4"^^ ^^Mr ■■i^ • ;n ^^i^^" ^ c w^ 1^-;^ -^ ,s4 ^' «:' -^ ^ :.*•*:.< ^«^: , ' 7 /-■ ■-■■ ■■*■ \^ ^ x rr T*i?-. .^^ ?<^c r ^< » ■ ■■■^■'"^' Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924078864851 CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 3 1924 078 864 851 SOME OF THE SPECIAL CONTRIBUTORS AND NOTEWORTHY ARTICLES IN VOL. m. OF THE SCHAFF-HERZOG ENCYCLOPEDIA. Prof. Hitchcock, of New York, Palestine. Bishop CoxB, of Western New York, Pan- Anglican Synod. Bishop Seabury. Prof. Peabody, of Harvard University, Theodore Parker. Prof. Hastings, of New York, Pastoral Theology. Thomas Hastings. Prof. Stoughton, of London, Dean Stanley. Jeremy Taylor. Prof. Prentiss, of New York, Edward Payson. Henry B. Smith. Pres. GiLMAN, of Johns Hopkins' Univ. George Peabody. University in Aijnerica. Prof. Shedd, of New York, Kobert South. Prof. Shields, of Princeton Seminary, Philosophy and Beligion. Prof. Tyler, of Amherst College, Platonism and Christianity. Socrates. Rev. Dr. M. D. Hoge, of Richmond, Va., W. S. Plumer. Presbyterian Church, Southern Assembly. Professor Thomwell. Rev. Dr. W. M. Taylor, of New York, Prayer. United Presbyterian Church. Frederick W. Kobertson. The late Rev. Dr. Hatfield, Presbyterian Church, Northern Assembly. Presbyterianism. Kevivals. Prof. Hodge, of Princeton Seminary, Princeton and Princeton Theology. Prof. CuRTiss, of Chicago, Priests and Priesthood. Prof. Patton, of Princeton, Future Punishment. Probation. Rev. John Browne, of England, Puritans. John Robinson. Prof. GoDET, of Neuchatel. Parables. Rev. Dr. Ormiston, of New York, Presbyterian Church of Canada. Bev. Dr. Kyerson. Prof. Baird, of New York University, Paris. Palissy. Prof. Green, of Princeton Seminary, Pentateuch. Rev. Dr. Chambers, of New York, Reformed (Dutch) Church. Zechariah. Pres. Apple, of Lancaster, Pa. Reformed (German) Church. Prof. Calderwood, of Edinburgh, Thomas Beid. Dugald Stewart. Charles J. StillS, LL.D., of Phila., Renaissance. Eoman Em|>ire and Christianity. Slavery and Christianity. Rev. H. S. Holland, of Oxford Univ., Bitualism. Rev. Nicholas B jerring, of New York, Russia. Prof. Lee, of Glasgow University, Church of Scotland. Prof. Blaikie, of Edinburgh, Free Church of Scotland . l^res. McCosH, of Princeton College, Scottish Philosophy. Ex-Pres. Woolsey, of Yale College, Socialism. Prof. Morris, of Cincinnati, Soteriology. Prof. Park, of Andover Seminary, Moses Stuart. Samuel Worcester. Rev. E. W. Rice, Secretary of Ameri- can S.-S. Union, Philadelphia, Sunday-Schools. Prof. I. H. Hall, of Philadelphia, Syriac Literature. Rev. Dr. Henry H. Jessup, of Beirflt, Syrian Missions. Prof. Mann, of Philadelphia, William Penn. S. S. Schmucker. Prof. Flint, of Edinburgh University, Theism.. Utilitarianism. Dr. Caspar RenJ; Gregory, of Leipzig, Tischendorf. Rev. Dr. Green, Secretary of London Tract Society, Tract Societies (Foreign). Rev. Dr. Rand, Secretary of American Tract Society, New York, Tract Societies of U. S. A. Pres. Washburn, of Robert College, Constantinople. Turkey. Rev. Dr. D. Berger, of Dayton, Ohio, United Brethren. Pres. A. A. Livermore, of Meadville, Unitarianism. Pres. Capen, of Tufts' College, Mass., Universalism. Prof. ScHAPP, of New York, Reformation. Trent, Council of. Westminster Assembly and Standards. Mr. W. L. KiNGSLEY, of New Haven, Yale College. Rev. Secretary Morse, Y. M. C. A., Young Men's Christian Associations. Prof. Bird, of Lehigh University. Charles Wesley. Noteworthy Articles from Herzog. Pantheism, by - - Uleici Paul the Apostle, by - W. Schmtdt Pentateuch, by - - H. L. Stback Peter the Apostle, by - SiBprEET Prophetic Office in Old Testament, by - Geitt.t'.b Proverbs, by Demtzsoh Psalms, by - Delitzsch Pseudepigrapha, Old Testament, by DiLLMAira Rationalism, by - - - Kiibel Religion and Revelation, by - Kostlin The French Bevolution, by - Klupfel Samaria, by - Peteemahn Sanhedrin, by - Lbteee Scholastic Theology, by - Labdeeeb Switzerland, by - - Heezog Synagogue, by - Leteee Thomas Aquinas, by - - Laijdeeee Tubingen School, by - Lasdbeeb and H. Schmidt Waldenses, by - ■• - Hbezog De Wette, by - - Hagenbaoh Wiolif, by - - Leohi.ee Zwingli, by - GiiDBE RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOEzEDIA: DICTIONAEY BIBUCAl, HISTORICAL, DOCTRINAL, AND PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. BASED ON THE REAL-ENCYKLOPADIE OF HERZOG, PLITT. AND HAUCK. EDITED BY PHILIP pCHAFF, D.D., LL.D., PKOFESSOR IN THE UNION THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, NEW YORK. ASSOCIATE EDITORS: REV. SAMUEL M. JACKSON, M.A., and REV. D. S. SCHAFF. VOLUME III. NEW YORK : PUNK & WAGNALLS, .PUBLISHERS, 10 AND 12 Dey Street. /^cornelO\ university LIBRARY -^^ Copyright, 1883, by Funk & Wagnalls. ' EUctrotyPed and printed by Rand. Avery, &- Co.. Boston. PREFACE. T I "^HIS volume concludes the Religious Encyclopcedia in advance of the German original. The revised edition of Herzog has so far reached only the thir- teenth volume, to article "Ring;" but, by the kindness of the German editor and publisher, I had the benefit of several advanced sheets of letter S. For the remain- ing titles the editors used the last seven volumes of the first edition (XIV.