greater length of the femora, or upper bones of the legs ;. and of the bones of the feet, whilst the tibiae remain unchanged. In specialty to call for particular observation, or to distinguish it from the ordinary species, of which it is evidently only an accidental variation, per- petuated by the care of man. The colors of the Penguin duck are varied, and the bird breeds freely with any of the common varieties. The Hook-billed duck is another accidental variation which has been propagated by man. It is charac- PBKTN DUCK. tonsequence of this peculiarity of structure, the duck, in walking, is obliged to assume an erect attitude, like that of the Penguin. Beyond this quaint peculiarity, the Penguin dufck has no KOtlEN DUCK. terized by the bill being turned downwards, in- stead of being straight, as in the other varieties. It is a very old breed havingbeen described byWil- loughbyin his Ornithology, 1676, and also figured by Albin in his Natural History of Birds, 1734. In Holland, this variety was formerly not unfre- quent, and was frequently delineated by the old Buteh masters. In color and size, the Hooked- billed ducks vary considerably. The Tufted, or Crested duck is another variation which has been perpetuated and increased by the care and selection exercised by man. It is characterized by a large tuft of feathers on the top of the skull, very like that of a Polish hen. In some cases this globular crast attains a size of three inches in diameter, and renders the birds very remark- able objects. In the skulls of some specimens, that we have examined after death, we have noticed a deficiency of the bones of the forehead, their place being supplied by a cartilaginous thickening of the membranes under the base of the crest. The Pekin duck is comparatively a rare bird in the United States, having been first imposed about 1871, and at present not largely disseminated. They are larger looking than the Avlesbury, but seldom weigh heavier. The cut we give will show the form and general appear- ance. The following, from the American Stan- dard of Excellence as revised at the last meeting of the American Poultry Association, will show the points to be regarded in exhibition birds, including drakes and ducks: ifead— long and EARTH 284 EARTH finely formed; color of plumage, white j eyes ■deep leaden-blue. Bill — of medium size, deep yellow, and perfectly free from marks of any other color. Neck — rather long aud large in the drake; in the duck, of medium length; color of plumage, white or creamy-white Breast and Body—hvaasl, round and full; body, v'ery long and deep and, in adult birds, approaching the outlines of a parallelogram; color of plumage. White or creamy-white throughout. Wings — short, and carried compactly and smoothly against the sides; color of plumage, white Ta4 — rather erect, the curled feathers in the drake being hard and stiff; plumage, white. Legs — thighs short ■andlai'ge; colorof plumage, white; shanks, short and strong, and of a reddisli-orange color; plum- age, downy, and of a faint creamy-wliite. There «re standards, both English and Atnerican, for «ach particular breed of ducks, for which the reader is referred to volumes issued especially for this^ purpose, but which will interest but few except those who breed ducks of absolute purity and for exhibition purposes. DYNAMOMETER. An instrument now gen- erally in use for measuring the force exerted in any di^af t, or dead pull. One of the principal objections to the earlier d3aiamometer' was, when it was used to test draft of farm Implements, the inequalities of the soil produced so much vibra- tion in the index, that the measurements were most unsatisfactory. Improvements of late years have obviated this difficulty, so that the measure- ment of force is now practically correct. These instruments are used chiefly by manufacturers to test the draft of their machines and implements, and by committees in testing machines and" implements at public competiifeive trials, espe- cially in plowing matches. E EARTH. In an agricultural sense, earth is clay, sa d, loam, peat, bog earth, etc., in a mixture seldom pure, comprising various soils adapted to the growth of plants. Mold, on the contrary, is humus earth, or ^hat arising from the decomposition of barnyard manure, leaves, or other vegetable substances. Except pure sand, earth has tenacity to a greater or lesser degree, clinging together more or less when damp, according as sand predominates in its comjfosition; mold, except when saturated with water, easily falls apart. Thus earth is divided into three Classes: The more tenacious, as strong loams and clays; sandy soils, and humus; or mold. The loams contain the most humus, the sands the least. . We have here- tofore spoken of diy earth, especially dry clay, as a deodorizer. (See Deodorization.) The effect of the sun's rays on the temperature of the «arth below the surface, the power of the soil in holding heat, its absorbent qualities, and power of taking up and holding moisture, and its disinte- grability are among the most important uses of earths m the growth of plants, for upon these char- acteristics the economy of vegetable life is chiefly due. (See article Soil.) Meteorology also exerts an important influence upon the productive capa- bility of the earth. In inquiring into the qualities of soils, the natural system would be to judge from the color, cohesion, consistence, their capa- bility of holding moisture, the growth of vegeja- tion, including the varieties, as adapted to various soils, etc. This was, in fact, the only means the ancients had of determining the value of soils. Nevertheless, this is by no means a critical test. The color, of soils, in fact, is but a slight indica- tion of their true value, some very dark soils being infertile, and some light-colored soils being quite fertile. In fact, jt is but little more than 100 years agb since the physical properties of soils first commanded the attention of scien- tific investigators. And really, the first investi- gations were limited to the weight of soils, and their facility of absorbing water. Thaer, while he paid great attention to the physical properties of soils in his Analysis of Earths, did not sub- mit them to a series of comparative experiments. It was not until 1816 that SchUbler, when appointed at Hoffwyl, professor of physics and chemistry applied to agriculture, that a real stride was taken. He asked himself the ques- tion: Where is the science I am expected to teach? He foulid it did not exist. He then entered upon the study of agriculture as a physic- ist, and sought the best means for determining and comparing the diverse physical properties of soils. He found that, the specific weight of earth was always in relation to its power of retaining heat, and of drying quickly; that the facility for retaining water embraces that of absorbing the moisture and the oxygen of the air with rapidity, etc The physical properties of arable soils, and the physical influences of the atmosphere, have a greater direct action upon, vegetation than those properties and influences purely chemical, because, the first are antSrior to and sei've as a basis for the last. Boussingault, pi|oves how far this question was in its infancy in his day. He says : At an epoch which is not yet very far distant, it was believed that a close connection existed between the composition and the quality of arable soil. Numerous analyses soon modified this opinion by demonstrating that the mineral elements have not always the import- ance which is attributed to them. Schiibler tried even to prove that the fertility of a soil depends a great deal more upon its physical pro- perties, its aggregate condition, its aptitude for imbibition, etc , than on its chemical constitution. That which characterizes cultivable soil, whose base consists of disaggregiited mineral sub- stances, is the presence of organic remains more or less modified, such as humus and compost. Vegetable earth, properly, called, results from this association. In regard to its intimate nature, we fear not to affirm that, in spite of its appar- ent simplicity, we have still a very imperfect knowledge of it. This absorbing faculty, as mysterious as unexpected, wliicli the soil exer- cises on ammonia, lime, potash, and the salts of different bases, discovered by Thompsoh- and Way, is a palpable proof of it. The chemical composition and the physical properties do not admit of pronouncing upon the degree of fertil- ity of earth. Direct observation is necessary. It is imperative to cultivate a plant in the soil, and ascertain its vigor an^ development. The analysis will be useful in determining the quantitj and quality of assimilating elements. The memoir of SchUblet comprises one hundred pages. An EARTH 285 EARTH abstract of the principal parts which may interest farmers, excluding all the tables of the physical properties of different soils we give from a work on agricultural meteorology, by M. Andre Poey, as follows: In determining the weight of the soil, a particular distinction is to be made between the peculiar specific gravity of the sev- eral portions of earth, and the absolute weight of a determinate volume, as of a cubic inch or foot of the several soils. Sand, either in its wet or dry state, is the heaviest part of arable soil, certain fine slaty marls approaching the nearest to sand in this respect. Calcareous and silicious sands differ but little in this point, calcareous sand being, however, the heaviest of the com- mon constituents of arable soil. The clays are lighter the more clay and the less sand they con- tain. Lime exhibits great difference in weight, according to its fineness and mode of prepara- tion. In slaked lime the weight is remarkably less, even after it has been resaturated with car- bonic acid. The explanation of this seems to be the great expansion of quicklime on its combi- nation with water. Dolomite sand, or a combi- nation of lime and carbonate of magnesia, is much heavier than either of its component parts in a separate state. Its specific gravity rises to 2.83 and 3.83, and even magnesian stony marls often possess this greater weight. The carbon- ates of magnesia, obtained by precipitation from solutions, are the lightest of the usual ingre- dients of the soil. In arable soils magnesia is usually found in combination with lime or Bilica, where its form is coarser, and its physical properties resemble more closely those of "sand. Compound arable soils are generally lighter as they are proportionally richer in humus. This fact alone does not positively indicate the fertility of a soil, since the humus itself^iff ers in weight, and the other pure earths exhibit diversity of weight according to their fineness; consequently, mixed earths may acquire very different average freights. On this point specific gravity furnishes more certain evidence than absolute weight. The designations of light and heavy soils, as usually employed, refer to the different consistence of the earths, and not to their specific gravity or absolute weight; clay soils, wet and dry, are heavier than san^y soils. When different earths are artificially combined, a cubic inch of the com- pound gives a greater weight than the common average of the component earths; whether mixed in equal portions, according to weight and vol- ume, or in other quantities. By the term, power of the soil to contain water, we understand the property of earths to receive and retain water within their interstices, without allowing any to escape. It is of the greatest importance to vege- tation, for on it depends the quantity of aqueous nourishment the soil can receive and supply to the roots of plants — an essential source of veget- able nutriment. The sands are most deficient in this power; its degree varies, according to fine- ness in the grain, from twenty to forty per cent. ; silicious sand has the least power of all. Gypsum powder approaches the sands in this respect, and has even Iqss power of containing water than cal- careous sand. Slaty marl, despite its proportion of clay, exhibits very little of this power, and renders soil both warm and dry. This marl is fre- quently applied to the improvement of vineyards in Germany. In carbonate of lime this water- holding pbwer varies according to the fineness of the particles ; a distinction is important, therefore, between the fine lime separated by decantation and the earthy lime as found in the form of sand in arable lands. Carbonate of magnesia exists in a coarse-grained state, combined with lime or silicious earth, in arable soils, and retains water only in a slight degree. Humus, with its large natural proportion of half-decomposed organic- remains, as wood, leaves, roots, etc., has the great- est degree of this power. One hundred parts of the fine earth formed by decaying wood in old trees are capable of absorbing nearly two hundred parts of water ; and some light turf earths can con- tain from three hundred to three hundred and sixty parts, when not dried artificially. Where we meet witli tlie power of retaining more than ninety parts of water, we may depend upon an abundant commixture of organic matter. The two. qualities of firmness and consistency of soil are of great importance in regard to the fertility and the manipulation of land; the terms, universal in husbandry, of light and heavy soil, rest mainly on these properties, and they therefore deserve investigation in regard to both dry and moist con- ditions of the earth. If we compare the consist-, ency of earths with their weight, we shall see that the customary terms of heavy and light soil are founded upon the cohesion of soil within itself and its adhesion to agricultural implements, and they therefore indicate its working properties rather than its weight. The comparative ease with which roots penetrate the soil will probably accord with these conditions. The consistency and firmness of soils in the dry and wet stat& increase in the same ratio. Clay lands, either wet or dry, are the most difiicult to work; sandy soils and those containing much humus, are the most easy. The firmness and consistency of a soil are not in the direct degree of its power of containing water; thus, fine lime and magnesia and humus possess but little consistency, although they can contain much water. We can not, there- fore, infer the existence of the one property from that of the other. Consistency generally exceeds in clayey soils, but not invariably. Fine, slaty marl, notwithstanding its great proportion of clay has but slight consistence. The finest kind of pipe-clay in its dry state is only forty-two and therefore less by half than that of the heavy, gray clay of arable soils. Light, sandy soils gain cohe- sive power by moisture; therefore, a damp cli- mate, with a large average quantity of rain, will be found most advantageous to sandy districts. Even the purest sand, which in its dry state losea all its consistence and falls into a shapeless pow- der, regains a certain degree of cohesiveness on again being wetted. With all the earths, adhe- sion to wood exceeds that to iron; and the appar- ent contradiction of the fact that, in wet weather land is more easily worked with wooden than with iron implements, is explained not by the less degree of adhesion to wood, but by the weight of the iron implements causing them to sink deeper into the soil. The diminution of the con- sistency of soil by the penetration of frost is another important integer. After the thorough ^ f reezmg of soil in a wet state, its degree of con- sistence is greatly decreased. This is epecially the case with clays and soils of great firmness, where the diminution amounts to nearly one-half; with loamy clay the reduction reaches from sixtj[- nine tc, forty-five, and with ordinary, arable soil from thirty-three to twenty. Completely dry EARTH 286 EARTH earths suffer no change from the a'jtion of frost. This is because the crystalhzation of the water in the interstices of the soil by freezing forces the several particles of earth f rofti their position, and thus renders the points of contact fewer. The beneficial Influence of breaking up the soil before winter sets in, to allow the frost to penetrate more readily, depends upon this diminution of consis- tericy. If the soil is worked in too wet a state in early spring the beneficial results are lost by again' bringing the earthy particles into closer contact. The throwing out of plants in changeable winters is caused by the alternate freezing and thawing of the ground, and the accompanying displace- ment of earthy particles frircing the roots of smaller plants out of the earth, but not displac- ing the larger oni's. The capability of soils to become speedily dry, is a question of considerable importance in vegetation whether a soil gives up its acquired moisture again to the air quickly, or retains possession of it for a long time in its foice. The terms a hot or Cold, a dry or wet, soil rest chiefly on this capacity. Sand, gypsum, and slaty marl dry most quickly, and are consequent- ly called hot soils. Carbonate of lime varies in tJiis respect according to the different forms in ■which it occurs. Calcareous sand dries quickly, and fine carbonate of lime slowly. The latter has. besides its chemical action on humus, the advantage of loosening the soil after it is dried. This property of the earths, to require a longer or shorter time to become dry, might seem to stand in the same relation as their power of con- taining water and, with thin layers, this is nearly always the, case; but with layers some inches in depth thfe proportion deviates consider- ably; the deeper layers, in this case, drying more Blowly, accordiag to their degree of consistency, and to their greater or less contraction on dry- ing. Dry soils, with a large proportion of clay, exhibit this variatioi ia an especially striking manner Upon the diminution of bulk on dry- ing, it is well known that most soils contract on drying, and cracks and Assures ensue, which have an injurious effect on vegetation, as the finer roots, which frequently supply the bulk of nourishment, ai-e either bared or torn asunder. ■Gypsum diminishes its volume m an inconsider- able degree. Fine carbonate, of lime loses but little bulk, while clay exceeds it, and humus exhibits a remarkable degree of contraction. The addition of sand, or carbonate of lime, to clay, diminishes this property of contraction. Many kinds of marl fall into small pieces on dry- ing, because of the great difference which clay and lime, the elements of marl, experience in their diminution of bulk on drying, after having been nioistened, these individual parts changing their volume in different degrees, and thus caus- ing a more easy disintegration. Humus experi- ences, on drying, the greatest diminution of bulk, contracting at least oue-fif th.and expanding again under the action of moisture. This is why the upper surface of the earth, in damp, turf bottoms, containing much humus, frequently rises or sinks several inches, according as the soil is penetrated with more or less water. The elevation of these soils is more remarkable during a sharp frost, after wet weather, the freezing, by its expansion, still further increasing the volume of the particles of water within the turf. Hence, too, the reason why these turf bottoms have, in -their wet state, a remarkable elasticity if heavily trodden upon. The property of the earths to absorb moisture from the atmosphere is important. Most of the earths which are com- monly found in soils have the property, in their dry state, of absorbing moisture from the atmos- phere, and this influences, considerably, their different degrees of fertility. All soils, except silitious sand, thus absorb moisture. Slaty marlj similar to the sands in some conditions, surpasses them in this respect; clay'soils, espe- cially those containing humus, absorb most freely. Humus, although possessing the greatest power of absorption, exhibits degi'ees of differ- ence according to its kinds; purely vegetable humic acid absorbs moisture more freely than that obtained from animal manure. The degi-ee of absorption lessens as soils. become saturated with moisture, which generally occurs in a few days. A portion of the absorbed moisture becomes vaporized by the action of sunliglit, and thus is performed a natural operation wliick exerts a very beneficial effect upon vegetation. The earths absoi-b, at night, moisture which they partially give off during the day While fertile, arable soils absoi'b moisture freely, this is not an infallible test of their properties, and the test requires much modification in its application. The property of earths to absorb oxygen gas from the atmosphere is also important Alex- ander von Humboldt, many years ago, pointed out this property of the earths, and experiment confirms it, always providing that the earths are in a moist condition. All the earths lose this property upon drying, and regain it as soon as they are moistened. Humus exhibits it in the greatest degree: the clays approacli nearest to it^ and the sands absorb least. Fertile earths absorb more than those poorer in humus and clay. The included air, standing over them, at last becomes so void of oxygen, that lights are extinguished, ' and animals ■ die in . it. The methods of absorption differ; humus combines partly with the oxygen, chemically, the inorganic earths absorb the gas without intimate combination. When earths are frozen or covered with an icy surface, absorption of oxygen ceases; and the action increases with the wai mth of temperature, varying from 59' to 654° Fahrenheit. Many phenomena prove that oxygen is an important agent in' vegetable, as well as in animal economy. It is particularly necessary to the germination of seeds and the growth of plants. By turning up the soil in any manner fresh layers are brought into contact with and fertilized by the oxygen, and as a moist condition of soil favors this absorption, it should be preserved. In relation to heat, the earths have the power of retaining, the warmth which they accunlulate' from the atmo-sphere and ,the lieat of the sun, and of giving it out to surrounding bodies. It is differ- ent from specific heat, and its degree depends upon the capacity of the body for conducting heat. The sands possess this power to the greatest extent; hence the heat and dryness of sandy districts in summer. Their slight water- containing power, in consequence of whicl» little warmth is lost by evaporation, increases this condition. Slaty marl stands next to sand in this capacity; and this, joined to its greater po^syer of retaining water, contributes largely to its fertility. Humus has the least power of retaining heat, and turf soils abounding in humus warm but slowly, because they contain water, EARTH 287 EARTH only a Bmall portion of which they lose rapidly by evaporation. Magnesia, combined with sands and slaty marls, largely possesses this heat- retaining power. The greater the mass of an earth the more extensive will be its power of retaining heat. We may, therefore, from the absolute weight of an earth, conclude tolerably well in regard to the extent of its power. The various earths acquire heat from the sun in different proportions, and this property may exert a sensible influence on vegetation. Land consistingof light-colored clay warms less quickly and powerfully in the sunlight than a dark, dry soil ; black garden-mold, rich in humus, becomes much warmer than meager limestone or clay soils. Very^ different external circumstances may affect the warming of the soils, and may be classed as follows: first, the different colors of the surface earths; second, the different ' degrees of dampness present during the exposure of the earths to the sun's influence; third, the component materials of the earths; fourth, the different angles at which the sun's rays fall upon the soil. The influence of the color of soils on the quantity of heat received by them may be tested as follows; Place thermometers in the several soils, covering their bulbs an eighth of an inch high with eartii ; sprinkle the surfaces, by means of a fine lawn sieve, with lampblack for a black color, and magnesia for a white, leaving one soil of its natural color. In August, with a temperature in the shade of 77° Fahrenheit, the increase with the black color was found by Prof. Schlibler to be from 77° to 1334° Fahrenheit; the white, from 77° to 110° Fahrenheit; and the natural color from 77° to 112!^° Fahrenheit. Thus, the increase of temperature with the black-colored earth was 46!^°; with the white, Sa" ; and with the natural, 35'-^°. Other colored earths exhibit corresponding differences of degree in the temperature of their masses. When exposed for hours to the sun they never attain the tub same degree of heat — the bl ick earths acquir- ing the greatest heat and the lighter ones remain- ing cooler.' If we expose earths of the same kind in a dry and a wet state to the sun, the wet «arth never attains an equal degree of heat with the dry. The depression of temperature arising from evaporation amounts to Hi" to 13i° Fahr. As long as the earths remain saturated with water they show little difference in their heat- acquiring powers, as they give off to the air, in this condition, nearly equal quantities of vapor in the same length of time; as they gradually dry, the difference in temperature increases. Light-colored earths, with great water-containing powers, acquire heat slowly, while dark-colored sand and slates, containing less moisture, become heated more quickly and powerfully. The different ingredients which enter into the com- position of soils have, in themselves, far less influence on the capacity of soils to become warmed by the sun tlian their color and dryness. If we impart, artificially, to earths of the same color and expo-e them in a similarly dry con- dition to the sun, the differences in teniperature will be inconsiderable: so that the various capacities of earths, in their natural state, for receiving heat from the sun, depend particularly upon their color and dryness. The inclination of the ground toward the sun has a very consider- able influence on the degree of heat which the soil receives from its rays, and the greater warmth is produced as the incidence of the ray approaches more nearly to a right angle, or 80°, with the surface. If the actual increase of the tempera- ture in the sun over that in the shade be between 45° and 63°, as is often the case on clear summer days, this increase would be only half as great if the same light spread itself, in a more slanting direction, over a surface twice as extended. This is the reason why heat so frequently increases on the slopes of mountains and rocks which have an inclination toward the south. When the sun is at an elevation of 60° above the horizon, as is more or less the case toward noon in the middle of summer, the sun's rays fall on the slopes of mountains which are raised to an inclination of 30° to the horizon, at a right angle; but even in the later months of summer the sun's rays frequently fall on them under a right angle in cases where the slopes are yet steeper. Such declivities, particularly in the, geographical lati- tude of Germany, are therefore peculiarly suited to the cultivation of plants which require a high temperature, such as the vine. By an accurate comparison of the power of the sun's ray's to warm the soil, with reference to the different seasons, we shall perceive more distinctly the influence of the different inclinations of the ground toward the sun. The capacity of soils to develop heat within themselves on being moistened is that powdery substances in general, and consequently the earths, possess the property of developing warmth when moistened while in a dry state; but in nature they are scarcely ever found in this perfectly dry condition. The rain falling in warm seasons is many degrees'colder than the lower stratum of the atmosphere and the upper surface of the earth, which it immedi- ately moistens; so that the earfh in liot weather becomes rather cooler than otherwise by the rain. When the earth has previously been very dry, the cooling of it by the rain can only be reduced about 1 ° Fahr. , and this would have little effect on vegetation, and in the colder seasons, when the earth is already damp, so slight a development must be inappreciable. The galvanic and elec- trical relations of the earth show that the pure earths, as sand, lime, magnesia, and gypsum, in their dry state, are non-conductors, the clays are imperfect conductors, and the clayey earths are weak, imperfect conductors. The presence of the moisture and of oxide of iron, found in all the clays, appears to be the base of this phenom- enon. Upon the influence of the simple earths on the germination of seeds the development of the germ depends upon the looseness, moisture, and temperature of the soil, as well as upon its waimth and consistence. In moist silicious and calcareous sand the grains germinate in summer in a few days, and develop well, but suffer as hot weather approaches. In gypsum powder they develop indifferently. In sandjj clay no proper development takes place. This is also the case in loamy and stiff clay. In pme clay no change wltatever occurs, but the grains develop well wlien transferred to proper soil. In pure carbonate of lime, carbonate of magnesia, and slaty marl, as well as in pure humus, gar- den mold, and arable soil, the seed germinate ■vpell the young plants in warm weather devel- oping themselves most beautifully in the humus, and in the carbonate of magnesia, in, conse- quence, probably, of the greater power of contain- ing water which these earths possess. Upon soil. EARTH 288 EDULCORATIOir as adapted to climate, Tife shall find that in such warm countries as have also a small mean quantity of rain, those kinds of soil which have , a great power of containing water will,' if other circums,tances are the same, be the best; -While those soils which have, on the contrary, a small power oi containing water will be found better suited for countries with a greater amount of rain. Those very soils, therefore, may be fertile for one country which become no longer so for another, under a chstnge of external circum- stances; the usual alternation of ,dry and wet years being on the same principle, more favorable to the one or to the other country, according as their predominating soils respectively possess a greater or less degree of this power of containing water. To summarize the whole, in the exam- ination of soils, the determination of their power of containing water, and of their weight, con- sistency, and color, in connection with their chemical analysis will, in the majority of cases. be sufflcient to enabje us to conclude, with great' probability, as to their remaining physical properties. The more an earth weighs, the greater also in general is its power of retaining heat; the darker its color, and at the same time the smaller its power of retaiijing water, the more quickly and strongly will it be heated by the sun's rays; the greater its power of contain- ing water, tlie tnore has it in general the power also of absorbing moisture from the atmosphere when it is in a dry state, and oxygen when it is in Sk damp state, and the slower it usually is to become dry, especially when it is endued at the same time "with a high degree of consistency. Lastly, the greater the power of containing water, and also the greater the consistency of a soil, the colder and wetter of course that soil will be, as well as the stiller to work, either in a wet or dry state, and the more judicious there- fore will it be to break it up before the setting in of the frost, in order that its consistency may be improved by the due penetration of the frost during the winter; and for the cultivation of many plants, the more requisite will it be found for the permanent improvement of such a soil, til counteract its too great consistency andpower of containing water by mixing it with looser earths, lime, mar), coal or wood ashes and sand. If 'soils of difEerent kinds be wetted until the fluid drops, it will be found, as determined by Schilbler, that 100 pounds of dry sand retain 25 pounds of water; 100 of calcareous sand, 29 of water; 100 of loamy soil, 40 of water; 100 of clay loam, 50 of water; 100 of strong clay, 79 of w^ter; 100 of peat( 100 and more. Good soils hold from forty to fifty per cent, of water. Soils not only, hold water, but absorb it from the air unequally. Thus, a quantity spread out to the same extent of sand, absorbed Opounds of water;, of calcareous sand, 3 of water; sandy loam, 21 of water; strong clay, 30 of water; garden mold, 85 of water. In the same way, they retain moisture very unequally, sand losing it tour times more rapidly than mold. A well-tilled soil is continually absorbing from the air, gaseous matter, and its fertility is, in a considerable degree, connected with this property. Molds absorb eleven times, and clay nine times as fast as sand. Black, well- tilled, and drained soils become more rapidly heated, and to a greater degree than such as are wet, of a light color, or baked. In the same way, those that heat rapidly, cool rapidly, and are more subject to frosts. By experiments, mold cools in one third the time, and clay in two thirds the time of sand; so that, if they be equally heated, the sand will be warm for hours after the mold is cold. Hence the latter absorbs dew and contracts frost much more quickly than sandy soils. The adhesiveness of earth is an important integer. Pusey, in measuring- the force neces- sary to turn furrows in various soils, found the required draft to be, forloamysand, 230 pounds; for sandy loam, 250 pounds; for peat soil, 280 pounds; for clay loam, 400 pounds; for strong clay, 661 pounds. Thus it appears that the toughest soil required nearly three times the forcfe to plow it, that the most friable soil did. Im- ' provements in plows of late years have reduced ihe force necessary in plowin^fully twenty per cent. Coal ashes, the spent ashes of soap makers, sand, vegetable matter, strawy manure, pow- dered charcoal, baked and pulverized clay, and lime, lighten a stifE soil, and clay marl, air-slacked lime and wood ashes, stiffen those too porous. So again, as to the physical qualities of earths, light soils are usually fertile where they rest on pretty stiff clay, and a stiff clay resting on a porous sub-soil, retains sufficient water to ensure fertility. Thus we see, the character of any soil is modified in a great measure, and as to fer- tility depends very much upon the nature of the sub-soil. All these being important for farmers to understand, EARTH, CHEMICAL. Ih chemistry, earths are those metallic oxides which are colorless, nearly or quite insoluble in water, the metallic basis of which is obtained only with ditficulty, and which rapidly oxidize. Lime, magnesia, baryta, strontia, alumina, glucina, thorina, zir- conia, yttrid, and silica are these earths, but lime, alumina, and silica form the bulk of the soils and rocks of the globe. Magnesia is also rather abun- dant, but most of the remainder are rare Ijpdies. ■yVitli the exception of silica, which is an acid, they are bases. EARTH-WORM. LumMavsterrestris. Earth- worms are, on the whole, serviceable to soils, by loosening and perforating them, and injure plants and roots but little. They indicate rich soil. Salt applied at the rate of ten bushels to the acre, or a heavy liming destroys them effectually for a season. Their injury to plants consists chiefly in drawing the leaves into their holes and' suck- ing the juiceg. EARTHY MANURES. Marl, lime, clay, and sand are so called. They serve to give the soil new mechanical qualities, and also supply phos- phates and other mineral constituents, calcu- lated to render it more productive. EARWIG. Forjicula auricularis. A trouble- some inject in Europe, but rare in the United States. EBULLITION. Boiling. To know the boil- ing point of different fluids is often of great importance. Water boils at 212°, alcohol at 176°, sulphuric acid at 600°, mercury at 663°, linseed oil at 640°, oil of turpentine at 816°, nitric acid at 348°, and ether at 100°. ECZEMA. (See Grease Heel.) EDUCATION, INDUSTRIAL. (See Agri- cultural Colleges, and Industrial Education.) EDULCORATION. In chemistry, the re- peated washing, by pure water, of precipitates or powders until they are freed fjom soluble impurities. EGG / 289 EGG EFFERVESCENCE. The disturbance made in a fluid by tbe escape of gas. Soda water pff PWPSOftfi EFFLORESCENCE. Some salts, like car- bonate of soda or soda ash, by exposure to air lose their transparency, and become white, crum- bling into powder. This is termed efflorescence. In geology the appearance of crystals upon earthy, rocky, or other mineral surfaces, is termed eflSorescence. EGG. Birds and most insects and fishes and some other animals, are generated from globular-formed bodies called eggs, produced -within the mother. ;These, after being deposited by the parent in favorable situations, and ex- posed to the proper influences of temperature, etc., undergo a succession of changes, which at last result in a fully developed living creature. (See Embryology.) This, breaking tlirough the •outer crust that has confined it, enters upon its new existence. The eggs of the lower orders of animals are collected and held together in great numbers by a viscous membrane, and are called spawn. Those of the birds are deposited singly.' They consist of a calcareous shell, white or colored, formed almost wholly of carbonate of lime; the other constituents are minute quan- tities of animal matter, phosphate of lime, car- ■ bonate of magnesia, oxide of iron, and sulphur. Lining this hollow shell is a thin and tough membrane, composed principally of albumen. At the larger end of the egg is a space between the outer shell and this membrane, which, verv •small when the egg is first laid, gr&dually in- creases with its age. It is called the vemula aens, and is filled with air, in which the pro- portion of oxygen is larger than in the atmos- phere. This, it is said, is for the respiration of the unhatched chick. Within the membrane is the white of the egg, or the albumen, a viscid liquid, in membranous cells, which encloses the yolk and the real germ of the animal. As this germ left the place of its production in the body of the female, and passed into the egg-discharg- ing canal, the albumen gathered around it in ^successive layers, a portion in very delicate mem- branes, called the clialazm, which are attached to "the poles of the yolk, and serve to suspend it in «uch a manner that the smaller and lighter half must always be uppermost. The outer layer of the albumen is less thick and viscid than that next the yolk. Around it the lining membrane •and calcareous shell are successively added before the egg is laid. The composition of the •albumen is; water, 85 parts; pure albumen, 12; mucus, 2.7; and saline matter, 0.3, including ■soda with traces of sulphur. The yolk, called nitellus mi, is also a glairy fluid, commonly of a yellow color, enclosed in its own membrane, and ■consists of a great variety of constituents, viz. ■ water, 41.486; a form of albumen called vitel- line, 15.76; margarine and oleine, 21 304; cho- lesterine, 0.438; oleic and margaric acids, 7.226; phosphoglyceric acid, 1.2; muriate of ammonia, Q,.034; chlorides of sodium and potassium and sulphate of potassium, 0.277; phosphates of lime and magnesia, 1.022: animal extracts, 4; and 0.558 of coloring matter, traces of iron, lactic acid, etc. Upon one side of the yolk is a round spot, yellowish white, called the cicatricula, the germ of the ovum, which by the arrangement of the chalazss, already referred to, is always iept uppermost, and next to the source of heat 19 supplied bjr the animal in sitting. As that is developed into the foetus, the albumen first furnishes nourishment to it, and when this is consumed more is supplied by the yolk. Eggs of the hen are hatched by being kept at a tem- perature of 104° for three weeks. Their vitality has been retained after they have been exposed to a temperature of 10° Fahr. ; and it is a remark- able fact that the freezing point of new-laid eggs is mucli lower than that of the water and albu- men of which they principally consist, and both of which congeal at about the same temperature. Eggs, too, that have been once frozen, or have been long kept, freeze at the point their con- stituents would seem to require. The specific gravity of new laid eggs is from 1.08 to 1.09. By keeping they diminish in weight from evap- oration of water, and the substitution of air through the pores of the shell. This diminution has been observed to continue for two years; an egg weighing originally 907i grains being re- duced, as remarked by Dr. Tliomson, to 363.2 grains. When they have lost so much weight as to float upon water, they are generally un- sound. The preventing of this evaporation by covering their surface with a coating of varnish, wax, gum arable, or lard, checks their putre- faction. It is said that if every new-laid. egg was at once rubbed over with sweet butter it would be a rare thing to see one unsouiid. The Scotch sometimes drop them in boiling waler for two minutes, by which the membrane ■within the shell is partially coagulated and rendered impervious t^air. Hen's eggs vary so mlich in gravity, that it is a wonder they continue to be sold by numbers instead of weight. A dozen of the largest have been found to weigh twenty- four ounces, while the same number of, smaller ones of the same stock weighed only fourteen and a half ounces. The fair average weight is said to be about twenty-two and a half ounces to the dozen. « The relative weights of the por- tions of the egg as given by Dr. Thomson are: shell and membrane, 106.9; albumen, 604.2; yolk, 288.9. About one-third of the entire weight may be regarded as nitrogenous and nutritious matter, a greater proportion than that of meat, whiph is rated at only from twenty- five to twenty-eight per cent., while the nutritive portion of the oyster is only about twelve per cent. The white of the egg, from its tendency to coagulate into a hard and indigestible sub- stance, is likely to disagree with the stomach of invaUds, when the yolk may prove perfectly harmless. Raw eggs are more wholesome than boiled, or even than those lightly poa,ched,which are very digestible. Eggs become more, diflicujt of digestion by being kept. In medicine the shell is used as an antacid, its animal composi- tion seeming to adapt it better for the stomach than chalk, the mineral form of carbonate of lime. The white is employed for clarifying liquors and syrups, which it accomplishes by entanglingM;he small particles floating in them as it coagulates, and either rising with them to the surface, or sinking to the bottom An astringent poultice is formed by causing it to coagulate with a piece of alum briskly stirred with it This, under the name of alum curd, is used as an application to the eye m some forms of ophthalmia. The white is also used as an antidote to corrosive sublimate and salts of copper The yolk is sometimes given in Jaun- ELAIN 290 ELATER dice, and forms an excellent diet in dyspepsia.^ It is preferable to the white in making emul- sions. The largest sized eggs of which we have any account are some found in 1850 in alltivium in Madagascar. They beloag to a bird which it is supposed has recently become extinct, to which M. Saint Hilaire has given the name of .Mp^omia rmmnms. Two of 'the eggs are. pre- served in the Frenph academy. One of them measures thirteen and a half inches on its longest diameter, and eight and a half inches on the shortest. The thickness of the shell is about one-eighth of an inch. The capacity of the egg is about eight and a half quarts, six times that of the ostrich's egg — equal to 148 hen's eggs, or 50,000 eggs of the humming bird. From some of the bones of the bird which have been pre- served, its height is calculated to be about twelve feet. — New American Cyclopedia. EttG PLANT. Solanum, mdangena. Ths' Solanum family furnishes two of the mo^t valu- able plants for the use of man, the potato and egg plant. The tomato was originally classed as a Solanum, but now is classed as a Lycopersicum, The cultivation of the egg plant is of very ancient date. It was a plant of southern Asia, and the Indian Archipelago, although said not now to be found there wild. Its cultivation was known to the Romans, and from them spread over the tentire southern portion of Europe. It has been knbwn in America since the eighteenth century. Being an inter-tropical plant, the least frost completely kills it, and ev^ cold winds BO reduce its vitality, that it should not be trans- planted to the open air until the days aud nights are permanently warm. The seeds must be sowij, in the North, in a hot bed, about the first of March, and have a strong heat and -continuous moisture, until they germinate . Thenceforward they must have plenty of air, but be kept from chilling winds. When two or three inches high, they ,are transplanted into another hot bed, at a distance of four inches apart, and kept steadily f rowing, until they fairly cover the spaces, 'hen they are transplanted into six inch pots, or better, into troughs, made by nailing a back of siding on a bottom of inch boards^ six inches wide. These are made three feet long for ease of handling. When placed in the beds, the back of one trough makes the front of the next. Thus, at a ^stance of six inches apart, they make strong plants, often coming into blossom before going into the open air. In transplanting, the balls of earth are carefully preserved, and placed in the ground entire, a little water is given them, and dry earth is then drawn over the ball, ' covering it about one half inch deeper than it stood in the trough. By this plan they are scarcely checked, and will grow and perfect their fruit of a size for cooking, by the first of August, in the- North. The egg plant is cooked i^ a variety of ways; sometimes b^jr baking, but gen- erally by paring, slicing one half inch thick, and frying soft and brown in butter. Persons accus- tomed to their peculiar flavor, become very fond of them. ELAIN. The fluid oil existing jn fats, etc., which may be separated by pressure, by cold, or bydigesting in seven or eight times its weight of boiling alcohol, which acts upon the fat or tallow m such a way that the elain floats above the alcoholic solution, and the solid, or stearin, sinks below when cold. ELASTICITY. The power certain bodies possess of returning back to their original bulk or position when bent or compressed. Gases are the most elastic bodies known, fluids the least, and metals differ exceedingly in this respect. Some phenomena of elastic bodies are the follow- ing- An elastic body (the elasticity being supposed perfect) exerts the same force in endeavoring to restore itself, as that with which it was com- pressed or bent. The force of elastic bodies is exerted equally in all directions, but the effect chiefly takes place on the side on which the resistance is the least. When an elastic solid body is made to vibrate by a sudden stroke, the vibrations are performed in equal times, to what- ever part of the body the stroke may be com- municated. Thus, sonorous bodies always emit sounds of the same pitch; and the difference of the pitch depends on the greater or less frequency of the vibrations of the sonorous body. A body perfectljr incompriessible can not be elastic, there- fore bodies perfectly solid can have no elasticity; and hence, also, the small degree of elasticity ' belonging to the liquids, which are eminently incompressible. ELATEB. Click-beetle, Spring-beetle.' Ela- terides. This beetle, from its habit of suddenly springing in the air, and landing on its feet when placed on its back, is well known, especially among children. The larvse are all destructive from their habit of feeding on the roots of vege- tation, and should be destroyed.. It is supposed by some, that the Wire worm is the larva of this beetle. Such is not the fact. They are the larvae of a species of lulus belonging to the Myria/poda, so named from their great num- ber of feet. The Wire worm of England, has only six fe^t, nevertheless we have several grubs allied to them, but which are not com- mon. The following is from a report of the late Dr. Le Barpn, Entomologist of Illinois Our largest and most striking species is the well known SJ later (A.laus) occuUitus, of Linnaeus. It is usually nearly an inch and a-half in length, though individuals are not unfrequently seen which scarcely 'exceed an inch. Its gray color is produced by a dense sprinkling of smaU whit- ish spotg and lines upon a black ground, These spots are composed of minute whitish scale-like hairs. But its most conspicuous chsiracter is the ' two large eye-like spots on the top of the thorax, which are expressed by the specific name. The larvae inhabit partially, decayed w,ood, and are often found in the trunks of old apple trees. . The Elater rvhricoUis, Say, is a little more than half • an inch long, black, with a light-red thorax, bor- dered and pointed behind with black. The Ela- ter sanguirwpennia, Say, is black, with light-red elytra; three-tenths of an inch in length. The B. a/pieatus. Say, is similar, but largei', being nearly half an inch in length, and the elytra are tipt with black. The E. nigricoUis, Say, varies from less than half to three-quarters of an inch in length; black, with whitish elytra. The E. linteus, Say, resembles the last, but is distin- guished by having the suture and tip of the ely- tra black. E. acapularis. Say, is a little less than four-tenths of an inch long, greenish-black, with the base of the elytra and the hind points of the thorax, clay-yellow. The tarsal joints are lobed beneath. It is now included in the genus AthoiM. The Limonius armus, Say, is also light-red on the shoulders of the elytra, but the thorax is wholly BLECTEICITY 291 ELECTRICITY black, the tarsi are simple, and the length is only a quarter of an inch. Several species of Oorym- ietes have the elytra brownish-yellow with trans- verse zigzag black bands. O. hierofflyphimis. Say, half an inch long, has two bands; and O. hamaius, rather smaller, has but one band near the tip. The MeUmotuafimlia. Say, {cinereus, Weber?) and the M. communis, Sch., plain brown species, usually about half an inch in length, but subject to considerable variation in size, are amongst our most common beetles. The two species closely re- semble each other, but the latter is a little smaller, and the thorax is proportionally longer and less convsx. The MeUmactes piceus, DeG , is a large . glossy black species, an inch or more in length. It is not uncommon in the latitude of Southern Illi- nois, where it is sometimes jarred from peach trees upon the curculio-catcher. Riley has found and figured its supposed larva, which is one of the most beautiful objects, and often attracts the at- tention of the curious in the regions where it is found, south of latitude 39°, by its luminosity; the animal glowing in the dark with a beautiful green light. ELATERIUM. Momordiea eleteriwm. An indig- enous annual vine, bearing a small fruit like the cucumber, the juice of which is a drastic purge. ELBOW. The shoulder joint of cattle. A bend in Carpentry. ELDER. Sambucus Canadensis. An indig- enous shrub, very tenacious of life, common in the Northern and Middle States, also in the West, getting a permanent foothold along fences, hedge-rows and w.aste places, on the premises of slovenly farmers. It should be eradicated wher- ever found. Birds are fond of the berries, and it is thus generally disseminated. A kind of wine is sometimes made of the berries, and the juice is also used in coloring fictitious port and other dark wines. A decoction of the fresh leaves is said to be obnoxious to some insects and also to moles. Sheep are said to eat the leaves, as a nat- ural remedy for rot. It has also been recom- mended for hedging. There are, however, better remedies for sheep rot, and as a hedge-plant it is simply worthless. It may be killed by keeping it cut down during the season of growth and by the grubbing of the roots in the fall. ELECTIVE AFFINITY. A chemical term, meaning the preference exerted by a body to combine with another in place of one already in union. Thus, potash will unite with sulphuric acid, although it be alreadjr combined with iron; the iron is separated, and gives place to the pot- ash, which is preferred or elected. It is governed by electrical forces, like all other cases of chem- ical union. ELECTRICITY. This is one of the most important and potent forces in nature, and especially interesting to the 'agriculturist, now that it is known to be a valuable factor in the growth of plants, and also in its various action in the phenomena of nature as affecting rainfall, the formation of hail, its influence in tornadoes and various other meteorological phenomena hitherto unsuspected and even" yet not well understood. The influence of electricity on vegetation and the internal electricity of vege- tables are two of the most interesting of the subjects connected with electricity, and the following data in relation to the influence of electricity, compiled from various sources, show that the causes which liberate electricity in ^organized bodies under the reign of life, or a little after it, are of three orders, physical, chemical, and organic, the latter belonging to certain vital functions not clearly defined.' There exists in vegetables an ascending sap and a cortical sap, the latter not having the same composition as the former and, according to some physiologists, having a descending motion, Both are separated by tissues, and produce electric effects like those of a pair of galvanic plates. These effects are so miich the more remarkable, as they relate to the formation of the bark and that of the wood. The parenchyma, which is analogous to the pith, occupies the circumference of the bark, while the pith itself is found at the center of the ligneous system. This inversion responds to reverse electric effects. Each stem or branch being coinposed of an interrupted series of heterogene- ous concentric layers, their successive contact gives rise to electric effects rising from the heterogeneous liquids moistening these layers. The ascent of the sap is not only due to endos- mosis and to capillary attraction, but also to the presence of buds, which draw from the stem and branches the substance for their development. The buds afterward are not slow in forming leaves, which become the seat of a continual evaporation, which concurs with the ascending motion of the sap, and influences the manifesta- tion of electric effects. After the discovery of voltaic electricity. Dr. Baccomio undertook to construct piles with organic matter of vegetable origin, as Metteucci has since done with portions of the muscles of different animals. The first experiments, however, had no value. Becquerel, Wartmann, and Donnfi, by means of metallic plates or Wires in connection with a multiplier, obtained currents in vegetables and fruits. The ejcistence of electric currents constantly circulat- ing in vegetables, and between them and the earth, is manifested not only in the direct experi- ments which have been made, but according to the following physical considerations In the vertical section of a stem, the ascending sap, before its entrance into the vegetable by the roots, is composed of water, holdmg in solution air, carbonic acid gas, and very small quantities of saline and organic matter removed from the soil. As to the parenchymous sap elaborated in the leaves, it loses insensibly a portion of its constituent parts for nutrition. Both saps are found in the conditions requisite to form contacts by insensible transitions, and consequently to produce electric currents without the interven- tion of metallic plates. On the other side, the earth being in direct and permanent communica- tion with vegetables, through the medium of the roots, participates in their electric state, result- ing from the diverse elaborations which take place in their tissues, just as we have seen atmospheric temperature influence the heat of vegetables. From very delicate experiments, confirmed by Riess, Pouillet concludes that the action of vegetables upon the oxygen of the air is one of the most permanent and powerful causes of atmospheric electricity. A gram of pure carbon, in changing to the condition of carbonic acid^ liberates electricity* enough to charge a Leyden jar. Now the carbon entering into the constitution of vegetables cannot give less electricity than freely burning carbon; hence ' we may conclude, that upon a surface of vege ELECTRICITY 393 ELECTRICITY tation of one hundred square meters, (0.099 rood) more negative electricity is produced in a. day than would suffice to charge the strongest electric battery. Buff took up the experiments of liis predecessors, without putting platinum plates in direct contact with the organs of vege- tables, and operating much as Dub6is Reymond has done in his researches on animal electricity. In order to change as little as possible the natural conditions in which a plant is found, BufE employed water as the medium of communica- tion between different parts of the plant and the galvanometer. He first compared the electric state of the leaves with that of the roots. He I then examined branches separated from the vegetable; afterward the young and fresh bark, thfr buds, flowers, etc. He regards it as estab- lished by his eScperiments, that the roots, and all the externa,l parts of plants which are filled with the ji^ceS of vegetation, are negative relatively to the surface, more or less moist, of the leaves, the flowers, the fruits, and the young branches. Buff tfras explains this fact: The interior of the plant contains various juices, which can not pass through the, epidermis, while the exterior moist- ure always soaks a little into this membrane. Wehave then in contact a mernbrane soaked with water, and Vegetable organs charged with liquids of various natures. If , no w, we establish between this membrane and these organs a closed circuit, a current must' evidently be produced. But it appears evident, adds Buffi, that this current has a rplatioa, very indirect and remote, to the phe- nomena of vegetation. Becquerel reaches these conclusions. Derived currents are produced in the stems of vegetables by platinum needles, one introduced into the bark, the other into tbe ''wood, directed from the parenchyma to the pith. Similar currents are produced in the bark, proceeding from the cambium to the paren- chyma, directed inversely to, the preceding. The sap, or the liquid, of the cortical parenchyma, if retained in contact with the air for a few seconds, suffers such a modiflcation that on putting it anew in contact with sap found in the green part of the parenchjnha of the bark it becomes nega- tive to it. Derived terrestrial currents are pro- duced flirough the medium of the roots, of the pith,- and of other parts of the stem. The direction of the terrestrial currents shows that in the act of vegetation the earth constantly takes an excess of positive electricity, and the paren- chyma of the bark and of the leaves an excess of negative electricity, which is transmitted to the air by the exhaledwrater. The distribution of the ascending juices and of those of the cortical par- enchyma warrants us in believing that currents circulate constantly in vegetables, directed from the bark to, the pith, passing tlirough the roots *nd the earth, or perhaps without passing through them. Chemical actions are the primary causes -(it cannot be doubted) of the electric effects dbservted in vegetables. These effects are varied, and up to .the present time we have been able only to observe a small number of cases. The opposite electric states of vegetables and the earth give ris The integument is covered with vibrating cilia. Which produce a constant current of fresh water over the surface of the body. Respiration is performed by gills, situated at the sides of the neck, which are at first exposed, but afterward become covered by a fold of integument. The muscular system is very feeble, and the young animal remains nearly motionless, attached by the mouth to the gelatinous matter around the eggs, upon which it feeds for several days. As . it increases in size and becomes stronger, it abandons the spawn, and swims about freely in the water, feeding upon the juices and tissues of acquatie vegetables. The cilia with which the body was covered disappear. The alimentary canal is at this time very long in proportion to- the size of the whole body, being coiled up in the abdomen in a spiral form. During the summer lungs arfe developed in th? interior, and the young tadpole frequently comes to tlie sur- face to take in air. But the gUls also continue, and are still the most active organs of respiration. Toward the end of the season anterior and pos- terior extremities or limbs begin to gi-ow ; the posterior sprouting externally from each side, in the neighborhood of the anus ; the anterior remain- ing concealed under the integument, just below the situation of the gills. The tadpole passes the winter in this transition state. The next spring the lungs increase in size, and the gills become less active as organs of respiration. The anterior extremities are liberated from their confinement by a rupture of the integument which covered them, and both anterior and posterior grow rapidly in size and strength. The tadpole at this time, therefore, has both fore and hind legs. and a tuil. The tail, early in the summer, becomes atrophied, and finally withers and disappears altogether; while the limbs, and especially the hind legs, grow to a disproportipnate size. At the same time, the lungs attaining their full development, and the gills finally disappearuig, the tadpole is thus converted into a perfect frog, capable of living and moving upon the land as well as in the water. The tadpole swims by the tail and breathes by gills, while the frog swims by the legs and breathes by lungs. Simulta- neously with these changes, the alimentary canal becomes very much shorter in proportion to the rest of the body, and the frog becomes carnivor- ous in its habits, living principally upon insects, , which he is enabled to capture by the great development of his muscular system, and the rapidity and suddenness of his movements The process of development of the embryo consists, accordingly, in the successive formation and disappearance of different organs which are adapted to different modes of life. When these changes take place after the young embryo has left the egg, as in the case of the frog, and pro- duce marked alterations in the external form of the body, they are termed transformations or metamorphoses. Thus the egg of the butterfly, when first hatched, produces a caterpillar, or larva— an animal with a worm-like body, slug- gish crawling movements, and no sexual appa- ratus, but furnished with largely developed digestive organs and a voracious appetite. This, condition is succeeded by the pupa state, in which the animal changes its skin, losing the legs and bristles which were its locomotory organs, and becomes motionless, nearly insensible to external impressions, and stops feeding alto- gether. During this period anothe^ integument grows underneath the old, with new legs and wings; and when the skin is again changed, the animal appears as a perfect insect, or imago, capable of rapid and sustained flight, ornamented with brilliant colors, provided with different sensory and digestive organs and a well devel- oped sexual apparatus. In those instances where the hatching of the egg is a longer process, sim- ilar changes to the above take place while the. embryo is still retained in its interior. At the same time certain other organs are formed m addition, which cither disappear before the time of hatching, or are thrown off when the young EMBRYOLOGY 298 EMBRYOLOGY, animal leaves the egg. With turtles, for example, the eggs, consisting of the vitellus, albumen, and shell, are, deposited in an excavation in the earth or sand, and allowed to hatch in these situations. In birds, thfey are placed usually in nests, formed of twigs, leaves, and fibres, and there kept constantly warmed and protected by contact with the body of tibie female parent. This process is termed incubation, and may be imitated artifici- ally by keeping the eggs at a temperature of 104° Tahr., andprovidingfor a regular supply of fresh air and a proper regulation of the atmospheric moisture. During incubation the eggs of the common fowl lose twelve per cent, of their weight, of which eleven per cent, is due to the exhalation of moisture. They also absorb oxy- gen and exhale carbonic acid. The segmental tion of the vitellus and formation of the blasto- dermic membrane, and of the organs of the embryo, take place for the most part according to the plan already described, but variations present themselves which make the process more complicated. The vitellus, for example, instead of being entirely surrounded by the abdominal walls, is divided into two .portions by a constric- tion situated about its middle. One of these portions remains outside the abdomen of the embryo, though still connected with it by a narrow neck, and by blood vessels which ramify upon its surface. This sac, containing a portion of the vitellus, is called the umbilical svesicle. It supplies thfe embryo with nourishment during the whole period of incubafion; for immediately after the egg is laid the albumen, which is at first gelatinous in consistency,' begins to liquefy near the upper Surface, and the liquefied portions are immediately absorbed into the yolk. The yolk, therefore, -grows larger and more fluid than before, while the albumen diminishes in quantity and loses its watery portions. The blood vessels of the embryo, ramifying over the surface of the vitellus and the umbilical vesicle, in their turn absorb the nutritious fluids from it, and convey them into the interior of the body, to be used in the formation of the tissues. At the end , of incubation the albumen has disap- peared and the .umbilical vesicle has much diminished in size, while the body of the chick has increased, at the expense of both; but tlie umbilical vesicle, containing the remains of the yolk, still exists, and is enclosed within the abdominal walls when the chick leaves the egg. In quadrupeds and the human species the umbil- ical vesicle is much smaller in proportion to the body, and less important in function, than in birds and the scaly reptiles. In the human embryo, the umbilical vesicle, always very small, disappears soon after the end of the thir^ month of gestation. In the egg of the fowl, certain accessory membranes or envelopes begin to grow around the embryo at an early period. The first of these is the amnion, which is formed by a double fold of the blastodermic membrane, rising up abouf the edges of the body of the embryo, so as to surround it by a kind of circumvallation. By continued growth these folds at last approach each other and meet over the' back of the em- bryo, forming by their union and adhesion an ■enclosing membrane, or sac, which is the am- nion. The amnion; therefore, is a membranous envelope, which is closed over the back of the embryo, but which remains open in front of the abdomen. About the same time a vascular, mem- branous diverticulum grqjvs out from the ali- mentary canal, near its posterior extremity, and emerging from the open part of the abdomem turns upward over the bacjt of the embryo, outside the amnion, and just inside the shell membranes. This vascular outgrowth is the allantois. It increases rapidly in size, growing upward and downward in every direction, until it finally envelopes completely the body of the embryo and the umbilical vesicle, takiiig the place of the albumen as it is gradually absorbed, and lining the whole interior of the egg sheU with a continuous vascular membrane. The func- tion of the allantois is principally to aerate the blood of the embryo, by bringing it intg close con- tact with the porous egg shell, and thus allowing the absorption of oxygen and the exhalation of carbonic acid and watery vapor. Toward the latter period of incubation, the allantois becomes very closely adherent to the egg shell, and .the shell itself grows thinner, more porous, and more fragile, whence it is believed that the allantois also serves to" absorb calcareous matter from the shell which it conveys into the interior of the body, to be used in the formation of the bones, the ossification of which takes place about this period. When the chick is suffi- ciently developed to leave the egg, usually at the end of the twenty -first day, by a sudden move- ment, it strikes its bill through the end of the attenuated and brittle egg shell, and by inhaling the air and continuing its < struggles, finally extricates itself from Stie cavity of the shell, leaving the allantois adherent to its internal ' surface. The blood vessels of the allantois are torn off at the umbilicus, which afterwSlrd closes up, and unites by a permanent cicatrix. Another important change which takes place in the development of birds and quadrupeds, in addition to those presented by frogs and fishes, is in the formation of the irrinary appa- ratus. In fishes and batrachians the urinary organs are two, ■ long, glandular bodies situated on each side the spinal column, which are known as the Wolffian bodies, and which remain per- manent throughout the' life of the animal, ao,.. true kidneys ever being produced. But in birds and quadrupeds, the Wolffian bodies, which are at first very large and important organs^^disap- pe^r during the progress of embryonic develop- ment, while the kidneys are formed at the same time, and gradually take their place as urinary organs. The kidneys are accordingly substituted for the Wolffian bodies in these instances very much as lungs are substituted for gills in the development of the frog. In many spe- cies of quadrupeds the allantois attains a large size, and performs a very important function, during extra-uterine life. In the ruminating animals, cows, sheep, goat, deer, etc., it forms an elongated sac, taking the form of the uterine cavity, and lying in close contact with the lin- ing membrane of the uterus. The cavity of this sac communicates with the cavity of tlie posterior part of the intestine, from ' which it was originally developed, and receives the secre- tion of the Wolffian bodies, and afterward of the kidneys. Its exterior is covered with a large number (sixty to eighty) of tufted vascular prominences, which are entangled with similar elevations of the uterine mucous membrane, called cotyledons; and the blood of the embryo, while circulating through these bodies, absorbs EMBRYOLOGY 399 EMBRYOLOGY from the maternal vessels the materials requisite for its nutrition. Inthepig, the allantois is nearly sirooth on its external surface, merely presentijig transverse folds and ridges, which lie in contact ■with similar inequalities of the uterine mucous membrane. In the carnivorous animals its middle portion is shaggy and vascwlar and entangled with the blood vessels of the uterus, while its two extremities are smooth and unat- tached In the human embryo, the amnion is formed in the same manner as already described; but the allantois, instead of constituting a hol- low sac, with a cavity^ containing fluid and com- municating with the intestine, spreads out into a continuous flattened membrane, tte two layers of which are in contact with each other and adherent leaving consequently no cavity between them. It extends, however, quite around the foetus,, enveloping it in a continuous vascular membrane, which here takes the name of the chorion. The chorion is, accordingly, the same thing in 'the human species as the allantois in the lower animals, except that its cavity is oblit- erated by the adhesion of it's walls. It is cov- ered uniformly, at an early date, with tufted villosities; which become entangled with the mucous membrane of the uterus. But during the third month it begins to grow smooth over the greater portion of its surface, while at a certain part the villous tufts grow more rapidly than before, until they are finally converted into a thick, vascular, spongy and velvety mass of villosities, which penetrate into the uterine mucous membrane and become adherent to its blood vessels. This organ is then termed the placenta; and from that tiine forward it serves thfrfcetus as an organ of absorption and nourish- ment, its blood vessels imbibing from the circu- lation of the mother the albuminous fluids which it requires for growth and nutrition. The am- nion in the human species is at an early period 60 arranged that it closely invests the body of the embryo, while between it ahd the chorion there is interposed a thick layer of gelatinous material. During the second and third months the cayity of the amnion enlarges, by the accu- mulation of a watery and albuminous fluid (the amniotic fluid) in its interior, while the gelatinous matter between it and the chofion is gradually absorbed and disappears, in order to make way, for its expansion. By this enlargement the amnion approaches nearer the internal surface of the chorron, and by the beginning of the fifth month the two membranes come in cbntac^ with each other. - By this means the foetus becomes •enclosed in a large cavity (the amniotic cavity), filled with fluid, so that a free space is allowed for the movements of the festal limbs. These movements begin to be perceived about the fifth month, at which time quickening is said to take place. They afterward become more strongly pronounced, and before birth are ' frequently very active. These movements are also favored by the formation and growth of the umbilical cord. The blood vessels of the foetus, termed the umbilical vessels, which pass out from the abdomen to the placenta and the chorion, become much elongated and at the same time covered with a deposit of hard gelatinous matter, the whole being covered by a prolongation of the mem- brane of the amnion. This bundle of vessels covered with the above investments, is termed the umbilical cord. It grows very long and also becomes spirally twisted upon its own axis, usually in a direction from right to left. There are, in the latter periods of gestation, two umbilical arteries, carrying the blood of the foetus outward to the placenta, and one umbilical vein, in which it is returned to the body and the internal venous system. The formation of the blood and blood vessels in the embryo takes place at a very early period. Soon after the production of the blastodermic membrane, some of the cells of which it is composed break down, and liquefy in such a manner as to leave irregu- lar spaces, or canals, which inosculate with each other by frequent communications. These canals are destined afterward to become the blood vefesels, the structure of which is gradually perfected by the growth of fibrous tissue in their walls, and their complete separation from the neighboring parts. In the interior of these canals,_ or imperfectly formed blood vessels, there is to be seen at first only a transparent, colorless fluid, holding in suspension a few large, roundish, nucleated cells, which move sluggishly to dnd fro, as the current of the cir- culating fluid begins to be established. These cells do not differ much at this period from those which constitute the general mass 'of the neighboring tissues; but soon afterward they begin to be modified in their appearance, and converted into true blood globules. Their sur- face beconies smooth and a reddish coloring matter is produced in their interior, which gives them a tinge similar to that of the red globules of the blood in the adult condition. The red blood globules of the foetus, however, still differ in several important particulars from those of the adult. They are considerably larger and more globular in shape, and have also a very distinct nucleus, which is wanting in the blood globules of the adult, at least in the quadrupeds. They increase in numbers also, at this tinle, by spontaneous division, one globule beconiing divided into two, which separate from each other and afterward become themselves divided in a similar manner. In this way the quantity of the blobd globules is very rapidly increased, and they soon become also still further altered in form and structure. They diminish in size, become in the human subject and the quadruped flattened and biconcave in form, and finally the nucleus disappears. These changes are all effected during f cetal life, and for the most part during the early months, so that at the time of birth, the blood globules have already the char- acteristics which distinguish them in adult life. The multiplication of the blood globules by sub- division is a process which takes place only in the embryo. The perfectly formed blood globules increase in number in some other way, probably by the isolated production and growth of new cells. At the time of birth the foetal membranes (amnion and chorion) are ruptured, and the foetus escapes. The umbilical cord being at the same time divided and tied, the portion still con- nected with the foetus soon shrivels and separates by spontaneous ulceration, while the spot at which it was attached heals in a few days, leaving a cicatrix on the middle of the abdomen, which is permanent throughout life, and which is called the umbilicus. The limbs grow, by a kind of budding or sprouting process, from the sides of the body. They are at first mere rounded eminences, without distinction of parts or articu- BMBEYOLOGY 300 EMBRYOLOGt' lationsj but they subsequently become succes- sively divided into finger^ and toes, and the differ- ent joints of the arm and leg. The upper extreBiities, during the greater part of foetal life, are larger than the lower, but afterward the lower extremities and the pelvis grow faster than the arms and sho'ulders, and filially become after birth, much the larger of the two. The lungs are small and solid in texture before birth, but immediately afterward they expand by the inhalation of air, and receive a much larger supply of blood than before. On the other hand, the liver i^ much ■ larger in proportion to the rest of the body at an early period than subsequently. In some animals it amounts, during the first part of foetal life, to twelve per cent, of the entire weight of the body, and is reduced to three or four per cent, at the time of birth. In the human subject it is equal at birth to three and a half per cent, of the entire vyejght, but is reduced in the adult to less than thfte per cent. Great changes take place also during foetal life in the anatomy of the heart and circulatory system, as well as in the relative size and development of nearly all the organs in the body. These changes continue to take place after birth, though less rapidly than before, and the entire process of develop- ment is not regarded as complete until the indi- vidual has reached the adult condition'. A very - singular modification of the above process of embryonic development among the m^ammalia occurs in the marsupial animals, of which the American opossum (Diiel/phys Virginiana) is a representative. In these animals the eggs are impregnated and the formation of the embryo commenced in the usual way; but after remain- ing for a comparatively short time in the uterus, . and while their development is still very incom- plete, the embryos are discharged from the gen- erative passages, and are immediately afterward ■ found attached by the mouth to the teais of the parent. They are then less than half an inch in .length, and quite gelatinous and embryonic in ■ appearance. They are protected by a double fold of the integument of the abdomen, which forms a kind of pouch, surrounding the teats, and serving to enclose the young and helpless embryos. They remain in this situation during the completion of their development,, continuing attached for the most part to the teats, from which they, derive nourishment; and even after they have become capable of running about by themselves, they still, upon an alarna, take refuge for a time in the pouch as before. It is not known how the young embryos, when expelled from the uterus, find their way into the external pouch, so as to reach the teats, for, notwithstand- ing many attempts have been made to ascertain this point, the animal is so secret in her habits at the time of delivery, that they have been thus far entirely unsuccessful. Among invertebrate animals the egg is constituted, as a general thing in hearly' the same Way as in vertebrata, and its impreignation takfes place also in a similar man- ner. The segmentation of the yolk goes on by repeated sub-divisions, until the whole vitellus is converted into a mulberry-shaped mass, out of which the embryo is formed. While, however, in the vertebrate animals, the embryo always lies with its belly upon the surface of the yolk, in some of the invertebrates, as the articulata (insects, spiders, crustaceans), the back of the eriibryo is in contact with the yolk, and the closing up or union of the two sides of the body takes place along the dorsal line, instead of the abdominal. In many moUusks, as for example in snails, the embryo, soon after the commencement of its for- mation, begins to rotate slowly in the interiorof the vitelline sac ; and this rotation continues more or less rapid until , the hatching of the egg. In the invertebrate classes, the metamorphoses or transformations of the young animal are more frequent and more strilang than in vertebrata. i In many of them the young animal, when first hatched from the egg, is entirely unlike its par- ent in structure, external appearance, and habits of life. In the class of insects many of these transformations are well known, and have always attracted the attention of the curious. Frequently the young animal, in passing through several successive transformations in which he is adapted to different modes of life, necessarily changes hia, habitation ; and being found accordingly iu totally different localities, and presenting at succes- sive intervals corresponding differences of organ- ization, the same emhryo at different ages is often mistaken by the ignorant for an entirely distinct species of animal. These changes of habitation, occurring in the course of embryonic develop- ment, are termed migrations. They are often very marked in . parasitic animals. Thus the taenia, or tapeworm, inhabiting the small intes- tines of certain animals, such as the dog, cat, - etc., produces an egg containing a small globu- lar embryo, armed with certain hard spikes,, or curved prominences, capable of being moved by inuscular fibres inserted into their base. The por- tion of the tapeworm in which these eggs are con- tained, known as the proglottis, is discharged from the intestine of the first animal, and the eggs, becoming mixed with vegetable matter, are devoured by animals belonging to other species, as for example the pig. Either in the process of mastication, or by the action of the digestive fluids of the stomach, the external envelope of the egg is destroyed, and the embryo set free. By means of its movable projecting spines, the embryo then makes its way through the walls of the stomach or intestine into the neighboring organs, and passing into the cavity of the blood vessels, is often transported by the current of the blood to distant regions of the body. Here, becoming arrested, it is temporarily fixed in place by the consolidation of the tissues around it, and becomes enlarged by the imbibition of fluid, assuming a vesicular form. A portion of this vesicle becomes inverted, and at the- bottom of the interted part a head is produced, upon which there are formed four muscular disks, or suckers, and a circle of calcareous spines or hooks, differ- ent from those present at an earlier period, which are thrown off and lost. In this state the animal receives the name of scolex, or (yystioenm. It remains in that condition till the death of the animal whose tissues it inhabits, when being devoured with the flesh by an animal belonging to the first species, it passes into the intestine of the latter, and there becomes developed into the com- plete tapeworm, or strobtla, similar to that from which its embryo was first produced. The sama animal is accordingly a parasitiB in different organs, and even in different species,, at different periods of its development. Som6 of the inver; tebrata are( parasitic at one stage of their exist- ence, and lead an independent life at another. Such are the small Crustacea which infest the ENDIVE 301 ENGLISH DRAFT HORSE bodies and gills of certain flsli. In the family of mtridea, or bot flies, the eggs are deposited by the female insect, and attached to the hairs of horses, cattle, etc. ; from which situation, after the embryo has become partly developed, they are detached in some instances (as in mstrus equi) by licking, and swallowed into the stomach. Here the larva is set free, and attaches itself to the mucous mem- brane of the stomach, nourishing itself upon the fluids obtained from this source, and gradually increasing in size. After a certain period the larva lets go its hold, passes through the intestine, is discharged with the fseces, and assuming the pupa state, is finally transformed into the perfect insect. The process of embryonic development is accordingly a succession of changes, in which the structure and organization of the young animal are adapted to different modes of existence, and in which different organs and appearances, suc- cessively appearing and disappearing, replace each other in the progress of growth, and give rise to the appearance of transformation, which affect the body as a whole. — Appleton's New Encyclopedia. EMBRYOTOMY. The cuttingof the embryo or foetus out of the womb in cases when the death of the parent is feared. ' EMERY. A sand of corundum of extreme hardness, capable of wearing down all minerals and metals except the diamond. EMESIS. The act of vomiting. EMETIC. Drugs which produce vomiting. The horse is not made to vomit by emetics. "EMOLLIENTS. Medicines which soothe and soften any part of the body, as warm water, etc. EMPHYEMA. A collection of purulent mat- ter in the chest, produced chiefly by inflamma- tion. EMPHYSEMA. A collection of air in the cellular tissue ; hence emphysematous. EMPYREUMA. An odor of burned matter; hence empyreumatic. EMULSIN. Amodiflcation of albumenfound in almonds and other seeds, and capable of act- ing in a peculiar manner on amygdaline to pro- duce volatile oil of bitter almonds. EMULSION. A milky liquid in which an oil is suspended, as in milk. EMUNCTORIES. The vessels of the skin which exhale perspiration are so called. ENAMKL. The hard portion of teeth. Glass and oxide of tin fused together. ENCYSTED. Fluid or other tumors enclosed in a sac of membrane. It is necessary, in removing them, to cut or destroj;^ the sac also. The Trichina spiralis is encysted in the flesh of swine. Many of the parasites like this are micro- scopic in their nature. ENDEMIC. A disease or peculiarity belong- ing to a peculiar people, or race. ENDIVE. C'icJwrium ^ndima. This plant, in great repute in Europe, is used for salads, the blanched leaves being the edible part. It is a hardy annual, said to have come originally from China. The seeds are sown early in spring in a mellow, prepared bed and, when they have attained eight or ten leaves, are transplanted in rows about sixteen inches apart, by eight inches in the row. Keep the rows clean of weeds and, when the plants have reached their full develop- ment of leaves, they are drawn together and the tops tied with bast, or other soft material. Thus the heart will become blanched. If the weather is dry, the bottoms may be earthed up considerably, but if moist, it is apt to rot the plants. The time required to properly blanck them is_ about ten days, in warm weather, and from this to three weeks, according to the season and temperature. Some careful cultivators cover the plants with large pots after tying, which blanches the plant thoroughly. , When properly . grown and blanched, endive is an excellent autumn, winter, and spring salad for those who like the slightly bitter taste which blanching can not wholly eradicate. The varieties are many and are divided into two classes, the Batavian and the Curled sorts. The large and the small Batavian are the hardiest varieties. Of the Curled sorts, the Green Curled, White Curled, and the Triple Curled, or Moss Endive, are good. Seed may be sown for succession up to the first of July. The late plants should be tied up for blanching just before freezing weather, and then taken up with 0arth around the roots and placed in a cool cellar just so they will not touch each other, and a little water poured about the roots. In this manner, with care, the plants may be kept until spring. Our experience with this plant is that it does not pay. The same atten- tion given to celery will furnish a salad muck better relished by most American palates. ENDOCARP. The middle part of a fruit; the flesh of the apple, peach, cherry, etc. ENDOGtENS. Pl-.nts and trees that do not enlarge their tranks by any addition of wood exterior to that existing the year before. One of the great divisions of the vegetable kingdom, including palms, grasses, and numerous bulbous plants. The leaves are furnished with straight veins, the flowers usually divided into three . parts, or some multiple of that number. ENDOPLEURA. In botany, the internal integument of a seed. ENDORHIZ^. The embryo of monocotyl- edons, in which the radicle has to rupture the integument at the base of a seed prior to entering into the earth, appearing as if it came from within the mother root. / ENDOSMOSE. The passage of fluids through membranes. Penetration is an analogous term. Whenever two fluids are separated by a mem- brane or tissue without sensible pores, both of which moisten it, there is a passage of eacn fluid, one into the other; but this is often with different rapidities, the fluid affecting the tissue most passing with the greatest rapidity. The movement continues until the mixture on each side is similar. This also occurs with gases. ENDOSPERMIUM. The albumen of seeds. ENDOSTOME. The passage through the inner integument of a seed immediately below the part called the foramen. ENDOTHECIUM. Theflbrous cellular tissue lining an anther. ENEMA. An injection. ENGLISH DRAFT HORSE. The old Black Cart Horse of England, was one of the distinc- tive breeds of Enghsh horses, from an early period. They are hardly known in the United States as a distinctive breed, although they have undoubtedly exercised more or less influence on the ordinary work horses of our country. In England they are divided into three sub-families; first, the heavy massive horse, reared in the rich marshes and plains of the midland counties expressly for the London brewers; second, the ENGLISH DRAFT HORSE 302 ENGLISH BRAFT HORSB Bmaller-sized but» still tolerably iheavy horse, generally employed for agricultutal purposes, a strong, compact animal, but slow in action; and third, a lighter and more active animal, possessing either some admixture of blood of a smaller breed, or being the descendant of the Flanders discarded coach horse. The prevailing color among these animals is black, but the large dray horse is by no means confined to those of a black color. There are many of a bay, and still more of a brown color, as well as numerous greys and roans. There are also very many excellent compact cart horses of these various colors, better adapted for agricultural purposes; and, indieed, there are those which are generally preferred to the black horse as possessing greater activity and cleaner limbs, combined with equal compactness and strength. The dray horse was criginally reared in the greatest perfection in the , richefet pastures of the fens of Lincolnshire, the largest being seldom less than seventeen hands high, when two and a half years old, at which age they are usually sold. The purchasers work them moderately until they are four years old, feeding thein well during this period, at which age they are sold to those heavy" teaming firms who aspire to elephantine horses. The modern English draft horse,' however, is as much dif- ferent from those of one hundred years ago as the modern thoraughbred is superior to his ancestors of two hundred years ago, ' The last fifty years has marked an era, in tlie breeding of draft animals, as has the last one hundred years in the breeding of thoroughbreds. So that in the draft horse, good feet and legs are of' the utmost importance; the shoulders should be oblique, in order that the animal may have free and safe action. The stallion, should have a well-arched chest, long, ' lean head, and clear, prominent eye; added to this, there must be great bone, supported by strong sinews with plenty of muscle, and the animS should be so good afeederthat it will carry plenty of weightto assist all this. One of the improved English draft horses, isshojvn on page 303. In speaking of the English cart horse of sixty years ago, of which the modern English draft horse is an improvement, the English Cart-horse Stud Book, says : With very few exceptions (and those excep- tions chestnut), black, dark brown, and grey are the only colors met with in descriptions of draft stallions living in the first quarter of the present century. To account for this limitation two reasons may be Advanced: First, fashion in color may have been considered a very important element in the selection of a sire. Second, the light browns; bays, chestnuts, and roans, of the present day are probably due to extensive infusions of light horse blood. Whichever of the two reasons is accepted as the correct one, inquiry among old horsemen leaves no room for doubt that black, brown and grey were by far the most common colors of draft horses. Grey horses appear to have been more common in cohnties south of Derbyshire and Staffordshire, but it is probable that the coats of many of the so-called black horses had interspersed therein a consider- able sprinkling of white hairs, and that they were occasionally described as greys; there is one instance, about forty years ago, of an Oxford- ' shire horse being sometimes described as a black, and at another period as a grey. The head was largte in all its dimensions, well placed on the neck by strong, broad, and deep attachment; the forehead and face wide, expressive, and intelli- gent; a side view of the jaws and muzzle repre- sented those parts to be remarkable for depth; the ears were small and carried slightly outwards, the eyes somewhat . small, hot prominent, but generally mild and inodeTately intelligent in expression; the nostrils and mouth large, firm, and well closed; the neck was long, arched, and remarkable for its depth, and for me strength of its insertion between the shoulder blades, not as It is now frequently seen, badly placed, by hav- ing' the appearance of being fused, as it were, upon the front edge of the blad^tbones, a con- formation affording insuflcient room for the collar, and therefore one most defective fob the purposes of heavy draft. The shoulders were massive, muscular, upright, low, and thick at the withers, thrown well outwards beyond the inser- tion of the neck by the. front ribs being properly arched. The' fore-arm was long, strong, and muscular, the knee broad and flat on all its aspects; the fore and hind cannons short and thick, frequently measuring upward of twelve inches in circumference, covefesd with coarse Skin, and having a beefy appearanefe'and touch, more marked in advanced age than in youth. The pastern bones of the fore leg were very short, strong, and upright, those of the hind leg being much more obliquely placed. The feet, as a rule, especially the fore ones, werj&y large, flat, weak at the , heels, and invested with horn of sotnewhat soft and spongy texture. Thighs nar- row, being insufiSciently clothed with muscle on their inner aspects to prevent the appearance of what is vulgarly but characteristically termed split up. The hocks were of rather defective forn[iati6n, but showing little predisposition to disease, generally too short, too round, and ijot sharply defined; for these reasons it may be inferred that the hind action was limited and comparatively wanting in elasticity. The gen- eral contour of the hind legs was considerably bent, the hocks being thrown backWird, and the feet forward. The jbreast wide and lull of mus- cle, indicative of great strength rather than quick movement; the back longer, narrower, and dip- ping rather too much behind the withers. The heart-jibs were well arched, but not very deep; the hinder ones were also rounded,' but short, the last one placed too far forward, giving the body an appearance of undue length and light- ness. The croup bent at a considerable angle, denoting what would now be considered want of quality. The dock strong and thick, with pow- . erful broad attachment to the trunk. The tout ensemble of the stallion exhibited grand develop- ment Cfi the f orfehand, which rendered the appearance of the hind parts very mean by com- parison; a conformation, however, that a mo- ment's Reflection wUl show to be in perfect accord with natural ordination; from mankind downwards, in the scale of mammalian creation, the entire male is deficient in that development of the posterior parts so notable in the perfect female of each species, and for apparent reasons. The growth of hair upon these old stallions was remarkably luxuriant, that of the mane and tail being abundant, strong in texture, glossy, .and very often several feet in length. The csamons, fetlocks, and coronets, both fore and hind, were garnished With a profusion of coarse, long hair, distinctive of the Cart-horse breed. The silky (303) ENTOMOLOGY 304 ENTOMOLOGY growth in corresponding situations of the present day has probably become thus modified from the admixture of extrinsic blood, from local influ- ences, from altered methods in the system of rearing and managing young stock, or from a, cdmbinatlon of two or all of those causes. ENNEANDRIA, ENNEANDROUS. Having nine stamens. BNSIFORM. Sword-shaped. ENSILAGE. (See Supplement.) ENTEBITIS. Inflammation of the bowels. In the article Colic, is presented the difference in symptoms between colic and inflammation of the bowels, and for the reason that the latter is often mistaken for the former. In fact, ignorant stablemen seem fond of calling any difficulty of the internal system belly-ache, if attended with pain and, to cure it, commence drenching with the most alarming mixtures, not good for colic, .and, in some cases, absolutely fatal in connection with the real disease, .v In nine cases out of ten most diseases of ardmals, not malignant in their nature, will be treated more properly by means ■of simple medicines, attended with good nursing, than by 'the more heroic of the old system of purging and bleeding. In the case of inflamma- tion of the bowels., this treatment is about sare to kill. , To relieve the pain, give two drachm vdoses of opium every hour or two until the pain is relieved. Use a hot fomentation to the belly. This is applied by folding a blanket inside a a rabber sheet, held in its place by the ends beihg brought up to the sides and fastened over the back; thus the blanket may easily be kept ■saturated with warm water.. Do not take trouble about the bowels not moving. The pain being relieved, if the bowels do not move in two or three days, injections of warm water may be given. The diet should be attended to. Boiled , food should 'be given, if the animal will eat it ; .and, whatever the food, whether of bran or meal mashes, it should always be mixed either with flax seed, or slippery elm tea. Skim milk is -excellent food, in addition, if the animal will take it, especially in chronic cases. In chronic cases, where there is pain, tenderness, and a hard, ■drum-like feeling (tympany) of the bowels, and low fever, a ball, composed of five grains of nitrate of silver, and. half a drachm of opium, made up with linseed meal or crumbs of bread, Mven twice a day, will be good. Increase the dose gradually to double the quantity, if the disease proves obstinate. ENTOMOLOGY. This is the science which treats of the habits, transformations, and physical .structure of insects; of the science or natural history, and description of insects. An insect is an articulate animal form, having the body com- posed of three distinct parts, the head, corslet ■or thorax, and abdomen; the legs are six in num- ber with, usually, two/or four wings attached to the thorax; and, along the sides df the abdomen minute punctui-es, called spiracles, by means of which respiration takes place. Formerly spiders, and Crustacea, and even worms and other small animals, were included under the term insect. The term is n,ow restricted to the hexapods, or the six-footed species, known as beetles, bugs, bees, grasshoppers, locusts, fleas, etc., primarily produced from eggs, whatever secondary modes of propagation may take place. The egg state •constitutes one of the most important epochs in insect life, since on this depends all the subse- quent states and developments affecting devel- opment and decay. Prom the egg the larva is produced. The late and lamented Dr. Le Baron, has carefully and tersely described the outlines of Entomology, and insects in general, in one of his valuable reports : From it we extract : Insects as a class, and in the widest meaning of the word, comprise three divisions, or sub-classes, com- monly known as spiders, insects and millipedes. They may be distingui^ed by the following characters: 1. Sub-class: 4racAre»tf a, including spiders, scorpions and Acari, or miteis. Body divided into two parts, the head and thorax being united in one; legs eight in number; without wings. 3.' Sub-class; Insketa, or insects proper. Body divided into three parts, the head, the ' thorax, and, the abdomen; legs six; furnished with wings, in the perfect or imago state. 3. Sub-class: Myria/poda, commonly called milli- pedes or centipedes. Body divided into many- parts or segments, varying from ten to two hun- dred; legs numerous; usually either one or two pairs of legs to each segment of the body; never have wings. The exceptions to these characters are very few. In the Arachnida, some of -the most minute (Acaii) have but six legs. Insects proper are always six-legged in their last or perfect state ; and they also generally have six true legs in their larva state ; but some larvae have no legs, and the larvae of the Lepidoptera, com- monly called' caterpillars, have, in addition to their six true legs, several pairs of false legs, or pro-legs, which assist in locomotion. There are a few exceptional cases in which insects are des- titute of wings. The fleas (Pvliaes), the lice {Pediculi), and the little family of insects known as spring- tails (rA^sawoMra),. never have wings In some rare instances the females are wingless, whilst the males have wings. This is the case vnth some species of the lightning-beetles (l,am- ■pyridm), and with the canker-worm moth, and the tussock-moth, and a few other species amongst the Lepidoptera. Siunlarly exceptional cases are also found in other orders of insects^ The present work treats only of insects proper. The nervous system of insects consists of a double cord extending the length of the body, and lying upon the inferior or ventral side of the internal cavity. The two threads which com- , pose this cord do not lie side by side; but one above the other. 'The lower thread swells at intervals into little knots of nervous matter, called ganglia. In insects of an elongated form, such as some of the Neuroptera, and the larvae of the Lepidoptera, there is a ganglion at each segment of the body, making thirteen in all; but in most mature insects the ganglia become more or less consolidated. In, the butterfly {Papilio), there are ten ganglia, counting the" brain as one; in the bee (Apis), there are eight; in the may- beetle (Mplolontka), there are five, and in the Cicada there are but two. The upper of the two nervous threads runs nearly in contact with the lower, but is destitute of ganglia.. These two threads seem to represent the double and more compact cord which constitutes the spinal mar- ,row of the higher or vertebrated animals.^ The upper simple thread is supposed to furnish the nerves of motion, and the lower and ganglionic thread, the nerves of sensation. The fibres which compose these cords separate at the anterior extremity of the body, so as to embrace the oesophagus or gullet, above which they again ENTOMOLOGY 305 ENTOMOLOGY unite to form the cerebral ganglion or brain, Twhich is somewhat larger than the other gang- lia From the nervous cords, and chiefly from the ganglia, fine lateral threads are emitted, , which are distributed to the adjacent parts. I The nerves thus far described represent what, in the higher animals, is called the cerebro-spinal system of nerves, and are sometimes called the nerves of relation, because they control the sensations and motions wliich associate the animal with the world around it. But in addition to these, there have been discovered a number of very fine nervous filaments proceeding from the brain, and extending down into the body, and furnished witli miuute ganglia of their own, which are supposed to represent the sympathetic system of nerves whicli preside over the internal functions, such as those of digestion and secre- tion. The blood of insects is a colorless fluid, which does not circulate in closed vessels or tubes, like that of the higher animals, but permeates the tissues of the body. The only vessel ihat can be discovered is an oblong, membranous, pulsating sac, situated in the upper or dorsal part of the body, and evidently represents the heart. This is divided into several compartments by cross- valves, which are so arranged as to permit the blood to pass only in a forward direction. The heart is prolonged anteriorly into a narrower tube analogous to the aorta. Through this the blood flows first towards the head and thence through the body, returning to the heart, which it dnters through openings at its sides. As compared with that of the warm-blooded animals, the blood of insects is not only colorless, butsmall in quantity, and must circulate very slowly, as is proved by the fact that when their bodies are wounded no blood escapes. Most of the organs of insects, and their functions, have an obvious analogy to those of the higher animals, but their breathing appara- tus is constructed upon an entirely different plan. In all the vertebrated animals the blood is carried in vessels to a particular part or organ of the body, for the purpose of being exposed to tlie life-giving influence of the air. This part in terrestrial ani- mals, is the lungs, and in aquatic animals the gills. But in insects the process is reversed, and the air is carried to the blood by being distributed to every part of the body in very delicate pearl- white tubes or vessels, •vf hich present a beautiful appearance under the microscope. They are called tracheae, or air tubes. They admit the air through little openings along the sides of the insect s body, called spiracles. The spiracles or breathing pores can be easily seen along the sides of all caterpillars which are not too densely cov- ered ■with, hairs. In the perfect or winged state of insects the branches of the air tubes are dilated into a great number of little vesicles or air blad- ders, which render their bodies lighter, and thus facilitate their flight. In some aquatic larvse the tracheae project from the body in the form of lit- tle tufts, analogous to the gills of fishes. The aquatic beetles are under the necessity of rising to the surface, at intervals, for air, in a manner similar to that of the aquatic mammalia, the whales and the dolphins. The digestive appara- tus of insects, like that of other animals, consists of an elongated tube called the alimentary cankl, extending through the body, and haviijg a num- ber of enlargements in its course, and in many insects presents a particular resemblance to the digestive apparatus of birds. First, there is a do short, straight ossophagusor gullet; this expands into a much larger cavity, resembling the crop; then follows a smaller muscular part, analogous to the gizzard ; and next, a much larger and longer cavity, which is the true digestive stomach; this becomes contracted into the intestinal canal, which sometimes runs nearly straiglit Jhrougli the body, and in other cases is more or less con- voluted; the intestine enlarges again before it reaches the end of the body into what is known as the large intestine or colon. As in other ani- mals, the alimentary canal is much longer and more capacious in the herbi-vorous than in tlie carnivorous kinds. As a rule tlie canal is more capacious in the larva than in the iraago state. The secretory apparatus of insects, though analogous in function, is very different m appearance from that of the higher animals. Instead of solid glands, like the liver or kidney, it has the form of masses of convoluted tubes. The salivary glands, the liver, the kidneys, and the testicles are found represented in insects. The gastric and pancreatic fluids are secreted by little cells or follicles in the coats of the stomach. The muscles of insects, like those of other ani- mals, consist of contractile libres, but in their situation and attachments, as compared with those of the vertebrate animals, they are reversed ; that is to say, in the latter, the muscles are situated outside of, and ;ipon the bones, which constitute the supporting part of the body whereas in insects the supportmg part is the external crust, and the muscles are attached to its internal surface. The muscles are of a pale yellowish color, and are usually presented in the form of thin layers, and sometimes of isolated fibres, and ■ are never united into the rounded compact fqrm which they have in the higher animals. By counting the separate fibres, a very great number of muscles have been enumerated. Lyonet counted nearly four thousand in the larva of Oossva ligniperda, and Newport found an equal number in the larva of Sphinx Uguntn. The muscles of insects possess a wonderful contractile power in proportion to their size. A flea can leap two hundred times its own length, and some beetles can raise more than three hundred times ' their own weight. This remarkable strength may probably be attributed to the abundant supply of oxygen by means of the myriad rami- fications of the air tubes. Insects are evidently . endowed with the ordinary senses which other animals possess, but no special organs of sense, except those of sight, have been discovered with certainty. The eyes of in.<;ects are of two kinds, simple and compound. The simple or single eyes are called octlK, and may be compared in appearance to minute glass beads. They are usually black, but sometimes red, and are gen- erally three in number, and situated in a triar-gle on the top of the head In insects with a com- plete metamorphosis, these are the only kind of eyes possessed by them in their larva state, and in these they are usually arranged in a curved line, five or six in number, on each siia of the head. We have noticed that in some insects which undergo only a partial metamorphosis, as for example the common Squash-bug {Coreus tris'is), the ocelli are wanting m tlie larva and pupa states, but become developed in the last or perfect stage. The compound eyes of insects present one of the most complex and beautiful mechanisms in the organic world. They are ENTOMOLOaY 306 ENTOMOLOGT two in number, but proportionately very large, occupying in many insects nearly the wliole of the sides of the head and, in the dipterous order especially, often present across their disks, bands oS the richest tints of green, brown and purple. These eyes are found to be composed of a great numbeir of lesser eyes or eyelets, in the form of elongated cones so closely compacted as to form apparently a single organ. The larger end? of these cones point outwards, and by their union form the visible eye. Their smaller extremities point inwards, toward the brain, to which they are connected by means of a large optic nerve. When one of these eyes is examined through a strong magnifying glass, it is seen to be composed of a very great number of little facets, sometimes square, but usually six sided, each one of which represents the outer and larger extremity of one of the component parts. These facets vary greatly in number in the eyes of different kinds of insects. In the ants there are about fifty in each eye, in the Sphinx moths, about 1 300; in the house fly, 4,000; in the butterfly, upwards of 17,000; and in some of the small beetles of the genus Mordella, it is said that more than 25,000 ■facets fiave been enumerated in one compound eye; so that if we suppose that each of these component parts possesses the power of separate vision, one of these insects must have more than 50,000 eyes. How vision is effected, or how a unity of impression can be produced by so com- plex an organ, we are unable to conceive. Insects are evidently affected by loud noises, and moreover, as many insects have the power of producing voluntary sounds, it is reasonable to suppose that they possess the sense of hearing. No organ, however, which has been generally admitted to be an organ of hearing, has been discovered. It is the most common opinion of entomologists that the antennse are instrumental in receiving the impressions of sound, and that the sense of hearing is located at or near their place of attachment to the head, and this view is much strengthened by the fact that in some of the larger crustaceans, such as the lobster and crab, a distinct organ of hearing is found located at the base of the antennse. That insects are endowed with the sense of smell, is proved by the fact that the carrion-fly, and other insects ■which feed upon, or deposit their eggs upon, putrescent matter, detect such substances at a distance, however completely they may be hidden from the sight. The bee also discovers honey under similar circumstances, and it is therefore fair to presume that insects discover flowers, more by their perfume than by their visible characters. But no organ of smelling has been ■ discovered, and- this sense is supposed, from analogy, to be located in the lining membranes of the sfjiracles.^ It is impossible to determine, but there is no reason to doubt, that insects, like other animals, taste and enjoy food of which they partake; and the manner in which they frequently touch their food, and the surfaces over which they walk, with the tips of their palpi, which, indeed, have received the common name of feelers, renders it probable that these organs are endowed with a special sense of touch The songs of birds, and the noises made by other animals, are produced by the forcible passage of air through the glottis, which is the narrow opening at the top of the wind pipe, aided by the vibration of certain muscular folds near the outlet, called the vocal chords. But we hav« seen that insects never breathe through their mouths, and, therefore, they never make any oral sounds. But the humming of bees and fliei is produced in an analogous manner, by the expul- sion of air through the thoracic spiracles, and the vibration of a delicate valve-like fold, just within the opening. But besides this, insects make a variety of noises, which are produced in different ways. The singing of the Cicada, which is the loudest noise made by any insect, is pro- duced by the expulsion of air from the first abdominal spiracle, striking upon' a large trans- parent drum-like apparatus, situated at the base of the abdomen. Tlie chirping of crickets ii produced by rubbing together their parchment- like wing covers. The well-known noise of the katydid is produced in the same way, but here the sound is intensified by a thin talc-like plats set into the base of each wing-cover. The stridulation of grasshoppers is caused by the friction of their spined shanks across the edge of their wing. covers. The fainter, squeaking sounds, made by many insects when captured, are produced simply by the rapid friction of one part of their bodies upon another; in certain Hemiptera, by the friction of the head upon the .pro-thorax; in the Capricorn beetles, by the friction of the pro-thorax upon the meso-thorax; and in some of the Lamellicorn beetles, by the friction of the abdomen against the wing covers. The niore complex and special apparatuses of insects for the production of sounds, are pos- sessed' exclusively by the males, and are supposed to be exercised by them as calls tQ the opposite sex; but the simpler squeaking,. sounds are emitted by both sexes, and appear to be mere notes of alarm. Nothing in the history of insects is more iemarkable than the striking changes of form which many or them undergo, in the course of their development Whilst other animals progress from infancy to maturity, simply by a process of growth, and by such gradual and imperceptible changes only as their growth necessitates, many insects assume totally different forms in the course of their .develop- ment; so that they could never be recognized as the same individuals,,, if this development had not been actually traced from one stage to another. These changes are called the meta- morphoses or transformations of insects. All insects, in their growth, pass through four stages, designated as the egg state; the larva, or caterpillar state; the pupa, or chrysalis state; and the imago, or perfect and winged state. The metamorphoses of inse< ts are of two prin-. cipal kinds, complete and incomplete. In the complete metamorphosis the larva bears no resemblance to the imago, and the insect, in the intermediate or pupa state, is motionless, Jffld takes no food. This kind of metamorphosis presents two principal varieties.. In some (Lcpi- doptera and many Diptera,) the legs and wingi, are completely inclosed in the pupa case, fii others, (Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, and some others,) the legs of the pupa, though useless, are free, and the fudimental wings lie loosely upon the sides. Moreover, in some (the nocturnal Le^idoptera, and many Hymenoptera,) the pup» is inclosed in a separate covering or cocoon, whereas the majority of insects have no such covering. Pupae thus inclosed are caWedfotHcuMi*. The term chrysalis, from a Greek word meaning ENTOMOLOGY 307 ENTOMOLOGY colden, is sometimes applied to the pupae of the diurnal Lepidoptera, because the pupae of some butterflies are ornamented with golden spots. Most insects, in changing from the larva to the pupa state, cast off the lai-val skin, but in many of the two-winged flies, (Muscidse, Syriphidae, etc ,) the larval skin becomes contracted and hardened, assumes an oval form, and a brown color, and thus forms a compact and closely- fltting case, in which the pupa proper is inclosed, but distinct. Pupae thus inclosed are called warctate, and their cases are analogous to the cocoons of the Lepidoptera. In the incomplete metamorphosis, the insect presents essentially the same form, and is active in all its stages, after leaving the egg. The pupa is distinguished from the larva by the presence of short, rudimen- tal wings at the base of the aljdomen, and the imago or adult state is distinguished by the fully grown wings and wing covers. It is only in this last stage that insects are capable of pr p- agation. All the Hemiptera, or bugs proper, and all the Orthoptera, or crickets, grasshoppers and cockcoaches, exhibit imperfect metamorpho- sis. In treating of the development of insects, it is necessary to refer to the periodical casting of the larval skin. All the growth of insects takes place in the larva state. Consequently no insect increases in size after it has acquired wings. The larval skinseems to be an imperfectly organ- , ized membrane which does not correspond in its growth to that of the body, but yields to this growth, to a certain extent, by virtue of its elas- ticity. A time comes, therefore, when it can yield no farther. The insect then evidently becomes oppressed, ceases to eat, u.sually retires to some secluded spot and, if gregarious, hud- dles together with its companions, and there remains a day or two, almost motionless and without food, and in an apparently torpid and sickly condition. After a time the distended skin bursts open, and the insect throws it off, and appears in a new, bright, and elastic skin, which, in its turn, is capable of a certain degree of distension. This process, which is called moulting, takes place three or four times in the course of the larval growth, and in a few larvae which continue more than one year in this state, the moulting is said to occur from five to eight times. In insects of very rapid development, on the other hand, such as the maggots, or larvae of Muscidae, no moulting takes place, and it is the larvse of this kind which form coarctate pupae. As a general rule insects of different sexes resem- ble each other so closely as to leave no doubt of Uieir specific identity, and in many the sexes can scarcely be distinguished. But this rule is sub- ject to many exceptions, and the naming of insects has been greatly confused by the sexes of the same insect having been described and named as distinct species. The sexual organs, especially those of the males, are usually coiicealed so as to be nearly or quite invisible; but the female, especially in the order of Hymenoptera, often have an exserted ovipositor of greater or less length, which readily distinguishes them from the opposite sex. An analogous structure exists in many wood-boring beetles, which deposit their eggs in deep crevices in the bark of trees; and more rarely in insects of the other orders. In the Coleoptera the males are sometimes dis- tinguished by one or two horns, either upon the head or thorax, and many of the predaceous bfeetles, both terrestrial and aquatic, have the anterior feet much widened, and furnished be- neath with a cushion of hairs or bristles. The antenna; usually differ in length but little, if at all, in the two sexes; but in the long-horned beetles (Oerambycidae) the antennae of the malea are generally considerably longer than those of females. In these moths which have bi-pectinat6 antennae, these parts are almost always wider in the males. Many insects in the order of Diptera are remarkable for the great size and beauty of their eyes, and these organs are almost always larger in the males , than in the females. In describing insects it is custoniary, for the sake of brevity, to distinguish the sexes by signs, as S male, ? female. The first representing the sign Mars and the' second Venus. The classification of insects depends chiefly upon the structure of the externa) and visible parts. It is necessary therefore that the student should have a thorough knowledge of these parts and of the names by which they are designated. But as these parts are very greatly mortified in the different orders of insects,, we shall reserve a minute description of them till we come to treat of them in connec- tion with the several orders respectively, and shall here give only a general enumeration of them. It often becomes necessary to refer tp different parts of an insect's head, and they are therefore designated by particular names indica- tive of their situation. These are — the Hind- head, (Occiput). The Crown, (Vertex). The Fore-head, (From). The Face, (Fadts). The Cheeks, (Oenm). The appendages of the head are the Horns, (Anteniie); the Eyes, (Oculi); and the parts of the Mouth, ( Irophi, or oral organs). All insects have two more or less elongated and usually many- jointed antennae situated one on each side of the head, and varying greatly, in different kinds of insects, in length and in the form of their component joints. Insects have very short antennae in their larva state, and in some perfect insects, such as the water-beetles, (Oyrini and Hydrophili), the antennae are not longer than the head, whilst in others, such as some of ^he lon^icorn beetles, they are more than twice as long-fls the Whole body, and in some of the small moths of the genus Addn, they are five or six times as long The uses of the antenna are not known, but, as we ha^e stated above, when treating of the senses of insects, they are supposed to be instrumental in the sense of hear- ing. The most common variations in the forms of the antenna are expressed by the following terms : Filiform, or thread-like ; long and slender, and of the same, or nearly the same width throughout. 8etifm-m or aePiceom; bristly or bristle-like; long and slender, but tapering toward the tip. Moidliform, or bead-like; wlien the joints are about tbe same size, and Serrate, or saw-toothed ; when each joint is some- what triangular, and a little prominent and pointed on the inner side. Pectinate, or comb- toothed; when the inner angles of the joints are considerably prolonged. Bi-p- the three well-known species: the honey-bee, the i silk- worm and tlie cochineal-insect; whereas, those species which are injurious to mankind, chiefly by depredating upon valuable cultivated crops, are much more numerous, although con- stituting but a verjr small proportion of the whole insect world. It is important to bear in mind that in these destructive operations insects occupy an exceptional or abnormal position, and' that we ourselves have been the means of bringing about this state of things, by the excessive culti- vation of certain plants, whereby a correspond-, ing increase of certain species of the insects which feed upon them has been induced. It is very rarely that any such loss of balance between the insect and the vegetable worlds takes place in thg state of nature; and yet, guch occurrences are not wholly unknown. This, has happened most remarkably in the case of wood-eating insects, there being instances on record in which extensive tracts of forest trees have been destroyed by the larvae of some of the more minute wood- boring beetles. But, as just stated, it is in their ' depredations upon some one or other of the more valuable cultivated crops that insects have come into the most direct and serious conflict with human interest. These depredations, as is well known, have often been of a most extensive and ruinous character, causing the annual loss of crops to the valjie of many millions of dollars, and in some seasons and localities, necessitating^ the total abandonment of some of the most valu- able and staple productions, such as wheat, barley and potatoes, and also some of our choicest fruits, such as the plum and the peach; and sometimes threatening the destruction even of the most valuable fruit of all — the hardy and widely; distributed apple. These destructive operations of insects have necessarily attracted to them the most earnest attention of both prac- tical and scientific men, and many valuable treatises and reports, have been written which have been devoted chiefly to the practical treat- ment,of the subject. It is our present intention to treat of insects from a more general and comprehensive point of view. From what has just been said, it is evident that it is in the nature of their food and their food-taking habits, that insects hold the closest relationship to human interests; and this is true not only in the direct manner above described, but also indirectly, by means of the important parts which they fulfil in the economy of nature. Indeed; the opera- tions of insects in this last respect are of such vast importance, that it would be safe to say that if these should cease, the earth would soon liNTOMOLOGY 311 ENTOMOLOGY 'become uninhabitable by mankindi These •Derations consist chiefly, first, in the destruction ef other insects by predaceous and parasitic kinds, holding in check excessive increase; second, in the instrumentality of a large proportion of Insects in their character of scavengers, whereby the decomposition of decayed and offensive mat- ters, both animal and vegetable,43 effected and accelerated; and third, in the agency of insects in causing the fertilization of plants, especially those with very deep corrollas, and those which have th6>barren and productive flowers upon dif- ferent plants, by carrying upon their legs, in their tearch for honey, the fertilizing pollen from one flower to another. A long chapter might be writ- ten upon each of these topics, but we have space herp barely to enumerate them. In the division of insects according io the nature of thejr food, all may be divided into two classes — the carniv- orous insects, or those which eat animal food {Sarcophaga); and the herbivorous insects, or those which subsist upon vegetable substances {PhytopJiaga). Jllach of these classes is again divisible accordingly as the insects which com- pos3 it take their food in a fresh and living state, or in a state • >f decay. The former are called pre- daceous insects {Adephag'a) when they live upon animal prey; and the latter are designated bj- the name of scavengers {Bypophaga). Those insucts which eat living animal food, are still further divisible into predaceous insects proper, ^ which •eize and devour their prey, and parasitic insects, which live within the bociies of their victims and feed upon their substance. Those insects which feed upon decaying animal matter present three divisions : first, general scavengers, which devour particles of putrescent matter wherever they may be found; second, those which live exclusively in or upon the bodies of dead animals {Necroph'iga); and thirdly, those which are found exclusively in animal excrement (Copraphagn). The herbiv- orous insects may be divided in a similar man- ■apx into those which eat fresh vegetable food ' :l%J^Mit6vophaga) dnd those which subsist upon l -.'ii^getable matters in a state of decay {8a/prophaga). They can also be usefully classified according to the particular parts of the plant which they devour, into lignivorous or wood-eating insects {Xulophotga); the folivorous, or leaf -eating insects i^yUophaga), and the f ructivorous or fruit-eating iqsect {Oarpophotga). The above Greek terms in parenthesis have been us'ed chiefly in connection with insects of the Coleopterous order, in which these diversities of food-habits exist to a much greater extent than in any of the other orders, but the terms themselves are of general significa- tion, and being very concise and comprehensive, they might, not improperly, be used in speaking of insects in all tlie orders, so far as they are applicable. In attempting to classify insects according to the nature of their food we meet with a peculiar difficulty, owing to the remarkable change which some species undergo in this respect in passing from the larva to the perfect state. Most caterpillars, for example, feed upon leaves, whilst the butterflies and moths which they pro- duce subsist upon the honey of flowers, or other Hquid substances. Some two-winged flies (Asilidm) feed upon the roots of plants in their larva state, fcut become eminently predaceous in their winged state. Another remarkable example is furnished fcy certain coleopterous insects (Meloidm), which are parasitic in their larva state, but subsist upon foliage after they have assumed the beetle form. The question therefore arises, to which stage of the insect's existence shall the precedence be given in this respect? At first view it would seem that the perfect ?tate ought to govern, but when we take into account that insects are com- paratively short-lived in this state; that having arrived at maturity they require but little food; and that some insects take no food at ail at this stage of their lives; whereas all the growth of an insect takes place whilst it is in the larva state, and consequently it is in this state that they feed so voraciously; when we consider this, it seems more reasonable that in classifying insects upon this basis, the food habits of the larva should take the precedence. The terms noxious and injurious are often used indiscriminately, but strictly speak- ing, noxious insects are those which are endowed with some poisonous or otherwise hurtful quality; and these are divisible into two classes accord- ingly as they are hurtful to mankind directly, such as the mosquito, flea, and bed-bug; or are hurt- ful to the domesticated animals, as the horse-fly, the bot-fly, and the various kinds of aninial lice. The insects which attack man directly are annoy- ing rather than seriously hurtful, and this is usually the case also with those which molest the domesticated animals; but these sometimes mul- tiply so as to seriously impoverish the animals which they infest. The term injurious, as dis- tinguished from noxious, is properly applied to all those insects which damage mankind indi- rectly, but often to a most serious extent, by depredating upon those crops, cultivated, upon which we depend for subsistence and profit 'It is worthy of remark that by far the preater proportion of the damage caused by injurious insects is effected by species of very small size, whilst the large species are generally harmless. The two most serious fruit insects, the Codling- moth and the Plum-curculio, are both below the medium size, and the Apple bark-louse, the Apple-aphis, the Hessian-fly, and the Wheat midge, are so minute that they would not be . noticeable were it not for the wide destruction which they cause to some of our most valuable crops, in consequence of their excessive multi- plication. It is also an important consideration that in learning the elements of any science or art, an indispensable, part of such education is to acquire a knowledge of the more common tech- nical /terms which properly belong to it, and which constitute its peculiar phraseology, and which the student will continually meet with in all (Writings upon the subject. The forms with which it has to deal are so numerous and diversified, and often, at the same time, so closely allied, that their classification constantly demands a minute and careful examination, and a discriminative analysis, which, regarded purely as an exercise of the mind, are scarcely inferior to those required by the abstract mathematics, whilst they possess the additional interest which natu- rally attaches to the study of living beings. Classification in natural historj' has two objects in view— first, to show the relationship which exists between organized beings, by putting them in groups, in accordance with the sirailanty of their characters; and secondly, to facilitate the study of them by enabling the student to com- prehend a great number of different but allied forms under a comparatively Small number of general heads, and thus to afford an important ENTOMOLOGY 313 ENTOMOLOGY aid to the memory. By nomenclature is meant the giving to these groups and the species which ^ compose "them distinctive names. It is the' natural tendency of the specialist to attach undue value to the minor suhdivisions of his par- ticular department, whilst he whose studies take a wider range sees more forcibly the necessity of condensation and simpli^cation. Much can he said upon both sides of this question, but perhaps the argument may be condensed into a single sentence by saying that, on the one hand, the minute subdivision of a natural group tends to give defiiiiteness and precision to our in- vestigations, whilst, on the other hand, the multiplication of genera or sub-genera, upon trivial characters, unnecessarily encumbers our nomenclature, and diminishes the interest and importance which ought to attach to the genferio distinction. In 'writing the names of insects — and the same rule applies to all other dejiart- ments of natural history — it is the established custom to write first the name of the genus, usually without the author's name attached, and immediately following it the specific name, with the name of the original describer, or an abbre- viation of it appended. As no one ban carry all the modern genera of insects in his memory, it is an excellent practice, when space permits, to prefix the name of (he older and more compre- F'g. 2. hensive genus to which such species was formerly referred, and with which most entomologists may be presumed to be familiar. In this case the modern genus is included in a parenthesis^ and usually the author's name attached. To illustrate by examples : The common rose-slug is the larva of a little wasp-like insect, known scientifically as the Selandria roues of Harris. This species was first described by Dr. Harris, who gave to it the specific name rosm, meaning of the rose. It belongs to the modern genus Selandria, which was founded by Dr. Leach, an English entomolo- gist. . This genus is a subdivision of the old genus Tenthredo,oiTJvDXi^\ia. The name written, in full, therefore, will stand: Tentliredo (Selan- dria, Leach) TOSffi, Harris. Our fine large' Polyphemus moth was originally de- scribed by Linnaeus under the name of Attacus Polyphemm, It belongs to the modern genus Telea,- made by the Ger- man lepidopterist, Hl'ibner. Its name, therefore, expressed in the simplest man- ner, \9 'J'elen PolypMmus, Linn.; or writ- ■ ten in full — AltaeiLS {Tded^'B^uhnet) PolyphsmMS, Linnaeus. This is ordi- narily all that is essential to be known, and any additional synonyms or refer- ences should be placed in a subordinate position. It will , he observed that all the family names of insects end in id%. This is . a Greek termination, meaning like or similar, and implies that' all the species in any such group have a family resemblance to those of the leading genus to which it is affixed — thus; OieindeUdfB means Cieindelozlike in- sects. In pronouiicing these words the accent if placed upon the syllable preceding this lernjina- tion, thus: Oicindd-idm, C»rab-idm, etc. It is often the case that families, especially those which contain many species, admit of division Fig. 3-0. Fig. s-J. into a number of natural groups of a higherrank than genera, which are designated as sub-families, and distinguished by the termination ides. .^Thus the family Carabidse is divided into a number of sub-families, such as the Brachi;tda, the Scarit- ides, etc. The ojass of insects is divided into a number of primary groups called orders. Be- tween these! larger divisions are certain smaller ones, which ser\fe as connecting links between them, and which some authors have merged in one or the bther of the adjoining larger groups, whilst others have considered them of sufficient importance to be raised to the same rank with the larger ones. Frorn this it has resulted that the number of orders into which the class of insects has been divided has varied, even in the works of standard authors, from seven to twelve, and ENTOMOLOGY 313 ENTOMOLOGY the number will be still increased if we regard as distinct orders certain apterous form, such as the lice (Pediculi), and the spring-tails (Thysanoura). But as in such an article as the present one the classification of insects should be simplified as muqh as possible, we have adopted the smaller Fig. 3-c. number of orders, with the single exception of recognizing the division of the Hemiptera into Uffmoptera and Heteroptera as of ordinal value. The~"orders of insects are founded primarily upon the number and structure of the wings. This mode of division was first suggested by Aristotle, ■who gave the names which they jiow bear to two Fig. 6. of the ordert, namely, the Ooleoptera and the Diptera. It was afterward almost perfected by Lmnseus, but has been somewhat modified by the investigations of more recent authors. As illustrating some of the principal forms of insect lite, we show a variety of forms, all injurious except one, the Spotted Ladybird. Fig. 7. Fig. 1 shows, a, larva; and 6, the moth of Batana ministra, the Yellow-necked Apple Tree Caterpillar; c, is a mass of eggs; and d, an egg magnified. There are various forms of this moth, some so nearly alike as not to be dis- Fig. 8. -tinguished by the ordinary observer, and which, sometimes, live within and sometimes without their webs.. At Fig. 2, is a, larva; b, pupa and c, perfect beetle; d, tip of abdomen; e, antennae, and/, a section of one of the legs of the Spotted Fig. 9. ENTOMOLOGY 314 EQOTSETUM Pelidnota, the grub of whicli lives in rotten wood, and the beetle feeding on the leaf of the grap6, and sometimes, it is said, severing -the young branches. Fig. S-a, S-b, ^nd Shi, show the Broad-necked Priornus, iari injurious class, a, beetle, J, pupa and e, larva. These larvae mine the trunks of balm of gilead, pojjlar and some other trees. Fig. 4 is the Grape-vine Col- aspis, 1, magnified, 2, natural size. It often does freat damage by riddling the leaves, ig. 5 is the Tussock moth, the larva of the various species of which feed on the leaves of a number of trees. Fig. 6 shows a Gall-making pemphigus, species of minute insects which lay their eggs on the leaves of trees, the galls or vege- table covering being formed over them. Fig. 7 shows a Chalcis parasite; a, pupa, J, perfect insect; the hair line showing natural size. These flies are most bene- ficial, they lay their eggs in other in- sects. ' Fig. 8 is the winged form, highly mag- nified, of thg Maple-tree louse. (See article on Maple Tree Louse.) Fig. 9 shows a leaf at- tacked by the larva of the Grape-vine Flea bee- tle; b, larva magnified, e, earthen cell in which in all their transformations, eat insects, and especially the eggs of the Colorado beetle. (See article Ladybird.) Fig. 13 shows the Flat- headed Apple-tree Borer, a, larva, b, pupa, e, head and first two sections magnified; ^, beetle. Fig. 13 is the well known Squash Bug. — Fig; 14 the New Yprk Weevil, which eats the buds of the tree; a shows slit in the bark under which thfe egg is laid; 6, larva; c, beetle. Fig. >'%^ Fig. 11. Fig. 13. thebeetle transforms; (2, beetle. The hair line next the beetle and larva shows the natural size. Pig. 10, shows the Bordered Soldier Bug, they and the other soldier bugs live on other insects, Fig. IS. Fig. 14. and are among the few which attack the , Col- orado Potato beetle. Fig. 11 is the Spotted Ladybird, the beetles of all the species of which \ Fig. 15. 15 is the caterpillar of the Archippus butter- fly. The winged insect measures sometimes four and a half inches across the wingsj The wings on the upper side are tawny orange, on the under side deep nankin-yellow"; the veins are black, and there are yellow and white spots on the black tips of the fore wings. ENTOZOA. I A tribe of worms, many of which are parasitic to the intestines and other pafts of animals. EOCENE. The lowest portion of the tertiary epoch of geologists, in which a few recent remains only are fou^. , EPIDEMIC. A disease whicb spreads through a community, a stable, etc. EPIDERMIS. A light covering over the skin of animals. The ouf er membrane of plants. The outer film of the skin. EPIGASTRIC. Over the stomach. EPIGLOTTIS. A small cartilage at the root *of the tongue, which protects the windpipe. EPIGTNOUS. Any part of a flower growing upon the top of the ovarium or fruit. EPILEPSY. This is a disease unusual in horses, but not uncommon in cattle, especially in cows, after calving. (See Apoplexy.) In all cases of this kind the first thing to be attended to is to be sure there is no pressure on the vital organs and the blood vessels. All this class of diseases are beyond cure, as a rule. The most that can be done is to relieve for the time being. These symptoms often occur from the presence of worms. In this case, after present relief is given, use vermifuges, which see. To give relief, and as a means of permanent cure, one- half ounce of bromide of potassium, and a drachm of powdered gentian, given two or three times a day, and continued for weeks, would be proper. Another remedy would be, one-half drachm of sulphate of zinc and one ounce of linseed meal, given twice a day, in the form of a ball, for two or three weeks longer. Giddiness, falling sickness, fits, stringhalt, St. Vitus dance, megrims, and vertigo, are all names for this class of diseases. They all do, or should, constitute unsoundness. (See Supplement, page 1109.) EPIPHYLLUS. Growing oh a leaf . EPISPERM. The testa, or outer coating of EPIZOOTIC. (See Influenza.) ' EQUISETUM. The scouring rush; henoe eguisetaceoB. ESPALIERS 315 EUCALYPTUS EREMACAUSIS. Smouldering, or dry rot, of organic matter freely exposed to the oxygen of the air, and merely moistened -with water. It is altogether different from fermentation, which requires little air. By Eremacausis, acids, as acetic, nitric, etc., are produced. When much nitrogen exists in the decaying matter, it is called, nitrification, especially if lime or potash be present. It is the natural decay occurring in the soil. ERGOT. A disease of rye, and sometimes other grains, in which it turns black, and acquires an acrid, fungous taste. A fungus growth of rye. The diseased grain is poisonous, producing dry gangrene, attended with sloughing of the hoofs, horns, ears, etc., of cattle. It is of service in medicine as a uterine stimulus. ERICA, The genus of heaths. Uricdcem, a family of shrubby plants, as the heaths, rhodo- dendrons, azalias, etc. ERINACEUS. A genus of insectivorous animals, including the hedgehog. ERIOPHOBUM:. The genus of cotton ERODED. Gnawed, a descriptive term in botany and zoology, meaning any jagged edge. T0| erode, is to eat into or among, as by a cancer. ERBHINES. Bodies which excite sneezing. ERUCA. A larva or worm. ERYSIPEL VS. This is an inflammation of the skin and tissues beneath which, in a malig- nant form, spreads largely and forms abscesses. A wound for instance, will be found hot, swollen, tender and shining. This extends about the sur- face, alid often deep into the muscular tissue. The surface will be hard, but if the fingers be rather strongly pressed upon the part, an inden- tation will be left. In light forms of the disease there is fever, loss of appetite, and the attack being in a limb, there will be lameness. In severe cases, these symptoms will be intensified. The breathing will be hurried, the pulse weak but rapid. There may be chills, with constipa- tion of the bowels, and scanty and high colored iirine. The thirst will be great, but with no appetite for food.. The first remedial means is to give a purgative, assisted with injections to relieve the bowels. If there is much fever, add twenty drops of tincture of aconite to the water, given once an hour. The bowels liaving l)een freely emptied, give every four hours, in a bottle of water, two to four drachms of chloride of iron and thirty grains of quinine. For the swelling in ordinary cases, there is nothing better than a poultice of ripe cranberries faithfully applied. If this does not give relief, paint the swollen parts and surroundings freely, with one ounce of powdered sulphate of iron, in four ounces of lard, or i£ preferred, extract of belladonna and lard, equal parts, may be rubbed up together . and freely rubbed in. When death ensues from erysipelas, it is from exhaustion. The animal's strength should be kept up with easily digested food. The doses given are for a horse. ESCHAR. A scab, cicatrix. ESCHAROTIC. A caustic. E.SCDLENr. Edible plants, roots, etc. ESPALIERS. In horticulture, trees trained by lattice work or other supports on the borders «f beds, or as hedges to enclose plots of ground. The principal objects aimed" at in Espaliers, are to expose the foliage and fruit of the plants or trees more perfectly to the light and sun, to pre- vent the branches from being blown about by the winds, and to economize space by confining them within definite limits. Espalier training is little practiced in the United States, even with grapes. ESPARCET. A local name for Sainfoin, ESSENTIAL OILS. Oils which impart fla- vor and odor to plants; and are readily volatil- ized by heat. Many, as peppermint, rose, lemon, etc., are easily distilled, and the perfume is also yielded to oil. ESSEX SWINE. This is one of the English light weight breeds, and to our mind one of the very best of that class ever introduced inta North America, combining, as they do, stamina and vigor of constitution. The sows are prolific breeders, and good nurses, the barrows fatten- ing easily and at any age. The size is medium, mature animals going up to three hundred pounds. In Shape and color they are not unlike the Berkshire, but are longer in proportion to their size. They are pure deep black in color; face short and dishing; cars small, soft and erect while young, but falling down somewhat with age; carcass long, broad, straight and deep; hams heavy and well-fleshed to the, back; bones fine, and hair thin. Like the SuflEolk, the mature, fully fattened Essex yields a large amount of lard. So far as our experience goes, the Essex crosses sucpessfully on large, coarse swine, refining the bone, readering the crosses, quiet, good tempered and kindly fattening swine. ETERIO. A compound fruit, the ovaries of which are distinct and indehiscent upon a dry or fleshy receptacle, as the strawberry, raspberry, etc. ETHER. A name applied to a highly vola- tile, inflammable, and aromatic fluid, obtained by distilling equal parts of alcohol and sulphuric acid. But it also represents a class of organic compounds having properties similar to ether and alcohol, and containing a common base or rH.riip3.1 ' ETIOLATION. Blanching of vegetables; This is done by excluding light either by earth- ing, as in the case of celery, or tying up the leaves, as with lettuce, endive etc. EUCALYPTUS. None of the species of Eucalyptus are capable of standing the climate of the United States, except.the warmer parts pf Florida and some portions of California. Ten degrees of frost will kill them. E. ghbulm, or the blue gum tree of New South Wales is a fast growing, magnificent, and useful tree where it will stand the climate. Unfortunately, it is not hardy, except whare we have stated, and possi- bly in favorable situations on the Gulf coast, and, probably, in southern Texas, near the coast line. As showing the rapidity of growth of the Euca- lyptus, where it is hardy, in California, at two years old, the trees have reached a height of from fifteen to twenty-five feet, and after three years* growth a height of from thirty-five to forty feet, and from five to nine inches in diameter of stem. They are well adapted to dry situations. The principal varieties experimented with, in Cali- fornia, were E. gloJmlus; paniculata; tereticornis; vlmmalu; JLemipMoiaj and obligua. The follow- ing are some of the more valuable qualities of the genus Euoalyptii: The remarkable solidity, hardness, and durability of the timber of some EUCALYPTUS 316 EUCALYPTUS of the species is well knowb. The large propor- tion of potash, amounting to twenty per cept., in the ashes of these trees has been pointed out by Baron Von Mueller. The barks of E. ros- ti'atct, E. oUiqua,, E. gomocalijix, and E. enrynibosa are used for making paper. The barks of many has similar action to the ordinary manna, and exiicjes in large quantities through punctures or wounds made in the young bark. Another product of great importance is the essential oils. These oils generallj^ have a camphoraceous smell, the odor differing in the various species- NOEDMAlirN'S SILTER HH. species are used extensively for tanning. A substance called Australian manna is yielded by E. mannifera, E. vminaUs, and other species. This manna occurs in small, rounded, opaque, whitish masses, with an agreeable sweetish taste; it contains somewhat similar constituents, and that from E. citHodora has a pleasant citron- like flavor. The oil from E. oleosa is used as a solvent for resins in the "preparation of varnishes. The oils of E. cimygdaMna, E. globulua and E. citriodora are used for diluting the moredelicate essential oils used in perfumery. These oils EVAPORATION 317 contain a substance called Eucalyptol, a liquid body having chemical characters resemblinff camphor. The febrifugal properties of the bark and leaves of E. globulus ,ha.ve been noted bv many medical practitioners. Although careful examination of the bark and leaves has proved that neither quinine nor the other alkaloids of cinchona bark exist in the plant, yet it is admitted to possess antiperiodic properties which are supposed to be due to the presence of iiucalyptol. Fiually, cigarettes made of Euca- lyptus leaves are reputed to be useful in bronchial and asthmatic affections. Considering the rapidity of growth, the value of the timber the healthy emanations from the foliage, the com- mercial importance of the essential oils, and the beauty of the different species of the genus it must be conceded that the MucalypUs is one of the most impui'tant fam- ily of forest trees known at the present time, and that they should be ex- tensively planted wher- ever climatic conditions , are favorable to their ' growth, with the further reminder that the E. globulus need not be taken as a criterion of the hardiness of the ge- nus in low temperatures, since the more alpine species are known to flourish where the E. globulus has failed. The supposed sanitary value is not confined to one species, -but the whole family are possessed of oil-bearing leaves, and that, therefore, further experiment with the , hardier species may be profitable. In this con- nection it should be re- iterated that none of the Eucalyptuses are hardy, and, in fact, all of them are sub-tropical, and many of them really- inter-tropical. Hence in experimenting with them in the United States care should be taken to use only those most hardy. Of their value as arresters of miasma there is little doubt, and it would seem proper that agricultural colleges, South, and the gen- eral government, should experiment still further with these valuable species. _ E DPHORBIA. A gsnus of plants commonly yielding a milky, acrid juice. Many of them are spined, and some resemble cactuses Euphor- biticem, the natural family, including the euphor- bia, crotons, castor-oil, india-rubber tree, etc. EUROPEAN CABBAGE BUTTERFLY. (See Cabbage Butterfly.) EUSTACHIAN TUBE. A tube passing from the interior of the ear to the cavity of the mouth, the stoppage of which, by disease, is one cause EVAPORATION. Vapor is passed off from water, or moisture contained in any matter, in just proportion to the heat applied, and the dryness of the air. Air saturated with mois- ture, can take up no more, and then the vapor EVAPORATION of evaporation in being passed off, becomes condensed on the surface. The vapor passed off Horn a liquid, at any temperature, contains more heat than the fluid from which it is formed and exhalation goes on faster or slower, accord- ing to the pressure of the atmosphere. Yet the pressure of the atmosphere does not prevent evaporation, it simply retards it. If the atmos- pheric pressure was entirely taken off, water would boil (theoretically) at about the freezinff point, while at the Sea level, water boils at 212° 1 on"': J"«'^'® vacuum pan, water boils at from l^U to 140° according to the perfect condition ot exhaustion. It may seem strange, but never- theless it is arfact, that evaporation is a cooling process, that is to say it has the effect of cooling the body from which it passes off. Hence the act of perspiring cools the body, by passing off r DWAEP AarERICAN ARBOR YTTM — TOM THUMB. the heat of the body with, and by the vapor. Ether, evaporating from a body in a draft of warm air, will cause the body even to freeze, and we all know that the earlh is sensibly cooled by evaporation from its surface. Hence one of the advantages ot drainage, by which the heat of the soil is conserved. If the excess of water must be carried upward by evaporation, in just proportion to the water evaporated will the soil be cooled. Hence cold, and water soaked soils produce semi-aquatic plants not found on warm, aerated soils. Moisture exhaled at a low temperature, is called vapor, and at a high tem- perature, steam. In another sense invisible moisture is vapor, and visible moisture is steam. If the air is suddenly cooled over a heated soil, strongly evaporating moisture, it becomes visible as steam. Hence the expression, the steaming earth. Under the common pressure of the atmos- phere, and below tlie temperature at which water boils, evaporation goes on quietly and slowly. In deep mines, which descend below the level of the sea, water requires a greater heat than 213° to make it boil. But on high moim- EXCRETION 318 EXPERIMENT tains, or districts rising far above the level of the sea, the pressure of the air is lessened, and boiling takes place, as under the influence of the air- pump, at lower degrees, according to pressure. The vapors exhaled f roiri a liquid at any tem- perature contain more heat than the fluid from which they sprung; and they cease to form whenevei* the supply of heat into the liquid is . stopped. Yet, a thermometer held in the steam proceeding from hot -water rises no higher than when placed in the water itself. The additional heat, therefore, contained by the vapoi*, is latent, and does not become sensible to the thermometer until ' the vapor condenses. Any quantity of ■water requires, for its conversiojj into vapor or steam, five and a half times as much heat as js sufficient to heat it from the freezing point of 32° to the boiling point of 213°. The quantity of heat 'absorbed by one volume of water in its conversion into steam, is about 1000° Fahr ; it would be adequate to heat 1,000 volumes of water one degree of the same scale; or to raise one vol- ume of boiling water, confined in a non-condUct- ing vessel, to 1180°. Were the vessel, charged with water so healed, opened, it would be instan- taneously ettjpliea by vaporization, since the whole caloric equivalent to its constitution as steam is present. When, upon the (Sther hand, steam is condensed by contact with cold sub- stances, so much heat is set free as is capable of heating five and a half times its weight of water, from 32° to 312" Fahr. If the supply of heat to a vessel be uniform, five hours and a half will be required to drive off its water in steam, provided one hour was taken in heating the water from the freezing to the boiling point, under the atmospherical pressure. (See Exhalation.) ETEEGREENS. A term applied generally in the United States, and especially in the North, to the conifera, or cone-bearing trees, as pine, spruce, hemlock, cedar, juniper, arbor vitsB, etc. In its broad sense, the term should include all those tropical forms, as the orange, palms, and other trees which retain their foliage, shedding their leaves as they successively ripen, the younger ones coming forward to supply the place of those cast off. (See different species as treated of under their proper names.) Pages 816 and 317 contain two forms of coniferous ever- greens, as illustrating ornamental species : Nord- mann's Silver Fir and the Dwarf American Arbor VitsB — Tom Thumb. Nordmann's Silver Fir is said to be abundant on the Crimean mountains, and those of the Black Sea, and Mr. Josiah Hoopes, author of the Book of Evergreens, say's it is hardy at his home in Pennsylvania, never being affected by the most severe winters and retaining the beautiful color of its foliage in all seasims and in all vicissitudes. Tom Thumb originated with EUwanger & Barry, Rochester, N. Y. Its form is rounded, with slender shoots, but occasionally betrays its origin by forming a shoot with fully developed leaves. EXACERBATION. An increase of violence in the symptoms of fevers. EXCORIATION. A bruise or abrasion of the «kin. EXCRESCENCE. .Any unnatural growth or tumor. EXCRETION. In physiology, the separation of useless or injurious portions of matterfrorh the tystem, as urine, expired air, feces and perspira- tion. EXFOLIATION. The separation of diseased bone from that which is sound in the progress of EXHALATION. Evaporation at ordinary temperature, more especially tiom- a living or solid surface. EXHAUSTION. In physics, the removal of air or gases from the interior of bodies. EXOtJENOUS. A term applied to" those plants a transverse slice of whose stem exhibits a central cellular substance or pith, an external cellular and fibrous ring of bark, and an intermediate woody mass, and certain fine lines radiating from the pith to the bark thi ough the wvod, and called medullary rays. They are called exogens, because they add to their wood by successive external additions, and are the same as what are otherwise called dicotyledons. They constitute one of tho primary classes into which the vegetable world is dividecl, characterized by their leaves being reti- culated; their stems having a distinct deposition of bark, wOod, and pith; their embryo with two cotyledons; and by their flowers usually formed on a quinary type. Our forest trees and most garden vegetables are of this kind. - EXORBHIZJ;. Exogenous or dicotyfeipn- ous plants, the roots of which extend directly from the embryo. EXOSMOSE. The passage outward of fluids, etc., the reverse of Endosmose, which see. EXOSTOSIS. A tumor on a bone. In botany, any knot or tumor on a trunk or large root; the wood is often finely curled. EXOTICS. Foreign plants. Any plant not native to a region of country. Introduced plants; the' potato is exotic to Europe. EXPANSION. The increase in dimensions produced by heat. Gases expand most rapidly and extensively, fluids next, and metals least. EX'PECTOBANTS. Medicines which assist in throwing off phlegm. BXPERIMEM. Experiments in agricul- ture are, and must necessarily always be, of supreme value, since the art must ever be pro- gressive, and varieties and conditions ever changing. The testing of new varieties should be carried forward every year more or less, and by every farmer; for,' only by this means can certain knowledge be obtained of vHrieties of trees and plants adapted to a particular soil and situation. Agricultural Colleges, through their experimen- tal plots, may render much useful information as to varieties probably useful in various locali- ties, and thus simplify experiments, anS bring down varieties to be tested by the individual farmer to a very few. Nevertheless, the farmer must, after all, test each for himself to arrive at certain results as to adaptation and value to his particular soil. , So in the feeding of stock, in plowing at different depths, and with variously laid furrows; as to mechanical means for amel-. iorating the soil; upon, various manures, and the best mode of application; in relation to per manent pasture grasses, and the new varieties adapted to our meadows. In all these there is a wide field, and much to be learned by the Ameri- can ifarmer. In Europe this subject has long received particular attention. In the Eastern States something has been done in this direction. In the West comparatively little has yet been attempted in carrying forward a systematic series of experiment, even by the better class of our Agricultural Colleges.- They are, however, FAIRS 319 FAIRS making progress in this direction, and the next decade will, probably, see even that class of Industrial (JoUeges that have been carried farthest into scholasticism, and avyay from the industries, wheeling into the true line of their work in this direction. EXPERIMENT STATION. (See, Agricul- tural College.) EiPORT AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. The article Agriculture gave the agricultural expqrts up to and including 1879. It will there- fore here be only necessary to give the chief agri- cultural exports for 1880 and 1881. These are f'ven up to March first of these years as follows: xports of live stock, 1880, $13,065,195; 1881, 20,681,738. Exports of other food, 1880, $374,- 568,343; 1881, $456,244,111. The productions during these years are, respectively, corn, 1,547,- 910,970, and 1,537,535,900 bushels; cotton, 5,- 073,581, and 5,761,353 bales; wheat, 448,756,630, and 480,849,733 bushels; wool, 333,500,000, and 264,000,000 pounds. These being the amounts for 1880 and 1881, respectively. (See article Agriculture.) EXPRESSED OILS. Such as are obtained by pressure, as olive, linseed, rape, castor and almond, as distinguished from volatile or essential oils. EXTRACT. The solid remaining after boil- ing down an infusion or decoction to dryness. The term extractive is applied to that portion which is of a brown color, soluble in water, and forms a coloring matter with alum solution. EXTRAVASATION. In surgery, whenever blood or other fluids are thrown out from the veins into the skin, brain, or o^Jier parts, it is termed an extravasation. It frequently arises from a blow. EXTRORSAL. Bent or turned from the direct position ; a descriptive term in botany. EXU VI.E. The skins cast by snakes, lobsters, insects, etc. , in the changes they pass through. EYES, INFLAMMATION OP. ConjuAC- tivitis, as inflammation of the eye-ball and the lining membrane of the CTe-lid is called, may be caused by a blow, chaff, or other substance irritating it. First find the cause, turn up the lids and look closely for irritating substances, remove by means of a feather or the forceps. If the inflammation is decided, a little blood may be- drawn from the angular vein, which passes oven, the face below the eye, and reduce the inflammation by covering the eye with soft cloths kept constantly wet with cold water. If the inner structure of the eye is involved, use an ointment composed of one ounce extract of belladonna, and half an ounce of honey. For chronic cases of sore eyes, three grains of sulphate of zinc to one ounce of water, makes a good lotion. Periodic ophthalmia or moon blindness, can not be cured. It is constitutional; the cause not well known, but perhaps malarial or rheumatic. It finally results in total blind- ness. In an early stage of the recurring attacks, one half ounce of powdered Peruvian bark, and one drachm sulphate of iron, given twice a day, the dose .to be doubled when a return of the attack is expected, has been found beneficiaL In these attacks, the eye gradually becomes more and more clouded, extending over the eye in the same way the moon waxes, and then gradually disappearing. The state of the moon, however, has nothing to do with the growth, lio more than wolf teeth do. There are no wolf teeth in a horse's mouth, but irritation of the teeth often does intensify inflammation of the eyes. EYE, IN PLANTS. The bud, embryo, or growing plant. EYE SPOT. Albugo, or "White Spot. This is a blemish of a bluish or pearly white on the pupil of the eye, the result of inflammation, interfering more or less with the sight. Light . touches with a stick of nitrate of silver, will * sometimes apparently lessen the disability, but it should not be used, nor in fac't should the eye be tampered with at all except in cases of simple inflammation produced by local causes. Others should be treated by a veterinary surgeon. F FAGOT. A bundle of small wood. FAGU"*. The generic name of the beech. F^IRS. The systematic holding of agricul- tural fairs is comparativelj' a modem idea. Fairs as they have existed for a long time in Europe, have been until lately, devoted almost solely to barter and sale. During the last century these have steadily dwindled in importance, as com- merce and better systems of trade began to bring every article of use more immediately to the purchaser, until now but very few fairs of this class are held . In the disposition of highly bred stock, annual auction sales are among the means used to get rid of surplus animals, and now, under the direction of agricultural and horticul- tural societies, National, State, county, district, and even township fairs are held for the display of all agricultural, mechanical, manufactured and art products. The rise and progress of these fairs is, interesting and instructive,, and the con- templation of the improvements made from year to year, in all that constitutes the result of human energy, is a most valuable study. It is but little more than 150 years since the establishment of the first agricultural society in Great Britain, but in 1733, there was established, in Scotland, a society to which its founders gave the name of improvers in the Knowledge of Agriculture. It became extinct in 1755, but was succeeded by another, which was merged into the Highland Agricultural Society. This association, in 1787 received a royal charter, and m 1834, it was r^ chartered. Annual fairs were thenceforward held, at each of which premiums were given to the ainount of £10,000. In Ireland, an agricul- tural society was established in 1747. From the influence exerted by the members of this orgam- zation many others sprang up in various parts or the island, which were productive of great ben- efit not only among the aristocratic landed gen- try' for whom all these earlier organizations were instituted, but also among the small pro- prietors and tenant farmers, and, indirectly, among the laborers themselves. In 1777, Ihe Bath Agricultural Society, of England, was organized, having for its aim the encouragement of agriculture, arts, manufactures and com- merce in the counties of Somerset, Wilts, Gloa- FAIRS 330 FAIRS cester, and Dorset. Through its volumes, pub- lished yearly, it disseminated a vast amount of practical information relative to the culture of the various crops then grown, and especially of those I recently introduced. The breeding of cat- tle, horses, sheep, swine, and other stock, was fully treated of in their reports, which also con- ■ tained much valuable data concerning manufac- tures, both general and as relating to agricul- ture, arts, and commerce. Among the contribu- tions to its literature we find such names as Dr. Falconer, Dr. Campbell, Sir Christopher Haw- kins, Hobhouse, Arthur Young, M. DeSaussaure, Dr. J. And'erson, Dr. Fothergill, Rev. Alexander Campbell, Count DeBerchtold, Gen. Abercrom- bie, and other eminent men of the day. This shows the interest taken in agricultui-e, in 'Eng- land, almost a century ago, by the best minds. This interest has borne abundant fruit, in making England, to-day, for the number of acres culti- vated, the most productive country in the world, both as to the variety of staples grown and the quantities obtained yearly from the 'soil We find, by the transactions of the Bath Agricultural Society, for the year 1810, that there were then in Great Britain (besides the board of agricul- ture, of which Sir John Sinclair was president and no less a person than Arthur Young," Esq., secretary,) eighty-one agricultural societies in regular working order; and to show that they believed, also, in women's rights, we might point to the .fact that one of them, the Badenach and Strathspey Society, had a woman for presi- dent, in the person of the celebrated Duchess of Gordon. The Royal Agricultural Society, of Eng- land, which has exerted so wide-spread and ben- eficial ah influence upon agriculture throughout, the civilized world, was founded in 1838, and adopted for its motto. Practice with Science. Within seven years it had established, or had been the means of establishing, four hundred other societies; one hundred and fifty of these being practical farmers' clubs. Ten years later, in 1855, the societies and clubs amounted to over seven hundred. The most important of these clubs, the London Central Farmers' Club, became so firmily rooted, was so thoroughly supported, and its influence was so v^idely felt, /that it received the appellation of the Bridge Street Parliament, and gave rise to the aphorism by a celebrated English statesman, that neither our fleets, how- ever well manned, nor our armies, however val- i orous, nor our diplomacy, however successful, can do so much as the plow. This society like many agricultural societies in the United States holds annual exhibitions, which are peripatetic in their nature, and the distinction of being sel- ected as the place for the yeiirly show is a much coveted one. In most of the counties of Eng-, land, there are county agricultural societiS, which, also, hold annual exhibitions. , These societies, as a rule, are in a healthy condition, and of great value to the farmers; but, now, the recognized representatives of the farming inter- ests aie the chambers of agriculture, composed of landlords, farmers, grain merchants, and others concerned in interests connected with the soil. There is a Central Chamber, subordinate to which are County Chambers; and these, in turn, are the superiors of the local or district Chambers. These organizations are of comparatively recent growth, and the' interest taken in them is in}- mense. While eminent citizens of England, in the last century, were seeking, by every legiti- mate means, to foster the interests of agi'iculture, a corresponding class in the then infant States of America were not idle. Manufactures at that day were comparatively unknown, or only in their infancy.. Then the foremost men of the nation were farmers, and derived their revenue directly from the soil Of those engaged in the various professions of life, many still clung to the pursuit of their youth, and gave their farms their personal supervision. A large proportion of the heroes of the Revolution left the plow for the battle-field, and w^ien the war was over returned again to their peaceful art. The first agricultural society ever incorporated in Amer-, ica was that established in South Carolina, in 1785, called the Society for the' Promotion of Agriculture. Its objects included the institution of a farm for experiments in agriculture, and the importation and distribution of foreign produc- tions suited to the climate of that State. Another prominent object, was to direct the attention of - farmers and- planters to the economies connected witji the agriculture of the State, and to enlist them genterally in the improvement of their con- dition. The society accomplished an excellent work, among other things, that of introducing th'e cultivation of the olive and the vine into the State. Societies for the promotion of agriculture were always regarded by the planters and states- men of the South as being of the first importance; and naturally so, for the reason that agriculture always was the dominant — in fact, almost the exclusive — interest there; more than this, how- ever, from the settlement of the country until about 1860, it«its'as confined to special products, as, at first, tobacco, then cottpn, and, later, sugar; these, with blooded horses and cattle, comprising the chief sources of wealth of the southern planter. In the earlier history of the South, her clubs and societies were composed of men of wealth and position, and, like the earlier kindred societies of Great Britain, were exclusive in their nature. More recently, agricultural soci'eties in the South have taken on a more popular character, and the last ten years has witnessed a wonderful increase in the number of clubs and similar organizations, which have had tlie effect to re-awaken interest in this rich and diversified portion of our common country. It is to be hoped that this will be the means of developing the immense resources of this fertile region. A Society for the Advancement of Agri- culture was incorporated in New York in 1791, but it became defunct after a brief existence of ten years. In 1793, the Legislature of the same State incorporated another organization, under the title of the Society for the Promotion of Agrioilture, Manufactures, and Arts, and agam, in 1804, a Society for the Promotion of Useful Arts, in the recital of which arts, agriculture is first named. This society published seven vol- umes of Transactions previous to 1815. A National Agricultural Society early occupied the attention of leading minds in theUnited States, and as early as 1794, Washington, then President of the United States, began to interest himself in the matter. In relation to this society we find that a letter was addressed by him to Sir John Sinclair, on the 20th of July, 1 794, and contains the following reference to this subject : It will be some time, 1 fear, before an agricultural society, with congressional aid, will be established in this o21 FAIRS country. We must walk, as other countries have, before we can run; smaller societies must prepare the way for greater, but, ^ith the lights before us, I hope we shall not be so slow iu ma,turation as older nations have been! An attempt, as you will perceive by the inclosed outlines of a plan, is making to establish a State Society in Pennsylvania for agricultural improve- ments. If it succeeds, it will be a step in the ladder; at present, it is too much in embryo to decide upon the result. The first proposition for the establishment of such an institution was made by Washington, in his annual speech, delivered on the 7th of "December, 1796, when he met the two Houses of Congress ?or the last time. Then a committee of the House of Representatives made a report, on the 11th of January,following, recommending the institution of a society for that purpose, under the patronage of the govern- ment, which might act as a common center to all other societies of a similar kind throughout the United States. The report is accompanied by a plan, the principal articles of which are that a society shall be established at the seat of government; that it shall comprehend the Legis- lature of the United States, the Judges, the Secretary of State, the Secretary of the Treasury, ' the Secretary of War, the Attorney General, and such other persons as may choose to become members, according to the rules prescribed ; that an annual meeting shall be held at the seat of government, at which are to be elected the president, secretary, etc., and a board, to consist of not more than thirty persons, which shall be ■called the Board of Agriculture ; that the society shall be a body corporate; and that a report shall be made annually. The first national associa- tion of this description was the Columbian Agricultural Society for the promotion of rural .and domestic economy, which was organized by .a convention held in Georgetown, District of ■Columbia, on the 28th of November, 1809. The first agricultural exhibition in America was theNational Fairield by this society at the Union Hotel, in Georgetown, District of Columbia, on the 10th of May, 1810 Among other premiums awarded were three, of $100, $80, and $60, Tespectively, for two-toothed ram lambs, show- ing the grpat importance attached at that early day to improving the breed of sheep. At this ■exhibition it is recorded that President Madison wore his inauguration ,coat, made from the Merino wool of Colonel Humphrey's fiock, and •waistcoat and small clothes made from the wool ■of the Livingston flock, at Clermont. The first field trial of implements in America was the plowing match at the fifth semi-annual exhibition of the Columbian Society, on the 30th of May, 1812. The "war with England, which occurred M that time, overshadowed everything else; and, .after liolding a sixth successful exhibition, on the 18th of November, 1812', the time for which the society had been organized (three years) hav- ing expired, it was dissolved at the close of that year. Its successful exertions in awakening a more general interest in the various departments ■of husbandry, not only in the immediate vicinity of its exhibitions, but in the adjacelit States, merit a grateful remembrance by the agricultur- ists of America. On the 14th of June, 1852, a National Agricultural Convention was held at the Smithsonian Institution, in the city of Washington, under a caU issued by the foUowmg 81 agricultural societies, at the instance of the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture; The Massa- chusetts State Board of Agriculture; Pennsyl- vania State Agricultural Society; Maryland State Agricultural Society; New York State Agricul- tural Society; Southern Central Agricultural Society; Ohio State Board of Agriculture; American Institute, New York; Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture; Indiana State Board of Agriculture; New Hampshire Agricultural Society; Vermont Agri- cultural Society ; and the Rhode Island Society for the Encouragement of American Industry. The convention was composed of one hundred and fifty-three delegates, representing twenty- three States and Territories. Among those who were present during its sessions were Fillmore, President, and Daniel Webster, Secretary of State. The objects of the society, as declared by the preamble to its constitution, were, to improve the agriculture of the country, by attracting attention, eliciting the views, and corfirming the efforts of that great class composing the agricul- tural community, and to secure the advantages of a better organization, and more extended use- fulness among all State, county, and other agricultural societies. The first fair of the Society was held at Springfield, Mass., in 1854, and thereafter yearly until the outbreak of the late war, when the practical efforts of the Society ceased, it having been found that the State fairs had grown into such magnitude as to eclipse its efforts. In 1870 an organization was perfected, in New York, to establish a National Board of Agriculture, but up to this time the organization has held no fairs, and has not gone beyond the preliminary stages of organization. From the fact that now every notable district, and counties hold annual fairs, and from the fact that from this cause our State fairs, many of them, are losi g in their attractions, the proba- bility is that an Annual National Fair could not he successfully sustained without outside aid. The New York Stale Agricultural Society held its first regular fair in 1840, the sum of twelve aiSd a half cents being charged as admission. Since that time the society has grown in magnitude year by year, and the legislature being finally roused to action, through the able pen of the lamented Judge Buel, and the efforts of his contemporaries it soon became the first of the agricultural fairs of the nation. The American Institute Farmers' Club, founded in 1843, had a more than usually active career for thirty years, or until the summer of 1873, when, from various causes, many of them of chronic standing, it ceased to hold its regular meet- ings. During the first twenty years of its existence, it effected a vast amount of good and, through its published transactions and the newspaper press, exercised an immense influence, reaching over the whole country. It has numbered many emi- nent men among its members, and its fairs, held annually in New York city, have always excited much interest. But far back, beyond any of these societies, Massachusetts may claiin the honor of success, in offering prizes for the advancement of agriculture. In 1803 the trustees of the Massachu- setts Society for Promoting Agriculture, offered among others, the following premiums: To the person who shall discover a cheap and effectual method of destroying the canker-worm, a pre- mium of $100, or the society's gold medal. For aheap of best compost manure from the common FAIRS 322 ifALL WJKJJ WORM materials of the farm — of not less than 300 tons — with a description of the method, $50. For the most thrifty trees from seed, not less than 600, and not less than at the rate of 3,400 per acre, of oak, ash, elm, sugar-maple, beech, black and yel- low birch, chestnut, walnut, or hickory, $25; or, if all of oak, $50; to be claimed on or before October 1, 1806. For accurate analyses of the constituent parts of several fertile soils, respec- tively so of poor soils, and how, by actual experi- ment, to remedy the evils, so that it can be prac- ticed by common farmers, $50. , And if it shall appear to the satisfaction of the trustees, that the improvement is more than equal to the expense, then an additional $100. From the beginnings thus sketched, agricultural societies and farmers' clubs have multiplied and spread, until now there are none of the States, and but few of the terri- tories, which are destitute of more or less organi- zations of this character. These hold annual fairs, and distribute large amounts in premiums , yearly, embracing the entire scope of agricultural and horticultural art, and domestic manufactures. Agricultural spcieties are in active operation in nearly every county of the Northern States. In the South, the popular interest in these matters is spreading and deepening steadily. It should be but a few years, at most, before this section of the Union will be enabled to organize societies as ' generally as have the Bast and West. In horti- culture, its votaries have not been derelict, but have fully kept pace with agricultural societies which, even to-day, are largely stock and imple- ment shows. In 1840 the American Pomological Society was formed. Their sessions are biennial, their meetings are attended by the most eminent horticulturists of the Union, and their exhibitions are contributed to by the various State horticul- tural societies. This organization, in connec- tion with the ^tate horticultural societies, has aided most materially in fostering correct hor- ticultural knowledge, and in keeping alive a spirit of progress. Now, nearly every State in the Union has an active working society. In 1876 there were reported, as in active operation, agricultural societies in the States named below. Of these, as stated before, the oldest are the Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, estab- lished in Philadelphia, Pa., in 1785; the Massa- chusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture, Boston, Mass., in 1793, and the Agricultural Society of South Carolina, Charleston, S. C, in 1795. - Dividing the American century into four parts, the number of societies now in existence were organized as follows: From 1776 to 1801, inclusive, 3; from 1803 to 1836, 16; froni 1837 to 1851, 375; and, from 1853 to 1876, over 1,500. The nuniber of societies in the various States are reported for 1880 as iollows: Ala- bama, 13; Arkansas, 15; California, 16;,Colo- riulo, 5; Connecticut, 47; Dakota Territory, 3; Delaware, 10; District of Columbia, 5; Georgia, 77; Illinois, 133; Indian,a, 99; Indian Territory, 1; lowaj 144; Kansas, 106; Kentucky, 83; Lou- isiana, 9; Maine, 49; Maryland, 27; Massachu- setts, 74; Michigan, 70; Minnesota, 43; Missis- sippi, 11; Missouri, 86; Montana, 1; Nebraska, 85; New Hampshire, 31; New Jersey, 23; Nevada, none reported; New York, 153; North Carolina, 37; Ohio, 138; Oregon, 7; Pennsyl- vania, 94; Rhode Island, 6; South Carolina, 10; Tennessee, 55; Texas, 41; Utah, 33; Vermont, 85; Virginia, SB; Washington Territory, 10; West Virginia, 11; Wisconsin, 81. Of these the principal State and district societies appro- priate lai-ge surak, as premiuips yearly, running even to $60,000 in the case of the St. Louu Fair Association. Illinois gives about $30,000i yearly, and some other States as much. The interest, however, is annually centering in dis- trict and local fairs, each managed by a business corporation, as in the case of the St. Louis Fair Association, and it is beginning now to be seri- ously argued before -our various State Depart- ments of Agriculture, whether their efforts for the advancement of agriculture may not be more legitimately employed than in the running of fairs as a source of revenue. FALCATE. Shaped like a scythe: a descrip- tive term used in botany and zoology. FALCO. The genus of hawks. FALCON. (See Buzzard.) » PALL DANDELION. (See Dandelion.) FALLING SICKNESS. (See Epilepsy.) FALLOPIAN TUBE. A tube communi- cating between the womb and ovarium of the mammalia. FALLOW. Originally, this term meant the exposure of the naked soil to rest, after plough- ing several times, to destroy weeds and repair its fertility. This practice is now considered almost useless, as requiring much time and expenditure otherwise better employed. A crop of oats, clover, rye, buckwheat, lucerne, lupins, turnips, or other cheap vegetable ia flower is now ploughed in and called a greea fallow. In this way land is rapidly improved,- espepially if i a liming is given. Tb turn Ju. heavy herbage the ox-chain is fastened to the clevis and land-side handle of the plough, and this pressing down the plants, allows them to be biiried. Green fallowing is the most rapid and c|ieapimethod of bringing up poor lands; it iiicor- porates into the soil the nitrogen bodies wanted for high cultivation, enables the improver to- proceed without the expense of cattle for raising manure, and saves the time necessary to wait for the manure. The herbage so turned m yields more vegetable mold than it would other- wise form if applied in any other way. Fal- lows can be made at any time", in summer for a fall crop, or in autumn for spring. FALL WEB WORM. Hyphantria textor. This is a common caterpillar and particularly annoying from its habit of forming its large webs, not only on forest trees but also on fruit FALIi WBB WOBH. trees, August being the season wnen they ar» formed in the North. The caterpillar is grees- ish-yellow, dotted with black, very hairy and slender; moth white and unspotted. The cut PAEM ACCOUNTS . 323 FARM ACCOUNTS shows, at a, caterpillar; h, chrysalis, and c, moth. This insect is named from the tent-like char- acter of the web in which the larva congregate They usually destroy all the leaves on a branch, before passing to another, and should be exter- minated wher6ver found. They are fespecially destructive to the apple, pear, cherry and plum. FAECY. The horse with Farcy should be killed immediately it is apparent that it is acute. The pustules are malignant, and arise from blood poisoning as in Glanders. It should be needless to say, that if the huiaan system becomes inocu- lated, with the virus, death is certain sooner or later. Fortunately the disease is rare, as is Glan- ders. Charlatans indeed have cures both for Farcy and Glanders. So they will profess to cure spavin after the bones are quite anchylosed, or grown together. There is a form of Farcy called Chronic Farcy, not especially dangerous, and mild forms may be cured. The buds or buttons as in acute Farcy are arranged in groups about the inner and outer thighs, forearm, flanks, neck, and head. They are tender and painful, but do not ulcerate. They may also be felt, as hard, irreg- ular knots along the course of the jugular vein. Rub the buds and knots with biniodide of mer- cury, or touch them with lunar caustic. If they break wash with a ten per cent, solution of car- bolic acid. Keep up the strength of the animal with nourishing food. Give twice a day, in a pint of water, five grains of arsenic and one drachm nux vomica. The proper proceeding however, if Farcy or Glanders is suspected, is to consult, or describe symptoms to, a competent veterinary surgeon, or in case the symptoms are pronounced to kill and bury deeply at once, and disinfect the stable promptly. FARINA. The flour or meal of grain. Fa/ri- nacenus is a derivative. FARM ACCOUNTS. One of the most curious facts, in agricultural economy, is, thatiprobably not one farmer in ten ever keeps a correct book account of debit and credit on the farm. Conse- quently his only means of knowing which crops pay best, or in fact which pay at all, ife to guess at it and take the chances. One reason is the pre- valent idea that there is some mystery in keeping books or something requiring a special order of talent. One of the excuses made is, that it takes a large amount of time. Book-keeping' may be made as simple as any other labor of the farm, and the little time occupied in keeping the books , in order every evening, may very economically be taken from some other less important work. There is another class, who shirk this duty from an unwillingness to undertake anything that savors of intellectual labor. The larger class . how- ever, do not keep a correct account of what per- tains to the farm, because they consider it unim- portant. A merchant or manufacturer who goes upon such a presumption most assuredly bank- rupts himself. The farmer who goes upon this presumption loses enough yearly to pay for doing the work ten times over. The only way to get into the habit of keeping farm accounts is to begin. It is not necessary to keep an account of the cost of every animal from the time it is born; an approximation can be had, for instance, on the feeding of a lot of Calves, a bunch of steers, or the time and money spent on a field of grain, etc., can be had with but little trouble. Some time since Mr. John H. Borne, of Massachusetts, presented a simple and concise plan for doing this, from which we extract, for one reason especially, that some portions of it apply to iMms where manure is a considerable item. Where this is not the case, of course it will become one of the minor items. In relation to this matter, Mr. Borne says: Sometimes we see accounts, even in agricultural reports, in which everything a farmer raises is set down at the market value. For instance, credit is given for the number of tons of hay, the number of bushels of com and potatoes, and everything that is raised, without a corresponding debit of what is used in keeping the stock through the year — making it appear.as if the net income was very large, when, in reality, nearly all is used upon the place. A farmer may, perhaps, plow large fields that have been previously manured, and, without appljring any fertilizer, obtain a good crop, which, when sold, brings in a large sum of money. He may decide that his profits are large; but a system of book-keeping that estimates the value of the land of each field, each year, would oblige him to appraise the fields from which his large crops were taken as of less value than before. This would show him that the profits were not really as large as he at first supposed. Another might spend a good deal of time and money in making improve- ments, which, for the present, bring in no profit, and it might seem that nothing was made by farming; yet an account of what his improve- ments cost, and of all that the land (on which the improvements were made) produced for several years would change his opinion. Thus, by carrying out a system of bobk-keeping which, not only applies to the farm as a whole, but also to each operation in detail, a very large fund of practical knowledge would be obtained in a few years. If each farmer in our nation would thus estimate the expenses of his business our practi- cal knowledge of the value of agricultural pro- ducts would be much increased, and the amount of productions in the nation be vastly enlarged. Some charge no interest upon their cattle, tools, land, and buildings; others sell a large quantity of wood each year, which is all considered as profit, without regard to the diminished value of the lot; these all deceive themselves, thinking they have made a large profit by farming, when the profit, in reality, comes from some other source. The plan which I propose to present is so simple that a person whose education is veiy limited can adopt it. The productions raised, and the prices of both productions and labor, vary much in different localities; but the prin- ciples will apply, and a little practice will make the application comparatively easy. It will be better to use only one book; it may be of any size and shape, but containing about two hun- dred pages, made of ruled paper, and having two ruled lines on the right hand, up and, dowm the page, for dollars and cents, and one on the left hand for the date of the transaction. Let the book be paged, writing the numbers plainly, and place an index at the commencement. Following, should be an inventory of the value of the farm, the stogk and farming implementi, leaving a few blank leaves for inventories ia future years. Next, may follow what may be called a memorandum or journal, in which should be noted aU transactions important enough to be remembered. This will require no debit or credit, but is simply a history, FARM ACCOUNTS 324 FARM ACCOUNTS important for reference, and will serve to prove the time and nature of any transaction. At one-third the distance from the beginning\should commence the cash book or farm account, in which every sale is credited to the farm, and every expense is debited. Commencing with the last quarter of the, book may be kept the account with different fields, hired men, and every person with whom an account is kept. As the season begins in April, I would com- mence the year with that month — as less pro- duce is on hand, and it is easier to take an inventory, (or account of stock, as merchants call it,) which should always be done. It will require some judgment to rightly estimate how much more, or less, each animal is worth than one year before; whether your buildings and fences are in as good repair; whether your land has improved or lessened in value; whether the new tools purchased are equal in value to the loss by use of the old; whether you have more hay, grain, or vegetables on hand than at the com- mencement -of the previous year, all of which should be correctly ascertained, being appraised at the market value. If an inventory is not taken, however accurate the account of the receipts and expenditures may have been, the real income or loss of th« farm will not be known; and the more accurately the estimate is made, the nearer correct wUl be the figures that show the gain or loss for the year. > The farm to which the following figures apply is one upon which a mixed system of husbandry is employed, and its poverty of soil and distance from a market may, in part, account for ' the small net income of the, year. The following will assist in understanding the plan to be pursued. It would, perhaps, be better to name and appraise each animal and each wagon sep- arately, as, in c^se of losses or spies, the loss or cash could be set against it more readily. nrVBNTORT OF FARM STOCK, TOOLS, ETC., APR. 1. Farm of aboat one hnndred acres, upland and meadow, in a poor state of cultivation, wli h alionse, two small barns, and other out-build- Ings, wnicb would probably bring at auction One horse Six oxen .^reeeows >. One heifer. Tliree turkeys Ninety hens, at 75 cents each Two swine One express and one riding wagon Ox wagon and ox cart '. Harnesses Truck harness Tokes Flows and cultivator I Ox sled and chains Spades, shovels, and forks Com eneller and harrow Hoes, rakes, and other tools Horse rake Band threshing machine 0;ipdstone • Baskets Com Bye Putatoes Wheat Three tons English hay. Two tons salt hay , . . Family stores Amount of inventory on which interest is to be reckoned for one year : . (8,550 OD 100 00 620 00 185 00 85 00 650 67 50 80 00 100 00 50 00 25 00 500 600 20 00 900 10 00 10 00 30 00 8 00 15 00 6 00 400 15 00 5 00 30 00 600 75 00 20 00 155 00 4.*44 00 JOURNAL. To go through the year would occupy too much space. Thus we give a memorandum of only one week every two months. It is not necessary to note every sale in the journal, only the more important, and such transactions as one wishes to remember; nevertheless we advise that the journal be sufficiently full so that it may become in a measure a reference from which the memory may be refreshed in relation to the principal business data of the farm and house- hold. April 1, 1865.— Have this day taken inventory of farm and what is on it,. all oi which are worth at the market value about 84,294. Engaged two men to work for the season; Charles Gross, at $25 per month, and William Aiken at {23. April 3. — Plowed lor grain and grass seed. April 4. Plowed for onions, and purchased onion, grass and garden seeds, oil meal for teeding, and tools for summer use. ^ April 5.— Gave the onion ground thorough preparation for the seed, harrowing in fine mannre, and working out all lumps aiid stones, making it mellow and level. April 6.— Sowed onion seed, and finished sowing grass seed. [Omitting till first week in June.] ' Junel.— Planted cabbages, putting hen manure, mixed witl; loam, in the hills. Jupe 2.— Sold one yoke of oxen f()r $197; which cost $105 last fall. The^ have done considerable work, and nave had good keeping of hay and meal. The only way I know in which anything can be made in keepjng cattle is to feed liberally. " i June 3.— Hoed potatoes and corn, and plunted squashes and melons. June 5. — ^Bought one yok^ of oxen for $135, which are in thin flesh, but will probably gain during the coming summer. June 6. —Hired another man. Patrick Mnrphy, for the remainder of the seasoi^, to lie paid $24 a month. I believe in hiring an abundant supply of help, and that more is lost by not having help enough than by having too much. [Omitting till August.] August 1.— M^n employed In hoeing cabbages and tur- nips. August 2.— Went to market, carrying potatoes, cabbages, eggB,etc. Purch'asedonefine.Cbtswoldbucklambfor $— . August 3. Employed the men in filling low, swamp land lor mowing. Last year the best grass on the farm was upon land so reclaimed. Angust 4.- Mowed salt grass. August 5 — At work filling swRmp land. % [Omitting till first week in October.] October 2.— Men at work digging mnck. Went to market. October 3.— Gathered onions; a small crop, owing to a ,very dry summer. Purchased oxen and steers for ft— . October 4 and 5.— Digging potatoes; very good crop; better than was expected. , . .; ., , October 7. — Drawing sea manure. T^v'd^^ TOmitting till first week in December.] ■" i' December 1 — The time of the men being piit,^ouly one is to be employed during the winter; the othbif^lare paid. December 2.— Spending time in making everything snug for winter. The barn and- hog yards are now filled with muck, bedding is secured, and part of it is housed, and the remainder etacked, so that it can be kept dry; and C' erythingis done to keep the stock warm and comfort- able. December 4.— Sold two fat hogs and eight pigs for $— . , [Omitting till first week in Febraary.] February 1, 1866.— Employed in laying tflans for the comini! year. In looking back over the railures of the past year, find that they have generally arisen from two causes : first, poverty of soil or lack of manure; and. Sec- ond not having men enough to perform all the work at the right time. In addition may be added one beyond the control of man, which was, long and severe drought February 5.— Man employed in getting wood for the year. CASH BOOK. In this book everything spent for the benefit of the farm is charged to as debtorj and every- thing sold, being the produce of tile farm, is credited to it instead of using the owner's name. Reference to the journal must show how and why the expenditui'e was made. FARM ACCOUNTS BBCh debtor page to be beaded as the following: Dr. 325 FARM ACCOUNTS Each creditor page to be headed as the following: Cb. Date. 1865. .April 4 Jme 5 Ang. Aug. 8 4 Oct. S. Oct. 6 Dec. 1 Feb. Farm. To 4 lbs. onion-seed, at $2.35 " 30 lbs. clover-seed, at 15 cents " 1 bag red-top " Yrt bush. Herd''e grass " % bush, orchard grass " garden seeds " 500 lbs. oil meal, at 3^4 cents " 2 shovels, at $1.25 " 2 hoes, at 85 cents [Omitting until 1st week in June.] . . Tol yoke of oxen [Omitting until 1st week in August.] . To 1 buck lamb " Wm. Aiken " Taxes [Omittipig until first week in Oct'r.] To 1 yoke oxen '• 5 steers " Patrick Murphy Omitting until 1st week in Dec'r.] . . . To Patrick Murphy, (in full) " Charles Gross, (in full) [Omitting until 1st week In Febr'y.] To linseed meal Blacksmlthing Amount. $ 9 00 4 50 4 00 2 00 225 3 50 12 50 2 50 1 70 135 00 10 00 8 00 86 65 160 00 225 00 24 00 43 25 175 00 24 00 7 50 Date. 1885. April 7 Jane 2 June 7 Ang. 2 Aug. 5 Oct. 2 Oct. 6 Dec. 2 Dec. 4 Dec. 5 1866. Feb. 1 Feb. 5 Feb. 6 Farm. By 2 pigs [Omitting until Ist week in June .] . . By 1 yoke of oxen , " Icalf " 15 bushels' of potatoes, at 60 cents [Omittine until 1st week in August.] By 8 bubh. potatoes, at $1.50. *^ cabbages " 12 doz. eggs, at 30 cents " 30 bunches onions, at 5 cents *' 15 bunches turnips, at 5 cents " 20 dozen green com, at 15 cents . . "12 lbs. butter, at 40 cents [Omitiing until 1st week In October.] By 5 bbls. onions, at $2.25. " cabbages " 15 doz. eggs, at 30 cents " melons " 15 bbls. onions, at $2.25 " 4 bbls. apples, at $4 " chickens [Omitring until 1st week in Dec'r.] By 50 IhsDutter, at 45 cents " 940 lbs. pork, at 16 cents " 8 pigs, at $4 " Jf beef, 156 lbs., at 13 cents '" 92 lbs. hide, at 8>f cents [Omitting until Ist week in Febr'y.] By 25 bush, potatoes, at 60 cents. . " 8 bush turnips at 60 cents " 15 doz. eggs, at 35 cents " 4 steers Amount. $ 15 09 197 09 11 00 90» 12 00 8 40 3 6« 150 75 30* 489 11 2S 525 4 5S 4 39 38 75 16 00 15 49 23 60 160 40 32 09 20 28 7 82 15 09 4 80 525 250 00 . The above (being only detached parts, com- prising nierely six weeks of the year) will serve as a specimen to assist in understanding the manner in which each sale and expense is recorded. The debit side, or expenses, should be on the left hand page, and the credit, or sales, on the opposite (right) hand page, and when either page is filled, both should be added up, and the amounts placed at the bottom, when new charges and credits should be commenced on the next two pages. In lilie manner go through the year, and then the amounts can be drawn off and used in the final settlement. The inventory at the end of the year will be omitted to save room, but the amount must be used in the settlement. To find the gain or loss for the year, take — • The inventory April 1, 1865 Interest on that amount for one year Grocer's account for the year Butcher's account for the year Bxpenseaof f arm for the year,being the amount of all the debt pages of cash book $4,344 00 244 64 175 85 85 40 1,681 29 6,441 18 The inventory April 1, 1866 Amount of sales for the year Take expenses, valne of farm, etc., April. 1865 Net income $4,123 50 2,545 84 6,669 34 6,441 18 228 16 This amount is received for services of owner and family, besides that portion of their board and clothing furnished by the farm. It allows for the additional or decreased value of the farm buildings and fences. The last quarter of the book being devoted to separate fields, poultry, cattle, grocer's account, butcher's account, 6tc., a few items will be given to show the method in which they are kept. These individual accounts are of prime importance. They may be made to show not only what every field costs and returns, but what each crop in a field costs, and, in fact, what each and every individual portion of a crop costs, as manure, seed, plowing, sowing or drilling, cultivating, weeding, harvesting, threshing and marketing. Thus, at a glance, the fanner may readily discover ivhich crops pay best, the quantity of manure needed for special crops to produce the most remunerative returns, besides much other valuable information, by referring back from year to, year. As a case in point: In the east where manure is an impor- tant and costly necessity in farming, where both commercial and domestic manures are used, the farmer can tell at a glance the relative economy of each, from their cost, including hauling and spreading, upon each and every crop to which they have been applied. So upon crops, the profits on which depend on the manure applied to previous crops, and the preceding crops themselves, as in the case of sugar beets, or other saccharine producing crops. An examina- tion of the books will easily show the character of the soil as to constituents and condition for the crops in question. ' A correct and minute system of book-]ieeping becomes absolutely- necessary on all large estates, and in all agri- cultural transactions, where the farm and factory go hand in hand, as in dairying, sugar- making, etc. It is quite as necessary, however FARM ACCOUNTS 326 FARM ACCOUNTS smatl the farm or simple the operation, since any business requires correct data. COKN FIEtD, (two ACRES SWABD LAJSTD.) Dr. May 1, " 3. -4, «, 9 1(), 10, June a 20 Jnly 1, Ang. SB, Oct. 3, -4, To 12 cords of mannre, at S5 " getting out and spreadTng " plowing , " narrowing " furrowing one way, 3i41'eet apart " seed corn " planting " cultivating and hoeing " cutting and curing top stalks^. . . " harvesting " interest on land and taxes $ 60 00 12 00 13 00 3 BO 2 00 100 300 650 -6 BO 6 50 8 00 15 00 660 143 BO Cr. By 128 bushels com, at $1 10 " 3 tons top stalks, at $10 " 4 tons butt stalks, at $8. ' Value received Cost of crop ,' . Net income on two acres (140 80 30 00 ' 33 00 202 80 143 50 69 30 CARROTS, (one-fourth OF AN ACRE.) Dr. May 12, " 13, " 20, June 20, Mov. 10, To 2 cords manure, at $5 " drawing m»nure " plowing and preparing land ^' .seed and sowing. '. " hoeing and weeding " harvesting " iiiterest on land and taxes.. $10 00 2 60 300 1 60 10 00 4 00 2 50 33 50 Cr. By,8,4^ pounds carrots, at % cent per pound, or $42 35 2 35 *' valueoftopB i. .■ Net income 11 00 ONIONS, (one-half ACRE.) Dr. April 4, " 5, i> «, June 6, Oct. 3, Mov. 6, To 4 cords of manure, at $5 " drawing and spreading '* plowing... " cultivating, harrowing and raldng " seed and sowing " hoeing " harvesting and topping j.... " drawing to packet and freight " barrels " interest on land and taxes 132 00 Cr. By 96 barrels onions, at $2 Cost of crop Net income $190 00 132 00 58 00 BEEF ACCOTINT. Dr. To 4 steers, at $45 " 8 tons salt hay, at $10 " Vi ton English hay " 30 bushels meal, at $1 10, (2 qta. each per day) $180 08 80 UO 10 00 33 00 263 00 Cr. Cost of 4 steers By 4 steers Loss besides the care of feeding $253 00 250 00 860 Mbm.— Yfet it is better to feed the hay npon the place, if as much can be obtained for it as it would bring if sold, even if little Is received for the labor of feeditig out The mannre thus made should be estimated as part of the credit. COST OF RAISma "DAISY," A HEIFEB TWO YEAB8 OLD, AND NEAR CALVINO. Dr. To value when 4 weeks old as veal " 6i quarts of milk per day for 3 weeks ** 4 quarts of milk per day for next 3 weeks " 2 quarts of milk per day for next 3 weeks '^ meal and grass to November 1 " 1 pint of meal per day to May 1 " hay to May 1 " care the first year. " pasture till November 1 " nay and grain to April 1 " care the second year » ; J2 00 3 78 5 62 126 126 400 400 800 3 00 15 00 5 00 69 81 Mem. — Not having calved, she is yet.to be proved, al- though indications are that she will be worth all she cost. When she has been proved, her value may be entered beneath her cost stated above: grocer's ACCOST. April 1, 3, Sugar , , Kerosene '. . Molasses :.... 21bs. tea ;. Crackers j. Flour $2 15 25 12 60 BTTTCHER S ACCOUNT. ■ -Sill April 1, 6 lbs. steak, at 20c : ■ 4b""" 6 7, Bibs, beef, a' 14c 151bs.fl8h, at 3c [So keep account to the end of the year.] A similar account of dry goods and of general household fumighing should be kept; also, of all marketing sold. 'It is said that farmers are more slack in their payments than most other business men. It is true they generally pay in time; but they are often short of money and get trusted for what they buy, thus keeping always in debt. This ought not so to be, and a little system in keeping an account of the income and expenses will have a favorable influence in assisting them to keep out of debt. In order that every record may be accurate, it is necessary that it be at- tended to each night, while fresh in the mind. A small book in the pocket,* or a slate and pencil hanging in some convenient place, may assist in retaining the principal facts and figures until they FARMING 327 FARMING can be transferred to their appropriate places. The foregoing is not giveii as an indication of expenses or prices. These will vary with the locality; for instance, in the West, the manure account will be light, and so will be the labor account, in comparison with the New England States, on the other hand the price at which pro- ducts are sold will be less than in the East, not so much less than years ago, when there were few railways to give cheap transportation, yet the prinqiijle will hold good now as then. With this showing we must leave the subject only adding that the most successful farmers are thoSe who keep a strict debit and credit account, and who are not afraid to look expenses in the face. FARM BUILDINGS. The importance and necessity of convenient farm buildings is early seen in the settlement of new countries. For the first few years the buildings must necessarily be of the crudest character, but, as wealtti increases, among the fii'st efEorts of the farmer is to improve his idwelling house and other farm buildings. These will be found treated of under the titles architecture, barns, dairy, and other buildings, which see. ' , FARMERS' CLUBS. (See Fairs.) FARMING. To those who cto look back to the days when the labors of the farm were the .merest drudgery; when a one-horse and a two- horse plow, , a harrow, the crudest hoes, rakes, scythes, and reaping cradles constituted the working implements of the farm, and compare those of to-day, when plows of every conceiv- able pattern, with and without wheels, harrows, and scarifiers, for a great variety of purposes, rollers, grain drills, gang hoes, reapers and mowers, horse-rakes, threshers, hay-tedders, hay- sweeps, horse forks and carriers, horse corn and cotton planters, cultivators, corn harvesters, huskers, stalk cutters, seed planters of every, kind, nearly all of which may be operated with- out the driver being obliged to walk. To those, we say, who have witnessed all this, and, more- over, steam harnessed to the plow and threshers, and made to do the work of twenty horses at once, the change is surprising indeed. The power machinery of every half section farm now often represents more money than the entire value of a good farm forty years ago. In other words, the application of science to agriculture has increased our productions ten fold, and enabled the farmer to feel that his calling is not all mere drudgery. Not only has great progress been made in the application of machinery to the farm, but the investigations and labor of cbuntless experi- menters has given us improved varieties of grain, vegetables, fruits and flowers, and farm animals so improved, that the farmer who disd half a century Sgo, if he could come back, would not recognize his country nor even the earth upon which he once had lived. In these days, especi- ally in the West, it is the capital invested in implements, machinery, and stock, that gives the measure of success in farming. It enables the farmer to accomplish high farming at the lowest possible Cost. It enables him to make a com- plete crop of com, ready for husking, at less than one-and-one-quarter days' labor of a man and team per acre, and in favorable seasons he may accomplish sixty-five acres to the man and team employed. / Modern improvement has enabled the farmer to raise crops of wheat at an outlay of $5 per acre, including cost of seed and harvesting. So, with all other crops, the intelligent use and care of machinery has not only increased the acreage, perman, six-fold, but has increased the average yield as well. This is all there is to high farming — the raising of maxi- mum crops at a minimum cost, Mr. T; S. Gold, one of the best farmers in Connecticut, and Secretary of the State Board of Agriculture, and a close observer, has this to say about farming in New England: It is true that little judgment was used in first settling the country, and that many farms, or even larger districts, were cleared from the forests that should have been allowed to remain, to furnish timber for manufacturing and building, and shelter for fruits and crops. The introduction of agricultural machinery is render- ing the culture of these rough portions and the gathering of the hay relatively more expensive' than upon smoother land, and there is no doubt that some entire farms thus circumstanced fail to return to their owners a fair equivalent for the labor and capital employed, and that many other farms have some portions which are a drag upon their better parts, a sinking-fund to swallow up the profits derived from successful cultui'e else- where. I do not refer to those expensive labors in clearing rocky land, or draining wet land, or reclaiming sandy land by ashes and lime or green crops, but to the continued culture of rough and imp6verished lands, the gathering of hay from rough meadows, still mowed because they were once productive, and other like practices followed because under other circumstances they 'were profitable. Lands so situated that they cannot pro^tably be manured or even cultivated, because they are so difiBcult of access, must be classed here as not paying for, the labor required. Wherever we find farmers laying aside these old-time ways, concentrating their energies upon their better lands, adapting their farming to the changing conditions of the times in stock, crops, and improved implements and machinery, we find them thrifty, enjoying the comforts and luxuries of life, with means to support society, to educate their children, laying up a comfort- able competency for old age, and to give their children abetter start in Ufethan they themselves enjoyed.- Again, if farming does not pay, how is it that all the cultivators of the soil live? They always get their living by their occupation, not by dependence upon other callings. The agri- cultural laborer always has his sustenance and always secures his wages. The failure of a farmer to meet his obligations, unless he becomes involved by some outside venture, is a rarity so great that it may be said never to occur, vrhile every community can show examples of ruined fortunes, involving many other parties, in the more enticing walks of trade and manufactures. Agriculture absorbs and employs all men who fail in other avocations either from physical disability Or other causes. The disjointed parts of lives spent in other callings, which absorb their mental powers and their physical training in periods of rest, are mostly spent in the culture of the earth. Agriculture has to f ee(i all these and their families. Adventurers of every kind take rest and find renewed strength on the farm for new enterprises, and come back again' often with blasted hopes and shattered health and for- tunes. As showing the advantage of capital in farming, in England, and the rule will hold good everywhere, the capital being expended judi- FARMS AND CROPS 338 FARMS AND CROPS ciously, Mr. Mechi, the well known and successful English farmer, who went into farming because he thought it would pay better than any other sure business, stated that for his farm of one hundred and seventy acres he paid £33 per acre, and invested nearly as much more in buildings, drainage, roads, clearances, and machinery. These outlays he regarded as constituting his invested capital as landlord, claiming in return, as yearly rent, £3 per acre, or about four and one-half per cent. Further outlay considered as capital invested by him in his capacity of tenant farmer, averaged per acre as follows: December 31, 1868, live stock, £6 10s.; farm houses, £1 Is:; tillages, manure, etc., £3 15s. 6d.; implements and machinery, £3 10s. ; hay, corn,!, etc., unsold, £3 5s. ;— total per acre, £16 Is. 6d. "With this tenant's capital of £16 per acre, he has for several years obtained from the farm .an annual surplus of more than £600 available for rent and profit, after paying all expenses. The statement carried out for the one hundred and seventy acres shows a landlord's capital of about £7,800, giving a rent income of nearly four and one-half per cent. ; and a tenant's capital of £3,730, giving a profit of over £360, or nearly ten per cent., after payment of rent and expenses. Mr. Mechi states, however, that his average annual profit as tenant for a course of years has been twelve and one-half per cent. His large outlay for live stock, which he feeds mostly on purchased food, is the key to his frequent and extraordinary crops and large profits; for through this means he is enabled to apply great quantities of rich manure to his deeply cultivated land. Such a system accounts for his production of forty tons of mangels per acre in 1869, and for his frequent produotion>of forty-eight to sixty-four bushels of wheat per acre. Yet the soil of his farm was naturally poor, needing more outlay to keep it in condition than would be required on better land; and experience had convinced him that he could have done better with a tenant's capital of £30 to £35 per acre. Many farmers dn Norfolk and Lincolnshire employ a capital of £30 to £30 per acre to advantage. It is beyond question that a difficulty with many farmers, is, they farm in a haphazard way. They fail to understand that to the plants to be grown, the soil, climate, rain- fall and other conditions naust be adapted. Thus they lose much valiiable time and money in try- ing crops neither adapted to the soil or climate. A case in point, undertaken by the French gov- ernment, and later, still another by the United States, in tea and coffee culture; will illustrate tlie point: M. Naudin illustrates the losses of time and money which arise from inattention to the meteorology of acclimation by the attempt made many years ago to introduce' tea culture into France. The experiment, made at a large expense, failed for the reason that the temperature and the degree of atmospheric moisture necessary for the profitable culture of the plant did not exist in that country. The costly trial was undertaken with- out a proper preliminary investigation. Tlie suc- cess which has attended the recent enterprise of the English government in the cultivation of the cinchona in India, was the consequence of a care- ful study of the conditions, climate, etc. , of the South American habitat of the tree, and a selec- tion of localities in which those conditions could be sufficiently approximated. FARMS AND CROPS. The animus of the present age is toward the concentration of capital in gigantic enterprises. Thus within the last fifty years immense establishments have grown up for the extensive manufacture of almost every article required, ' either for ornament or use. Agricultural enterprises, as a matter of course, can not be carried out in the same direction except in a limited sense, as in the manufacture of but- ter, cheese, the artificial feeding of stock in large numbers, and the carrying forward of the system- atic raising of crops on a large scale, under the direction of tlie master ahd by means, ofa large outlay of capital. This however can scarcely suc- ceed, except occasionally in the production of special crops, and while the land is new; for, it may be set down as a fact incontrovertible, that the larger the estate, worked by direct hiring, the smaller the average profits. So far, the history of these gigantic farms is that in the end the result has been failure; the only exceptions being when bodies of wild land have been secured at a very low price, sown to wheat, and the land disposed of at a profit at the end of a few years, or when the surrounding country had become densely enough settled so as to add many times in value to the original cost of the land. Hence in the set- tlement of new districts of a country, it always holds good, that, as the inhabitants increase, farms are divided up, and become smaller and smaller in acreage, and that in proportion to the diminished size of the farms, the system of cul- tivation improves. A case in point showing the effects of thorough eultiyation in the South will suffice to illustrate: In 1874, at the semi-annual convention of the Georgia State Agricultural Society, a Mr. R. A. Hardaway ^ave a detailed statement and comparison of his farming on fifteen acres, as against the average as indicated by the tax returns of the State. "The total cash receipts from his fifteen acres, for the years named below, were as follows: 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 6 acres of corn and 9 acres of cotton 5 acres of com and 10 acres of cotton . . . '. 15 acres of cotton 15 acres of m otton 15 acres of cotton 2 acres oats, 6 acres cotton, 4 acres com, 1 acre potatoes, 2 acres rice 4 acres com, 4 acres cotton, 7 acres oate. 3 acres corn, 5 acres oats, 1 acre potatoes, 6 aeres rested: Total value of crops for eight years $1,127 18 1,185 80 1,721 44 1,614 02 1,316 4t 926 75 951 60 684 00 9,477 2» Mr. Hardaway gives the cost of labor for the cultivation of these fifteen acres at $100 per annum, and adds to cash received from products of the farm, premiums amounting to $575; making his total cash receipts $10,053.30 for the eight years, with but $800 deducted for labor. The returns of the tax-receivers of the State, made under oath, gives tlie following average yield of the three crops named, for the year 1873: Corn, five and one-half bushels per acre; oats, four and one-half bushels; and one bale of cotton to three and one-half acres of land. Comparing these results with the crops made on the farm mentioned, the comparison is as follows: 1866.— The two hundred and fourteen 'bnshelB of com produced hy me on six acres would require forty-one acres, and the seven bales of cotton made by me on nine acres would require twenty-four acres. Here, then, would be sixty-flve acres against fifteen acres, and an addltionti expense of $892.45 for cultivating the extra fifty acres. FARMS AND CROPS 329 FARMS AND CROPa ™„?? ;I^ &® "® hundred and slxty-ntae l)nehela of corn produced by me on five acres would require thirty-three acres, and the nine bales of cotton which I made ou ten acres would require thirty-one acres. The case stands thus, for this year: Sixty-four acres against fifteen acres- forty-nme acres less, and $392.45 of extra expense saved in cultivation. 1868. —Fourteen bales of cotton produced on fifteen acres, the amount of my crop for this year, would require torty-nme acres, with the extra amount for cultivation 1869.— Pilteen bales of cotton on fifteen acres, against the same amount on fifty-three acres; a difference of thirty-eight acres and $392.45 of extra expense in cul- tivation. 1870.— I this year made eighteen bales of cotton on . fifteen acres. Taking the State average,' it would have required sixty-three acres to have produced this crop— a saving of forty-eight acres and the difference in the expense of cultivation. 187l.-7-This year I made leSbushels of oats on two acres against thirty-seven; five bales of cotton on six acres against seventeen; 168 bushels of com on four acres against thirty-two, a saving of seventy-four acres with the additional expense of cultivation. 187a.— My crop on fifteen acres was aa follows this year: Two hundred and eighty bushels of corn on four acres, again'*! forty acres required for the same amount by the State average; four bales of c .tton on four acres, airainst fourteen acres ; three hundred and flf ty-n ne bushels of oats un seven acres, against eighly acres; making, in all, one hundred and thirty-four acres, , against fifteen- a saving vorking stock, but not forced, since suffi- cient frame-work for continued usefulness must be provided. Milking stock may receive largely of corn meal, in winter, and ground rye, oats, barley, or mill feed, according to relative prices. Dr. Thompson, of the University of Glasgow, Scotland, gives the following data in experimen- tal researches of the food of animals, and the fattening of cattle, from which we extract to show the correctness of the opinions here stated: The importance of attention to the proper equilibrium of the constituents of the food is clearly pointed out in the following table, from which it is evident, food containing the greatest amount of starch or sugar does not produce the largest quantity of butter, although these substances arp supposed to supply the butter ; but the best product of milk and butter is yielded by those species of food which seem to restore the equilibrium of the ani- mals most eflBciently. The first column in the table represents the food used by two cows; the second column gives the mean milk of the two animals for five days; the third, the butter dur ing periods of five days; while the fourth con- tains the amount of nitrogen in the food taken by both animals during the same periods: — . Food Eations. Milk in five Days. Bntterin five Days. J^itrogen In Food in flv6 Days. Grass : Barley and hay Ihs. 114 lor 103 106 108 108 lbs. 3 -80 3-48 3-20 3-44 3-48 3-73 lbs. 8-3S 3-89 3-34 Barley, molasses, hay. . Barley, liii8eed,.andhay Beans and hay. .... 3-83 4- 14 B-27 Our author says, we may infer, from these results, that grass -affords the best products, be- cause the nutritive and calorifieht constituents are combined in this form of food, in the most ■ advantageous relations. The other kinds of food have been subjected tb certain artificial condi- tions, by which their equilibrium may have been disturbed'. In the process of hay-making, for example, the coloring matter of the grass is either removed or altered; a portion of the sugar is washed out or destroyed by fermentation, while certain of the soluble salts are removed by every shower of rain which falls during the ciu-ing of the hay. Perhaps similar observations are more or less applicable to the other species of food enumerated. In relation to this experiment, the grains mentioned may have substituted for them, oats and Indian corn, equal parts. This wUl, with good hay, constitute approximately a per- fect food. Mahy analyses collated, compared and brought together have given the following average of equivalents in the principal foods, used in feeding stock: The following are consid- ered equivalent to 100 pounds of best meadow hay: 383 parts of oat straw, 460 parts of barley • straw, 479 parts of rye straw, 460 parts of wheat straw, 390 parts of potatoes, 383 parts of carrots, 676 parts of turnips, 70 parts of Indian corn, 66 parts of barley; ,60 parts of oats, 27 parts of peas, 23 parts of beans, 23 parts of cotton seed or linseed meal. It will be seen that it is neither practic- able to feed on straw alone, or on- turnips alone. They could not eat enough straw to, support life in' winter, that is to say, 130, pounds' per day; so the turnips would be too watery, but by combin- ing the different substances named, as Indian corn, with straw, hay and carrots, or straw, hay JJ'-EJiJDlJNW 333 FEEDING and corn, we may make a perfect food represent- ing 100, and that will keep the animal in thrift and at the same time consmne straw, otherwise of little value.. There is one other important point m the feeding of stock that deserves special notice They are more creatures "of habit than is gener- aUy supposed. Hence the imperative necessity of feeding at strictly regular hours. Another important matter is the necessity of changing their diet. Animals .will live on one particular food. They will even thrive for a time; but the best results, economically considered, have always been gained by varying the food, accord- ing to the appetite of the animal. The power of animals to accommodate themselves to new forms of food, is extraordinary. Grass-eating animals may be transformed into grain-eating animals, but, here again, grain is one of the natural foods of the genus bos' (ox) and equus (horse). The dog however, in a wild state, is strictly a carnivorous animal, but in a state of domesticity, they may be kept in good health without a particle of meat; but, here again, the food must be highly nitrogenous, and the carbon must be in the form of oil rather than of starch. Icelandic cows are said to be fed partially on dried flsh ' Horses in Central Asia are recorded to be fed on raw meats, and both horses and cattle have been fed on beef tea and soups to restore them from a debilitated to a stronger condition. Yet this change in sus- tenance was not brought about suddenly. It was accomplished gradually, 'year by year, generation by generatiofa. The change from green to dry, and dry to green food should be measurably so. It is as necessary as that they be not confined exclusively to one diet. Dr. Wolff, a competent German authority, found that thirty pounds of best young clover hay per day, would keep a cow in good milk. This contains of dry substance, twenty-three pounds, of this, the albuminoids, 3.21; the carbohydrates, 11.38, and the fat, 0.63, or 15.12 of the twenty-three parts was digested. The richest and best meadow hay, he found to contain, in thirty pounds, 23.2 pounds of organic substance, of this the following are digestible: Albuminoids, 2.49 pounds; carbohydrates, 12.75 pounds, and fat, 0.42 pounds ; or in the 23. 2 parts, 15. 68 parts, are digestible. Hay in the "West is one of the most expensive of the stock foods raised in aU that great region known as the corn belt. In the more central portions of the corn zone, a ton of corn and fodder can be produced for less money than a ton of the best meadow hay. Hence, feeders uge as largely of corn as possible, and when finishing off cattle fat, it is given almost exclusively, or with only enough rough fodder to properly divide it. Regularity in th6 amount of the ration fed is of partidular importance. All animals should be fed at exactly regular hours, and just what they will eat clean. If any is left, it should be removed and given to other hungrier animals. As to the time of feeding three times a day is sufficient for all except the horse. The horse should have three or four feqds of grain per day, according to the nature of his work, and also hay in his manger at all times. In the horse, unlike the ox and sheep, the stomach is small, and requires filling often. The same is measur- ably true of swine. The best results with fattening swine will be found to be to give them what they will eat clean, four times a day. Whatever the food used in fattening animals, J;he object of the feeder should be to get the greatest quantity of food eaten daily that the animal may be capable of digesting. There will always be some animals that will be delicate and indifferent feeders. These should always be separated from the hearty ones and given special care and food. Get rid of them at the first possible opportunity; certainly as soon at they are in passably salable condition. There is no money either in trying to raise or fat- ten such. When cattle are kept in a stable there should be a room, frost proof, where the morning's food may be prepared over night, if mixed food or wet food is given. If meal or other grain food is given without mixing with hay or straw— and in our opinion this is better for cattle— it should be given only moist enough so it will not be dry. A little experience will so6n enable the feeder to so prepare the meal for the whole stock over night, that it will be in proper condition in the morning. If it be mixed with cut food, use clear bright oat straw if possible, and not cut shorter than two inches. Experience has proved the inutility of feeding hard, cut fodder, to cattle, and especially that cut short. Feed just what they will eat clean night and morning. Supplement this through the day with what good hay they will eat. What is left from day to day may be taken from the mangers and given to the stock cattle in the yards. Whatever the bedding used, it should be soft and plentiful. Many good feeders, however, prefer a hard smooth floor. Our own experience is not averse to this. If the passage ways to the urine conduits are properly made, animals may thus be kept both clea'n and comfort- able. In the West and South, comparatively few cattle are fed in stables. Where food is plenty and cheap and labor scarce and high, the feeder will figure very closely as between enhanced weights in fattening, and the cost of putting on the flesh. Hay is often a scarce commodity. Corn to be fed must be husked, sjielled and ground. When it is fed in the ear, we pre- fer it snapped with the husk on. Under any system of feeding whole grain, much is lost for the want of proper digestion, when swine are not used as gleaners of the droppings. Care- ful experiments made some years since at the Illinois Industrial University, as between feeding in stiibles with ground and unground corn, showed a decided profit in the latter way of -feeding. This we have also found to be the case. nUnder this system of feeding, whether the stock are fed snapped corn, — that is, com pulled from the standing stalks with so much of the husk as will adhere, or ■ fed with husked corn, very little is lost. The cattle are fed pleutifiilly. What they leave and that which passes undigested is picked up by swine, two of each being usually allowed to each steer to be fattened, and at the end of the day the hogs are given some corn additional, if they need it. ' Thus, except in very inclement weather, steers may be made fat on about fifty bushels of corn in about three to four months feeding, and the shoats require but little additional food to bring them up to heavy weights. The illustration, page 334, shows a Short Horn steer from flush pasture, and fattened in the field. The best plan we have ever tried for out-door fattening is to feed corn cut at the roots and shocked. This is hauled daily on truck wagons, when the ground is hard, or on sleds when there is snow, and fed, corn and fodder together. The cattle are not expected to eat the fodder clean, but usually FEEDING 334 J!i!iljUB±'AK they may be expected to consume the blades, which with the ears are the valuable part. The feeding is twice a day, in feeding lots — a lot for the morning feed and one for the evening feed. The cattle being about done with the ears, hogs are turned in to glean the scattered corn and droppings. Thus, ;whatever the system of feed- ing, if cattle have shelter from stormy and inclement weather, they may be made very fat, and healthfully so, and, where labor is scarce and com cheap, at a minimum expense. We could give tables of foods without number. It is hardly necessary; certainly not in the West, the South, and Southwest, where corn is found in plenty, and the feeding can not be carried on scientifically, with profit, on account of the cheapness of food. The feeder must be guided almost solely by the relative prices of commodi- ties. Coin, either in its natural state or ground. ous food for growing animals'; that, thus fed, they Tvill lack bone and muscle, and cannot be expected to grow up healthy. If an animal were to be raised exclusively on com this might be true, but the same would be true of other grain. Neither horses, cattle, or sheep can be properly raised exclusively on grain. Oats aie undoubtedly the best grain that can be' fed to growilig stock in connection with hay. Oats, however, cannoj be afforded. Good hay is a perfect food, so far as the distension of the stomach is concerned. The animal cannot eat enough to fatten upon. Our pastures make a perfect food, so far as muscular development is concerned. For cattle, whole com, that is, the ears, husks, and leaves, forms a perfect food either for growing or fattening stock in winter, so soon as they get strength of jaw sufficient to crush the corn. ■ Therefore, no breeder need be SHOET HOEN OX, FIELD FATTENED. will be the chief reliance for fattening. When this is the case, and it is deemed necessary, the following will be found to be a good condiment for special feeding, to be given one pound with each feed of meal: Twenty-five pounds ground linseed oil-cake, ten pounds ground flaxseed, forty pounds commeal, twenty-teur ounces grbund turmeric root, two ounces ^nger, two ounces carrawav seed, eight ounces gentian, two ounces cream ol tartar, one pound sulphur, one pound coinmon salt and ten ounces coriander seed. Mix the whole together, and when fed use a quarter of a poundof molasses to each feed, the molasses to be used in the' water for wetting the food in which the condiment is given. Where sorghum molasses is made this will not be found to be expensive. So much has been said by theorists about perfect foods, and the danger from feeding corn, that many persons have been brought to believe that corn is almost a danger- afraid that cattle from calfhood up will fail to develop, with plenty of good hay and corn, or corn meal in winter, and plenty of good, flush pasture in summer, with pure water at all times. (See article in Supplement, Feeding for Fat and Lean; also other articles relatively in body of the work.) , FEELERS. The antennse of insects, or, according to entomologists, organs used for pre- hension. FELDSPAE. A mineral abounding in graMte and transition rocks; it is crystalline, of a i^early lustre, and of various colors, usually yellowiBhoi' reddish. Silicate of potash and alumina; con- tains from eleven to fourteen per cent, of potash, and furnishes, by slow decay in the soil,.. that important alkali to platits. Alblte is a variety containing soda. An abundance of decaying vegetable matter in the soil, or the addition ol heavy dressings of lime, assists the disengage- FENCE LAWS 335 FENCE LAWS ment of the potash. No soil which contains much feldspathic sand can be deficient in potash FELINE ANIMALS. Carnivorous animals, furnished with sharp incisor teeth and retractile claws, as the domestic cat, panther, lion, tiger etc. FELLOES. The curved pieces of wood which form the circumference of wheels. The best felloes are now bent in one piece. FELON OR FETLOW. In farriery, a term for a sort of inflammation in' animals similar to that of whitlow in the human subject. It is cured by poulticing to a head and lancing. FEMUR. The thigh bone; hence femoral. FENCE. Any barrier of whatever kind to restrain trespass, either of animals or man. They are of rails, posts a,nd rails, posts and boards, planks, embankments, wire, logs or brush. (See Fences and Fencing.) FENCE LAWS. In nearly or quite every State in the Union there are laws defining'what legal fences shall be. In some of the States, as in Illinois, the law leaves it for towns, villa- ges, qounties, and communities to define what the fence shall be, or whether there may be no fences. A ' Synopsis of the laws relating to fences and farm stock is thus defined in one of the Reports of the Department of Agriculture, Washington: In the older States the laws regu- lating fences are substantially alike. As to height, a legal fence is generally four and a half feet, if constructed*of rails or timber. Ditches, brooks, ponds, creeks, rivers, etc., sufiicient to turn stock, are deemed equivalents f dr a f eice. In case a stream or other body of water Is con- sidered inadequate to the turning of stock, the facts are investigated by ofQcers known as fence- viewers, who will designate the side of the water upon which a fence shall be erected, if the fence be deemed necessary, the cost to be eqally borne by the parties whose lands are divided. Occu- pants of &,djoining lands which are being im- proved are required to maintain partition fences m equal shares. Neglect to build or to keep in repair such fences subjects the negligent party to damages, as well as double, and in some States treble, the cost of building or repairing, to the aggrieved party; A person ceasing to improve land can not remove his fence luiless others interested refuse to purchase within a reasonable time. A provision in the laws of several of these States, which is well calculated to serve the interests of neighbors, saving the expense of fence building, is one permitting persons owning adjoining lots or lands to fence them in one common field, and for the greater advantage of all, allowing them to form an association, and to adopt binding rules and regulations for the man- agement of their common concerns, and such equitable modes of improvements as are required by their common interest; but in all other respects each proprietor may, at Ms own expense, inclose, manage, and improve his own land as he thinks best, maintaining his own proportion of the geineral inclosure. The laws regulating fences in the New England States dUIer only in a few particulars. The required height of a fence in Maine, Massachusetts, and New Hamp- shire, is four feet; in Vermont, four and a half feet; in Rhode Island a hedge with a ditch is required to be three feet high upion the bank of the ditch, well staked, at the distance of two and a half feet, bound together at the top; and sufficiently , filled to prevent small stock from creeping through, and the bank of the ditch not to be less than one foot above the surface of the ground. A hedge without ditch to be four feet high, staked, bound, and filled; post-and-rail fence on the bank of a ditch to be four raila high, each well set in po'st, and not less than four and a half feet high. A stone-wall fence is required to be four feet high, with a flat stone over the top, or surmounted by a good rail or pole; a stone wall without such fiat stone, rail or post on top to be four and a haU feet high. In each of the New England States there are plain provisions in regard to keeping up division fences on equal shares, and penalties for refusal to build them, and when built for neglect to keep them in repair. Fence-viewers in the respective towns settle all disputes as to division fences. Owners of adjoining fields are allowed to make their own rules and regulations con- cerning their management as commons. NO' one not choosing to inclose uncultivated land can be compelled to bear any of the expense of a division fence, but afterward electing to cultivate, he must pay for one-half the fence erected on his line. Similar provision^ for the maintenance of division fences, exist in New York ; whenever a division fence has been injured by fiood or other casualty, each party interested is required to replace or repair his proportion within ten days after notification. When elect- ors in any town have made rules or regulations prescribing what shall be deemed a sufiicient fence, persons neglecting to comply are pre- cluded from recovering compensation for dam- ages done by stock lawfully going at large on the highways, jthat may enter on their lands. The si3flciency of a fence is presumed until the contrary is established; assessors and commis- sioners of highways perform the duties of fence- viewers. In Pennsylvania towns and counties secure special legislation as to the running of stock or other cattle at large. Fences in New Jersey are required to be four feet two inches in height, if of posts and rails, timber, boards, brick or stone; other fences must be four and a half feet, and close and strong enough to prevent horses and neat cattle from going through or under. Partition fences must be proof against sheep. Ditches and drains made in or through salt marshes, and meadows for fencing and drain- ing the same, being five feet wide and three feet deep, and all ditches or drains made in or through othef meadows being nine feet wide at the sur- face and four and a half feet wide at the bottom, three feet deep, and lying on mud or miry bot- tom, are considered lawful fences. Division fences must be equally maintained. If one party ceases improving he can not take away his fence without first having given twelve months' notice. Hedge-growing is encourged by law. In Delaware, a good structure of wood or stone, or well-set thorn, four and a half feet high, or four feet with a ditch within two feet, is a lawful fence; in Sussex county four feet is the height required. Fence-viewers are appointed by the Court of General Sessions in each "hun- dred." Partition fences are provided for as in other States. There is no general law in Mary- land regulating fences, the law being local and applicable to particular counties. In Virginia ,a lawful fence is five feet hi height, including the mound to the bottom of the ditch, if the fence FENCE LA.W8 336 JJliXM/Jli ijAVVO is built on a mound. Certain water courses are spedfled as equivalent to fences. Four feet is the height of a legal fence in West Virginia, and five feet ia North Carolina. In the latter State persons neglecting to keep their fences in order •during the season of crops are deemed guilty of misdemeanor, and are also liable to damages. Certain rivers are declared suflBcient fences. In South Carolina fences are i'equired to be six feet high around provisions. ^AU f edces strongly and closely made of rails, boards, or post and rails, or of ' an embankment of earth capped with rails, or timber of any sort, q^ live hedges iflve feet in height, measured from the level or surfaces of the earth, are deemed lawful; and ■every planter is bound to keep such lawful fence around his cultivated grounds, except where a navigable stream or deep water-course rhay be a boundary. No stakes or canes that might injure horses or cattle are allowed in an inclo- sure. The Ikws of Georgia provide that all fences, or inclosures commonly called worm fences, shall be five feet high, and from the ;ground to the height of three feet the rails must not be more than four inches apart. All paling fences are required to be five feet from the ground, and the poles not more than two inches -apart. Any inclosure made by means of a ditch or trench must be three feet wide and two feet -deep, and if made of both fence and ditch, the latter must be four feet wide and the fence five feet high from the bottom of the ditch. All water-courses that/^are or have been navigable are •deemed legal fences as far up the stream as navigation has ever extended, whenever, by reason of freshets or otherwise, fences can not be kept, and are subject to the rules applicable to other fences. The fences in Florida are required to be flve feet in height, but where there is a ditch four feet wide the five feet may be measured from the bottom of the ditch. If the fence is not strictly according to law, no action for trespass or damages by stock, will lie. In Alabama aU inclosures and fences must be at least five feet high, and, if made of rails, be well staked and ridered, or otherwise sufficiently locked; and from the ground to the height of three feet the rails must be not more than four inches apart: if made of palings, the poles must be not more than three inches apart; or if made with a ditch, four feet wide at the top ; the fence, ■of whatever material composed, must be flve feet high from the bottom of the ditch and three feet from the top of the bank, and close enough to prevent stock of any kind from getting through. No suit for damages can be main- tained if the fence is not a legal one. For placing in an enclotee any stakes, poles, poison, ■or ailything which. may kill or injure stock, a penalty of^$50 is provided. Partition fences mu^t be equally maintained. Fences in Missis- sippi are required to be flve feet high, substan- tially and closely built with plank, pickets, hedges, or other substantial materials, or by rais- ing the ground into a ridge two and a half feet high, and erecting thereon a fence of common rails or other material two and a half feet in height. Owners of adjoining lands, or lessees thereof for more than two years, are required to •contribute equally to the erection of fences, if the lands are in cultivation or used for pasturing. No owner is bound to contribute to the erection ■of a dividing fence when preparing to erect a fence of his own, and to leave a lane on his own land.between himself and the adjoining owner; but the failure to erect such fence for sixty days is deemed an abandonment of intention to do so, and determination to adopt the fence already built. In Texas every gardener, fanper, or planter is jequired to maintain a fence around his ^cultivated lands at least flve feet high and sufficiently close to prevent hogs from passing through it, not leaving a space of more than six inches in any one place v^ityn three feet of the ground. Fence's in Arkansas must be five feet high. In all disputed cases the sufficiency of a fence is to be determined by three disinterested householders, appointed by a justice of the peace. Division fences are provided for as in the majority of the other States. In Tennessee every planter is required to make a fence around his cultivated land at least five feet, high. When any trespass |Occurs a justice of the peace will appoint two freeholders to view the fence as to its sufficiency, and to ascertain damages. If a person, whose fence is insufficient, should injure any animal which may come upon his lands, he is responsible in damages. In case of dispute between parties as to a division fence, a justice of the peace will appoint three disinter-" ested freeholders to determine. the portion to be maintained by each. No owner, whose -fence is exclusively on his own land, can be-compelled to allow his neighbor to join it. In Kentucky ' all sound and strong fenced of rails, plank, or iron, five feet high, and so close that cattle or other stock can not creep through, or made of stone or brick four and a half feet high, are deemed legal fences. Division fences can not be removed without consent of the party on adjoining land, except between November 1 and March 1 in any year, six months' notice having beengiven. In Missouri all fields must be inclosed % hedge or fence. Hedges must be fi■v^e feet high; fences of posts and rails, posts and palings, posts and plank, or palisades, four and a half feet; turf, four feet, with trenches on either side three feet wide at top and three feet deep ; worm fence at least five feet high to top of rider, or, if not ridered, flve feet to top rail, and corner locked with strong rails, poles, or stakes. Double damage may be recovered from any person maiming or killing animals within his inclosure if adjudged insufficient. In Illinois fences must be flve feet. [But coun- i ties may legislate to have no fences if they choose. — Ed.] The laws regulating division fences are similar to those of the,New England States. In cases of dispute three disinterested househoLders decide as to the sufficiency of any fence. Proprietors of commons may make their own regulations. Line fences are pro- tected on public highways. In Indiana any structure or hedge, or ditch, in the nature of a fence, used for purposes of inclosure,,; which' shall, on the testimony of skillful men, appear to be sufficient, is a "lawful fence. The laws of Ohio provide that whenever a fence is erected by any person on the line of his land, and the person owning the land adjoining shall make an inclosure on the opposite side, the latter shall pay one-half the value of the fence as far as it answers the purpose of a division fence, to be adjudged by the township trustees. A legal fence in Wisconsin is four and a half feet high if of rails, timber, boards, or stone walls or their FENCE LAWS 337 FENCE LAWS combinations, or other things which shall be deemed equivalent thereto in the judgment of the fence-viewers. While adjoining parties cul- tivate lands they must keep up fences in equal shares; double value of building or repairing may be recovered from delinquents. The law regulating division fences is similar in most par- ticulars to those of the New England States and Illinois. Overseers of highways perform the duties of fence-viewers. Fences in Michigan must be four and a half feet high, and in good repair; consisting of rails, timber, boards, or stone walls, or any combination of these mate- rials. Elvers, brooks, ponds, ditches, hedgfes, €tc., deemed by the fence- viewers equivalent to a fence, are held to be legal inclosures No damages for trespass are recoverable if the fence is not of the required height. Partition fences must be equally maintained as long as parties improve their lands. When lands owned in severalty have been occupied in common, any occupants may have lands divided. Fences extending into the water must be made in equal shares, unless otherwise agreed by parties inter- ested. If any person determines not to improve any portion of his lands adjoining a partition fence, he must give six months' notice to all the adjoining occupants, after which he will not be required to keep up any part of the fence. Over- seers of highways act as fence-viewers. In Min- nesota four and a half feet is the legal height. Partition fences are to be kept in good repair in equal shares. In case of neglect, complaint may be made by the aggrieved party to the towri ^supervisors, who will proceed to examine the matter, and if they determine that the fence is insufficient, notice will be given to the delin- quent occupant of land; and if he fails to build or repair within a reasonable time, the complain- ant may build or repair, and may recover double the expense, with interest at the rate of one per cent, per month, in a civil action. No part of a division fence can be removed if the owner Or occupant of adjoining land will, within two months, pay the appraised value. When any uninclosed grounds are afterward inclosed, the owner or occupant is required to pay for one-half of each partition fence; the value thereof to be determined by a majority of lihe town supervisors. If a party to a division fence discontinues the improvement of his land, and gives six months' notice thereof to the occu- pants of adjoining lands, he is not required to keep up any part of such fence during the time his lands are unimproved, and he may remove iis portion if the adjoining owner or occupant will , not pay therefor. County commissioners are the fenpe-viewers in counties not divided into towns. A legal fence in Iowa is four and a half feet high, constructed of strong m^iterials, put up in a good, substantial manner. In all counties w^here, by a vote of the legal voters, or b3^ an act of the general assembly, it Is deter- mined that hogs and sheep shall not run at large, a fenfce made of three rails of good, sub- stantial material, or three boards not less than six inches wide and three-fourths of an inch thick, such rails or boards to be fastened in or to good, substantial posts, not more than ten ' feet apart where rails are used; or any other fence which, in the opinion of the fence-viewers, shall be equivalent thereto, is deemed a lawful fence, provided that the lowest or bottom rail shall not be more than twenty nor less than six- teen inches from the ground, and that the fence shall be fifty-four inches in height. The respec- tive owners of inclosed lands must keep up fences equally as long as they improve. In case of neglect to repair or rebuild, the adjoining owner may do so, and the work being adjudged sufficient by the fence-viewers, and the value determined, the complainant may recover the amount, with interest at the rate of one per cent, per month. If an owner desires to throw his field open, he shall give the adjoining parties six months' notice, or such shorter notice as may be directed by the fence-viewers. In Kan- sas fences may be of posts and rails, posts and palings, or posts and planks, at least f dur and a half feet high; of turf, four feet, and staked > and ridered, with a ditch on either side at least three feet wide at top and three feet deep;. a ■worm fence must be at least four feet and a half high to top of rider, or if not ridered,^ four and a half feet high to top rail, the corners to be locked with strong rails, posts, or stakes. The bottom rail, board or plank in any fence must not be more than two feet from the ground in any township, and in those townships where - hogs are not prohibited from running at large it must not be more than six inches from the ground. All such fences must be substantially built and sufficiently close to prevent stock from going through. Stone fences are 'required to be four feet high, eighteen inches wide at the bot- tom, and twelve at the top.' All hedges must be of sufficient height and thickness to protect the field or inclosure. A wire fence must con- sist of posts of ordinary size for fencing pur- poses, set in the ground at least two feet deep and not more than twelve feet apart, with holes through posts, or staples on the side, hst more than fifteen inches apart, and four separate lines of fence wire, not smaller than No. 9, to be provided with rollers and levers at suitable dis- tances, to strain and hold the wires straight and firm. Owners of adjoining lands must maintain fences equally. In case of neglect of one party to build or repair, another party may do* so and recover the amount expended, with interest at the rate of one per cent, per month. A person not improving his land is not required to keep up any portion of a division fence The trustee, clerk, and treasurer in each township act as fence-viewers, to adjust all disputes concerning fences. A legal fence in Nebraska is described I as any structure, or hedge, or ditch in the nature of a fence, used for the purpose of enclosure, which is such as good husbandmen generally keep. Division fences must be equally main- tained. A party may remove his portion of division fence by giving sixty days' notice. If removed without such notice the party so doing is liable for full damages. Where a fence is injured or destroyed by fire or flood it must be repaired within ten days after notice by interested persons. Justices of the peaCe are ex officio fence- viewers. Legal fences in California are described with great particularity. Wire fences must consist of posts not less than twelve inches in circumference, set in the ground not less than eighteen inches, and not less than eight feet apart, with not less than three horizontal wires, each one-fourth of an inch in diameter, the first to be eighteen inches from the ground, the other two above at intervals of one foot, all well FENCES AND FENCING .338 FENCES AND FENCINO stretched and securely fastened from post to post, ■with one rail, slat, pole,, or plank, of suitable size and strength, securely fastened to the post, not less than four and a half feet from the ground. Post and rail fence must be made with ! posts of the same size and at the same distances apart and the same depth in the ground as above required, with three rails, slats, or planks of suitable size and strength, the top one to be four and a half feet from the ground, the other two at equal distances Jjetween the first and the ground, all securely fastened to the post. Picket fences must be of the same height as above, made of pickets not less than six inches in cir- cumference, placed not more than six inches apart, driven in the' ground not less than ten inches, aU well secured at the top by slats or caps. Ditch and pole fence — the ditch must not be less than four feet wide On the top and three vfeet deep, with embankment thrown up inside of ditch, with substantial posts set in the embank- ment not more than eight feet apart, and a plank, pole, rail, or slat securely fastened to posts at least five feet high from the bottom of the ditch. Pole fence must be four and a half feet high, with stakes not less than three inches in diameter, set in the ground not less than eighteen inches, and when the stakes are placed seven feet apart there mijst not be less than six horizontal poles well secured to the stakes; if the stakes are six feet apart, five poles; if three or four feet, four poles; if two feet apart three poles, and the stkkes need not , be less thj,n two inches in diameter; if one foot apart, one pole, and the stakes need not be more than two inches in diameter. The above is a lawful fence so long as the stakes and poles are securely fastened and in a fair state of preservatibn^ Hedge fence is considered .lawful when by reliable evidence it shall be proved equal in strength and as well suited to the protection of inclosed lands as the other fences ' described. Brush fence must be four and a half feet high and. at least twelve inches wide, with stakes not less than two inches in diameter, set in the ground not less than eighteen inches, and on each iside, every eight feet, tied together at the top, with horizontal pole tied tp the outside stake five feet from the ground. In the case of partition fences, if one party refuse or neglect to build or maintain his share the other may do so and recover the value. Three days' notice to repair is sufficient. The sufficiency of a fence is to be determined by three disinterested householders. FENCES AND FENCING. The fences of the country are estimated to be worth more, as to cost of making and repairing, than are all the buildings erected. So onerous is the cost of fences that in all districts, where timber is scarce embankments protected by barriers of various kinds have been used./ Hedging has been exten- sively emplojfed, and would be almost univer- sally so were it not for the cost of pruning them, and otherwise keeping them in condition. In- deed, in widely extended districts no fences what- ever are used, it having been found cheaper to herd stock than to fence them in. When we come to consider thp large, portion of the year when stock may run on the farm without injury to crops, it is an open question whether this system, or a modification of it, might not be more generally adopted than it is. As to the cost of fences the Secretary of the Wisconsin Board of Agriculture, gives interesting data in relation to fending in that State, and urges the importance, as an economical measure, of the immediate planting of live fences. He gives the first cost of the perishable fences of the State at $46,p00,i000, reckoning the cost at 85 cents per rod. ; Basing the assertion upon long experience and observation, he says that these fences must be renewed every twelve years, costing in the course of half a century to the people of the State an expense of $160,000,000. He is of the opinion that one-half or three-fourths of this sum ican be saved by the: immediate planting and rear- ing of hedge fences. The yellow-willow, white or soft maple, box-elder or ash-leafed maple, Lombardy poplar, cottonwood, and acacia or honey-locust, are all recommeiided as suitable for live fences. These, he says, are all hardy, and will thrive vigorously in any part of the State. So far as hedges and the planting is con- cerned, we would impress upon our readerSj that they should always be placed upon a raised, sur- face not less than eight feet wide. This may be cheaply thrown up with a two, or better, three horSe plow, by repeated plowings, . after which the center may be levelled by a revolving har- row, or by running ' a horse hoe once or twice along the crown, and then going over the ground with a plank and team. If the hedge is to be set on sod land, two thin furrows are thrown out, the sod removed, and this space is mellowed as deeply as possible. Then commence turning down a thin strip of sod, following with a trench plow as deeply as possible. Thus you may get a tolerably mellow surface of earth by repeated harro wings. A simple and good way to set hedge plants is, to stretch a line marked with red, at such intervals as the plants are intended to be placed. Have the plants in a bucket con- taining a little water, carried by a boy, A sharps clean spade thrust in the soil as deeply as possi-- ble, and then the handle thrown forward^ makes the place for the plant, *hich is thrust therein by the boy; withdraw the spade, and press the earth firmly about the plant, with the foot. If the spade is thrust in such direction as comes natural to the workman, the plants will lean a little — no objection, if they all lean one way and in the direction of the hedge row. A man and boy will thus set 100 rods per day. The culti- vation the first year is with the ordinary corn cultivator, Thereafter it is done with the plow by throwing light furrows, always to the hedge. We have advised eight feet as the least possible distance for the width of the plowed surface for hedges. Eighteen to twenty feet will be ulti- mately required, and in practice it wiU be found that crops will not succeed nearer than within ten feet of Osage Orange, or within twenty feet of willow or other live fence. The f oUowing . are the reasons for our advice as giveh for Osage Orange, but which will apply to any hedge. In relation to ridging, the necessity arises from the generally observed fact, that the natmal drain- age of the larger portion of the vast prairies is poor and ineffective, the soil in many localities being so overcharged with moisture, particularly in rainy seasons, as to materially check the growth of farm crops; and, as is well under- stood, the yield of corn and small grain is much reduced from this cause. The same is true of considerable districts of several of the better tim- bered States, where other fencing material is grow- FENCES AND FENCING 339 FENCES AND FENCING mg scarce. The height of the ridges should be as great as can be made by twice plowing, or gath- ering up the soil. In spongy or low, wet places, three gatherings with the plow will not raise the ndge too high. Among the advantages of ridg- ing may be named the following : 1. The hedge will be more likely to escape winter killing, the exemption being due to the fact that the roots areabove the level of saturation. 3. Operations can be commenced and dompleted from tendaj's to two we^s earlier, in all localities where the natural drainage is inefficient, and the plants can be set before the buds open. 3. The roots of young plants will strike down obliquely in ridged ground, instead of extending out horizontally just beneath the surface soil, and attain a growth corresponding with the increase of available soil. 4. The young plants make a more uniform growth when ridged, in consequence of the more uniform condition of the soil as to moisture, and will generally be exempt from the gaps and thin places, resulting from partial winter killing. 5. When a ridge is properly prepared for the hedge, the roots of the hedge row will form a more fibrous growth, which will be made chiefly in central parts of the ridge soil, instead of the roots growing long and straggling. If, in the course of years, however, straggling roots should be found to require pruning at a distance of eight or ten feet from the Jied^e row, they will present less obstruction on a ri^ge than when grown upon level ground. 6. When a hedge becomes strong enough to turn stock, it is desirable to check its growth, which can be done by cutting off the ends of the roots on the sides of the ridge with a pruning plow, or with a revolving colter, and this without endangering the life of the hedge, the large amount of root growth in the deeper, central parts of the ridge being sufficient for the plant. 7. A ridge eighteen to twenty- four inches above the level will add thirty to forty per cent, to the effective height of the hedge; and, in combination with the latter, will form a barrier that will turp stock, thus consti- tuting an effective fence from one to two years sooner than when planted on low, level ground; and, at the same time, equally i contributing toward the effectiveness of the hedge in its inci- dental capacity as a wind-break. A plow colter, such as is used for cutting off the extremities of apple tree roots to induce early bearing, may serve a similar purpose in pruning hedge roots when extending beyond 'their prescribed limits. As in the case of shortening back to induce the growth of fruit spurs in. the apple tree, the effect of trimming osage thorn hedges is to cause some thickening at the bottom, but the growth is chiefly in the upper part of the branches, or in the emission of numerous small side shoots, or lateral branches. Inexperi- enced writers recommend this mode of training' to produce thick-bottomed, per- manent growth. Thick side growth may, for a limited time, result from such man- agement, as repeated cutting back leaves the plants, in their struggle for existence, the only alternative of the slow, feeble, lateral growth, to be seen in hedges that are not allowed to extend their growth vertically. Low-trained hedges may be necessary where land is limited in area, and high in price, as in the case of gardens, small lawns, and other ornamental grounds; but in such situations plants of less vigorous growth than the osage thorn would seem to be more suitable, for this reason — low evergreens or shrubs rnay be formed, triBained, and low-trained a long time without plashing. With the vigorously growing thorn,/ however, the case is different, and laying down and plashing is now generally adopted. It has been established by experience in Great Britain, and to a limited extent in this country, that hedges sooner or later become so thinned at the bottom that renewed or young bottom growths are essential to maintain their efficiency as fences; and this necessity can not be evaded in the case of the osage thorn. The sap tends so much towards the top that the lower part wfll become thin by self -pruning, which will be succeeded by holes and gaps. This result may be expected in both trimmed and untrimmed hedges. These gaps and h61es inay be tempora- rily mended, however, by inserting detached branches cut from thicker parts of the fence. Layering has been suggested, but in the shade and in dry soil, in which the lay^r must grow, if at all, their growth will be so slow as not to become, available against animals in any reason- able length of time, and it is probable that but few layers would survive. Osage Orange hedges may grow to a height of twelve to twenty feet be- fore they require layering. Layering reduces the .height of the fence two-thirds or three-fourths. Fig. 1. or more, causing the new growth to be made near the ground, and here, accordingly, multi- tudes of vigorous shoots are sent, up, growing up in like manner, at successive layering. Single-row hedges can not well be renewed by layering, without stakes. But double rows may not only be laid or plashed without stakes, but, when laid down in a proper manner, the hedges will constitute a very strong fence. Two-row hedges are believed to be much the best adapted to resist the stress of gales of wind, -the attempts of rampant animals to break over them, and for any contingencies requiring great strength in a fence. In the accompanying illustrations Fig. 1, represents a section of the horizontal form of lay- ing the brush of each of the rows backward and obliquely over to the opposite side. The stems are plashed, one from each side or row, alter- nately, each branch being brought down from Kg. 2. the opposite side, aiid laid in such a manner that each stem crosses the last one laid, about midway of its length; and in the center between the hedge FENCES AND FENCING 340 rows, the angle formed between the saplings and the ground being about thirty degrees. In, Fig. 2 is shown the embankment heretofore mentioned, and also a double line hedge five feet high._ In ordinary cases the hedge composed of a single line of plants, if well grown, is- "amply sufficient to turn ordinary stock, even breachy horses and swine ;! but, whether the hedge be single or double the embankment wiU be found labor well spent, even on dry soils. The tools most used in hedg- ing, as shpwn below, are, the press pole. Fig. 3, used for (Pressing the branches to. the ground in plashing. Weights are sometimes placed^on the plashed hedge to hold it down. Fig. 4, is a bill hook, or plashing knife, which may be used in a FENCES AND FENCING object in tke landscape, by adopting the sunken fence. Thig may be described as a ditch-like excavation four or five feet in depth, finished by a perpendicular wall on the lawn side, and the ground flatly sloped on the opposite. The propriety of persisteutly concealing the fence in such positions may be questibned. Utility is a strong element of the beautiful, and if no visible barrier intervenes between the pleasure ground and a grazing field, we at once condemn the incongruity. We can not distinguish where the flower garden -ends or the, grazing meadow begins, and must suppose that the cattle can perambulate the flower garden if they -choose; ; we can imagine the result, and we feel that a Fig. 3. variety of ways for rough trimming about the farm. Fig. 5, shows a straight trimming blade, a heavy sharp knife; such as is used for cutting up Indian corn, is in general use. I)ig. 6, is a trimming hook. Here again a strong, sharp grass sickle will answer every purpose f or th^ trimming of green or succulent annual branches., The more common plants used for hedging, in the United States are, in the North and West, Osage Orange; the Honey Locust, {Gleditsahia triacanthei)', and the Buck-thorn, {Ehamrms eathcurticus), are also planted, the latter to a limited extent. In Great Britain the Hawthorn, (OratmguK ottyaecmfha), has been used for cen- * turies'. Of late years English hedges have been in process of extermination, it being found that ihe land is too valuable to be cumbered with their gi'owth. In the West, the growth of weeds in hedge rows, the cost of keeping them, and the land they occupy has become a serious objection to the planting and renewal, and the cheap, substantial, and amply protecting wire fence is now largely superseding its use. In the South the Cherokee rose is largely employed as an ornamental hedge, and where It will stand, it makes an admirable barrier. In relation to village, yard, lawn, and other places requiring ornamental hedges, there is nothing finer than a well kept Privet (lAgxidnim, vulga/re) hedge. It is hardy East, as far 'north as New York, and Massachusetts, and in the West to about the northern boundary of Illinois, or say latitude forty-three degrees. Whatever materials may be used for outside fences, th6y should be strong and substantial. Inside fences for such pur- poses as that of separating the lawn from the vegetable garden maybe of lighter construction; especially if a fence crosses a ,lawn, as seen from the house with an open view beyond, it should be as light and elegant as is consistent with strength and durability. In such cases it is often desired to conceal the fence, as an intrusive fence becomes a nfecessity to separate objects that can not well be united without injury to one or both. Wire fences are well adapted for this purpose, as they are so light as not materially to interrupt the view; and if properly constructed, are STjfflciently' strong and.- permanent. It has been claimed that the highest degree of rural beauty is a viUage without fences, or any other distinctive marks to properties. But it has been replied: As well might it be claimed that the best arrangement in a picture gallery will be produced by taking the paintings out of the frames and nailing the canvass to the walls. The love of exclusive possession is a mainstay of society. Well-defined boundary lines to prop- erty greatly enhance its enjoyment, especially when applied to lawns and gardens. Hedges are useful as shelter to gardens, rendering them earlier, more productive, and greatly exempt from casualties of climate and locality. In the growth of all kinds of small fruits, as well as those of larger orchard growth, shelter is always of the greatest benefit. In grounds of very limited dimensions, where the boundary* lines are at no great distance from the house, an evergreen hedge set inside the fence will a^ord Fig. 6. great relief to the eye and form a back^ound, as it were, to the shrubbery and flower bordere. In relation to farm fences, whatever the material, whether posts and rails, posts and boards, worm or Virginia fence, sod fence, wire fence, etc., they should be made in the most substantial manner. It is poor economy to slight, in any respect, a barrier that is expected to last from ten to fifteen years, the life of good oak posts, or to scant the material, thus offering a premium to make animals unruly. In forest regions, timber fences are cheapest. Where timber is scarce, wire and posts fire cheapest, and the modern barbed wire, of two twisted strands, will be found cheap, effectual, and not seriously to expand or contract in length by heat and cold. As showing something of the growth of barbed wire fencing within the last ten years, the production in the United States was fully six hundred tons in 1880. The objection that it injures stock, is hjirdly worth considering, and even this may 'be entirely obviated by FERMENTATION 341 FERROCYANA.TE OF POTASH placing a pole on top from post to post, which stock can easily see. (See page 1134 ) F ENESTR ATlE. In entomology', the appear- ance produced by the transparent spots on the wings of some insects. In botany, the absence of tissue between the veins of a leaf FENNEL, SWEET. Fmnicuhim duke. This species of fennel is an annual plant, a native of Italy and Portugal, where it is cultivated as a pot-herb, as well as for the seeds and the oil Which these afford. It is a smaller plant than the common fennel. The stem is somewhat compressed at the base. The fruit is much longer than that of the common fennel, being . nearly five lines long, less compressed, somewhat curved, and paler, with a greenish tinge. FENUGREEK. TrigoneUafomum-grcBcum. A species of trefoil, cultivated for its seed, having a strong, disagreeable smell, and an unctuous, farinaceous and somewhat bitter taste. The seeds are useful in cataplasms and fomentations. FERMENTATION. Fermentation is that decomposition or decay which apparentlv acts spontaneously on animal and vegetable sub- stances, involving heat and a rapid evolution of gas. The primary cause of fermentation is from microscopic fungi, acting as a ferment. Thus any organic body, not living, in the presence of moisture and heat will ferJnent, since the germs are floating everywhere, and may even find lodgment in the pores of wood. The act of fermentation is taken advantage of by gardeners, in preparing hot beds, in composting, and in a variety of ways; in the first place to produce, with manure, bottom heat for the propagation of plants (see Hot-beds); also by brewers, wine makers, distillers, etc.. in the preparation of their products; by the housewife in making bread, vinegar, etc., and the process is constantly going on naturally, entirely unknown by the ordinary observer. This process once begun, oxygen is set free, which, again uniting with the elements of the body, accelerates and facilitates the pro- gress of the phenomenon. Salt retards fermen- tation, if present in considerable quantity; consequently it is used in preserving meat. Applied in small quantities to the compost heap it retards fermentation and combustion, and prevents Are f anging. Fermentation is of three stages— the vinous, producing alcohol ; the acetous, producing vtnegsir; and "putrefactive, producing decay of all the parts. Vinous fermentation is produced by oidium. The second, as in the souring of milk, by penicillium, and the third is supposed to be from the action of infusoria. A fourth fernient is denominated panary, but it is not generally recognized by chemists. Panary fermentation is what was stated to take place in the fermentation of dough in making bread, but this is precisely the same, without doubt, and may be referred to the vinous and the acetous. Fermentation must not be confounded vsdth effervescence. Fermentation is confined to ani- mal and vegetable substances, effervescence to minerals. Fermentation is spontaneous, effer- vescence the result of the intimate mixture of two bodies, as an alkali and an acid. Cider, beer, wine, etc., ferment; soda-water effervesces. One causes active decay, the other a neutraliza- tion of two bodies, acting one on the other. A single illustration will sufBce: The simplest case is the fermentation of the must or expressed juice of grapes which, when exposed either in close or open vessels to a temperature of about 70°, soon begins to give off carbonic acid, and to become turbid and frothy; after a time a scum collects upon the surface, and a sediment is deposited; the liquid which had grown warm gradually cools and clears, loses its sweet taste, and is converted into wine. The chief compo- nent parts of must are water, sugar, mucilage, gluten, and tartar (bitartrate of pptassa). Dur- ing the fermentation carbonic acid escapes, the sugar disappears, and with it the greater part of the mucilage; the gluten chiefly forms the sculn and a portion of the sediment; and the tartar originally in solution is thrown down in the form of a colored deposit. Sugar and, water alone will not ferment; the ingredient requisite to the commencement of the change is the gluten, which absorbs in the first instance a little oxygen from the air, becomes, insoluble, and induces the subsequent chtyiges. The reason why grapes never ferment till the juice is expressed, seems to depend upon the exclusion of air by the husk or membranes. In beer the alcohol is derived from the sugar in the malt. When wine is exposed to air and a due tempera- ture, a second fermentation ensues, which is called the acetous fermentation, and which terminates in the production of vinegar. During this process oxygen is absorbed, and more or less carbonic acid is evolved; but the apparent cause of the formation of vinegar is the abstraction of hydrogen from the alcohol, so as to leave the remaining elements in such proportions as to constitute acetic acid. Thus alcohol has been theoretically and quaintly stated as constituted of charcoal, water and hydrogen, and acetic acid of water and charcoal only; the oxygen of the air, therefore, converts the hydrogen of the alcohol into water, and so effects the change into vinegar. FERNS. Mlices. Flowerless plants, with, beautifully developed leaves, bearing their seed- vessels on the lower side. FERRET. Putmusfatidus. The Ferret belongs to the weasel family, and has long been domes- ticated and applied to' the desti-uction of rats, rabbits, hares and other destructive burrowing animals. Iti^ extremely sensitive to cold, and consequently care must be taken to keep it in a warm, dry place. As a curious fact in instinct, the manner of killing its prey by the ferret is interesting. It does not suck the blood, but kills by a single bite, by which the canine teeth pierce the spinal cord beitween the first ver- tebra of the neck and skull thus killing instantly. The length of the ferret is twelve to fourteen inches from the nose to the base of the tail, the latter being five inches in length. The natural color of the ferret is a mixture of black and yel- low. The fur long and fine, with an under- growth of woolly cinereous hair. They also breed white with pink eyes. Those most yellow being more addicted to albinism than the darker. It is also an error to suppose the ferret to be danger- ous to handle. They must however be handled gently and by one to whom they are accustomed, and when used for hunting vermin, must be muzzled, the object being that they drive rats, etc., from their burrows, rather than that they kill them. FERROCYANATE OF POTASH. A yellow, crystalline salt, also called Prussiate of potash, the solution of which is used as a te^t for per- FERTILIZEKS 34Si FERTILIZERS oxide of iron in solution, with which it strikes a beautiful blue, being, indeed, Prussian blue. It is also used in the laboratory as a test for copper and other metals, and to form various compounds of cyanogen. FERRUGINOUS. Containing iron, or of the color of rust. Ferruginous waters are also called chalybeates, and much esteemed as tonics. Fer- ruginous soils, when friable, are frequently very fertile and open to improvement. FERTILIZERS. The necessity of fertilizers for worn land is generally acknowledged even by the most ignorant; but very many — otherwise good farmers — ^f ail to appreciate the advantage of applying manure while yet the soil is in a state of vigorous fertility, in order to 'keep it so, and also to still further improvd its producing quality. They tail to appreciate the fact that it costs no more to cultivate an acre of land in the highest state of fertility, than it d'Oes a poor acre. Nay, it costs less, for the vigorous growth will soon tend to smother out the weeds and keep them down. The question of ordinary manures will be treated under the head of Manures, the term fertilizers being now, by common consent, applied to special manures and, particularly, to those known as commercial fertilizers. These are of six principal classes: 1, those manufactured directly fBom dead animal products, asofEal, flesh. blood, fish, etc.; 2, superphosphate, made from bones; 3, guano, oT the deposit of marine birds; 4, poudrette,' manufactured from night soil, the contents of privies; 5, the mineral manures as lime, gypsum, salt, kainit, etc, ; and 6, ashes, the important constituent of which is potash. Among all these guano has been found to be the best source of nitrogen, (ammonia); and phosphoric acid, and bone preparation, the best source of superphosphate, or soluble phosphate of lime.. The most glaring and shameful adulterations of these substances rendered it necessary for those States where fertilizers were principally sold, to pass the most stringent laws for the protection of purchasers. Ih relation to the supply of Peru- vian guano, a report made by the British consul at CaUao says thai; the whole amount of export- able ^uano possessed by Peru would not, by fait estimate, reach 3,000,000 tons, a ijuantity which would supply the demand only for a very few y^ars. Inforriiation obtained through careful " .Inquiries at'the G-uanape and Macabee Islands, up to TS'ovember, 1873,1! placed the available quantity at ttese localities at about 500,000 tons and 750,- 000 tons respecti,vely. He is assured that the guano on the Lobos Islands (^bes not exceed 750^000 tons in quantity, This has since been verified not Only by a dimiiiished supply, but by the fact 'that the guano question has led to seri- ous wars between Peru and neighboring States. In relation to the supposed values of commercial fertilizers, chiefly oec3,8ioned by the specious advertisements of those engaged in the manufac- tuie and sale, Prof. S. W. Johnston, in a paper to the Connecticut Board of 'Agriculture, as long ago as 1869, from analyses made to deterinine the commercial value as compared to the selling price, , the samples tested being taken directly from the s^cksiand other packages in the dealers' stores, of sixtepn samples tested, says- Of these sixteen sapiples, one, a home-m,ade superphos- phate, has,no selling price afiixed. Another f er- „ tilizer shows a currency value of $61.53 per ton, against aselling price of $56 per lion. In con- trast to this a poudrette exhibited a currency value of only |3.03 per ton, against a selling' price of $38 per ton; kiid another of similar brand a value of only $3.16 per ton, against a selling price of $3.50 per barrel. The point is, any person buying comlnercial fertilizers, of any kind, if in States havihg laws relating to adul- teration, should see that the value of the fertilizer has been regularly verified. Then the buyer has redress through the courts, if fraud be practiced, not easily obtained otherwise. Guanos, and t other special fertilizers, may be mad© at home.- Pigeon dung is fully equal to the best Peruvian guano, and the dry dung of fowls better than guano, as usually guaranteed and sold. Prof. Johnson recommends the following as an excel- lent combination for fertilizing purposes- Mix one bushel of salt with two bushels of dry lim^, under cover, and allo^v the mixture to decom-/ pose gradually, thus forming an intimate chemi- cal union of the two materials. Poir this purpose the mixture should lie at least six weeks before use, or, still better, two or three months, the heap mentioned being turned over occasionally. This salt and lime mixture, when applied at the rate of twenty to thirty bushels per acre, forms an excellent top-dressing for many crops. It acts powerfully on the vegetable matter of soUs. Fifty bushels applied to a turnip field have pro- duced as large a crop as twenty loads of barn- yard manure. It is also very destructive to insects and grubs in the soil. Like salt, it attracts moisture from the air, and has been found useful against drought. Its decomposing power is' remarkable; and, if three or four bushels of it are mixed with a cord of swamp muck, the latter will soon be reduced to powder. Coarse manure is in a similar ! manner decom- posed and made fine. Sour, wet muck, thus treated and composted with, barn-yard manure, constitutes a fertilizer almost as valuable as the unmixed manure of the barnyard. An excellent substitute for commeVcial fertilizers, such as superphosphates, etc., tnay be inade as follows: Take one barrel of pure, raw, finely-ground bones, and one barrel of the best wood-ashes; mix them on a floor, and add gradually three pailfuls of water, mixing thoroughly with the hoe. Use in small quantities in about the same manner as the superphosphates. If the ashes cannot be procured, dissolve twelve pounds of potash in ten gallons of hot water, and with this solutiori saturate the bone-flour thoroughly; a barrel of dried peat or good loam, without stones, may be added. The mixture ^hould not be sticky,,, neither too moist nor too dry. In apply- . ing It avoid direct contact with the seed; for instance, when applied iii the hill, scatter a. little earth over it before dropping the seed. A very early visible effect should not be anticipated, but the good results will ' manifest themselves as the season advances. The Dr. Valentine's guano contains the following constituents- in a ton, arid is made as follows, the manufacture to be car- ried on in a dry place : Take twenty bushels of dried peat, three bushels of wood-ashes, and five bushels of bone-dust, and, mix them together; then take forty pounds nitrate of soda, twenty pounds of sal ammonia, eleven pounds of car- bonate of ammbnia, twenty pounds sulphate of soda, ten pounds sulphate of magnesia, and ten pounds common salt; -mix these ingredients in sufiicient water to dissolve them — say four or :|.ilEKTILIZER8 343 FERTILIZER five pailfuls. Add this solution to the three articles first named, and mix as in making mor- tar.'. When thoroughly intermixed, add three bushels of calcined plaster, which will ahsorb the supeifabundant lijjuid, and bring the composition, into a dry condition. Pack so as to exclude air. If occasion requires, garden mold or clean vir- gin sral may be substituted for the peat. The' editor of the Boston Journal bf Ohemist/ry recom- mends increasing the bone-dust to four or five bushels, and to substitute nitrate of potash for the nitrate of soda^ and that the rate of applica- tion on ordinary northern soils be from a half ton to a ton per acre. The cost of the ingredi- ents will depend on circumstances of locality, etc., but may be approximately stated at $20 per ton, not including the peat. Kainit, an article lately brought into conuuercial notice, is a rock containing from twenty-eight to thirty- two per cent, of sulphate of potassa, in com- bination with sulphate of magnesia, chloride of magnesium, sulphate of lime, and chloride of sodium. Its potash constituents give it its value. It is mined at Strassf urth, Germany, where the bed lays from 500 to 800 feet below the sur- face. In relation to this fertilizer, Dr. Voelcker thinks it more likely to be remunerative on sandy and gravelly than on clayey soils, and especially for roots, clover, and other leguminous crops, and potatoes. For the latter, designed for mar- ket, it may also be of use on heavier soils. In moderate applications it may be beneficial to grass land which does not receive sufficient dung, and which is annually cropped in hay, with the aid of such nitrogenous manures as ammonia salts or nitrate of soda. But he does not antici- pate much benefit from a general use of kainit in agriculture. In South Carolina a phosphate rock is largely pined, and its use is increasing every year. Among its valuable constituents are 26.28 per cent, of phosphoric acid; 39.78 lime; and, insoluble silicious matter, and soluble silica 15.31 per cent. The following table will show, from Dr. Emil WolfE, Germany, the aver- age composition of the principal commercial fertilizers, these being the average results of numerous analyses, lately revised. They will be found approximately correct. Fertilizers. (In one hundred parts.) ■=,m o'S S>< •a a § .Hoa in a o ^ a as Peruvian Guano Norway Ksh-Uaano 'Poudrette Pulverized Dead Animals , Flesh-Meal Dried Blood Horn Meal and Shavings Bone-Meal Eone-Meal, sdlid parts , Sone-Meal, soil parts Bone-blacik, pure 'Bone4)lack, spent Bone ash :. Baker Guano Jarvis Guano .. XiStremadura Apatite Sombrero Phosphate Navaasa Phosphate Nassau Phosphorite, rich Nassau Phosphorite, medium. ' WestphaUan Phosphorite Hanover Phosphorite Coprolites Sulphate of Ammonia 'Nitrate of Soda Wool-dust andoftal Lime-cake "Whale-oil refuse Common Salt Gypsum or Plaster — — Gas-lime Sugar-House Scum Iieached wood ashes ■ Wodd-soot Coal-soot Ashes from Deciduous trees. . . Ashes from Evergreen trees. . .. Peat-ashes - Bituminous coal-ashes Anthracite coal-aahes Superphosphate, from Peruyian Guano Estremadura Apatite . Sombrero Phosphate Navassa Phosphate Nassau Phosphorite, rich Nassau Phosphorite, medium — Bone-black Bone-Meal • i ■ • Phospho-guano (manufactured) . . pr. ct. 14.8 12.6 34.0 5.7 27.8 14.0 8.5 6.0 5.0 7.0 6.0 10.0 6.0 10.0 11.8 .0.6 8.5 2.6 2.6 2.5 6.5 2.0 4.3 4.0 2.6 10.0 6.5 23.0 5.0 20.0 7.0 34.5 20.0 6.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 16.0 15.0 15.0 15.0 15.0 12.0 15.0 13.0 16.5 pr. ct, 51.4 53.4 27.0 56.9 56.6 79.0 68.5 33.3 31.5 37.3 10.0 6.0 3.0 9.2 8.2 _ 1.6 3.5 56.0 47.0 68.4 1.3 24.5 5.0 71.8 70.2 5.0 5.0 5.0 41.9 34.0 49.0 37.4 15.6 7.0 25.0 60.7 63.5 65.7 84. 84.0 91.0 81.0 80.0 91.5 92.0 97.4 97.5 91.8 94.5 95.7 34.0 46.5 8.6 95.0 80.8 91.7 41.0 75.0 90.0 90.0 95.0 95.0 90.0 2.5 8.0 23.8 13.0 pr. ct. 18. 9'.0 2.0 6.5 9.7 11.7 10.2 3.8 3.5 4.0 1.0 0.5 42.1 85.0 85.0 82.6 85.0 88.0 77.0 63.2 80.3 pr. ct. 2.3 0.3 0.9 0.3 0.5 0.4 0.1 0.1 20.0 16 5 5 2 3.1 ,6.7 0.4 1.2 1.3 2.5 10.0 0.3 2.0 3.3 pr. ct. 1.4 0.9 1.0 0.8 0.7 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.8 0.4 0.7 0.8 0.7 1.0 0.3 0.2 0.2 2.6 2.4 0.1 lO'.O 6.0 1.5 0.5 0.1 2.0 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.6 1.2 0.3 0.3 0.8 0.4 0.4 36.0 0.1 44.3 0.6 13 0.5 2.0 08 0.4 0.1 0.5 I 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.4 pr. ct. 11.0 15.4 18.6 18.2 7.0 0.7 6.6 31.3 33.0 29.0 43 37.0 46.0 41.5 39.1 48.1 43.5 37.5 45.1 40.1 21.8 37.2 46.4 0.6 0.2 1.4 20.5 3.0 1.2 31.0 64 5 20.7 24.6 10.0 4.0 30.0 35.0 ? 9.5 28.2 26.4 17.0 36.5 24.2 25.0 22.4 24.0 pr. ct. 1.2 0.6 0.5 0,4 0.3 0.1 0.3 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.5 0.5 0.1 0.6 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.9 0.2 1.0 pr. ct. 13.0 13.5 2.1 13.9 6.3 1.0 6.5 23.2 25. a 20.0 32.0 26.0 35.4 34.8 20.6 37.6 35.0 33.2 33.0 24.1 19,7 29.2 26.4 6.0 6.0 1.6 3.2 3.0 1.0 0.1 0.4 0.3 1 0.1 0.7 0.7 pr. ct. 1.0 0.3 1.0 1.0 0.1 0.4 0.9 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.4 1.6 18.0 0.2 0.5 0.5 6.3 0-3 1.3 2.4 3.0 0.2 2.3 0.2 0.1 1.6 0.3 1.5 2.5 6.0 1.5 0.4 1.5 6.5 4 5 0.6 0.2 0.1 10.5 22.1 20.2 15.4 19.4 16.6 16.2 16.6 20.6 1.0 0.5 0.8 58.0 0.7 0.5 1.4 44.0 12.5 0.3 0-3 0.3 1.7 1.6 1.6 1.3 8.5 5.0 pr. ct. 1.7 1.6 5.4 1.7 1.1 2.1 11.0 3.5 3.0 8.5 5.0 15.0 6.6 0.8 0.5 9.0 1.0 6.0) 5.5 80.8 22.0' 8.3 7.5 8.0 1.5 29.0 8.0 8.0 2.0 4.0 3.0 9.1 20 4.0 16.0 18.0 18.0 ? 15.0 28.5 25.6 19.6 25.5 19.5 21.0 19.5 28,8 pr. ct. 1.3 1.1 1.5 0.2 1.6 6.3 0,6 2.3 3.2 13.6 9.3 S.5 3.0 0.4 O.S o.a 0.2 0.3 0.2 1.5 0.6 0.1 8.1 1.5 1.6 1.5 0.1 1.4 1.7 0.2 48.2 0.3 0.2 0.2 1.1 0.9 0.4 1.8 1.3 6!a 0.9 TEVERFEW 344 FIBER In relation to the application of most commer- cial fertilizers and concentrated hianures, if ap- plied directly to the seed, or the plants they will kill. They should always be intimately mixed with the earth or applied dissolved ini water, or mixed with other material. 'For information relating to ordinaiy fertilizers see article Ma- nures. FESCUE GRASSES. The genus Featuca, containing several valuable, permanent grasses, of which the F. pratenm, meadow fescue, and ,; F. duriuscula, hard fescue, are well known. (See FETLOCK. The part of the leg where the tuft of hair grows behind the pastern joint of horses. The fetlock joint is a very_ complicated one, and from the stress which is laid on it, and its being the principal seat of motion below the knee, it is particularly subject to injury. Fomentations, which see, are specific remedies for inflammations of the joints or integuments, to be followed, if necessary, with mild blisters. (See Blistering.) FEVER. Fever is that state of the animal system, or symptoms formed by acceleration of the pulse, chills followed by heat, thirst, and a general exhibition of lassitude and uneasiness; specific names being applied to the various types it assumes. Fevers generally begin with languor of body and mind; chilliness, amounting to shivering, though the skin often, at the same time, feels hot; the pulse is quicker than it fihould,be; respiration hurried or labored; pains are complained of in various parts, especially about the head, back and loins; the, appetite falls off, or there is nausea and vomiting; the mouth is dry; the Rowels generally constipated, and the urine small in quantity and deep in color. These, which constitute the first stage, or ordinary febrile symptoms, are succeeded by alternate flushings, a quicker and fuller pulse, rapid alter- nations of shivering and burning heat, and by mental anxiety and wandering, which, -under a great variety of aspects and modifications, con- stitute the second stage; they are succeeded by, the third stage, in which the leading ap- pearances are & cleaner tongue, a more nat- ural pulse, a moist skin, calm mind, and the urine becomes more copious in quantity, and deposits a sediment as it cools. The symptoms of fever generally uadergo an increase every evening, which is called an exacerbation; and this fluctuation often takes place more than once iii the twenty-four hours, the violence of the attacks increasing with their occurrence, and forming what is called a continued fever, , FETERFE W. Pyreth/rum; from pyr, fire, the roots being hot to the taste. Of this interesting European genus of plants, the Matrioa/ria of Linneeus, three species only are indigneous to England. The common feverfew, (P. ■part'he- nium), a biennial which grows in waste grounds, hedges, and w-alls, flowering in June or July. Root tapering, small, and white; stem erect, branched, Ipafy, round, many flowered, about two feet higti; leaves stalked, of a hoary green, pinnatifid. Flowers ^numerous, like daisies, white or yellowish, in a corymbose panicle, some- times compound, on long naked stalks, erect, about half an inch broad. The whole plant has a strong disagreeable smell, a bitter taste, and yields a volatile oil by distillation. It was for- merly reckoned tonic, stimulating, and anti- hysterical, and the oil is still regarded as such. It contains much tannic acid; and in Germany. it has been usefully employed in tanning and curry- ing leather. Corn Feverfew, or scentless May- weed, {P. iTiodorum), is very, cdmmon in culti- vated fields, and by waysides, on gravelly soils. Root tapering, rather large, annual, flowering in August or September. Sea Feverfew (P. mariti- ma), a perennial, flowering in July or August, is found on the sea coa^t in sandy or^stony ' ground. The thick, woody, long-enduring root runs deep into the ground, producing a number of hollow stems, spreading circularly on the ground, often tinged with purple. The common wild chamomile (Matricaria chamomiUaX-wastar- merly classed as a feverfew. The greenhouse varieties of feverfew are, soraeof them, handsome. They grow in any rich, light soil, and young cuttings root readily when planted under a glass. Any common soil suits the hardy kinds, which are increased by divisions or seeds. It possesses the properties of the real chamomile in a marked degree, and might be substituted for it as a medicinal agent. In the United States the only indigenous species are M. pwrthenium and M. disaoidea, the latter a native of Oregon. FEVER, IN THE FEET. (See Founder.) ' FIBER. This is a term used to designate the filaments or slender threads that constitute the substance of the bones, cartilages, ligaments, membranes, nerves, veins, arteries and muscles, and the slender threads composing the structure of plants, and found also in minerals, is termed fiber. Any fine, slender root, thread or filament is a fiber. Fibrin is a peculiar organic com- pound substance, .solid, tough, elastic, and com- posed of threads, fibers, and found in animals and vegetables,' When pure it is whitish, ^nodor^ ous, and insoluble in water Fibrin, both in ani- mate and vegetables, is neairly identical, as the following analyses will show: Fibrin. Animal. Vegetable. Carbon 53.8 7.0 S3. 7 16.5 100.0 53,4 7.0 23.4 Nitrogen 16.4 100.0 Fiber abstrusely considered is one of the most important productions in nature. Among the families of plants producing valuable fiber for manufacturing purposes are the mallow "family,- noted in all parts of the world for the excellent fiber of its bark. Cotton belongs to the fiber plants. In this plant, however, it is the woolly envelope of the seeds that is the valuable part. The nettle f amUy, in all its subdivisions, is noted for the abundance and excellence of its fiber. The hepip sub-family contains not only the hemp plant but the hop. The bread fruit sub-family; includes not only the different species of mul- berry, but also the paper mulberry, the last probably the most useful of the whole. The nettle family proper, in all parts of the world, produces valuable fiber plants. . The famous china grass, (Bahmena nivia), is stronger than hemp, and belongs to what are denoininated stingless nettles. The Dog-bane family, (Apocy- num,) is represented by plants remarkable for their fineness. A. cannaMnwm, or Indian hemp. PIG 345 FINE WOOLED SHEEP is one of these. The milkweed family, (Ascle- .piOiS,) is another family remarkable for its valu- ^able fibers. Lately; it is asserted, that some members of this family produce a gum analo- gouS( to India rubber and that it may be pro- duced, by ctiltivation, in paying quantities. Among the fiber plants in most common cultiva- tion in various parts of thevrorld, and repre- senting an enormous rural and manufacturing industry are flax, hemp, jute, manilla "grass," the latter obtained from a spe(fies of plantain, {Musa texUlis). All the plantain and banana tribe abound in fiber. Cocoanut fiber is the product of the tree, {Ooeos nucifera). The pineapple tribe furnishes fiber from vrhich most exquisite fabrics are made. Esparte, or Esparto, (Stipa tenacimma), is a fiber grass of great value. Sandals, mats, ropes, baskets, nets, and paper are produced from it, and it has even been used in Spain for hurdles in which to pen sheep. Cotton is without doubt the most valuable fiber Southern Germany, and in the United States up to the latitude of Tennessee. It is even culti- vated successfully in some parts of Ohio, and ia the southern portions of the Michigan lake shore- region with protection in winter. If, however, the wood is frozen it is killed. In its proper- climate the fig is a moderately large tree, indig- enous to the counti'ies bordering on the Medi- terranean sea, and in Syria, Persia, Asia Minor, and Nortli Africa. It is said only to have been found wild near Urfa, and on the banks of the Northern Euphrates. Cortes first carried the fig to America in the year 1560. FILAEIA. A genus of intestinal worms resembling a thread in appearance. PILIFOBM. Thread-like. FILLT. The young female of the horse kind. FILTEATION. The separation of the clear portions of a solution or mixture from the pre- cipitate or dregs, by passing through a close- tissue. For chemical purposes, w}iite blotting t* ^- - ■ GROUP OF PAULAE MERINO BWES. plant known, next comes flax, then hemp, and next manilla grass. (See Supplement, page 1116.) FIBRIN. The principal conStitjaents of muscles; it also exists in blood and some vege- tables. When pure, it is white, inodorous, and Insoluble, and, if properly dry can be kept for any time, but when moist it putrefies rapidly. FIBROUS PLANTS. (See.Fiber ) FIBULA. The outer thin bone of the tore- FICOIDE^. Tropical plants resembling the cactuses, inhabiting sandy plains. FICUS. The generic name of the fig; hence flcaria, resembling the fig. (See Fij?.) FIERY HANG-BIRD. (See Oriole.) FIG. (Mcus carica.) The fig is one of the most ancient fruits recorded in history; a dios- cious plant, the sexes occurring indifferent trees. Wherever it -will withstand the winter it is gen- eraUy cultivated; in Europe up to the latitude ot paper, called filtering paper, is used, folded into- a conical form, and placed on a funnel. The fluid which runs through is called the filtrate. In quantitative analysis the. filters are weighed before use, and when properly dried with the precipitate, and reweighed, give the amount of the latter with the best results. Sometimes the paper is burned with the precipitate, the known weight of its ashes being deducted from the- whole weight. For common purposes, stout cotton cloth or porous earthenware are used. FIMBRIATE. Any long, fringe-like mar- gin to animal or vegetable organs. FINE WOOLED SHEEP. The introduction of fine wooled sheep into the United States, dates from early in the century, through im- portations of the best individuals to be obtained from Spanish flocks, and later, of French Merinos, Saxon, and Silesian. Judicious breed- ing for many years has resulted in what is now riNE WOOLED SHEEP 346 FINE WOOLED SHEEP known as American Merinos, larger, better wopled, and better adapted to take on flesh than any of the original breeds. In fact, the crosses made from time to time with Saxony, Frfench, and Silesian sheep, resulted in disappointment. The leading strains from careful breeding and selection, during many years, resulted in what were known as the Atwood, the Rich, and the Hammond Merinos, from the names of the respective breeders. They are now ^almost uni- versally disseminated over the country, under the name of' American Merinos and, all things considered, are without doubt the best breed of fine wooled sheep in the world, not excepting those of Australia, in which country the breed- ing of .fine woole(^ sheep has been carried to great perfection, as an examination of their 1 varied and superior fine wooled fleeces at the American Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia .amply attested. The fine wooled sheep are lepresented by the improved Paulars, and the KAMBOITLLET BAM OP TH-B TEAR 1787. improved Infantados. The otjbier American breed Is a cross of French Merino ewes with Afnerican rams. A quarter of French blood with three-quarters of American blood, increases the size, but the French Merinos always were tender, and not good feeders. The French Merinos were a mongrel race, the worst of them gaunt, flat sided, hard feeders, and the best of them never carried the wool the American Merinos do. , "We doubt much if a flock; of true French Merinos can now be found in the United 'States, apd, their extinction here, if not already •accomplished, will surely follow. The Saxons are delicate, put with wool' of exceeding fine- ness. Nevertheless they were found to "be npt adapted to the United States. The flocks of Australia, many of them, received a large infu- sion of Saxony blood. In the United States they have almost entirely disappeared, and for the reason that the American, Merinos were found to be second to none for the production of fine Tvool of most excellent quality. The Silesian sheep as known in the United States, are larger' than any American Merino, with longer and thinner necks in proportion to their size, and with longer legs. Their wdbl is of very superior quality, and is carried compactly and evenly over llie carcass, but so far they have not held their own With our well established American Merinos, of the two principal families of the orig- inal Spanish stock of the country. As illustrating French Merinos of the last century and also of the present day, the accompanying cuts will give the reader -a good idea of their characteristics. Dr. Randall, than whom there is no better authority, in the United States, describes the improved Infantados, and Paulars as follows: The improved Infantados are a fourth if not a third larger than their Spanish ancestors, and are the largest family of American Merinos. Full- grown ewes, in their prime,, weigh about 100 pounds, and some of them 120 and 130 pounds. They are much rounder in the rib, broader, fuller in the quarters, shorter proportionally in the limbs, and stronger in the bone than were the Spanish aheep. ' They are indeed models of compact- ness and of beauty vphen judged by flne-^ool stand- ards. Their hardiness in respect to locomotion, or, in other words, their abil- ity to travel,, is not prob- ably as' great as it was sixty years ago; for, having no necessity to drive, his sheep eight hundred miles a year, as did the Spaniards, the American breeder, in the place of that useless ability to travel, has developed those qualities which in- crease aptitude to take on flesh and produce wool. The irhproved American Infantados appear to be quite as hardy in other par- ticulars as their ancestors, are more prolific and better nurses, and when properly fed, resist other vicissitudes equally well, and endure cold even better; but probably demand better keeping. They will thrive, however,' where none of the mutton breeds above described would find sufiicient subsistence. Choice Infantado flocks with the usual number of sheep of different ages, yield froih nine to ten pounds of wool per head. The fleece is longer, thicker, and covers the different parts of the animal far better than it did on the Spanish sheep. The quality is probably as good. The improved American Paulars bear the same rela- tion, in several particulars, to the preceding, that the Devons do to the Short Horns among cattle. They are smaller, consume less food, and perhaps can better endure deprivation of it. Accordingly they are the sheep for cold, meagre soils; for the scanty herbage of moun- tain districts, and for plains subject to periodical droughts. They have about' the same general improved points of form as the Infantados, but are shorter bodied. As breeders and nurses they are equal. Their fleeces are of equal quality, PINE WOOLED SHEEP 347 FINE WOOLED SHEEP but are a pound or two lighter to the head. For that reason, and on account of the greater size of the fornier, there is, at the present time, a prevailing inclination to cross the Paular flocks with Infantado rams. This produces an admir- able result for the wants of many farmers, but it would be very unfortunate if the present mania for ^reat fleeces should lead to the loss, in its essential family purity, of a class of sheep so well adapted to extensive regions of our country. Mr. W. R. Sandf ord, of Vermont, went to Europe, in 1851, in the interest of himself and some other gentlemen, including Mr, Hammond, and with the view of importing valuable animals if tliose could be found better than at home. This gentleman visited the best flocks of France, Saxony ajid Silesia, and purchased representa- , tives of some of the best French and Silesian sheep, not with a view of breeding them himself, for he was satisfied that they were inferior to these fleeces are very heavy they do not injure the vitality of the sheep, and the keep that will fix a wether nicely for market will keep the Merino in fine condition. Of course fleeces of the above weight will shrink in cleansing far more than the long wools; yet no other breed of sheep has probably heen produced that, in proportion to five weight, will produce as much cleansed wool per head as the Merino. Between eight and nine pounds have been realized in numerous instances from a single fleece. We may add, that, as good results have been reached with sheep by our best breeders West; and, for the reason that, while they have brought as high intelligence to the art of breeding as any- where else in the world, profiting by the experi- ence of others, they have spared no expense in obtaining the best sheep possible. The result may be seen yearly at our principal fairs. The illustration, page 345, of a group of American EAMBOULLET EAM OF TO-DAY. those at home, but to reimburse the expenses of the joximey. Nevertheless, they did make the experiment, but it resulted unsatisfactorily and it is well known that those who crossed the Saxony sheep upon their Spanish flocks, in an early day when the Saxon fever raged, did incal- culable injury. A Vermont correspondent of the Department of Agriculture at Washmgton, writing of Merinos in New England, in 1869, says, the heaviest fleeces shown by Mr. Atwood, of Connecticut, twenty-flve years since, were five pounds from ewes, and from five to eight pounds from rams. Now eighteen pounds are taken from best ewes, and twenty-six to thirty from the best rams, the growth of twelve months, ine Child Brothefs, bred several years from a ram that sheared as follows: First fleece, sixteen pounds; live weight after Shearing, sixty-four pounds; second fleece, tWenty-f our pounds ; live ' height ninety-nine pounds; third feece, twenty- six iounds; live weight 107 pounds. Although Paular Merino ewe Tegs, (sheep in their second year), illustrates the perfection of breeding of the last twenty years and extending to the present time. As showing something of fine wooled sheep breeding in various parts of the country, the following statements to the Department of Agriculture, Washington, gathered some ten years ago, will furnish a good basis from which the young breeder can calculate. E. D. Battles, of Ohio makes the following statement: That for eight years, including 1863 and 1869, he kept 300 to 400 of the long stapled Spanish Merino sheep. The average weight of fleece for eight years was four and three-quarters pounds. The wool was sold annually at an average price of sixty cents per pound. The increase of the flock over and above the loss was twenty-five per cent. After the flock was increased to 400 (commenced with BOO) it was kept at that number by selling the three years' old wethers, dry ewes, and drafting from the remainder of the flock, such as were FLNB WOOLED SHEEP 348 FINE WOOLED SHEEP thought to he of the least profit to keep. The sheep that were sold brought, on an avelage, $3 per head. • The annual proceeds of, 'each 100 sheep were : From wool From IncreaBe. Total.... $285 00 TS 00 360 00 The average annual expense of 100 sheep', for eight years was as follows: Hay consumed in 125 days, ten tons For 240 days pasturing, at three cents per head per week For grain Washing, shearing, And marketing wool Summer and winter care, including salt Total. . Profits on 100 sheep, over and above all expenses, $77. The following statement shows the cost and . profits in keeping seventy ewes, twenty lambs, and twenty rams,- the Merino flock of C. A. Miller, a wool grower of Michigan: Fifteen tons of hay, at $8 $120 00 20 00 67 00 10 80 8 00 Salt and summer care Total ^ $225 80 $253 28 .6 95 100 00 .90 00 60 00 50 00 "Wool of rams, 285 pounds Letting of rafns . . Total 603 23 , Profit 404 43 A wool-grower in Livingston county, Mo., makes report of a flock of 500 Merinos, purchased at $780, which at the end of the year he sold for the same amount, after selling their wool for $500 and keeping a handsome young flock from the increase. The mountain districts of the^ South have the flnest sheep ranges, almost entirely unoccupied, on which grass sufficient for millions of shepp annually decays, of no immediate advantage, and of no remote benefit except as a fertilizer of the soil. Merino sheep would thrive upbn. this herbage, and wherever the experiment has been fairly tried great profit has resulted. They also do well upon the lowlands of the South, if- they escape the ravages of dogs and vagrants. It is worthy of record that the South is moving in preventing the kill- ing of sheep by dogs, and in some sections sheep are now fairly protected/. As an example : In Pulaski county, G-a., a farmer bought, 800 head of sheep, in 1868, of which the following state- meni is maae oi ueoii ana crea 11" » Dr. $760 00 180 00 20 00 Cost of one hand to care for them . . . Salting and incidental expenses $950 00 Cr. , 3,000 pounds wool, at thirty cents 88 88 Fifteen acres of land well manured. 700 sheep on hand, $1.50 per head — 2,025 00 Profit 1,075 00 . A Texas correspondent sends the following tabulation, compiled with the aid of records from actual experience in wool-growing, with a flock of selected grade. Merinos improved by thorough-bred .Merino rams. The annual in- crease, allowing for losses of lamb^ is placed at eighty per cent., half males, which are sold annually, and the ewes added to the flock. Tears. \ ^ '•i (1 is r 1 .11 § a Sj I %4 CD 3 o s 1. pi* OS o p-fl o o, §■" 1. 1° t o a » - f 02 \ \ 1 1,200 1,200 1,080 2,160 2,832 480 480 672 864 1,138 672 864 1,182 4,800 8,640 10,560 14,016 18,240 $1,?00 2,160 2,640 3,504 4,660 $600 9U0 1,200 1,600 1,800 $60 : 90, , 2 480 480 672 864 480 480 672 864 $! 25 1 25 1 25 1 25 $600 600 840 1,080 3 , 4 160 ■;. S —^. y At the close of the fifth year the value of the flock is estimated : / Breeding ewes, 2,833, at $4 LamBs, ewes and rams, 4,264, at $1 Stock rams, eijthty-Fir head, at $25 per head Total value of entire stock Slj,328 00 2,264 00 13,593 09 '3,160 00 $15,743 00 In 1879 there were 38,133,800 sheep in the United States, the value of which was $79,033,- 984. The great bulk of these were American Merinos, their grades and crosses. The average; value of these sheep was $3.07 each. Of the mlmber as stated, the States having 1,000,000 or over was as follows: California, 6,889,000; Texas, 4,500,000; Ohio, 4,040,000; New York, 3,131,000; Michigan, 1,830,000; Pennsylvania, 1,666,000; Wisconsin, 1,318,000; Missouri, 1,396,- 400; Oregon, 1,160,600; Illinois, 1,089,000;' Indiana,l,039,500; Kentucky, 1,030,000; Nevada, Cblorado and the Territories had 3,435,600. Thus it willbe seen that the fine wool interest of FISH BREEDING 349 FISH BREEDING the United States is one of immense importance, doth m the annual clip of wool and in the sale of i^°i?? o?„ ™itton sheep. In 1840 there were 19,311,346 sheep in the United States. vThe average numh^r of pounds of wool is given at 2.5. At that time, the avefage for Prance a country of fine wool, was 3.4. In 1860, the average in the United States is stated at four pounds. The returns for 1870 showed 28 477 - 951 sheep.'shearing 100,102,887 pounds of wool, a fraction less than four pounds per head aver- age. In 1875 the 36,000,000 sheep of the United States sheared 155,000,000 pounds of wool, or 4.30 ipounds per head average. For raanage- ment and diseases the reader is referred to the article Sheep, and to the various diseases as treated of. FIORIN. AgrosUs stolonifera. A creeping, hent perennial grass. The genus contains some valuable varieties. (See Grasses.) FIR. Picea: A group of trees of which the Silver fir and the Balsam fir are best known. , The spruces, hemlocks and flrs are often classed in the same genera. The older writers called the spruce, picea, and the fir, abies. Linnaeus reversed these terms, Some botanists place the fir in the genera Picea, the hemlocks in the genera Tsuga, and the' spruce in the genera Aiiea. The firs are' found in Europe, Asia and North America, extending from the torrid to the arctic zone. They are remarkable for their formal conical growth, being perfect in outline and rich in color, as they are vigorous in growth. Specimens are found on our North- west coast, from 150 to 300 feet high, and of immense proportions of trunk. The spruces are found inost plentifully in America, but also m some of the colder i portions of Europe and , Asia. The Hemlock spruce was placed by ' Carrier in the separate genus Tsuga. The trees of this genus are all remarkably handsome and graceful, and should be planted wherever they will stand the cUmate. They are not killed by the cold, ,but are often injured"by the winter sun, and the heat of summer, until they become well rooted and established. (See valuable species under their proper names.) FIRE-DAMP. The inflammable gas of bitu- minous coal-mines. Carburet of hydrogen. FIRE-FANGED. Dried up. When manure, or composts, in which heat is generated, become too hot, the parts assume a baked appearance and ashy color, and are said to be fli;e-fanged. This should never be allowed, since it thus 16ses ammonia. ' FIRE-FLY, Elater noeWmcus. An herbiv- ' OTOus insect of the Click or Spring Beetle genus. FIRING. In farriery, the application of red-hot irons, practiced by ignorant and brutal men, for the removal of spavin and other blis- tering purposes. The hot iron should be used cautiously, and only under the advice of a veter- inary surgeon. FIRKIN. A measure of 3,538 cubic inches, or 7i imperial gallons, being the fourth part of a beer barrel. Butter is packed in barrels called firkins, but weighed, not measured. FISH BREEDING. The subject of fish breeding has attracted increased attention from year to year, and as a productive industry ithas assumed large proportions, especially since improved means of transportation for the eggs have been largely perfected. So between arti- ficial fecundation and artificial spawning beds, the operator or breeder must decide for himself. The illustration we give will show a form well adapted for an artificial bed upon which fish may spawn. In relation to the use of these artificial beds, M. Blanchard, in his work on the fresh water fishes of France has the following: ' In view of the present condition of the rivers and canals of France, the idea of artificial spawning beds would appear to be a most happy ' one. M. MUlet, before the Society of Acclima- tization, has insisted, with great earnestness, on the preference to be given, in many cases, to artificial spawning beds over artificial fecunda- tion. M. Coste has justly remarked that arti- ficial fecundation is not all-suflicient, and yet a contrary opinion is generally prevalent. No one has forgotten the marvellous results which we were to obtain by means of artificial fecunda- tion; fishes, left to themselves, could not thrive and have a numerous progeny. Their duties should he assumed by us, and the advantages would be incalculable. More than fifteen years have elapsed since these seductive announce- ments were made, without having yet furnished brilliant results. Among flshe?, some, as the salmon, deposit their ova in slight excavations, in gravel, or in the interstices between stones; others, as the perches and cyprinids, (carp, bream, roach, etc.,) attach their ova, aggluti- nated together by means of a viscid matter, to aquatic plants, stones, or any bodies to which theii- eggs can be fixed. It is especially for the last that artificial spawning beds inight some- times be advantageously prepared." The con- struction of an artificial spawning bed is a very simple matter. A framework of sticks or laths should be made, and to such framework, houghs, furze, and aquatic plants should be fastened by cords, in such a way as to form irregular structures. It is also easy to give to structures of this kind a circular form, by taking hoops for frameworks. The form, and espec- ially the size to be given to these spawning beds, would necessarily vary, according to the char- acter or the size of the body of water in which they are to be immersed. They should be held to the bottom of the water by stones, and fastened to a stake or post on the bank. "When kept in place in this way they can be easily drawn out of the water, if it becomes necessary to do so. These artificial spawning beds will be_ serviceable in those streams and water areas which are so clear as to be devoid of any nat- ural spawning beds. For the salmonids, which spawn on a gravelly bottom, and whose ova remain free, artificial spawning places are very- simple and readily prepared. It is only requi- site to cover in certain places the beds of rather shallow and rapid streams, near the bank or the bottom of rivulets, with a thick layer of gravel or pebbles, and to prepare slight excavations or furrows, like those made by the salmon or trout, to deposit their eggs in. M. Millet also recom- mends that small heaps of pebbles should be raised at the edges of these furrows. By means of these contrivances, trout especially would often be attracted, and be content to stop and spawn in places which they would not otherwise frequent, and where it would be convenient to keep them. Natural spawning and fecundation, on artificial FISH BREEDINa 350 FISH BREEDINa beds, sflpplemented ■with the artificial care of ' fish, has been practiced at Meredith village, K. H. , f or nearly fifteen years . Ih the illustrations as , given, further on, are shown the hatching bouse, nursery, and pond; and another lower pond < and fish-way. These ponds and hatchery are described as follows : The location is pecu- liar. A marshy area of three or four acres is pearly surrounded by an ampitheatre of , high hiUs, from the base of whiph issue numerous , springs of clear, cold water, which varies little in temperature during the yeaj, and less, per- haps, in quality of water discharged in different seasons. These spilngs, uniting, form a brook of 'sufficient volume to support naturally a goodly number of the finny inhabitants, and a decided reputatioii as a trout strearii, tliough it is little more than half a mile from its hundred heads to its single mouth, where it embouches into the Nashua. A dam, three or fdur feet in height. brought more than four hundred miles. While the eggs were being placed in the hatching-boxes the fi3l grown -trout in the pond above were seeking suitable spawning beds in shoal water in which they deposited their eggs, which were duly ' fertilized and left to hatch naturally. Early in the^season large numbers were observed just from the egg, brisk and vigorous, the yolk sac unabsorbed, and growing to two -or three inches in length by the following August. The older trout, fed two or three times g,' week with . fresh liver, appeared to haVe doubled, in weight during the year. The experiment warranted larger resources, and in 1868 a more ^aoijBug; house was built, capablp of hatching 100, OQftiQ^ a single season. Small tanks or ponds adjaceitf, to the hatching-house are excavated -for reari'fcg'' the smairfry, or :^r keeping .the spawners whife ripening, by digging away a foot or two of bog earth at the base of the hUls. exposing a bed of AETIFICIAL SPAWNING BED. was thrown across the ravine, and a pond of ah acre and a half obtained, five or six feet deep at points of least elevation, but quite shallow ill a large portion of its area, and interspersed with growing trees, and shrubs, and ferns, and other / forms of vegetation. So equ^/ble is the tempera- ture of the water that there is noted a difference of only 8° ; 50° jjeihg "the record in summer, and 43° in winter. ' In this pond were placed 500 : trout; a hatching-house was erected just below, and 10,000 eggs were procured from SethG-reen, and lUaced m the hatching-boxes for the first experiment, in November, 1867. The water, •fte^ore entering the boxes, was filtered through Six flannejl stramers, (which were washed neaSy every day) and every foreign subptance, and every decaying egg was removed. The result was suopessful beyond the expectation of the amateur fish-hatchers. In March, 9,000 small fry appeared, or ninety per cent., from ova fine, gray sand, in which living springs bubble^., up,, continually filling the excavation with clear, cold water. The dam has been raised to a height of five or six feet, thus increasing the area of the pond to three or four acres. Ahother ^ond beloV is also filled with trout,i.'ana the capacity is said to be now some hundr^oS of thousands of Brook Trout (Sahno fonMimtia), see cut, trout. Near Elgin, HI., are extensive pri- vate fish hatcheries, especially adapted to brook trout, cool, natural springs gushing in abundance ' from the hillsides, form the ponds, and of whi(^' enterprising citizens have availed themselves. At' Geneva Lake, Wis., large quantities of fish are propagated, and now, in almost every State, > the propagation, exchange, or the purqhase, of fish eggs is more or less extensively carrieSlbn, so that the artificial hatching of fish arid f^||f|ng of waters, is how a large business, being prose- cuted not only by private individuals, but in A^'' 4. '. :r^li#' Is *^' ^. ; /...."i^^ >^* '-34 ' V;a *^'-<'?i f351) FISH BREEDING 353 FISH BREEDING many of the States by oflScers or agents, paid by the legislature, under the name of flsh commis- sioners. The legislatures of all the New Eng- land and Middle States, more than ten years ago, passed stringent laws for the protection of fish and fisheries; have voted liberal appropriations for builditigs for hatching the fish, and have appointed commissioners to manage this new o w o o M n industry. Since that tiine, many of the Western States lia,ve followed their example. In the West, salmon, salmon trout, white ' fish and brook trout, are the species generally experi- mented with, and these, except white flsh, and with the addition of shad and some other sea flsh, are those usually hatched in the Bast. In the article Salmon (which see) will be found an Illustration of the California species {Salmo quinnat), said to be remarkable for hardi- ness and freedom from disease. The late Mr. Klippairt believed the following species as com- monly found in Western waters, will bevaluable. It must be remembered, however, that the perch family and the carp family,, and the pike family, must not be in the same pond, unless they are expected to furnish food for the pike and pick- erd. Perch family: Yellow perch, pickerel of the lakes, sunfish, rock baSs, grass bass, black bass of the lake, and black bass of the Ohio river^ (two distinct fish, though bearing the same name,) dwarf basa. (Hog fish family: White perch of the Ohio river, sheep's head of the lake, hog fish, blenny-like hog flsh, variegated hog flsh. Carp family; Carp of the Ohio, mXiUet of the' lake, Missouri sucker, white sucker, red-horse sucker, ' Buffalo sucker, brook sucker, spotted sucker, mud sucker, black' sucker, rough-nosed dace,, stone roller, silver shiner, large shiner, red-bellied shiner, red-bellied shiner of the lake, white and yellow-winged shiner, horned chub, red-sided chub, gold shiner, flat shiner, chub-nosed shiner, flat-headed chub;' mud minnow. Pike family: Muskallonge pike, black pike. Catfish family: Blue catfish, yellow catfish, channel catfish, mud catfish, bullhead, yellow backtail. Salmon fam- ily: Mackinaw trout, speckled or brook trout, shad of the lake, white fish. Shad family: Gold shad, hickory shad, Idrger herring, lesser herring, moon-eyed herring. In addition to these we have several species of eels, sturgeon, and other fishes, which have not yet fallen under the notice of the haturalist, so m to be properly classified. Out" of this list of nearly seventy-five species, according to Prof. Kirtland's catalogue, made nearly forty years ago, there certamly must be at least half a dozen species which are as much worthy our care and attention, and whose culture is certainly as profitable as some branches of farming in which millions of , capital are in- vested; For the lake, the propagation of white flsh, IVIackinaw itrout, and the lake perch, per- haps would pay the best. In the reservoirs and rivers the perch family would, in all probability, be the most advisable and profitable. Itis possi- ble that some species now unknown in our waters, more desirable than any of those enu- merated above may successfully be introduced and cultivated with proflt. Further on we give cuts of the black bass (Micropierans achigam), and the brassy bass {Morone intefrrwptoi), two well known game flsh of Western waters. In stock- ing ordmary shallow, or warm water ponds" in the West, the carp family will be found best adapted to such places, although all the smaller catfish are equally well adapted^ In fact, any fish usually found in ponds and sluggish streams may be, used, but care must be taken not to introduce shovel-nose pike, or other predaceous fish of that character. In relation to the preser- vation of fish and stocking of waters, the report of the United States Fish Commissioners, in 1873, through Prof. Baird, says, in conclusion, that the decrease of fishes on the coasts that have been long and heavily drained by human demands, is probably dependent on the habits of most if not all fishes to return to the same spawning places year after year. Of late years the decrease has been more rapid on the coast here reported, because of the increased population to be sup- riSH BREEDING 353 plied; the greater facilities by railways, and in the use of ice for packing, for extending sales mto remote sections of the interior; the waite and even reckless destruction of spawn and of fish in ehdeavors to get the largest supply in the short- est time ; the manufacture of oil and manure from fish ; and the diminished supply as food for otlier fishes, thus compelling the feeders to seek other places for feeding. As a thorough investigation of all these and other points was necessary to a correct result, the inquiries took a wide range In addition to the above-named causes of decrease the commission examined into the effects of changes in the temperature of the waters and of pollution of waters bjr the waste of manufactories and the sewage of cities; the amount and condi- tion of fish food; the habits of the fishes, and the diversion likely to be caused in those habits by the changes above noted, and the interference of inventions for fishing. And the products of some of these investigations were also used to add to the collections for the National Museum at Wash- ington, and for other important museums else- where. The conclusions arrived at, as to the FISH BREEDING almost enforce itself. Should these States neglect or refuse to enact such a law, it is then urged that Congress pass a law absolutely prohibiting the erection of any fixed apparatus for taking fish, after a period of oae or two years, on the south side of New England and on the shores of Long Island, which constitute the spawning-grounds of the shore-fishes referred to. The one or two years would allow the present owners to wear out or use up their apparatus; and the absolute pro- hibition following, would restore the original abundance in much less time than the more grad- ual measure proposed for State action, while it would leave all fishing open to taking by hook and line, seines, and gill-nets exclusively. Thua the markets would be more regularly supplied, and the business and its profits be divided among, a greater number of persons. Absolute prohibi- tion by the United State's is required, that it may be able easily to enforce the law. An occasional patrol along the coast by vessels of the revenue department, to confiscate all apparatus used in violating the law, would be all that is requisite. We now come to artificial spawning and hatch SHOET STRIPED OK BRASSY BASS. proper mode of preventing further decrease, and insuring an increased supply of food-fishes, the commissioner has embodied in an act (which has been submitted to, and amended and approved by, the best authorities among all parties most interested) which is to be made a law and enforced by the States of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut and New York. This act is to pro- vide for the prohibition of capturing flsh in traps and pounds, from six p m. , on Friday until six a. m. , on Monday — three nights and two days in each week — during the six weeks of the spawn- ing season. This measure, all admit, will allow a gradual increase of the number, of all fishes, without material interference with the interests of any persons interested, except, perhaps, a few middle-men. Intelligent fishermen gave assur- ances that they would gladly welcome a law to that effect. To secure its easy and certain enforce- ment, all ponds and traps are to be licensed, and an infraction of the law is to work forfeiture to the State, and a transfer of the hcense to the informer. This will render official surveillance hy the State nearly unnecessary— the law wiU ing. Upon»this subject we find the following data, which, with the accompanying illustrations, will be made plain: In the cut showing indoor hatching boxes, 1, is a frame work of glass rods; 2, tank with eggs resting on gravel; 3, catcher; 4, hand net. In the cut showing hatching-box, 1, is the reservoir; 3, short trough through which water is discharged; 3, trough in which the water falls before entering the box; 4, per- forated zinc; 5, shoot to discharge water. (See explanation, Mr. Francis' plan ) The next cut of hatching-boxes will illustrate a more extensive series of hatching-boxes. As explanatory of the illustrations still farther, in relation to artificial fecundation, and propagation, in an article pre- pared by Theodore Gill, M D., for the Depart- ment of Agriculture, he says: The fish should be firmly seized by the hand, and that the other should be passed over the abdomen gently, but firmly, and the ova and milt, if mature, will readily pour opt. Only those fishes which are mature should be treated thus. If the ova or milt comes out with difficulty, and only under hard pressure, it is a sufficient indication that PISH BREEDING 354 FISH BREEDING they are not ripe, and it would not only injure the pregnant fish, but be useless as to results to anticipate the period of maturity. This uncer- tainty as to the period when the fish may be most advantageously manipulated, is one of the diffi- culties mcideutal to artificial, fecundation. The fishes may be caught when they have apparently nearly reached their term, and be confined so as to be under the notice of the pisciculturist. When ripe they may be distinguished by their turgid sides, the pouting anus, and their uneasy move- ments. (See cut.) Having secured the eggs of certain fishes and fecundated them, these may be transferred to receptacles for hatching them;i various patterns have been recommended, but the principles followed are essentially the same In all. A fountain of clear running water-^a spring is preferable — from y^hich a small stream flows, or may be led, is Selected; and if there is a gradual fall or descent, so much the better. A series of boxes, through which the water will flow, are placed in the position to be fed by the stream, and the floor of each box is covei-ed with gravel or pebbles, which may furnish a bed for the deposit of the spawn. In the details of the form and construction of these boxes, and the mannerof regulating the flow of the stream, the variations chiefly consist, and may be illustrated I an eddy very favorable, as quiet resting places, to the young fry when first hatched If the stream be at all strong, artificial eddies should be created by sticking small pieces of perforated zinc upright in the graVel at intervals along the sides and across the stream; behind these the helpless fry can be in safety.) The top cut, which first received the water, being secured from foes with- out by being covered with perforated ziii^ through which the water flowed, and the further end one having a zinc shoot to deliver -the water, and also a perforated zinc face, not only to keep foes out, but the fish in. Fastened over the cut, in the lower end of the first box, was a short zinc shoot (3) to convey the water into the next box over, the porresponding cut, so that no water should run to waste between the boxes. Thus, when No 1 was fairly placed on a brick founda- tion so as to receive the water in the zinc trough,, all that was required was to insert the shoot at the other end of the box into the corresponiMng cut of No. 'i box, and slide No. 3 safely and closely up into its place, and so on with Nos. 3, 4, and 5, etc. These boxes were then partially filled with coarse gravel of the size of goose- berries, and some larger, even to the size of plums, for the more irregular their shape the • better, as there will be more interstices between - ■'. ..:.^' > BLACK BASS. by reference to two methods. One of these plans has been adopted by the Thames Ansling Preservation Society, and was elaborated" and introduced by Mr, Francis Francis. Thecliief object in view was to inorr-ase the istock of trout, and to introduce the grayling in the river Tliames. A spring, from which a rill flowed, was first obtained; to use Mr. Francis' own words, there was a considerable fall in the run of the water, wliich was very advantageous; nevertheless; the plan here adopfed can be applied more or less to any stream. We first bricked up the little rill so ais to form a reservoir (1) and raise the water to a higher level ; we covered the reservoir in with a large stone to keep out dirt and vermin, and placed at the lower end of it a zinc shoot, (3) over which the stream flowed. Immediately under this we placed our flrst'box, a facsimile of *hich is given. It was made of elm, four feet long, and fifteen inches wide in the clear, and ten inches deep. At the upper end of the box a projecting zinc trough (3) was fixed to catch the ■■ water, this trough being about three-quarters of the width of thte box itself At each end of every box a piece was cut out six or seven inches in width, and through these the water flowed into eacli box. (These openings were not carried all across the boxes, as the shoulders left made them in which the ova can be hidden, and the little fish when hatched can creep for safety. > The gr^ivel was at a level of about an inch below the cut wliich admitted the water, an inch depth of water being quite sufficient to cover them. Each box was furnished with a lid, comprising a wooden frame-work, and a perforated zinc center. This lid was made to fit closely by means of list being nailed on all around. It was padlocked down to keep out inquisitive eyes and fingers. Boxes in exposed places should always be covered in, if not with coarsely perforated,),, zinc, yet whh fine wire netting, or water mice will pet in, and various birds, as moor-hens and dabc'hicks, will pick out (he spawn whileaking- flsher, should he discoverthem, will carry ofE the fry by wholesale. The stream was then tur^ied on, and flowed steadily from box to box through- out the boxes, and finally discharged itself oy the end shoot' into the bc(^ of the nil. It need not be imagined that a full stream is necessary, ,^ for a small amount of water is sufficient. In-,, deed, a flow of water gay through a half-inch pipe, would be enough, perhaps, though it is advisable while the ova are unhatched, to have more, so that there shall be more stream and movement in the water, and consequently less time for deposit to settle; so that we Lad on. FISH BREEDING 355 perhaps, as much as a stream of three-quarters u\ T^^l'^^^ "^ diameter. When the fish are hatched half that quantity would be preferable as they are not well able to struggle against a stream and would be carried down, perhaps to the end box, and so against the perforated zinc face where they would stop up the holes, and finally be smothered. The boxes were then prgfperly steeped in water and seasoned, and being of elm, the joints drew cjlosely together after a WhUe, and the boxes held the water without FISH BREEDING ]k3DB OP DISCHABSIHO OVA. material leakage In each of the boxes thus constructed and arranged, about four or five thousand ova, or even more, are deposited; the gravelly bed in which they are spread is about one and a half or two inches below the cuts referred to in the preceding description. The ova are, by means of a spoon, regularly dis- tributed, but from their numbers are quite close together; care is taken to have them amonginter- jstices of the gravel, such as are too prominent being carefully sw'ept into some crevice by means of a fine brush. When thus cared for, a layer of gravel, composed of rather large fla(; stones an inch and a half or two inches square, is spread over the ova, heed being taken not to squeeze them. It may be remarked that the ova of the common' yellow perch were hatched in these boxes. 4-riother apparatus for the same purpose has been described by Mr. Frank Buckland as being employed by the Messrs. Ashworth, the proprietors of the Galway salmon fisheries, and by means of which many thousands of salmon have been hatched. The boxes in this case are six feet long, one foot wide, and seven inches deep. They have board covers with perforated zinc fitting their tops and attached bv hinges; each box ovcrlnps above tlie succeeding, so all are fed by the same stream of water which falls from tlie outflow of the one into the inflow of the next. The inflow from the majn stream must, of course, be regulated by a hatchway, (where the man is working with the fish kettle and net,) and be guarded by perforated zinc, etc. It may be also, if naturally not very clear, flltered.through gravel, charcoal, etc. It is not necessary that the boxes should be placed on the side of a hill, as represented in the drawing, but still they should be placed one above the other in such a manner that there may be a fall from one to the other. Nor is it absolutely necessary that the end of the upper box should rest on that immediately below it. The water may be conducted from one to the other by means of a trough or plate (with the margins turned up) of common zinc. The pond at the end of the boxes will receive a fish, but they should not be allowed to escape there until the umbilical bag is gone. The pond must not be above three or four feet deep, or if it be naturally deep, the margins must be, made to slope, as the young fish like shallow water to bask, feed, and play upon. They must be fed for a time when in this pond. The in-door is considered better than the out- door apparatus, principally because it mav be better protected. As, illustrating out-'door apparatus, see cut of out-door hatching boxes. It is not absolutely necessary that there should be a distinct perpendicular fall from one box to the other, yet where this is piactic.ible it will be found the better plan. We cannot better close this important subject than by giving an extract from a practical article by the Hon. George H. Jerome, Superintendent of the Michigan Fish Commission, in relation to fish farming. After stating the Claims made by various authorities in relation to the importance of the subject, and also what is claimed for it in theory, our authority says : In scientific practice, it requires a study of waters to know at what point a IN-DOOB HATCHING-BOXE reformation may begin, and to what just limit it may be carried; a study of the fishes to know their worth, spawning seasons, peculiar habtis and necessities ; an investigation of the cau.'>e of their decrease or increase, as the case may be; a complete knowledge of one and all of those essentials that antedate bkth, development, and 'FISH BREEDING 356 FISH BREEDING the reproduction of valuable animal life. Then follows the manual work — the preparation of gonds, races, hatching-houses, supply troughs, atching-bpxes, egg trays, partition screens, egg nippers, pans, dippers, brushes, feathers, etc. The master workman, whatever his trade or occupation, will see to it that his chest of tools is full and in order. Next comes (ihe proctirement of the breeding-flsh, lAale and female, to be obtained if possible without injury — ^healthy, Tigorous parents always preferred. The flsh^ obtained, the fish culturist, 'guided by observa- tion and experience, will quite reMdily detect in the gravid flsh those signs which precede and , denote the mature spawner. Carefully noticing the premonitory indications; the porcelain or tin pan is brought to the place of operation, contain- ing but very little water, the viscid fluid that accompanies the flow of the ova aflording suffi- cient moisture. Formerly water was used, but is now generally discarded, it being thought to have the' effect of drowning the spermatozoa or Kfe principle of the milt. The spawner is then caught, gently seized and held (if small, one person is sufficient ; if large, two or more persons are required) in an oblique-perpendicular posi- tion, the vent being directly over the pan. If ripe, which means a mature condition of the ova, '-^^^^.?S 'a.8.» Oni-DOOB BATCHINH-HOUSE. the egg will ofteh flow into the vessel by tfxe mere force of gravity or muscular contraction, without any hand pressure or manipulation ■whatever; but if not so yielding up her spawn, a slight pressure with the thumb and fingers along the abdomen will cause the ova to be extruded- This [Process, once or twice repeated, in a majority of cases will secure the entire yield. The, fish is now returned to the water in almost as good a condition as when taken from it, for the whole prpcess has not occupied more than from twenty to forty seconds. The male fish or , milter, as he is termed by pisciculturists, is now taken from the tub or trough near at hand, held in a similar position, and the manipulator, by a gentle presswe along the lower portion of the abdomen, win discover, provided the fish is ripe, an extension into the vessel'containing the ova, a few drops of a creamy, whitish substance termed milt, spermatozoa, or fertilizing fluid. The flsh is returned to the water, ho pain or injury having, resulted, a very little water is poured into the pan or porcelain vessel, and the contents stirred with a feather or tremulously Bhaken in a manner to give the ova a rotary motion, and very soon alT.or nearly all the eggs will have become impregnated, vitalized. The pah is now allowed to stand a £ew minutes. The eggs meanwhile are undergoing great changes; prior to the introduction of the milt or zo-osperms, they were in a manner agglutinated • and>in a flaccid condition ; now they have become enlarged, are now translucent; each leg, no longer coherent, is an Individuality, and by one of those mysterious processes by which Nature works, are become hard to the touch, so that they will roll about like shot oh a smooth surfacfe. Here now we have the viyifledgerm, the embryo flsh. In this state they are taken, cleansed ia one or two waters, and carefully placed upon" a bed of gravel or upon wire cloth trays, and with a feather evetily distributed over the surface, the object of such spreading being to allow the clear, living water to come continually in contafct with all the eggs — well-oxygenized water being as essential to a nqrmal, healthy de^'elopmentof the embryo, as it is material to the life and growth of the flsh in its subsequent stages. Now, with pure and perpetually running water, filtered if necessary by one or more flannel screens, with clean tools, clean surroundings and with clean hands, we enter upon the work of incubation, a labor lasting five, ten, twenty, forty, eighty, one hundred and twenty days, or even longer, depending upon species and upon quality and temperature of water. Dead - eggs, easily distinguished, when- ever discovered are to be at once removed, as they produce a bys- sus that sends out its clammy, flbTOus arins,Jike Hugo's devil- fish, to destroy every living egg within their reach, and all sedi- ment and substances , of every sort;' foreign to thft before-named conditions of their health and growth, are' to be sedulously guarded against. The eyes first appear, then a faint embryonic structure and soon after a dim outline of the coming' fish may be seen, growing more and more visible each day, until some morning you see the wreck of a habitation float- ing down the current, and a tiny creation, most unmistakably alivej settled down amid' the interstices of the gravelly bed, or meshes of the wire tray, a third, or a half, or perhaps three- fourths of an inch in length. About the most perceivable thing of this new birth, is a bag or sack attached to the belly of the fish. This sack, with the salmo quinnat, is of a rich, pinkish color, resembling one or two drops of blood incased in a semi Iransparent membranous bag. At birth it is larger than the flsh itself, rendering all. movements of the new comer exceedingly awkward and clumsy. This is the umbilical vesicle, or yolk sac — Nature's store-house for the suj-ply and sustenance of the flsh' during its tenuer infancy. Until this sac is absorbed, the fish will eat nothing, seems to desire nothing but to be let alone, content with the pabulum stored in its little knapsack,, from which it daily, hourly draWs that nourishment, the provision and pottage of birthright. JDay by day the sac becomes smaller, till it can scarcely be perceived with the naked eye; then the fish begins to move about, as if in quest of something to satisfy its hunger. This yolk sac, with the salmon and trout and some other species, lasts from thirty to FISTULA 357 FLAIL .forty days; with other varieties, not so long. During the existence of the umbilical vesicle the flsh are known as alevins; afterward, up to certain periods of growth, minnows or fry. The sac being absorbed, the fry should be fed two or three times a day, or oftener, in limited quanti- ties,' will do no hurt. Various kinds of food are given — bonny-clabber, the yolk of an egg, boiled calf's or beef's heart, boiled hard and grated; liver of all kinds, (except hog's liver,) chopped or grated so fine as te become the consistence of fliick blood, mixed with a little sweet cream, is "• used as food, while the fry is very young. TJnder proper care and feeding, the fish will come on rapidly, so that in a few days or weeks they will do to be removed from their hatching- troughs and planted in the lakes and rivers, there to grow and to bear testiniony that flsh culture is neither a myth nor a phantasm, but an ocular, tangible and gustible reality. PISSIPAROUS GENERATION. Thatkin^d of generation which exists in polypes, hydras, etc. , in which the parent throws out buds, or iodine and one ounce of lard. If the tumor sup- purates, when the pus (matter) beneath can be felt by the finger, (a soft fluctuating feeling) open the abscess clear to the bottom, and keep t]ie parts fomented with warm water. In old chronic cases where the pus has burrowed deep, involving the bone, the animal h^d belter be killed at once. If not, but if a pipe has formed open it freely witli the knife, wash thoroughly with warm water, and keep clean by injecting a solution formed of thirty grains chloride of zinc, to one quart of water; or a seton may be intro- duced along the opening to the bottom, and brought out upon the opposite side of the poll. When deep seated ulcers form, from wounds, ragged splinters or other cause, forming pipes t» the surface, the proper course to pursue is to open the pipe to the bottom and syringe with the lotion as for poll evil. Fistula of the coronet of the hoof sometimes occurs from pricking ia shoeing, calking, suppuration of corns, etc., forming pipes for the discharge of matter. Thii is sometimes called quitter. The direction of HATCHING BOXES. gemmules, which grow like itself and are finally detached. . , . , . , FISSIROSTRALS. A tribe of perching birds with a deeply cleft bill (very wide gape), as the swallow. ,. FISTULA. This is a deep, nan-ow chronic -abscess, reached by a'pipe formed to the surface for the discharge of the matter constantly termed. They are formed from ulcerous or other wounds of long standing, as poll evil, quittor, fistula qt the salivary glands, or wounds deep seated, winch take on an unhealthy or chronic asftect. mi evil is a fistulous ulcer situated just behind the «ars of the horse, caused by a blow, ,or other bruise of the poll.- In the early stage, if there is inflammation, keep, the parts cool with cold water appUcations, or lay a cloth on tne fiwelling and keep it constantly wet, wiih one quart each of strong vinegar and water mixea to which is added, two ounces of the tincture of ..arnica. The inflammation reduced, if the poll remains hard, rub daily with an ointment made bv working thoroughly together, one drachm ot the pipe or pipes may be determined by means of a probe. Complete rest must be given. The shoe must be removed and the hoof examined to find if there may be an outlet at the sole, or for inflamed corns. The pipes should be iniected everv day, with the remedy advised for poll evil; or with one drachm of carbolic acid (pure) to one ounce of water. If this do not cause the fis- tula to heal, insert a guarded bistoury and cut the sides freely, and then use the wash of car_ bolicacid. As a last resort, Pl^« A^^.gf^^l^ corrosive sublimate in tissue paper, and insert it as a plug in the pipe, holding it by means of a bandaged and the^arts beingeaten clean, pro- ceed with the wash as before directed. f ixED flR^' cSL acid. So called from its fixed condition in chalk, marble, etc. PTXF.D OILS. Oils not volatile. FLAGELLIFORM. A runner, or trailing ^TlAIL. a wooden implement for threshing grain, consisting of a handle, fastened by leather FLAX 358 FLAX thongs to a movable stick or swiple. It is now wldom used except for beans, and other seeds Which shell easily and which are rapidly beaten «ut. FLAKE WHITE. Pure white lead. FLAME. The burning gases or vapors given ■Bff from fuel. FLAT-HEADED BORERS. (See Apple-tree Borer.) FLAT-STALKED MEADOW GRASS. (See Blue Grass.) , FLATULENT COLIC. (See Colic.) FLAX. Since the introduction of the cotton gin, cotton goods have largely supplanted the use of linen. > Up to the period of the .ast war with Great Britain, flax, for manufacturing into goods for wear, was generally raised by farmers and spun by their families. The census of 1810 Iteturned, 31,311,263 yards of flaxen cloths made to families, and a production of 33,925,746 yards of blended and unnamed stuffs, and 802,718 yards of tow cloth. Now, nearly all the linen foods manufactured , in the country is from nported flax, it having been found that the 1!ost of raising a crop for fine fiber, and its preparation, could not be undertaken on account of the s,carcity and high price pf labor, in this country, as compared with that of European , countries, where chesCp manual labor and that of cheaper women's labor came into competition. Nevertheless the cultivation of flax for its seed, and, as of secondary importance; the manufac- ture of the lint for coarse bagging, has become a great industi-y especially in the settlement of the Western lands, the seed being an, article ■which in consequence of its high price wc^uld bear transportation long distances. As showing something of this, we, And that the five States between the Ohio and the Mississippi reported in 1850, 238,265 bushels; in 1860, 375,107; 1870, 1,481,415. At these successive decennial periods Ohio reported 88,880 bushels, 242,420, and 681,- 894; Indiaua, 36,888, 119,420, and 401,931; Illinois, 10,787, 8,670, and 280,;043. The States beyond the Mississippi reported in 1850, 15,976 bushels; 1860, 11.253; 1870,' 143,930. The in- crease in the product' of 1869 over that of 1859 ■was chiefly in Minnesota, Iowa, California, and Oregon. The State of Ohio furnishes definite , local statistics, which illustrate the general up- ward tendency in the northern States east of the Mississippi, beginning with the stimulating effects of the war and continuing until those effects ceased to operate, followed by a gradual decline. From i 1863 to 1875, inclusive, the annual acreage and production of seed and lint in Ohio were as follows: \ Tear. Acres. Bushels. Founds. 1862. 63,488 95,170. 61,i;61' 47,875 57,184 98,822 97,820 88,989 61,2(14 85,863 72,078 43,650 40,710 83,862 383,900 624,424 411,102 245,659 467,715 736,517 62l),092 610,758 449,378 783,384 457,379 238,510 238,800 223,653 2,389,877 3,582,170 1,89J,033 ■3,150,488 6,597,567 10,5-J3,8T6 1^052,892 18f,722,776 16,464,128 24,447,861 12,050,838 5,070,788 6,62S,341 5,285,417 1863.... 1864 1865 1866 ... 1867 1868.J 1869 1870 isri 1872 187S 1874 1875. « - In the younger States west of the Mississippi the upward tendency in production as yet shows no sign of declining, but seems to grow with accumulating force. Minnesota, reported, for 1870, 18,635 bushels of seed, and 130,571 pounds of lint; 1873, 71,752 bushels, and 3,908,079 pounds; 1873, 100,853 bushels; for 1876 the official estimate was 135,933 bushels. Iowa, which reported for the census of 1870, 38,631 bushels, reported for the State census of 1875, 559,836 bushels. The report of the Kansas State board for 1879 gives over 37,000 acres in flax, yielding 434,770 bushels of seed, valued at $424,770,58. This gives an average yield of 11.48 bushels per acre, and an average value of $1.00 per bushel. In relation to the fiber, the report says, the amount returned for the census of 1850 was 7,709,676 pounds; 1860, 4,730,145; 1870, 37,133,034. In 1850 Kentucky held the first rank, reporting 3,100,116 pounds; Virginia the second, 1,000,450; New York the tjird, 940,577; and North Carolina excelled Ohio by 146,864 pounds, In 1860, New York had gained sixtyyone per cent., and held the first rank; Ohio ninety -seven per cent., and was second; Ken- tucky had lost sixty-five per cent., and was vthird; Virginia fifty one ■ per cent., and was fourth. In 1870 Ohio had advanced 1,936.3 per cent., and ranked'first; New York 141 per cent., and was second; ■while Kentucky had lost sixty- seven per cent, and was eighth; and Virginia, including West Virginia, fifty-six per cent., and was tenth. In New York, as in the Northwest, production which has been declining in- recent years appekrs to have increased until after the close of the war; the product returned in 1869 (the census y"ear) was 93,519 bushels of seed, and 3,670,818 pounds of fiber; in 1874, 130,318 bushels,, and 3,927,914 pounds were returned. The cultivation of- flax for seed land flax tow, requires that the soil be put in a fine state of tilth, that the seed be sown, one and a half bushels per acre, on freshly plowed ground, and lightly and evenly covered. When lipe, the crop is cut with a self-raking reaper, the gavels set up without binding, and leaning together so they will stand secure. When quite dry the seed is threshed by machines, and grn- erally sold at once to agents of oil mills, or buy- ers in, the villages. Formerly flax was thought to be an exhausting crop. From, the prevalence of noxious seeds in the flax the land soon becomes foul. From these two •objections ^has arisen the idea that flax is exhausting; yet, flax, except it be pulled and the seed and fiber carried away, is not particularly exhausting. As to the objection of foul seed, it is now obviated by means of modern fanning-mills, which clean the seed thoroughly. On the rich soils of the West farmers have taken advantage of these facts, and hence the large increase in production. If machinery could be invented for preparing the stems cheaply, the lint would be an added stim ulus to its further production. So few persons understand the cultivation of flax for lint, (for where lint is the chief product, the seed is a secondary consideration,) we append the follow- ing, originally recommended by the Royal Society for the Promotion, and Improvement of the Growth of Flax iu Ireland, and revised by the special committee of the Northeast Agri- cultural Association of Ireland for Promoting the Growth of Irish Flax. They contain suffl- FLAX 359 FLAX cient information for the cultivation of the plant, and to economize and reduce it to a proper state for brealcing and scutching: Bv attention and careful cultivation good flix mav be grown on various soils, but some are much better adapted for it than others. The best is a sound dry, deep loam. It is almost essential that the land should be properly drained and subsoiled, as, when it is long saturated either ■with underground or surface water, a good crop need ^ot be expected. The subsoiling should be executed upon a previous crop, so as to be completed at least two years before the flax is grown. The best rotation for lint is to grow after wheat on average soils; but in poor soils, where wheat does not succeed, it is often better to grow after potatoes. Flax should on no account be grown oftener than once in five years on the same ground, and once in seven is con- sidered safer. Any departure from this system of rotation is likely to cause disappointment and loss. One of the points of the greatest impor- tance in the culture of flax is by thorough drain- ing and, by careful and repeated cleansing of the land from weeds, to place it in the finest, . deepest, and cleanest state. This will make room for the roots to penetrate, which they will often do to, a depth equal to one-half the length of the stem above ground. After wheat, one plowing may be sutflcient if on liglit, friable loam, but two plowings would be better; on stiff soils three are advisable — one immediately after harvest, across the ridges, ' and two in spring, so as to be ready for sowing in the first or second week in April. Much will, of course, depend on the nature of the soil and the knowl- edge and experience of . the farmer. The land should be so well drained and subsoiled that it can be sown in flats, which will give more even and mlich better crops. But until the sys- tem of thorough draining be general, it is advisa- ble to plow early in autumn, to a depth of six or eight inches. Throw the land into ridges, that it may receive the frost and air, and make surface drains to carry off the rains of winter. Plow it again in spring three or four inches deep, so as to preserve the winter surface for the roots of the flax. The spring plowing should be given some time before sowing, to allow any seeds of weeds in the land to vegetate, and the harrowing in of the flax seed will likely kill them, and save a great deal of after-weeding. Following the last harrowing, it is necessary to roll, to give an even surface and con- solidate the ground, breaking up this again with a short-tooth or seed harrow before sowing, which should be up and down, not across the ridges or angle-wise. These oper- ations can be varied by any skillful farmer to suit peculiar soil or extraordinary seasons. The ob- ject is to have clean, fine soil, as like as possible to what a garden soil should be. In buying seed select it plump, shining and heavy. Sift it clear of all the seeds of weeds, which will save a great deal of after trouble when the crop is growihg. This may be done through a wire sieve, twelve bars to an inch. Home-saved seed has produced excellent crops, yet it will be best, in most cases, to use the seed which is saved at home for feed- ing, or to sell it for the oil mills. The propor- ■ tion of seed may be stated at nearly two bushels and a peck to a statute acre. It is better to sow rather too thick than too thin, as with thick sow- ing the stems grow tall and straight, with only one or two seed capsules at the top; and the fiber is found greatly superior in fineness and length to that produced from thin sown flax, which grows course and branches out, producing much ""-^ but a very inferior quality of fiber. The seed, ground being pulverized and well cleaned, roU and sow. If it had been laid off without ridges, it should be marked out in divisions eight or ten feet broad in order to give an equable supply of seed After sowing, which should be done by a skillful person, as the seed is very slippery and apt to glide unevenly from the hand (a broad cast seed sower is best), cover with a seed har- row, going twice over it — once up and down, and once across or angle-wise, as this makes it more equably spread, and avoids the small drills made by the teeth of the harrow. Finish with the roller, which will leave the seed covered about an inch— the proper depth. The ridges should be very little raised in tlie centre, when the ground is ready for the seed; otherwise, the crop will not ripen evenly; and when land is properly drained there should be no ridges. Rolling the ground after sowing is advisable, care being taken not to roll when it is bo wet that the earth adheres to the roller. If care has been paid to cleaning the seed and the soil, few weeds will appear; but if there be any they must be care- fully pulled. It is done in Belgium by women and children, who, with course cloths around their knees, creep along on all-fours. This injures the young plant less than walking over it, which, if done, should be by persons whose shoes are not filled with nails. They should work also facing the wind, so that the plants laid flat by the pressure may be bloVn up again, or thus be assisted to gain their upright position. The tend,er plant pressed only one way, soon recovers, but if twisted or flattened by careless weeders, it seldom rises again. The weeding should be done before the flax exceeds six inches in height. The time when flax should be pulled is a point of much nicety to determine. The fiber is in the best state before the seed is quite ripe. If pulled too soon, although the fiber is fine, the great waste in scutching and hackling renders it unprofitable; and if pulled too late the additional weight does not compensate for the coarseness of the fiber. It may be stated that the best time for pulling is when the seed is be- ginning to change from a gi-een to a pale brown color, and the stalk becomes yellow for about two-thirds of its height from the ground. When any of the crop is lying and suffering from wet, it shquld be pulled as soon as possible and kept by itself. So long as the ground is undrained and imperfectly levelled before sowing the flax will be found of different lengths. In such cases pull each length separately, and, if possible, keep it separate in the steep-pool. When there is much second growth, the flax should be caught by the puller just underneath the bolls, which will leave the short stalks behind. If the latter be few it is best not to pull them at all, as the loss from mixture and discoloration by weeds would counterbalance the profit. If the ground has been thoroughly drained and laid out evenly, the flax will likely be all of the same length. It is most essential to take time and cai e to keep the flax even, like a brush at the root ends. This increases the value to the pinner, and, of course, to the grower, who will be amply repaid by am FLAX 360 FLAX additional price for Ills extra trouble. Let the handfuls of pulled flax be laid across eacb other diagonally, to be ready for separating the se^d. Rippling should be done at the same time, and in the same field with the pulling. _ If the only advantage to be derived from rippling were the comparative ea?e with which rippled flax is han- dled, the practice ought to be adopted; but," be- sides this, the seed is a very valuable part of. the crop, either for the' oil mill or for feeding pur- poses at home. The apparatus for rippling is very simple, consisting of a row of iron teeth -screwed into a block of wood. The best ripples are made of half -inch square rods of iron, placed with the angles towards the operator, three-six- teenths of an inch asun.der at the bottom, half an inch at the top, and. eighteen inches long, so as to allow a sufficient spring, and to save, much breaking of flax. The points should begin to taper three inches from the top. The ripple is to be taken to the field where the flax is being puUed, and screwed down to the centre of a nine- . foot plank resting on two stools. Theripplers may either stand or sit astride the opposite ends, and should be at such a distance from the comb as to allow them to strike it properly and alter- nately. A winnowing sheet must be placed under them to receive the bolls as they are rippled off, and then the ripplers are ready to receive the flax just pulled, the handfuls being placed diag- onally and bound up in a sheaf, which is laid down at the right hand of the rippler and untied. He, takes a handful with one hand, about six inches from the root ends, audaT little nearer the tops with' the other. Hespreads the top of the handful like ' a fan, draws the 'one-half of it through the comb and the other half past the side, and, by a half turn of the wrist, the same operation is repeated with the rest of the bunch. Some,^ however, prefer rippling' without turning the hand, giving the flax one or twO pulls through, according to the quantity of bolls. The flax can often be rippled without .being passed more than once through the comb. He then lays the handfuls down at his left side, each handful crossing the other, when the sheaf should be carefully tied up and removed. The object of crossing, the handfuls so carefully after rippling, when tying up the beats for the steep, is that -they will part freely from each other when they are taken to spread out on tlie grass, and not interlock and be put out of their even order, as would otherwise be the cg,se. If the weather be fine, the bolls should be kept in the field, spread on winhOw-cloths, or other contrivance for dry- ing, and if turned over from time to time they will soon dry. Passing the bolls first through a coarse riddle, and afterwards through fanners, to remove straws and leaves, will facilitate the ' drying If the weather be moist, they should be taken in-doors, and spread out thinly and evenly on a barn floor or on a loft, leaving windows and doors open to allow a thorough current of air, and turned twice aday until no moisture remains. By tills mode of slow drying the|eed has time to imbibe all juices that remain in the husk, and to become perfedtly ripe. In fine seasons the bolls should always be dried in the open air, the seed threshed out, and the heaviest and plumpest used for crushing or sowing. Tli^ light seed and chaff form most wholesome food for stock. Flax ought not to be allowed to stand in the field, if possible, even the second day, but should be rippled as soon as practicable after it is pulled, and carried to the water to be steeped, that it may not harden. , Watering requires the greatest care and atten- tion. River water is the best. If spring water must be used, let the pond be filled "some weeks before the flax is put in, that the sun and air may soften the water. That containing iron or other naineral substances should never be used. If river water can be had, it need not be let into the pond sooner than the day before the flax is to be steeped. The best size of a steep-pool is twelve feet broad, eighteen feet long, and from three and one-quartei' to four feet deep. Place the flax loosely in the pool, in one layer, somewhat sloped, and in regular rows, with the root ends under- neath, the tie of each row of sheaves to reacli the root of the previous one. Cover with moss sods, or old, tough sward, cut thin, and laid perfectly close, the sheer of each fitted to the pther. Before putting on the sods, a layer of rushes or weeds is recommended to be placed on the flax, especially in new ponds. As sods are not always at hand, a light covering of 6traw may do, with stones laid on it, so as to keep the flax just under the water, and as the fermentation proceeds, additional weighf should be laid on, to be removed as soon as the fermentation ceases, so as not to sink the flax too much in the pool. Thus covered, it never sinks to the bottom, nor is affected by air or light. A small stream of water, allowed to run through a pool, has been found to improve the color of flax. The average time for steeping sufficiently is from eight to fourteen days, according to the heat of the weather and the nature of the water. Every grower should learn to know when.tjie flax has had enough of the water, as a few hours too much may injure it. It is, however, much more frequently under vvatered than over watered. The best test is the following: Try some stalks, of average thickness, by breaking the' shove, or woody part, in two places, about six or eight inches- apart, at the middle of the stalk; catch the broken bit of wood, and if it will pull freely out, downwards, for that length, without breaking or tearing the fiber, and with none of the fiber adhering to it, the flax is ready to take out. Make this trial every six hpurs after fermenta- tion subsides, for sometimes the change is sudden. Never lift the flax -roughly from the pool with forks or gi-lpes, but have it carefully handed out by men standing in the water. It is advanta- geous to let the flax drain from twelve to twenty- four hours after being taken from the pool, by placing the bundles on their root ends, close together, or on the flat, with the slope. But the heaps should not be too large, otherwise the flax vvill be injured by heating. Select, when prac- ticable, clean, short, thick pasture ground for spreading, mowing down or removing any weeds, if necessary, that rise above the sward. Lay the flax evenly on the grass, and spread vely equally and thin. If the directions given under the head of rippling have been attended to, the handfuls will readily come asvinder without entangling. Some persons recommend turning the flax on the grass with a long rod. Six or eight days, if the weather is showery, or ten or twelve days, if it be dry, should be sufficient for the flax to remain on thegrass. Ten days^may be taken as a fair average in ordinai-y weather. A good test of i(s being ready to lift is to rub a few stalks from the top to the bottom ; and when the wood breaks easily, and separates from the fiber, leaving it FLAX 361 FLEAS sound, u has had enough of the grass. Also when a large proportion of the stalks is perceived to form a bow and string, from the fiber contract- ing and separating from the woody stalk But the most certam way is, to prove a small quantity with a h£^ndbreak or in a mill. In lifting the flax, keep the lengths straight and the ends even- otherwise great loss will occur in the process of scutching. If heavy dews or damp weather pre- vail, do not lift too late in the day. Let the flax be set up to dry for a few hours, and afterward tie It up in small bundles; and if not taken soon to be scutched, it will be much improved by being put up in small stacks, loosely built, with stones or slabs in the bottom to keep it dry and allow a free circulation of air. Drying, if by fire, is always nfost pernicious. If properly steeped and grassed, no such drying is necessary ; and to make it ready fpr breaking and scutching exposure to the sun is sufficient. The imports of flax and hemp, raw and manufactured, into the United States during the year 1879, amount to $5,781,- 710, and of this amount $2,798,465 was paid for the raw material in the ratio of one to two, flax being the lesser import. For the foreign flax supply we depend mainly upon six or seven coun- tries, and in the last ten years but fifteen countries are represented in all, only eight furnish a steady supply. Since 1877, inclusive, Russia has fur- nished the largest amount and England next, the last named country leading in the seven years previous. A considerable amount comes from Canada, eitherin the form of tow or line. The tow being subject to a duty of $10 a ton when intended for bagging manufacture, though it comes in free for paper-stock. The Boston mar- ket is largely supplied from Archangel, either direct or via England, though a large quantity of this fiber also comes to the port of New York. Holland flax is used to some extent, though it is not in such demand as formerly. At one time it was considered the most perfectly prepared flax in the market, being even at the ends, well cleaned and strong. Rotterdam and Zealand flax is importjed in small qijantities, and Belgium sends us small amounts, varying in the ten years from five to seventy-five tons. ~ But ten tons were reported for the year 1879. It is difficult to get at the true figures as regards any one market, on account of this increased amount of indirect importation in small quantities. The quantity of flax — hackled and line — and also of tow received in Boston during the year 1879, was 3,730,000 pounds. By far the largest partion, or 3,583,400 pounds, was received from Russia, and of this quantity 1,405,300 pounds was imported in the form of tow. The small balance was received chiefly from Ireland and the Netherlands, there being 59,500 pounds from the former country and 87,100 pounds from the latter. In 1879 the flax iinportation into New York was 1,420 English tons, or 3,180,800 pounds; 970 tons of this was flax, costing from $300 to $550 per ton, leaving 450 tons of tow valued at $225 per ton, a total valua- tion of flax and tow to the amount of $600,000. Referring to the customs figures, .weflndthat for the year endfng June 30, 1879, there were 2,935 tons of raw flax fiber, including tow, imported from seven countries, at a cost of $969,451, a fall- ing oflE from the previous year of $207,778, and a smaller amount than in any year sinpe 1870, when the raw flax imports were 100 tons less than in the year previously mentioned. FL\X— AREA OP PRODUCTION, ETC. (See Flax, in Supplement.) FLE ABANE. a name given to many weeds, as the inulas, etc. FLEA BEETLE. Under the name Flea Beetle, there are several species of the MaU tica family. ,The Cucumber Plea Beetle {H. cucvmeria) is said to be often largely Injurious to potato vines. Dr. Fitch thinks this, E. Oucumeris, and H. Pubescens is the same. This species certainly attack the potato. The Striped Flea Beetle (H. orchestris ■edtata) is one of the most troublesome species, often entirely destroying young cabbage, turnip, radish and other crucifer- ous plants. Some flowering plants, as stocks, are also attacked. Powdered lime or soot, applied when the dew lies, are among the popular remedies for all this class of insects; not always successful, however. London Purple or Paris Green, properly diluted, is efficient, but should not be applied to cabbage, radish, etc. It may be very much more diluted than when used for the Colorado Potato Beetle. Cruciferous plants may be treated with powdered white hellebore. . ORAFE-VINB FLBA BEETLE. The dreaded : Grape-vine Flea ' Beetle, Haltica {graptodera) chalybea, (see cut) is another member ot this family of insects, a, grape leaf and larva feeding; b, larva magnified; c, earth-cell in which the insect transforms; d, beetle; the hair lines show natural size. This is sometimes called the . Steel Blue Beetle, and in the vineyards about St. Louis and South is often most destructive. Hellebore powder is also destructive to this insect. There are many so-called Flea Beetles from their power of leaping, as the cabbage, and turnip, and the cucumber Flea Beetle, and all jumping beetles, are similar to the ordinary eye; some of them are exceedingly minute, and some- times so abundant that the foliage of young plants will be black with them, but this is uncommon. On very young plants of the cabbage or cucum- ber families, there is no objection to the use of dilute Paris Green or London Purple. FLEAM. The knife or lancet used in bleed- ing cattle and horses. FLEAS. A species of the genus PitZer. Thef FLORICULTURE 363 FLORICULTURE are wingless, but undergo regular transforma- tions. Cleanliness, especially in the removal of old straw, litter, and similar trash, in which they harbor, washing the skins of animals, anointing with a mixture of oil and pennyroyal, or elder leaves, are effectual means to , reduce their numbers. FLECKED. Pied, or of mixed colors. FLEECE. (See Wool.) ! FLESH. Generally understood as the mixed muscle and fat of animals, but more strictly the muscle orlean only. Lean meat consists of twenty per cent, fibrin, with three per cent, of albumen; coloring matter, and salts; the rest, seventy -seven per ceut., Jjeing water; it differs very little from blood. FLEXIBILITY. The .capacity of bending without breakage. It is a relative property, depending upon temperature, thickness, etc. FLEXORS. The name of those muscles which cause the flexibn or bending of the arm or leg. FLEX I OSE. Full of bendings to the one side and the other. i FLIES; Insects fui'nished with two wings {Diptera), and living by suction. Several dis- tinct families I exist, viz., ToLchinadm, -Aeposit their eggs in caterpillars; the Surcophagm, are viviparous, produce living maggots, and ' live on putrid meats. The Stromoxys genus, including the sharp stinging horseflies, which lay their eggs in dung; the Muarodoe, or house and meat flies, which infest butchers' stalls and houses. (See Fly.) FLINT. A variety of siliet, containing water ' and stained with iron, found interstratified with chalk. FLINT GLASS. A .glass composed of fine sand and red-lead, , having a high refractive power, and used by ■opticians. ' FLITCH OP BACON. The side, or'shoulder, and middlfe oiece together. ' FLOAT. ' A raft of timber to be floated. To cover meadows with water. FLOAT BOARDS. The boards attached to the circumference of an under shot wheel. FLOODS. .^(See Protection Against Floods, in Supplement, page 1112.) FLOODGATE. Any contrivance or gate to regulate the flow of water;, a sluice. ' FLORETS. The flowers of a capitulum, like the sunflower. FLOBICULTDRE. The increasing taste for the cultivation of flowers not only in our city and village gardens but at pur rural homesteads, is evidence not only of progress in refinement and material w.ealth, but also of correct appre- ciation of the beautiful in nature, and the goodly influences thdy bring in education to a higher human nature. With the explosion of the dogmas of the old gardeners that each species of plant must have its special soil, and in some cases mixed with the minutest care from many difl'erent sources, and that each plant should have a particular degree of heat and moisture, has come the abandonment, in a measure, of the practice, from the fact that the .plants usually, cultivated at our homes do well in ordinary soil, if well enriched— heavy soiK with a compost of rotted sods and decayed horse manure; and light soils, with rotted sods and decayed cow manure. Thus we may bring both these soils, the first to a li^ht, friable condition, and the last to a state sufficiently compact to stand ordinary drying. , For pot plants, for instance, rotted sods from a loamy pasture, one-half, rotted cow manure, one-quarter, and leaf mold, one-quar- ter, will answer for the majority of plants cultivated, and With proper watering they may be kept in vigorous health. With both pot plants and the garden flowers usually cultivated it should be remembered that fuchsias, begonias, and even geraniums, gladiolus, etc., do not like hot sun, and also tliat no flowers should be exposed to sweeping ' winds , Another dogma, now exploded, that house-plants are injurious to health, should have been known long ago. The perfume of certain flowers is unpleasant to the senses of nervous individi^als. Let them be avoided, but do not fear that .the emanation of the plants ordinarily kept in rooms are detri- mental to health. This misstatement has been accepted, and harped upon, by those who giiudged the time and care necessary to this god- like means of enjoyment. There are no more healthy nor long lived persons than florists^ who spend their days, and sometimes nights, in the atmosphere of green houses crowded with plants. It is the lack of fresh air that is fatal to health, and plants can not thrive witliout plenty of air. There is another clijiss of persons,' and here, among the class who cultivate flowers, who make the mistake of grudging the cutting of flowers for table and other indoor adornment. The true human mission of flowers is to be cut;^and really PICOTBE PINK. nearly all that class, useful for indoor decoration, bloom better for moderate cutting at least. Do not, therefore, raise flowers merely .to look at out of doors. If the housewife and children are the cultivators, leave them alone to follow their natural instincts and tastes ia cutting flowers for use. If the master of the house be the cultivator, give the family full liberty in the matter of cutting, only designating certain specimens that must be reserved for tlir judgment and discretion of the master. The family will soon learn to discriminate between tliose that may be freely cut and those not so free in their bloom, but FLORICULTURE 363 nevertheless worthy a place at the home or in ^acf '' On'l°'''.1' ^""^ -'"T ^•^■•« PecuHari°y or grace. One other mistake, often made in the cultivation of annuals, is in sowino- them too Ihf nfo'^*""™ maize) planting time, or abou irp St °' '"''''"§ ^''''.\ ^'^^ tei^der varieties are better resei;ved until corn is above ground and growmg The most economical way wUh all varieties of plants, that will bear transplant- ing, IS to sow them in a cold frame of nicely- FLOWERS BALSAMS. prepared soil, and transplant sit the proper sea- son. Thus China and other garden pinks may be brought into bloom by July 1st; and balsams, candytuft, mign9nette, nasturtiums, phlox, sweet alyssum, zinnia^ and, in fact, all annuals may be forwarded fully three weeks before bloom may be had where they are sown outside. The labor of sowing and transplanting is, , in reality, far less than that of watching and waiting for, and weeding the tiny things when young, to say nothing of the vexation often arising from loss. Of tlie varieties mentioned above, nasturtium and mignonette should be sown in small pots, allowing three plants to each pot, and turned out with the balls entire, since they do not bear transplanting well. In transplanting plants are often killed by too much fussing with. Make a place sufficient to receive the roots, set the plant, press the earth firm about the roots, leaving a little depression; fill this with water, and when it has settled completely away, draw dry earth over all, and few plants will ever wilt to harm them. A little practice will soon ena- ble any one to perform this work quickly and well. Much taste may be displayed in the for- mation of the beds, and by the exercise of tact in planting, by the selection of suitable varie- ties. The tasteful arrangement of cut flowers m bouquets, baskets, vases, and designs for dec- orative purposes, is an art worthy of study. The arrangement of color, mapping of designs, the grouping, and the added spray of leaves and tendrils, and the blending of perfumes, is a most fascinating study to all who have flowers. In the formation of floral designs, especially bouquets, as a rule, beginners crowd the flow- ers too much together, and do not use green enough. The filling up. as the adding of spray 13 called, and the arrangement of the ground work of green, and the preservation of individ- uality of color and character, may be called the fine art of decorative arrangemei t. For instance, we may easily see that heliotrope and alyssum, when combined, lose their individu- ality. Combined with otheir distinct flowers their charm is heightened. Flowers borne in long spikes, as lillies, gladiolus, etc., are best for vases, but individual > blooms may be tiiken, wired to splints, and introduced with efliect in fl< 'Wer pieces of considerable size. For articles on special flowers, see the several names as treated. See also landscape gardening for form of beds-and plantihg. FLOSS SILK. The silk broken off from cocoons in the filature, which is carded and worked like cotton, for coarse fabrics. FLOUR. Any grain ground fine, and from which all the bran, shorls and middlings are removed, in contradistinction to meal, in which only the hull or outside skin is removed. Flour, of wheat, is now divided into many grades,- fine, superfine, family flour, and extra, being tlie principal grades. Formerly, the word flour was only applied to the flour of wheat, that of rye and buckwheat being denominated meal, but now the word flour is used for all the better grades of ground bre^d grains, except Indian corn. FLOWERLESS PLANTS. The crypto- famous plants of Linnaeus; the acotyledons of upsieu FLOWERS. The most beautiful parts of plants and trees, which contain the organs of fructification. (See Botany.) From their fre- quent utility as medicinal (Jrugs, as well as their external beauty, the cultivation of liowers in our gardens becomes an object of some impor- tance. Flowers are many of them excellent indicators of the weather by expansion or clos- ing, and other motions. It is an established fact, that flowers as well as fruits grow larger in the shade, and ripen and decay soonest when exposed to the sun. Flowers which are to be used or preserved for medicinal purposes should with a few exceptions, be gathered in full bloom, and dried as speedily as possible. The rose is gathered before it is fully blown. In drying flowers, the calyces, claws, etc., should be previously taken ofl"; when the flowers are very small, the calyx is left, or even the whole flowering spike, as in the greatest portion of the labiate flowers. In some instances as in the baulistines, or pomegranate flower, the active matter resides Qhiefly in the calyx. Compound flowers with pappous seeds, as colt's foot, ought to be dried by a high heat, and before they aro entirely open, otherwise the slight moisture that remains would develop the pappus, and form a kind of cottony nap, which would be very hurtful in infusions, by leaving irritating par- ticles in the throat. Flowers of httle or no FLT 364 FODDER smell maybe dried in a heat of 75° to 100° Fahr. The succulent petals of the liliaceous plants, whose odor is very fugacious, can not well be dried, as their mucilaginous substance rots and grows black. Several sorts of flowering tops, as tliose of lesser centaury, worm-wood, melilot, water germander, etc. , are tied in small parcels and hung up, or else exposed to the sun, ' wrapped in paper covers, that they may n'ot be discolored. After some time, blue flowers; as those of violets, bugloss, or borage, grow yellow, and even become entirely discolored, especially if ihey are kept in gl^ss vessels that admit the light; if however, they are dipped for a moment in boiling water, and slightly pressed befoi-e they are put into the drying stove, the blue color is rendered permanent. The origin of double flowers is believed to result from the luxuriant growth of the plant hi consequence of excessive nourishment, moisture, and warmth; they arise from the increase of some parts of the flower, and the; consequent exclusion of others; thus the stamens are often converted into petals. Botanists very properly term such multiplied flowers vegetable monsters, because they possess no stamens or pistils, and therefore can not pro- duce seeds. Tliere subsists (says Dr, Darwin) a curious analogy between these vegetable raon- Bters and those of the animal world i for a duplicature of limbs frequently attend the latter, as chickens and turkeys with four legs and four wings, and calves with two heads; .etc. Scien- tific floriculture, or the culture, propagation, and general management of plants, divides itself into five sections; 1, Stove plants; 3, green- house plants; 3, hardy trees and shrubs; 4, hardy herbaceous plants; 5, annuals and bien- nials. Practically it is divided into three divisions: out-door floriculture; in-door floricul- ture, and commercial floriculture, the last, the raising of plants for the sale of the cut flowers. (See Floriculture.) FLUiS. Any channel or way along which the smoke or heat of a fire passes; used to desig- nate any air passage, but genera,lly that by which smoke and flame passes up the chimney. FLUID. A body of particles which move freely among one another, and which transmit pressures equally in all directions. Fluids are divided into elastic and non-elastic, or gaseous and liquid; the former containing air and vapors, the latter water, etc. FLUKE. Disioma hepaticum. A fiat, ento- zoal worm, infesting the livers of sheep and some other animals; it is often seen in those which have died of the rot. (See Rot.) FLUOR SPAR. A beautiful crystailline min- , «ral, fluoride of calcium. The mineral is of many colors, and cubical or octahedral in form. It is used as a flux, and to procure hydro-fluoric acid. FLUTINGS. The grooves of columns. FLUVIALES. A tribe of water plants, of endogenous structure, nearly resembling sea- weeds. , FLUX, In chemistry, substances which are in themselves very fusible, or which promote the fusion of other bodies. In diseases, any Unusually increased discharge, as diarrhoea. _ FLY. These Jn agriculture are small winged insects that are injurious to grain and other plants, but in fact ahy insects having smooth and transparent wings are often so denominated. The true flies, however, have only two wings. All such are included under the entomological distinction, IHptera, signifying two-winged. In this category come house flies, biting Cies, biting gnats, the Hessian fly, wheat fly, radisli fly, two-winged gall flies, fruit flies, and other dipterous insects. The perfect insect of the onion maggot is a fly, that is, a two-winged ONION HAG SOT AND FLT. insect. The cut shows at a, maggot or larva, natural size; b, pupa, magnified; c, fly magnified, the cross lines showing natural size. Gall flies, fruit flies, the Hessian fly, the wheat fly, and tachina flies, (this last beneficial as parasitic 'o> other insects) all have two wings. . To illustrate we give cut of Tachina parasite, {LydeUn. diiry- phorcs) of the Colorado Ptftato Beetle, the hair TAOHINA PAKASrrB. lines showing the natural size of the fly. Of this insect Dr. Riley says they destroy fully ten per cent, of the second broods of beetles, and fully fifty per cent, of the third broods; and adds that it bears a close resemblance to the 9ommon house fly, but is 1-eadily distinguished by its extremely brilliant silver white face, and that no Ichneumon parasite has been found preying on it. Tlierefore, if the farmer see* these brilliant fellows, let them alone. FOAL. The young of the liorse and ass kind. The male is a colt, and the female a filly. FOCAL DISTANCE. In optics, the distance between the center of a lens, or mirror, and the point into which the rays are collected. FOCUS. A point where heat, light, sound, etc., are collected, either by the action of glass or reflecting surfaces. In geometry, certaim points in the, curves, called conic sectioas, which are also foci for radiant emanations. FODDER. All substances used as food for animals. In the South it is sometimes confined to the leaves stripped f ropi corn. Coarse fed- PODDEK 365 ders are those which, like straw, etc occudv much bulk The comparative value of foSs Man important question in the feeding of aS- mals, and .which can hardly have been said to a^ume a trustworthy estimate until the time when careful experiments had been made by Thaer, Keaumer, Block, and Boussingault In the annexed table, by the latter, are ihown the results obtained by chemical examination and m connection with practical feeding. TABLE OF THE NUTRITIVE BQUIVALBNTS OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF FODDERS. FOOT, AKATOMY OF KindB of Pood. Ordinary natural meadow hay. Do. of fine quality Do. select Do. freed fi-om woody stems. . . liUceT' e hay Eed clover hay.Snd year's growl L Eed Clover cut in flower,green,d KeW wheat straw Old wheat ^traw Do. do. lower parts of the stalk. Do. do. upper parts of do.and ear. Kewrye ati'aw Old do Oatstraw Barley do Pea do... '. Millett do Buckwheat do • Drum cabbage Swedish turnip Turnip Field beet, .^ Do, white Slleslan Carrots Jerusalem artichokes , . . , . Do !.... Potatoes Field beans . White peas Hew Indian com Buckwheat Barley ^ Barley-meal Wheat , Do. trom highly manured soil. . . Kecen^ Bran Wheat ha-k or chaff Linseed cake Colza do Madia do Hemp do Poppy do Nutdo ;.... Beech mast do Arachia (Pindars) do t3 ■" 11.0 14 18.8 14.0 18.6 in.i 76.0 26.0 8.5 5.3 9.4 18.7 12.6 21.0 11.0 8.5 19.0 11.6 92.3 91.0 9J.5 87.8 85.6 87.6 79.2 75.5 65.9 7.9- 8.6 18.0 12.5 13.2 13.0 10 5 18.6 37.1 7.6 13.4 10.5 6.5 5.0 6.8 6.0 6.2 6.6 'a'4 1.34 1.50 2.40 2.44 1.66 1.70 '6!36 0.55 0.43 1.42 0..S0 0.60 0.36 0.30 1.95 0.96 0.54 3.70 1.83 1.70 1.70 1.4S. 2.40 1 60 2.20 l.,50 5.50 4.20 2.00 2.40 2.02 2.46 2.33 S.18 2.18 0.94 6.00 5.50 5.93 4. 78 5.70 5.59 3.51 ri 0) ^ 1.15 1.30 2.00 2.10 1.38 1.54 0.64 0.27 0.49 0.41 1.33 0.24 0.42 0.30 0.-5 1.79 78 0.48 0.28 0.17 o:i3 0.21 0.18 0.30 30 42 86 5.11 3.81 1 64 2.10 1.76 2 14 8.09 2.65 1.36 0.85 5.20 4.92 5.51 4.21 5.36 5.24 3.31 100 98 58 65 a3 75 311 426 86 479 250 64 147 240 411 676 886 548 669 382 348 274 319 In the first table given above, the amount of nitrogen in 100 parts is found,, which gives the . quantity, of fibrin, albumen, and caseine, bymul- , .tjplying by 6.3; thus, in the table, the nitrogen in good hay is 4. 34 per cent., which is equiva- lent to feight and one-half nearly of fibrin. The practical values are ascertained by weighing the feed and animal, and giving enough of all fod- ders to maintain him in good condition. They are less true than the theoretical or cheriiical values, because not so well performed; but the theoretical values have been fully sustained by subsequent examination. One hundred pounds of ordinary hay is made the standard, other fodders being compared with this in their power itt sustaining ''■°~ '" ■—'—■•i- t'i-- •'!«' ■« life in animals. The difference exhibited in the given valuations, by different authors, is, in a great measure, due to variations in the nutritiousness of the provender; thus, straw, pea vines, etc., are many times more nutritious when cut green than when dead ripe. In the same way, some wheat contains ten and some thirty p«r cent, of gluten, and here is a difference of one to three. The table is inter- esting as showing the actual value as determined in the cases named, meadow hay in theory being taken as a standard or 100. FOLIATION, <.r VERNATION. The man- ner in which the young leaves are folded in the bud. FOLLICLE, or FOLLICULUS. In botany, a one- valved, one-celled, many-seeded, superior, dehiscent fruit. FOMENTATIONS. These are application^ for cleansing or soothing irritable wounds; to relieve inflammation of parts near the surface, and to reduce internal inflammation, as in acuta kidney difficulties, pleurisy, and pneumonia. They may be of cold or hot water, or mixed with vinegar, laudanum, or any antiseptic. As a rule fomentations should be hot, and applied continually until relief is had, the chief cause of failure being that they are not persevered In. For horses and cattle take a fully wooled sheepskin, and wring it out of hot water, and keep it on, renewing as often as it gets cool. After finishing, rub the parts dry, and it is bet- ter afterward, as a further means of guarding against cold, to rub a little mustard into the fomented surface. FONTANEL. A small space existing between the bones of the head in the foetus. FOOT, ANATOMY OF. In the article Horse's Limbs and Feet, the importance of these mem- bers of the body, and something of their anatomi- cal structure is discussed. The present article will deal only with the feet as organs of locomo- tion, and the successive stages by which the com- plex five-toed animal has been carried into the no less complex and delicate structures, four-toed, three-toed, two-toed, or hoofed, and single hoofed quadrupeds. Fig. 1 will show these several gradations as successive parts were dropped until we at last have a so-called solid, single hoofed animal (soliped) as in the horse. Whatever parts are dropped, are from the sides, with correspond- ing modifications of the carpal (wrist) and tarsal (instep of the foot) elements. This drop- ping of digital elements to contribute to greater simplicity of structure is not confined to the foot of the horse, but has its most complete manifes- tation, short of obliteration, in this animal, but is POOT, ANATOMY OF 366 FOEAGB CROPS seen to a less extent in other animals. An ana- tomical authority says, taking the five toes as the highest number presented in any land mammal, we have a reduction to four in the hippopotamus. Fig. 2. Fig. 1 6, to three in the riinocerus, Fig. 1 e,, and two in' the ox, Fig. 1 d. The elements not used are frequently prese t in a rudimentary form, as seen in tlie splint bones of the horse,, and the two -ff rig. 4. smRll foes in the ox and hog. Fig. 1 -d. Fossil skeletons of hortes show that, in previous geolog- ical eras long piist, horses have lived having, to the fully developed single digit, two others per- Flg-e. Fig. 5. feet as to form but smaller in sizb. ' The anatomi- cal foot of quadrupeds consists of all the parts beyond the radius, or radius and ulna, (lesser and larger bones of the fore arm) of the anterior extremities, , and the tibia, ol' tibia and fibula. corresponding bones of the posteriors. This wotild include the carpal bones (the knee) and the bones below of the anterior, and the tarsal bones (the hock) and bones below of the posterior- extremi- ties. In point of fact, however, uses considered, the foot of the l^orse is much more limited in its extent, including only the terminal phalanx. Fig. 3 will give a correct idea, including the foot of the horae and splint bones. To recapitulate. Fig. 1 shows Ike digits present in the feet of different animals. Fig. 3 shows the plan of construction of the horse's foot. Fig. 3 shows the bone of fore leg including those of the hoof, being a front view; a, tli« bones of the knee, b, the leg bone, and e, d, e, the bones of the fetlock and hoof To bring lliese up more clearly; Fig. 4, shows the splint bones; Fig. 5 the pas- the lower pastern or coronet ' bone; Fig. 7, the coffin bone; Fig, 8, a side view Fig. 7. tern bone; Fig 6, Fig.?. of a nearly perfect hoof, and Fig. 9, a vertical section of the hoof interior view, show- ing the horny 1am- inaa Thus from what we have shown the reader will get a correct idea of the anatomy of the foot of animals, or at j,j^ „ least one sufficiently °' ' clear, to assist all to a correct understanding who do not wish to study anatomy as a science. FOOT, SPRAINS OF, (See Sprains.) FOOT, STRUCTURE OP. (See Horse; and Foot, anatomy of.) FORAGE. The term signifies any food for cattle, horses, and sheep, whether it be grass, hay, grain, or other food plants. Fodder is generally used in the sense as applied to plants when cured, as hay, straw, corn-stalks, etc., although the origitial meaning of the word prob- ably signified food. It is also correctly applied in the sense of hastily gathered up food, as, when an army is on the march, foraging parties are sent out. FORAGE CROPS. Any crop grain for feed- ing farm animals, including the cereal grains, in contradisti'nctioii to fodder crops, which com- prise these crops, *hen the leaves, or the leaves and stalks, are used for feeding. Thus fodder crops may be any of the grasses, clovers, or other plants used for f eediqg cattle, and also the cereal grains, when cut and saved as hay, while j^vjnjBiisrKY 367 FORESTRY forage crops may imply, not only the straw but the threshed gram as well. FORAMEN. In anatomy, a hole or perfora- tion through a bone. FORCE. Anything that produces motion or pressure. Mechanical forcfes are those which produce pE^]pable movements, as gravitation the descent of weights upon bodies, etc. Chem- ical forces are those producing molecular move- ments, which are only perceptible by their eilects; they are heat, light, and electricity; these, however, occasionally give rise to more extensive movements. FORCEPS. Instruments acting in the same way as pincers, but enabling the operator to acquire leverage. FORCING. In horticulture, forcing is accel- erating the growth of plants, by means of hot beds, forcing pits, cold frames, or hand glasses, by which they are brought forWaTd earlier than usual, or out of tlieir natural season. (See Hot Bed and Greenhouse.) FORCING HOUSE. Any house covered with glass, and in whicli artificial heat is used in cold weather, is a forcing house. Thus arti- ficial structures for growing plants may be so termed. Forcing houses, or pits as they are sometimes called, are generally cheap structures, used by commercial florists, hot beds being used by vegetable gardeners, and also largely by florists, especially , for bedding plants. (See Hot Bed, also Conservatory.) FORESTRY. The planting of trees for economical purposes is denominated forestry. Tlie destruction of forests itl the march of civilization was long ago recognized as an injury by European governments, and remedial means have been long since, employed in their reinstate- ment by artificial planting. Thus almost all the European governments now have special oflicers whose d^ity it is to supervise this worls Jn the United States we have no such officers, but con- gress was awakened to tlie importance of forestry through the representations of Horticultural Societies and, principally in the West, this resulted in the passage of laws for the protection of the public forests and, later, laws giving public lands to settlers on public lands, who planted and tended a fixed area for a certain number of years. States have also passed .lawsi ^ giving certain exemptions and perquisites to those who plant trees, and some State Boards of Agriculture, and Horticultural Societies, have also offered liberal preihiums for systematic timber, belt, grove and forest tree planting. Tills industry is yearly an increasing one in the West, and principally performed by the farmers in prairie districts, for protective purposes. In France it is estimated that at least twenty-flve per cent, of a country should be in wood land to, produce the best results in tillage. Our estimate, for the West, is that if ten per cent, of the farms were planted to trees, as shelter belts, and small groves, the protection would be sufficient. The census returns estimate thirty-nine per cent, of the fiirms of the United States, exchiding the Territories, as being in wood land. The esti- mate of the Department of Agriculture of the United States is twenty-nine per cent., and including the entire area of the States and also the Territories, twenty-nine per cent. The illustration we ^ve shows— the figures on the blank surface the area of the States mentioned and the figures on the black surface the area of timber. In this connection, we may add that the impetus given of late years to timber plant- ing in the West, bids fair to clothe not only the States immediately east and west of the Missis- sippi river with a sufficiency of timber for the best results in tillage, but more especially in the Territories beyond; but there is yet a wide field to be filled in providing future timber for eco- nomical purposes in the arts and manufactures. The showing, as given on page 369 would place the United States below Norway, Sweden Russia, Germany, and above all other European States, in the proportiou of forests. In relation to these countries the German writer, Reutzsh, gives the ' following figures. Countries. Norway Sweden Ruesia' <7ermany Belgium Franc e Sh it/erlaud . Sardinia Naples Holland Spain Denmark . . . Greai Britain Portugal. . . . a 60 30.90 26 58 18.53 16.79 15 l-.!.29 9 43 7 10 B.52 5.50 B 4.40 S Ck roof of suchifact by two cri'dible witnesses, receive his or her patent for said homestead. 13. No land acquired under the pravisions of this act shall, in any event, become liable to the satisfaction of any debt or debts contracted prior to the issuing of the final certificate therefor. 14. The fees for all entries under this act shall be ten dollars, and the cgmmitsion of registers and receivers on all entries, irrespective of areas, shall be fcmr dollars (two dollfrs to each) at the date of entry, and a like sum at the date of final proof. 15. No distinction is made as to area or the amount of fee and commiKsions between minimum and double- minimum lands; a party may enter 36.) acres of either on payment of the presi n\>eiL fee and commissions. 16. The fifth section of the act entitled An act in ad- dition to an act to punish crimes against thS United States, and for other purposes, appi oyed March 8, 1857, shall extend to all oaths, affirmations, and ailidavits re- quired or authorized by this act. 17. Parties who may have already made entries under the timber-culture act of March 8, 1878, of which this is amendatory, shall be permitted to continue and com- plete the same in the manner and under the conditions prescribed by this act. There is something taking and eloquent in the immensity of the area of the newer States and Territories of the United States. These used to be considered as a wild, arid waste— a desert in fact, not susceptible 'of cultivation. The settle- ment of Kansas and Nebraska has shown ihe fallacy of this and the States now being carved out in the Roclsy mountains, rich both in vege- table and mineral wealth, show that there is still plenty of ropm for the energetic settlei:. The .following table will show the number of ' lO id lo ro o ^ § ?^ - -I la M 1 s IB s •a ca iS !2! o W\ S Iffi. l» CIO O a a p o. B PI M lO to Hr^a a |[p^ eo ll p M o p (369) S4 FORESTRY 370 acres in farms, the acres not in farms, and the number of acres in the total areas of the regions mentioned: FORMATION Stares and Temtoriea. No. acres in larms. No. acres not lu farms. No. acres in total artfa. Territoiles. Colorado *... Utah 820,346 1482 76,735,091 44,147.021 9rt,29.1,75J 91,817,103 55, 151,0 Jl 72ili84,t38 62,640,727 .44 151,340 36S),629,600 66,880,000 54,065,043 New Mexico 'Washlugton Dakota 77,568,640 44,796 160 SI6,596,li'8 92,016,640 65,2.8,lii0 72,9U'',240 62i645,l.,68 44,154,240 AlaBka 369,529,600 Total of Territories 2,496,595 1,038,889,334 1,036,385,919 Grand total 107,733,384 1,903,821,595 2,311,344,959 Takiiig into consideration only the farm-lands, the proportion of wood-lands if smallest in Cali- fornia, being 4.1 per cent. In order, respec- tively, follow Nevada, 6.4 per cent. ; Nebraska 10.2; Kansas 11.3; Iowa, 16.2; Illinois, 19 6. The proportion increases, State by State, from the Pacific coast eastward to Indiana (39.6 per cent.,) and then comes the devastation of thfe axe, which reduces the percentage of 6hio, a region originally forest, with the exception of small patches of prairie, mainly aboiit the head- waters of the Miami, to 31.7 per cent. Pennsyl- vania has about the same proportion, or 81.9, and New Jersey 24 per cent. There are only two other Western States that have percentages between 20 and 30, viz., Minnesota, 30.6; Wis- consin, 39.3. The Eastern States (besides New Jersey,) which come within the same limits, are Connecticut, 24.4; New York, 35 5; Massachu- setts, 25.8; Delaware, 38; New Hampshire, 29: Vermont, 30. 6. Those having between 30 and 40 per cent, of this farm area in forest are: Penn- sylvania, Indiana, named above; Oregon, 31.8; Maryland, 81.8, Rhode Island, 88.7; MaiAe, 38.1. The States having between four and five tenths of their farm lands in forest are three: Michigan, 40.7; Texas (the eastern portion gene- rally wooded,) 41.6; Virginia, 45.7. The south- ern belt is the most heavily v. ooded portion of the country, all the States, with the exception of Virginia and Texas, having more than half pf their farm areas in woodland, and a larger por- tion still if the wooded wild lands should be counted in with the f^rm-lands. The proportion in the occijpied or farm areas is as follows. West Virginia, 51.1; Arkansas, 51.4; South Carolina, 58.3; Georgia, 54.6; Tennessee, 55; Alabama, 56; Flqrida. 60; North Carolina and Mississippi, each 60.6 per cent. Tlie Territories have only a very small portion of their respective areas in farms Here and there only a small survey has been made, near some town, along some stream, or in the neighborhood of mining operations . The areas in wood are mainly among the mountains, the most heavily wooded oh northern slopes and in the gorges protected from the winds; the proportion given for farm lands is, therefore, in all probability, less than the real portion for the entire area of a Territory, not- ^thstanding the fact that available woodlands in surveyed tracts are rapidly taken up by farm- ers. Utah, one-tenth of one per cent: ; Montana and Wyoming, eight-tenths of one per cent.; Colorado, 3.5; Dakota, 7.4; Idaho, 9.8; New Mexico, 13.7; Washington, 44.8. Most of the States, in their several counties, exhibit great diversity in the abundance of their wood and timber supplies. In tlie new States it is due to the existence of prairies, or treeless plains, traversed by streams shaded by a line of forest, which characterize the surface of all or a portion of a State; in the older States it is simply the result of settlement and cultivation, in the destruction of forests, by clearing lands for farms, for supplies of wood for fuel, m obtaining timber for buUding, and for the various uses of mechanism. East of the Alleghanies almost the entire surface of the land was originally in forest. On the very summit of the Alleghanies are com- paratively large tracts of level meadows, or mountain prairies. Known as glades which are found in undrained soils not suited to the growth of trees, though this mountain-chain is generally wooded, on slope and summit, with as fine and various an aborescent growth as can be seen in any part of the North American co' tinent. West of the mountains, through West Virginia, Ohio, and Kentucky, there was little less than forest in the times of the aborigines; and in northeastern, southern, and southwestern Indiana,, a wooded surface was the prevailing characteristic, and even now it is a favorite resort for obtaining black walnuts and poplars of enormous size,- and great trunks of oaks, fit fori use in many a man-of-war. The South was, and is, a wooded region, with very few and small prairies in the valley of the Mississippi, and none really worth inentioning until central Texas is reached. In northern Missouri are extensive prairies, but almost half the area of the State is now covered with forest, notwithstanding the extensive clearing of "farm-lands during more than fifty years since its settlement; and more than half the surface of Arkansas and Louisiana, both west of the Mississippi, is now covered with wood. Meteorological records show that the lines of equal moisture, in this section, run northeast and south'yrest, through western Kan- sas, eastern Nebraska, Iowa, and Wisconsin ; the records of the rain-fall of any given period cor- respond on that line, rather Uian with a line through Kansas and Missouri; so the rains of central Nebraska and Minnesota, in point of time and quantity, correspond more nearly than those of Nebraska and Iowa. As might natur- ally be expected, we find the forest boundary, from Texas to Illinois, beyond which the prairies stretch westward, runping in a general direction corresponding with the lines of equal rain-fall. As a result, (though the lack of trees further west can not be attributed to insufficient rain-fall alone,) we find plains predominating in western Texas, in nearly all of the Indian Territory, in a strip of western and nearly all of northern Missouri, in a large portion of Illinois, and in western and northern Indiana, nearly to Lake Erie. Southern Illinois has an average propor- tion of forest. The belt south of the Ohio and Mississippi Railroad has a percentaee of 43 5, which IS greater than that of Missouri, and almost equal to that of Virginia. FORMATION. Deposits or strata referable to a common geological period. FOUL BROOD 371 POUNDER FORMICA. The geaus of ants, nowthe type of a tribe the F rmiadm. FORMIC ACID. The fluid ejected by ants When irritated contains this acid. The acid is formed by distilling tartaric acid with sulphuric «cid and peroxide of manganese. It is a highly corrosive acid, and of a peculiar bdor; combines with bases to form fonniates, which are very soluble. Formic acid contains a compound radi- cal formyl. FORMULA. In chemistry, the expression, by symbols, of the composition of any sub- etance. FO">SA. In zoology, a depression of a bone. FOSSIL. A part or the whole of any animal or plant imbedded in the earth, and more or less converted into stony matter. FOSSORES. A group of hymenopterous insects, which dig or excavate cells in wood or «arth to deposit their eggs. FOSSORIAL. Animals which dig their holes, as males. FOUL BROOD. Foul Brood in the hives of bees has become a source of serious annoyance to many bee-keepers. The following digest of the subject, from a number of sources, will show the result of some of the later investigations upon this subject: Putrid Foul Brood is a dis- ease which attacks the young brood of the hive, • showing itself fully after the larvae have been sealed up. It may be known by the viscous, gelat- inous, and yeast-like appearance ol the decom- posing brood, the unpleasant odor arising from the hive, and by the sunken covers of the cells. The cause of foul brood has been, until recently, involved in doubt, but late discoveries in Ger- mimy have thrown much light upon its origin. Mr. Lamprecht alleges that he has discovered the cause of the disease. His theory is this: The ■chyme which the workers prepare from honey and pollen by partial digestion, and with which the larvae are fed, contains a nitrogenous, plastic, formative substance, from which all the organs and tissues of the larvse are derived and com- posed; and precisely because of this its com- plicated composition it is peculiarly suscepti- ble of rapid decomposition when exposed to air and moisture ; that is, to undergo fermenta- tion and putrefaction. It is hence obvious that pollen, even though having undergone only a partial decomposition, must affect the bodies of bees and larvae difEerently from what it did or would do in its natural condition; and there is no longer a doubt that it is from pollen, thus partially decomposed, that the foul brood orig- inates. That it can readily undergo deco®posi- tion is manifest. Moisture, emanating in part from unse ded honey, and in part from the per- spiration of the bees, becomes condensed in the hive from external cold, and in the fall and toward spring it is frequently found hanging in ■drops on ttie combs, just as we find it condensed ■on the windows of our dwelling houses. If one of these drops falls into a cell containing pollen, decomposition of the latter speedily commences, ■and is then communicated by the bees to the pollen in the other cells; and the cause of foul brood is hence abundantly present in a hive thus circumstanced. The discovery of Dr. Ereuss, an eminent physician and mycologist, is that a microscopic fungus, Oryptocoaaus aheam, devel- ■oped from fermenting matter, feeds upon tlie young larvae, and thus causes foul brood; and that by means of the numerous sporules of the fungus, the disease is spread through the hive, and finally through the apiary. To show the character of this microscopic pest we quote the ' following from the article of Dr. Preuss, in the Bienenzeitunff : The foul brood fungus, which I have named Oryptococcus akea/Hs, belongs to the smallest of the fungoid forms. It is round and dust-shaped, and has a diameter of 1.500 milli- meter, or 1.1095 line; consequently 1,095 can lie side by side within a Ehenishline, but within a square line, 1.095+1,095, that is, 1,199,825, or, in round numbers, 1,200,000. The cubic line, according to this, would contain 1,440,000,000,- 000 fungi, and a cubic inch of foul brood, which consists of 1728 lines, would contain 2,488,330,- 000,000,000. If we reckon, further, that a cubic inch of comb contains fifty cells, thexonlents of each would be 49,766,400,000,000; in round numbers, fifty billions; or, deducting one-fifth for wax,forty billions of fungi. There is no , cure for this disease when it has once obtained headway. Destruction of the bees and honey, and thorough purification of the hive is the only remedy to prevent the spread of the disease. As a means of preventing the disease. Dr. Preuss gives the following directions: Feed no fermenting honey; feed no meal, especially when the hive is Ihreati ned with disease; destroy care- fully every particle of dead and moldering mat- ter; and avoid weakening the bees during the brooding seasons, so that they will not be able properly to maintain the heat necessary for the development of the brood. With the light now thrown upon the nature of this disease by recent discoveries, bee-keepers should be able to con- jjuei'. the contagious malady whenever it makes its appearance. FOULS. This is sometimes called foul claw, and incident to cattle and sheep, caused by over- gi-owth of the hoofs, irritation of pebbles, thorns, dirt, etc., and is sometimes produced by a scrofulous condition of the animal. If occa- sioned by injury, cleanse the hoofs thoroughly with warm water, cut off all supernumerary hoof, and apply, with a feather, a solution of from ten to twenty grains of chloride' of ziuc in an ounce of water. The foot must be protected from dirt until healed. ' FOUNDATION. In architecture, the lo*er part of a wall, on which the wall is raised, and always of much greater thickness than such wall. Heavy buildings sometimes have their foundations on a bed of concrete, which is a mixture «f rough, small stones or large gravel with sand and stone, lime and water, with just enough of the lime to act as a cement or medium with the best effect. In soil not solid the pre- caution is often taken to rest the building on piles driven close together; and deep enough to penetrate a firm compact clay. FOUL TEKTH. (See Lampas.) FOUNDER. This disease is an inflammation of the sensitive parts of the foot, sometimes including the lamina;, the sole and also the foot- bone. Hence the name laminitis, and also in- flammation of the feet, and fever in the feet. In slight cases only one fore foot may be affected, but often both, and sometimes all, of the feet. The following will be found to embody all necessary to be said upon this common disease; one almost always the result of carelessness or direct abuse; it is written by one competent ia FOUNDER 372 FOUNDER (every respect: Of the affections of tlie soft tis- Bues, perhaps the most common is laminitis. This term applies to inflammation not only of the laminse, but of the entire fleshy portion of the foot. It is not always the most readily detected, and in S9me of its more common and milder forms it entirely escapes notice. The lameness is assigned to the shoulder or' some other locality; but when we refer to the position pf this tissue, Tjetween a dense bone and a dense, unyielding horny envelope, and to its use to sus- , pend the bone and consequent entire weight of the aninjal from the wall, and consider that it Buffers some degree of' pressure at every 'step,, we can understand how the slightest morbid condi- tion of the part, the congestion of its vessels, or irritation of its nerves, may-^nay, must — give rise to pain and consequent lameness. Fortun- ately, in practice this is much less frequent than, theoretically, we might expect lit to be. Any horse that has been driven for several hours upon a hard, or stony, or hot and sandy road, would seem to be fairly fitted for some, degree of con- gestion of the soft tissues of tbe_ feet. At the close of such exertion he is stabled, perhaps upon a d»mp floor, or where a draft of air may blow upon him. No thought is given to the condition of his feet. He is fed, and perhaps he may have bqen moderately groomed; but of the entire animal no, part has undergone so much exposure or hardship as the feet, and no part really needs so much attention. Laminitis, or, as it has been called by writers, fever of the feet, or founder, may exist in all degrees, from the Bimple congestion of the part to the most severe and disorganizing inflammation. It is mainly exhibited in the fore feet, being an uncommon • disease in the hind feet. This is mainly due to the different kinds and degrees of force used in the action of the fore and hind legs and feet. In movement a much gi-eater amount of weight comes upon tjie fore legs and feet, the direction of the blow upon the ground is different, and the consequent strain and pressure upon the soft tis- sues much grealter.' If acute laminitis is present in one or both fore feet, it is manifested by the very obvious efforts of the animal to relieve itself from pi'essure. If one foot only is suffer- ing, this is pi)t forward and is rested upon the heel that not only is pressure taken off, but the parts are relaxed to a still greater extent by the weight of the limb, the foot is kept in continual motion, indicating extreme pain. There is heat in the hoof, and especially in the coronary band around its summit. ■ There may also be tender-; ness in this tissue on pressure. If both forefeet are affected,: the animal endeavors as far as possible, by settling back over the hind feet, ' to take off the pressure from them. This attempt may also be shown by the continuous change from one foot to the other. In severe I forms of the acute disease the entire S5'stem will Bympathize with the local disease. The arteries supplying the part or parts will be found throb- bing; the general arterial circulation will be quickened; the pulse will become considerably accelerated, and the constitutional condition will be one of symptomatic fever. The disease if unchecked may go on to the destruction of the soft tissues of the foot. Cases are on record in which the entire hoof has been shed by the separation of the soft from the horny foot. This is a rare termioation, but the formation of an abscess and partial separation is not so uncom- mon. Before this result occurs, however, the disease has usually pasBed into the chronic form. Prompt resort to appropriate treatment may ifesult in restoration to health. By no means advocating indiscriminate blood-letting, we would in this case recommend the free local abstraction of blood, either from the toe of the afflicted foot, or from the plantar vein.^ If the case is a very severe one, a branch of the plantar artery of 'one side may be divided. The foot should be placed in a large bucket of warm water, and allowed to bleed in it. Care should be taken to keep up the temperature by frequent additions of hot water. When the foot is removed, it may be placed in a large poultice, having previously been drenched about the coronary border with a liniment composed of two ounces each of the tincture of aconite root, bella- donna, and opium, with six ounces of sqap liniment. For the constitutional disturbance, the tincture of aconite root, fifteen to twenty drops in water, may be administered every hour or ha^ hour until a decided impression is made upon the frequency and hardness of the pulse. Half a drachm of belladonna with fifteen grains of digitalis may be given every half hour, or in emergency the following draught may be given every hour until the proper impression is made on the system: Tincture aconite root and tincture belladonna, fifteen drops' each, and sulphuric ether and laudanum half an ounce each. Later, saline medicines, such as the nitrate of potash, will aid in preventing secondary affections. Laminitis may have a variety of terminations. First it may terminate in a complete disappear- ance of all the,symptoms, that is, by resolution, and there be a com'plete recovery. Second, it may pass into a chrOuic condition in which all the symptoms are of a mitigated character. When quiet, the pain is slight, and the heat is little, if any, in excess of the natural state. If the anijnal is allowed rest upon a soft floor, or is turned to run in a paddock, the lameness may be scarcely obvious; but attempt to drive him and, either while on the road or afterward, he becomes very lame again. This condition, may continue almost indefinitely. Third, the inflammation may terminate in suppuration, which may be conflned to a small region of the foot, and even- tuate in a partial recovery, or it may be general and so extensive as to destroy the connection of the hoof with the soft tissues. Under the latter circumstances the hoof may be lost. When the destructive suppuration falls short of produting coni.plete separation, it may be sufficient to per- mit of a change of relation of the coffin-bone to the hoof A portion of the anterior attachments may be destroyed so that the bone may fall away from the horn. In a flat and weak foot this may- cause a bulging of the sole, producing what is called pumice foot. If tlie hoof, is preserved, the space produced by the falling of the coffin- bone is filled by fleshy granulations. The foot, however, suffers permanently, and lameness is constantly present. Such is»the structure of the foot that, even when the damage is less than that just described, the suppuration continues and burrows in various directions, seeking an outlet. Except when the inflammation and suppuration are confined to a limited space in the sole of the foot, the discharge must escape from the crown. - At some part of the coronal border of the hoof, FOX 373 FRAI^LINIA swelling IS perceived, which either opens of ^ oris opened by the knife, which is prefer- able. When suppuration has commenced, the animal should receive better and more nutritious lood, while stimulating injections to the opening may be useful. Should the sinuses become chrome, it has been recommended to trace their number and direction with a delicate probe, and then freely lay them open. To do this, the hoof must be softened by soaking in warm alkaline water, when it may be cut easily. Limited sup- puration of the soft tissues of the foot may occur from a variety of other causes, such as a wound made by the shoe of one foot in the coronet of the other, or by the prick of a nail driven into the quick or so near it as to cause inflammation by pressure, or by a bruise made by the heel of the coffin-bone, to which the term corn is applied. In all these cases suppuration may follow inflammation, and the severity and extent of the trouble will depend upon the locality of the injury, and the distance the product of suppura- tion has to travel to reach a point of exit. A fourth termination may be designated — that by metastasis. . The inflammation being situated in the fibrous tissues of the foot is liable to leave that locality and to seize upon similar tissues elsewhere, and under unfavorable circumstances we may have r«sulting inflammation of the brain or pleura, or indeed of any of the fibrous tissues. A fifth termination may be in mortification, the result of which would be almost certainly fatal »t any early period. Laminitis may be, and Some- times is, subacute from i,ts commencement. It is apt to take this form in old horses that have been subjected for a long time to hard work. Its approach is gradual, pain at first small, and lameness slight and not constant. The foot should be given the same treatment as in the more acute form. The warm bath should be used freely. Bleeding would probably be injuri- ous, and any debilitating medicines must be withheld. The bowels may be loosened by fresh vegetable food, such as potatoes or carrots, and if pain is present one or two draughts in tjie day containing an ounce of sulphuric ether and a drachm of laudanum may be given. Plenty of good, nutritious food should be given. The horse should not be used on the road until all the ^mptoms have been absent for several days. He may be gently exercised on a so|f t sward as soon as the inflammation is subdued. A per- manent, incurable lameness often results from the continued use of a horse sufiEering from some degree of inflammation of the soft tissues of the foot. Whenever this condition is detected, the animal should be given rest, and subjected to treatment with ^ a view to the cure of the disease. FOUNTAIN. A jet of water or fluid. The simplest way of forming a fotintain is to conduct water by a small pipe from a higher elevation, where a tank or other reservoir exists; the open end of the tube below being made fine, the fluid is driven out with a pressure proportionate to the height of the reservoir, and of any desired form of spray. FOVEATUS, FOVEATE. Having a depres- sion or pit; applied to the nectary of flowers FOVILLA. One of the gi-anules contained in pollen. FOX. Omis wipes. In countries where foxes abound, notably in hilly, rocky, and Mm- bered regions, foxes are one of the greatest pests of the farmer, since they do not hesitate to attack any animal they can easily overcome, even small pigs sometimes falling a prey to them. Barnyard fowls, however, are their favorite prey. Their exceeding cunning makes it difil- cult to trap them. The best means for their extermination is to bait them continually with something tliey like until they come and eat fearlessly, and'then to hide what strychnine will lie on the point of a pen-knife in each bait, as is usual in killing prairie wolves. The hunting of foxes, with horses and hounds, is a great rural sport in England, and somewhat practiced in the hill districts of the South. FOXULoVE. Digitalis purpurea. A very handsome biennial plant, bearing purplish-crim- son, or occasionally white flowers, from June to September. In gardens it is easily propagated by seed. The lesser yellow foxglove, {D. parc/vflord) is a native of Italy, and perennial ; grows three feet high, bearing yellow flowers in June and July; propagated from seed The large yellow foxglove, {D. amMgua,) with larger flowers, is also a perennial, growing three feet high. Th the principal difference seems to be in the fact that the horse of Normandy is larger, heavier, and slower than the horse of Perche, the latter showing more of the original Andalusian stock, from which both varieties' are said to have sprung. However these admirable draft horses may have originated, whether they have been known in France since the Crusades, a very doubtful question, or whether they were pro- duced by breeding from the fine Arabian Stal- lions, which fell into the hands of the French, at the victory of Charles Martel over the Sara- cen Chief Abd-er-Rahmftn, and being brought into La Perche and Normandy, and bred upon the heivy Norman horse, from which they have PBKCHHBOK-NOBMAN. been developed into the present strains; which- ever may have been the case, there is no doubt but they are entitled to stand in the first rank of horses, where all that constitutes activity, con- stitutional vigor, and ability to pull a heavy load at a good pace is desired. So strong is the character of the Percheron and Norman, in perpetuating their distinguishing features, that the stallion is sure t6 impress the foal, and in like manner the mare when bred to another breed, gives her impress sure in the foal. There has been much controversy first and last, over the proper name to be given to these two varieties of French horses. The fact is they are different strains of one breed, and do not differ more than Uiorough-bred horses, or short-hOm cattle, both composite breeds. Reference to the- cut of Percheron-Norman, will give a correct idea of the form and appearance of- one of th» best of the race. The original race of LaPerche, as they existed fifty years ago, were from fifteen to sixteen hands high, and weighed from 1,300 to 1,400 pounds, and before the advent of rail- roads were used to move the heavy road vehicles, (Diligences) of France, at a swift pace. Later, heavier weights being required, by selec- tion and crossing, immense animals weighing up to 2,000 pounds have been produced, and it is said that now scarcely one of the active- Percherons of fifty years ago are to be found. Yet the medium to smaller stallions of to day, are admirable geiters of horses adapted to hauling heavy loads, and especially to city trucking and omnibus work. As we understand it, the Norman or large horses seem to hav& been mixed with the large Belgian and Flemish horses, while the horto of La Perche have retained to a greater degree, the distinguishing characteristics of the lighter and more agile ancestors So difficult did it seem to draw dividing lines, that the editor of the Percheron- Norman Stud-Book, seemed at fault as to just what should constitute fitness for entry. The plan adopted was to give a full account of the course of breeding and crossing practiced in France, and admit to registry all horses imported from France, as Percheron, Norman, Percheron- Norman, and Norman-Percheron. FRIABLE. Powdery, mealy, pr readily bro- ken into a powder. _ FRIEZE. In architecture, the- central por- tion of the entablature between the architrave and cornice. It is plain in the Tuscan, but adorned in other styles. FRIGID ZONE. The space above 76i de- grees of north or south latitude. It is scarcely occupied by any plants but a few lichens. FRINGE-TREE, Chionanthus Virginiea. A. beautiful ornamental tree, growing wild as far north as Delaware, and bearing white flowers ia May. FRINGILLIDiE. A tribe of birds of the Passerine family, with stout, conical bills {eoni- rostres). including the linnets, canaries, finches, all of which eat grain. FROGS. Amphibious animals, of the genu» Bana. The common species {R. temporairia and esculenia) are, for the most part, insectivorous. They should not be destroyed by the farmer as- they clear his garden of insects, snails, and other small pests. The green frog {eeeulenta) is a great delicacy with some; the flesh of the hind leg is the part eaten. FROG OF THE HORSE. A triangular por- tion of horn projection from the sole almost on a level with the crpst, and defending a soft and elastic substance called the sensible frog. The sensible frog occupies the wholes of the back part of the foot, above the |iorny frog and between the cartilages. FROG HOPPERS. FROG SPITTLE, CUC- KOO SPITTLE. Small insects {Cercopidce^ which inhabit the twigs and branches of plants, from which they extract so much juice that the place on which they are collected appears covered with spittle. Some species are said to secrete a saccharine substance which is fed on by ants. JfKOST 375 FROST FR Rv?\ JH^^^^ °^ * ^ern is the frond, forehead anatomy, appertaining to the FRONTLET. In ornithology, the part of the ^^nn^cri.^^^T^'"' '^^"^"y covered with bristles. _ * KU!il. In the article Dew we noticed frost incidentally. Frost is crystallized vapor, and can only tall on clear, still nights, when the atmos- phere IS m repose, and the radiation strong. Thus, the atmosphere as it is robbed of its heat, settles by gravitation in strata, the heaviest be- e^mmg the lowest. Dew is formed, and, if the temperature sinks below forty degrees, frost occurs. The new researches into the phenomena of heat, which have overturned the old hypothe- sis of caloric and substituted the theory of vibra- tions have brought to light the extraordinary fact that vaf)or of water is opaque to the rays of heat of low intensity, such as that whicli pro- ceeds from the soil and from plants by night; in other words, that the heat of the earth can not be radiated or projected towards the sky if there exist in the air above the spot observed a large proportion of ac[ueous vapor. Through pure air, free from moisture, the heat may pass ofE as readily as if no air existed above the cooling re- gion. It is believed that air saturated with mois- ture at the ordinary temperature absorbs more than five hundredths of the heat radiated from a metallic vessel ^ filled with boiling water, and Prof. Tyndall calculates that of the heat radiated from the earth's surface warmed by the sun's rays, one-tenth is intercepted by the aqueous vapor within ten feet of its surface. Hence the powerful influence of moist air upon the climate of the globe. Like a covering of glass, it allows the sun's rays to reach the earth, but prevents, to a great extent, the loss by radiation of the heat thus communicated. In accordance with this theory, it should be shown that the withdrawal of the sun from any region over which the atmos- phere is dry, would be followed by quick refrig- eration. It is said that the winters of Thibet are rendered almost unendurable from an uninter- rupted outward radiation, unimpeded by aqueous vapor, and that everywhere the absfence of the 8un favors powerful radiation when the air is dry. The removal for a single summer night of the aqueous vapor from the atmosphere that covers England would, says Prof. Tyndall, be attended by the destruction of every plant which a freezing temperature would kill. In the Sahara, where the soil is fire and the wind is flame, the refrig;eration at night is painful to bear, so that ice Is sometimes formed there. In short, says the Professor, it may be. safely pre- dicted that wherever the air is dry the daily ther- mometric range, or the difference between the extremes of heat and cold, will be very great. All great discoveries have been partially antici- pated by keen observers, who could not wholly explain certain anomalous appearances, but whose shrewdness led them beyond the borders of the unknown. These results of Prof, Tyndall were thus foretold by B. Russell, Esq., of Scot- land, who visited America in 1854 in order to study the effects of our climate upon agriculture. He asserts that the influences of moisture in tempering the sun's rays is a remark- able fact and well worthy of further investiga- tion. When the dew-point is high, or the air is filled with moisture, radiation from the earth is prevented and the temperature of the night remains almost as high as that of the day. When the dew-point is low, the sun's rays pass without absorption to the earth, and impart little of their heat directly l o the air. The medium dew-points are therefore most favorable to extreme heat in the "atmosphere, and the greater heat beyond the tropics is probably owing to this cause. The fact that the amount of moisture in the air regu- lates the temperature of the nights has not received the attention it deserves. The great amount of moisture in the air within the tropics is the cause of the warm and brilliant nights. Radiation from the air and ground, under these conditions, seems to lose its power. On the other hand, travelers in all parts of the world inform us, incidentally, as to the connection between dry air and cold nights. Mr. Inglis, in his travels through Spain, relates that he was oppressed by the hot rays of the sun in the valley of Grenada while the hoar frost was lying white in the shade. Eastern travelers in the desert often complain of the broiling heat of the air during the day, and of its chill temperature at night. The nieans of warding againstr this effects of frost by any covering, however slight, to prevent radiation, has long been known; also, by means of smothered fires, allowing the smoke to settle like a cloud over orchards and other ex- posed situations. Frost, however, forms at night when there is sufficient air moving to carry away the smoke, and hence the means noticed are only clearly beneficial in a still atmosphere. This still atmosphere, however, is usually present - during the exhibition of untimely frosts. Water begins t6 freeze when the temperature of the air is at 32° Fahr. At this temperature ice begins to , appear, unless some circumstance, for example, the agitation of the water, prevents its formation. As the cold increases, the frost becomes more intense, and liquids which resist the degree of cold required to congeal water at length pass into the solid state. When water remains at complete rest, it may be cooled down to 38° Fahr, without freezing; but the moment it is agitated, I he thermometer rises to 33 ° and the water freezes. In this case the insensible heat of the vi^ater is retained when the fluid is at rest. No expert- ^ ments have Iiitherto ascertained to 'What depth frost will extend, either in earth or water, but its effects will, of course, vary according to the degree of coldness in the air, the longer or shorter duration of the frost, the texture of the earth, the nature of the fluids with which the ground is impregnated, etc. In England the frost rarely extends in the ground below eighteen inches from the surface. In some portions of the United States it penetrates to the depth of several feet; yet in these localities many summer plan1» are raised in the open air, that in England must be kept under glass. During severe frost almost all vegetables fall into a state of decay, and even a moderate degree of frost is sufficient to destroy many of the more tender kinds. The injury which vegetables sustain from frost is greatest when it is preceded by a thaw or copiousrains; for the plants are then turgid with moisture, which, expanding in bulk as it passes into the solid state, produces the rupture of the vegetable fibers. Therefore it is that a sharp wind, or any thing which dries the sap or juices of vegetables previous to frost, tends to their preservation. The great power of frost on vegetables is well known. Trees are sometimes destroyed by it as FUEL 376 FUNGtJS if by fire, and split with a noise resembling the explosion of artillery, since the juices of the tree expand with great force, as they are converted into ice. Frost, however, is most beneficial to the agricultui-ist in dieintegratlhg heavy clayey soils, turned up lo its influence in winter, and the rougher the plowing is left for the winter, the more beneficial its effects. FRUCTIFICATION. The part of plants destined to produce fruit orspOrules. FKUIT. In a general sense fruit is whatever is produced in vegetable life, for the sustenance of animals and man. In a more limited sense, it is the last prodnctiop of a plant, its seeds, or that which contains the seeds. In botany, the fruit is the seed of a plant; or the seed with the enveloping pericarp. (See Botany.) ' FRUIT TREES. Any tree ^hich produces food for man. In horticulture it is applied to those cultivated sorts, as the apple, pear, cherry, peach, etc. The clinging plants, as the grape, are denominated vines, those bearing currants, gooseberries, raspberries, etc., are denominated bushes, and herbaceous plants, as the strawbeiTy, •re denominated running plants; yet, correctly speaking, any distinct species of vegetation may he a plant, and all plants are vegetable; never- theless, the term vegetable is now generally applied to that class of plants grown in the gar- den and prepared In the kitchen, While a tree may be correctly denominated a; plant, a plant may not be a tree, but succulent or a shrub: The ultimate end of all plants is to produce fruit; yet again all plants do not produce fruits fit for man or the domestic animals, hence fruit plants, as generally understood, are those which produce fruits fit for eating in their natural state, »nd fruit trees are those which produce fruits, as ihe apple, pear, cberry, etc , which produce limits that may be eaten in their natural state. FRUMENTACEOUS. Resembling wheat, or made of wheat. FRUSTUM. The part of a solid cone left after cutting off the top. FRUTESCENT. Becoming shrubby, or having the appearance of a shrub. FRUTEX. A shrub, a small ^troe, the branches of which start from the soil without any regular trunk. FUCOID. Like a sea- weed. FUCUS. A genus of sea- weeds. FUEL. Any coiiibustible substance which is used for the production of heat constitutes fuel; but the term is more properly limited to coal; coke, charcoal, wood, and a few other substances. Coal, from its abundance and cheapness, is the commonly employed fuel in the northern portions of the United States, but where wood is abundant, or where its value is little more than that of fell- ing it, it is used either in its original state, or in the form of charcoal. It is essential to good and profitable fuel that it should be free from moist- ure; for unless it be dry, much of the heat which It generates is consumed in converting its moist- ure into vapor; hence the superior value of old, dense, and dry wood, to that which is porous and damp. The pound of dry wood which will heat thirty -five pounds of water from 83° to 313°, will not, when damp, heat more than twenty-five ](»ounds from the same to the same temperature; the value, of different woods for fuel Is nearly inversely as their moisture, and this may be roughly ascertained by finding how much a given weight of their shavings loses by drying them at 213°. In the case of anthracite coal, however, it does not absorb sufiicient moisture to seriously impair its nature. The value of turf and pea^ as fuel, is liable to much variation, and depends partly upon densitjr, and partly upon freedom , from earthly impurities. A pound of turf will heat about twenty-six pounds of water from 33° ' to 213°, and a poUnd of dense jjeat about thirty pounds; by compressing and drying peat its Talus as a fuel is greatly increased. FULCRUM. The point about which a lever moves. A prop. FULIGINOUS. Sooty, of the color or appear- ance of soot. FULLER'S EARTH. A clay used f or scoux^ ing or cleansing cloth of grease. Pipe clay. FUMIGATION. The exposure of substances, or the air of a room, to vapors; to counteract a disease or to purify, thorough ventilation- ia necessary. The chlonne given off from chloride of lime, or generated by adding muriatic acid tti black oxide of manganese, is the best fumigating substance It has the power of neutralizing the most disagreeable odors, but is injurious to health, and must only be used in vacant apart- ments. (See Disinfection.) FUMITORY. Fumaria offiainalu. Cultivated chiefly as -a flower; cattle will eat the herbage. FUNGI. The race of mushrooms, toad-stool4 blight, rust, etc. They consist of cells only, and produce spores, or^eeds, without flowers. Fimgi grow,' for the most part, on dead or living vege- table matters. Those fungi are poisonous that have a disagreeable narcotic smell. (See Fungus.) FUNGICOLA. A genus of coleopterous insects dwelling in mushrooms. FUNGUS. To the botanist the fungi are a most interesting class of plants. Their seeds, (spores) and many of the resulting plants are so small that they must be examined with the microscope to bring out their character. What are understood as funguses by the ordinary observer, are toad- stools and -pim-balls. Smut, mildew and rust are generally termed blight; yet they all belong to the larger class of fungi, the more minute forms below those of mildew, being liargely in excess of those larger than mU- dew. Fungus ^ attacks all plants, especially those in a more or less diseased or disorganized condition. Fungus sometimes does attack apparently healthy trees. It attacks all living trees, and also is one of the means of the decom- position and decay of dead plants. It is propa- gated by spores, minute grains which perfoi-m the function of seeds. These, says a writer on fungus life, begin to germinate by sending out numerous filamentous rootlets, composed of a succession of small cells, which perform the oflSceof roots in supporting the plant in an erect position, and supplying it with nourishment. These rootlets are called the myeelium. They also send up stems (xtipes) of various shapes, according to the class to which they belong. The Botrpl^i infestans, more recently called the Peronospora infestans, is one of the most destruc- tive of the' fungi that fcause the potato-rot. It haM the form of a_ spreading tree, bearing some three thousand ovoidal spore-cases (acroipores) on tM ends of the branches, somewhat resembling^ when taken collectively, clusters of grapes, and hence its generic name Botrytis. The seeds of the fungi, which are contained in the spore-cases. yoNGua 377 FUNGU8 ^i™^ 7- «'? * V'"^ "olw. l*e fine dust, and are ri^of • "'"^"e in number. A single plant is said sometimes to produce millions, so small and light M scarcely to be affected by gravity. They eoTer everything around them— earth, plants, and animals. The air is filled with them, and they wait only for a state of the atmosphere lavorable to their growth to seize upon every object within their reach. They live principally upon decaying substances, but the living do not always escape them. The conditions best the potato. Long-continued, warm, damp weather, often causes them to appear in great numbers; but a single day of dry weather will arrest their progress. They mature with won- derful rapidity. Puff-balls sometimes grow six inches in diameter in a single night. Certain species have been found growing on the surface of iron that had been heated in the forge only a few hours before. They have also been found growing on the surface of glass. Perimogpora infestans matures in a few days, sometimes ia fif- adapted to their growth af*, first, a debilitated •r morbid state of the plant; and, secondly, a proper degree of heat, moisture, and electric mfluence to induce germination. They do not gennihate feadily, and the conditions must be very nicely balanced to insure germination at all. They frequently remain inert for a long time, and, vvhen the conditions are complete, fall upon plante like an epidemic, and after a time disap- pear almost entirely. Such miy, perhaps, some- timea Ite^e been the case in theif attacks upon POTATO DISBASB. teen to eighteen hours even, when coiidiiions arei most favorable to its growth, and scatten its seeds by. thousands and tens of thousands, to prey, with each successive brood, from day to day, upon the expiring plant. Ilie seeds ftre supposed to enter the pores (stomdtd) of the leaves and stems, and also to be taken up by the spongioles of the roots; and carried along io the circmation of the sap through the plant. They take root in the cellular tissues of the stemi and leaves, stop up the pores vrith. their roots, pte- jruJsouB 378 £ UJHWO Tent tbe proper elaboration of the crude sap, and exhaust large portions for their own support, besides probably exerting a deleterious chemical influence on the plant. That the seeds of this fungus are capable of destroying the potato has been demonstrated by Dr. DeBary, who mixed some of theni in g, drop of water and applied them to the leaves and tubers, when brown and livid spots appeared, and afterward decay. All the members of this genus, peronospora, are parasitic on living plants, inducing in them speedy decay, of which they are themselves the cause. To those who wish to study cryptogamic Fig. 1. botany, the following from a lecture by Prof. McNab, delivered in the Royal Agricultural CoUege, England, will be found interesting: The study of the lower order of plants is attended with many and great difficulties. This is owing chiefly to the minute size of the objects them- sblves, requiring as they do the microscope for their investigation. Then, again, most of our botahical text-books give only the most superfi- cial description of the lower groups, and fix the whole time and attention of the student on the higher or flowering plants. The consequence of flus is that the study of the higher plants is cal*- lied to such a length in our lectures on botany that little or no time is given to the lower oj'ders, a plan of procedure as philosophical as that of teaching zoology mereljr from the vertebrates and omitting all other divisions. To the more or less flattened or rounded cellular expansion of these plants, which may consist of only one or of thousands of cells, the term thallus has been applied; and the three groups possessing this may be united, to form a large division of the vegetable kingdom, called the Thallimhytes. The thallus may consist of one cell or of many cells; these may be either similar or dissimilar. In some of these ThaUaphytea we have plants con- sisting of one cell, which performs the functions of nutrition during the day, and those of repro- duction during the night. In others we have one part of the ^lant set aside to perform the function of nutrition, while another part per- forms the function of multiplication only. In most of the sea-weeds the part of the thallus set apart for the purpose of nutrition is large, while the reproductive organs occupy only a small por- tion. In the funguses we have plants which, obtain most ot the nutriment ready made, and, and as .a consequence, an elaborate nutrient sys- tem is not required. Hence that portion of the thallus in funguses set aside for the purposes of nutrition, called the mycelium or spawn, is com- paratively small, while the organs for perform- ing the functions of reproduction predominate. The same law holds in the animal kingdom, a« in many parasites we have a low type of the nutritive system and a largely developed repro- ductive system. In most of the Thahophytit we have two modes of reproduction, one a true sexual process, in which we have parts equiva- lent to the stamens and pistils of the higher plants,, while the other is asexual, and therefore to be considered as a process of budding. These two modes of reproduction either alternate or else we ma.y have budding taking place two or more times in succession before sexual reproduc- tion again occurs. This fact is of the greatest importance, and must not be lost sight of. In many of ' the sea-weeds we have this alternation of sexual generation with budding. At one period in the life-history of the plant triie sexual organs may be produced, while at the other periods 'we haye numerous small cells givdn off, each armp"'""'-»-■ Fig. 4. can be seen, which spring from the same portion of mycelium as the oogonium, but below it; tney are two small branches, which grow upward until they come in contact with the oogonium, bemg, infaci, the male reproductive organs called by botanists antheridia. Inside the oogonium are *eitranular contents, or ProtopIasm forming toe o6sphere. The oosphere is fertilized by the mg. 6. infes'ms we have a thallus with the nutritive, portion of it, the mycelium, ramifying through the potato-plant It has also two modes of reproduction, sexual and asexual. In the asex- ual form we have a branching tree-like form of the mycelium, making its way through the sto- mata or breathing pores of the leaf. Thia branching portion bears rounded swellings» FUNGUS 380 FUNGUa arranged in a somewhat beaded manner, and callea conidia. They do not produce zoospores, hut develop a mycelium distinctly. Other observers, hoVever, assert that the conidia never produce a mycelium directly, but always from several, in general ten, zoospores. The zoo- spores, after moving freely about, attach thern- selves to the cuticle of the plant, and surround themselves by a delicate wall; they then bore through the outer wall of the epidermic cell, and form a mycelium ramifying through the intercellular spaces of the potato-plant. If the young mycelium is formed iu the tuber or potato,' It may remain dormant during the winter, and then spread through the young plant as it grows. The sexual organs of PeronoKpofra develop inside the tissue of the infested plant. The extrem- ities of certain of the threads of mycelium form rounded bodies — the oogonia. Inside the oogo- nla a portion of the protoplasmic contents form Pig. ■?. the oosphere. On another branch of mycelium the antlieridium is produced, which adberes to the wall of the oogonium, the contents passing into the oosphere, which is thus fertilized, and the oospore formed. The oospore is surrounded by a thickened skin, whix:h is rough and dark brown in color. After a period of rest, the ferti- lized oospore germinates and produces mycelium. The fungus producing the /potato-disease is thus interesting botanidallyfrom its peculiar relations to certain of the sea-weeds, in its mode of repro- duction, and in the production of moving zo6- E^pres. From the effect of rain or dew in liber- ating these zoospores it is not difficult to under- stand how the disfease spreads in damp weather, fltnce it Is easier for the unscientific reader tb edtch ideas by the tiye more readily than from gsHlentiflc descriptions, we give cuts showing K(me principal forms of ftingi. On page S77 we have illustrated the potato disease or fungi. A disease spot appears in a potato. The micros- cope will show the disease commencing where the vascular bundles concentrate. There the air is in greater volumes than elsewhere, such spots exposed to the atmosphere, causes the blue mold fungus to appear. This however, has no relation to the potato rot. Blue Mole}, is Pen*- , cilliun ghmcum. F, represents the myceliuii^! or roots, at G, is shown that of potato rot, (Peronospora infestana). The following defini- tion is from the report of the MicrosCopist 6lf : the Department of Agriculture at Washingtoa:" ' 2, and 3, 3, potato disease, represent the com- bination of, the spiral and dotted ducts; A, the root stem; B.'a new growth or tuber from 1. Viewing, their connection in this way, it will be seen that any germinal disease entering through ttie root-stem A, will necessarily £bmmunicate through all the connecting links, viz.. A, 2, 3, 3^ B. 8, 8 represent the fruit of a slen- der light-colored mycelhim, which was found traversing the exterior and interior of the withered. potatot stalks. In the more advanced stages the fruit has appendages in length about one and a half times their diam- eter. They have a thornlike appear- ance, slightly wavy, and of amber color. To the naked eye they appear like fly-spots, and are very numerous. They appear black, but when treated by nitric acid the dark color is re- moved and a cellular structure of bA amber color is exhibited. Thus far I have noli been able tO; detect any sporangia in them. This may be ac- counted for from the fact that all the specimens I have examined had bee> dried up for a long period. 4 repre^- sents; the fruit of Peronospora infesititti on the leaves very highly magnified. The arrows represent the movements of the fungus matter; C, starch-cells, liberated by the fungoid solution and full of starch granules; D, the starch- cells of watery potatoes. iThey con- tain very little starch. ^; the starch- cells as arranged in the potato . 8om^ are void of starch, while some are well filled; others partially so. H represents the condition of stE^ch in water when a potato is grated down^ or when the cellulose cells are rotted away by fermentation, as in the case stated. Prof. Burrill, in an address , before the Illinoil Horticultural Society, upon parasitic plants, held that the parasites now classed in the family PeronnsporcB, and in the two genera Perono^iora and Oystopus, are among the worst pests of ths fields and gardens. Those of the former genua are especially destructive. Thej^ blight like contagion, and wither like death itself. Over forty species of the Peronosporas are known in Europe, while only six have so far been observed in this country, three of which came under thd notice of Dr. Burrill. These are Peronoipori infsatans, on potatoes and tomatoes; P. gangU- formis, oh lettuce; and P. vitieola', on grapec^ The species of the genus Cystop'us do not Seent to have the destructive effects of the former, yet must tsause much loss of vitality to the support^ ing plants. They appear as small scabs ot FUNGUS 381 FUNGUS blotches on leaves and green stems. Cruciferous ^ u?'®' ^^P^cially with us horse-radish and cabbage, are commonly thickly spotted by the parasite. The -weeds known as purslane (pusly) and pig-weed or red-root (Ama/rantns retroflex'^s) are similarly scabbed, and even the ubiquitous rag- weed {Ambrosia artemismfolia) does hot escape. Returning to the characteristics of the family, we must notice the striking peculiarity, 80 far as fungi are concerned, of the production of Zoospores. The spores of all other fungi, upon germination, throw out one or more threads, which directly or indirectly reproduce the plant, but, though the same thing often occurs here, the more common thing is the division of the spore into five or six portions, which become free by the rupture of the spore coat. On each part two very fine hair- like appendages are produced, which be- come locomotive or- gans, propelling the Ettle body for some minutes or hours through the drop of ..iwater in which they , jdnginate, with aston- islimg japidity, as seen under the micro- scope. Having had their run, they settle down and gernlinate like the ordinary spore. The term jsoospore' has been given 'on account of these inotions, which were supposed, at one time,' to be pe- culiar to animals. Besides multiplying greatly the germin- ^.ting bodies, the zo- Sspores doubtless aid greatly in the dis- semination of the species. Anotherand more proper form of fruit is produced, not however, strictly con- fined to this group, the sQ-calledOcispore. This arises from a process of .fertiliza- tion, analogous to that bjought about by pollen in flowering plants. The oospore is the winter spore, the others probably perishing during that, season. I°ps spring it, too, splits up into zoospores, which appear in every way similar to those spoken ot above. Much interest has lately been taken in the finding of the oospores m the potato funguf- by G. Worthington Smith, of England, its existence had nbt before been certainly known as such, though really it had been observed ^several times and named as belonging to another Jtpecies. But the great loss caused by this Kngos, and the hopes of finding some remedy, %t mtny sharp eyes to investigating Us develop "We wonder now that Mr. Smiths dis the rot of potatoes, is preserved during winter in the old stems or vines and in disensed tubers. Mr. Smith has followed up his discovery by making some compound of sulphur, potash, etc., which is to 'be tried on a large scale in England, by application to the seed tubers, the vines of course being carefully burned. In the nioist climate of England this disease is much worse than with us, which is bad enough. The remedy, if indeed it proves such, will be a blessing little short of that of the potato itself. As shovring fungous growths as seen under the microscope, we giye a series of illustrations, showing some of the forms assumed, as shown under a high magnifying poyrer, Fig. 1 and 3 show pear blight; Pig. 1 at 2 shows the cellular structure of the leaf; 3 shows the leaf blackened Kient. weni. w e woiiuci i^y ,. ™— -- , . , Fig. 8. from internal disorganization ; 4 represents a sin- gle structure of mycelium, having a fine silken appearance. Fig. 2 represents the general appear- ance of the cellular matter, spores of the blighted bark, in their arrange.-nent, form and depth of color. Fig. 3 represents a highly magnified interior view of the cells of the skin of an affected potato, traversed by a dark jointed amber. Pig. 4 exhibits the appearance .of a section of a potato showing the starch-cells and vascular bundles, dotted ducts, and spiral ducts inter- mixed. The largest cells shown are very highly magnified, in order to exhibit their real structure. The pentagonal lines, which will be observed Inclosing the starch granules, represent a section of three distinct cell--wfalls, one within the other. The interior, or third cell, contains the starch. FUNGUS 382 FUSIFORM Fig. 5 exhibits a section of a potato; g, the root- stem; a a, sections of eyes; ttt exhihits the posi- tion of other eyes, but not in section. It will be eeen that the inner markings exhibit a series of central circular and radiating lines leading from and returning to the root-branch g. These lines represent the arrangement of the vascular bun- dles of the potato. When a potato is cut in two, eectionally, lines will be exhibited as shown, and, if exposed to the action of the air for a short time, the nitrogenous matter in tlie immediate vicinity of the vascular bu,ndles blacliens. The starch is inclosed in three cells. They consist of, first, an outer cellulose transparent cell; secondly, an opaque nitrogenous cell or lining; and thirdly, an inner cell, composed of very transparent cellulose, in which the starch-granules grow; b represents Buch a cell. These cells contain from thirty to sev- enty granules, e represents a broken cell, from which the starch is seen as if in the act of leaving; » represents a portion of a broken cell;p, precipi- tated starch. The starch-granules, individually considered, consist Of starch and cellulose, the starch proper and a cellulose covering or cell. A reference to Fig. 6, F, will show the position of cellulose cells (/, d, t. They are held in position in the potato by the nitrogenous cell t, which is held in turn by an outer and inner cellulose cell, a, d. When a sound potato is grated down, Fig. 9. all these cells are broken, because of their per- fect cohesion to one another. One cell can not be broken without breaking all. But in the case of rotting potatoes, the nitrogenous cell which binds the three together is partly removed by the fungoid action, but principally bjr infuso- rial life {bacteiiii) which live on it. "the inner or center cell containing the starch is thereby lib- erated. This is owing partly .to the soft and yielding, character of the cells and the machinery used in reducing the potatoes to< a pulp, and bein^ so buoyant as to float the starch granules 'within them, are carried away in the process of ■washing. Fig. 7 shows the fungus {Botryti» vitieoln) of a mature grape leaf. This fungus at- tacks the summer or second growth leaves and produces either by absorption of the sap, or by cellular disorganization caused by its processes. It is of a whitish spotted appearance when at- tacked, and causes the withering of the leaves attacked. , A dry atmosphere is the preventive to the attack, the first appearance of this fungus being observed on the under side of the leaf. Fig. 8 shows fungus of the germs uncinula, a fungus found on the upper surface of the native grape vines in autumn. No. 1, 3, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 show consecutive stages, 7 shows the bursting and throwing out of ths aparangia (spore cases,) anal- ogous to the seed vessels, in flowering plants. The species of Uncinula is somewhat similar to (Kdium I'lickeri, which attacks the European vine. The fungus is seen in late summer or autumn show- ing on the upper surface of the leaves as white spots, the woolly-leaved varieties being most sub- ject to attack, although sometimes the smooth leaved varieties, as Clinton for instance, are not exempt, if the conditions, heat and moisture, are favorable. Fig. 9 shows forms of the genus Mucor, or microscopic toad stools, formed on a vine leaf bruised to a pulp and fermented. These assume various forms, living and dead organisms having their special forms of parasitic plants. Thus fungus forms attacking a living plant, may continue to exist, or they may attack, fruit after it is severed from the parent stem, but decay setting in a different class of fungi appears, that is when vitality is lost and disorganization ensues. FUNICULUS. In anatomy, the cord which attaches the foetus to the after birth, or placenta, also called the umbilical cord. The thread by which the seed is fastened to the carpel. FUNNEL. A trumpet-shaped vessel open at both ends, used to transfer fluids, and especially in chemistry, to lay filters upon. FUNNEL-SHAPE l». InfunOibuU form. A term descriptive of the figure of some flowers. F DE. The skins of animals well covered with hair. The unprepared dry skins are called pd- FURFURACEOUS. From /«r/Mr. Resem- bling bran. FURLONG. The eighth of a mile; forty poles. FURROW. The movement of the earth pro- duced by the action of a plow ; furrow slice is the slice of the earth turned over in plowing. The rationale of turning of furrows by the plow is not understood by one plowman out of ten, even by those who profess to be plowmen. Very few of the ordinary hands of the farm understand how to turn furrows, so they shall lap evenly, or fall beside each other, in lap furrowing in contra- distinction to Ijing flat, and at the same time close together. So in turning under stubble and other trash, suflScient care is not taken in cutting the furrows, so the vegetation will be distributed evenly, and not in lumps, thus allowing the fur- row to lie smooth and evenly dismtegrable throughout. The subject wUl be found treated of in the article plowing. FURROW, WATER. The furrow made in plowed lands to let off surface water. FURZE. Shrubs of the genus Ukx, the most common of which, U. Murupcus, is also called gorso and whin. It is hardy, leguminous ever- green, growing abundantly on poor lands, and made use of for hedging and coarse fodder in Europe. It grows rapidly, so that it can, be cut every four years for fuel and is so far nutritious that horses are sometimes maintained on furze only. FUSIFORM. Spindle-shaped, tapering to each end; a descriptive term in botafty.