-XXI., published 1861-66, to which was added an Index volume in 1868). The best articles, which will be retained in the new edition, have been reproduced, con- densed and supplemented to date by competent hands. But fully one-half of the volume is made up of original matter, with the aid of a large number of English and American scholars who are known to be familiar with the topics assigned to them. For their kind and hearty co-operation we again return our sincere thanks. The three volumes of this work are equivalent in size to about seven or eight volumes of the German work on which it is based. Our aim has been to put the reader in possession of the substance of Herzog, with , such additional information as the English reader needs, and cannot expect from a German work written exclu- sively for German readers. It is simply impossible to make an encyclopaedia of one country and people answer the wants of another, without serious changes and modifications. Moreover, an encyclopaedia ought to be reconstructed every ten years ; and it is hoped that this work will renew its youth and usefulness as soon as the present edition is out of date. With the reception of the work I have every reason to be satisfied. It has met with a hearty welcome, and secured a permanent place in the reference-library of ministers, students, and intelligent laymen of all denominations. Competent judges acknowledge its impartiality and catholicity, as well as the ability of the leading articles, which are written and signed by conscientious scholars of estab- lished reputation. The plan of condensation has been generally approved, as the only feasible way by which such a vast thesaurus of German learning could be made accessible and useful to the English reader. Errors and defects in a work which embraces many thousands of facts and dates are unavoidable ; but pains IV PREFACE. have been taken to secure strict accuracy, and mistakes are corrected in tlie plates as soon as discovered. The completed work is now committed to the favor of the public with the prayer that God may bless its use for the promotion of sound Christian learning. Philip Schaff. New York, Feb. 1, 1884. AUTHORIZATION. Wb the nndersigned, Editors and Publisher of the " Eeal-Encyklopadie f iir Prot. Theologie und Kirche," hereby authorize the Rev. Dr. Schaff of New York to make free use of this work for the preparation and publication, in the United States and in England, of a similar although much shorter work, under the title "A Religious EncyclopEedia, based on the Real-Encyklopadie of Herzog, Plitt, and Hauck." (Signed) Eblangen und Leipzig, December, 1881. LIST OF WRITERS. The special contributors to the American edition of this work are distinguished by a star. *ABBOT, EzEA, D.D., LL.D., Professor in the Di- vinity School of Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. ACQUOY, J. G. E., D.D., Professor in Leyden. *ALBXANDEK, Akchieald, Ph.D., Professor in Columbia College, New-York City. ALT, Heinhich, D.D., Pastor in Berlin. *APPLE, Thomas Gilmore, D.D., President of Franklin and Marshall College, Lancaster, Penn. AECHINARD, Andr^;, Pastor in Geneva. ARNOLD, Fbiedrich August, D.D., Professor In Halle. (D. 1869.) »ATTERBURY, William Wallace, D.D., Secre- tary of the Sabbath Committee, New- York City. AUBBRLEN, Carl August, D.D., Professor of The- ology in Basel. (D. 1864.) *AVERY, Giles B., Mount Lebanon, Columbia County, N.Y. *AYRES, Anne, Miss, St. Johnsland, N.Y. BACHMANN, Johann, D.D., Professor in Rostock. *BAIED, Henry Martyn, D.D., LL.D., Professor in the University of the City of New York. BALOGH, Franz, D.D., Professor in Debreozin. BARDE, Edward, Pastor in Vandoeuvre. BAUDISSIN, Count Wolf Wilhelm Fribdrich, Ph.D., Professor of Theology in Marburg. BAUR, Wilhelm, Court-Preacher in Berlin. BAXMANN, Rudolf, Inspector at Bonn. BECK, Carl, Pralat in Schwabisch Hall. BECK, Hermann, Pastor in Osternohe. *BEDELL, Gregory Thurston, D.D., Bishop of the Protestant-Episcopal Diocese of Ohio, Cleve- land. *BEECHER, Edward, D.D., Brooklyn, N.Y. *BEECHER, Willis Judson, D.D., Professor of He- ■ brew. Theological Seminary, Auburn, N.Y. BENRATH, Carl, Ph.D., Professor in Bonn. *BEEGER, D., D.D., Dayton, O. BERTHEAU, Carl, D.D., Pastor in Hamburg. BERTHEAU, Ernst, D.D., Professor of Oriental Philology in Gottingen. *BEVAN, Llewelyn D., D.D., Pastor of Highbury Congregational Chapel, London. BEYER, JoHANN Heinkich Franz, Pastor in Ned- demin. BEYSCHLAG, Willieald, D.D., Professor of The- ology in Halle. *BIRD, Frederic Mayer, Rev., Professor in Leliigh University, South Bethlehem, Penn. *B JEERING, Nicholas, Rev., New-York City. *BLAIKIE, William Gardiner, D.D., LL.D., Pro- fessor in New College, Edinburgh. *BLAIE, William, D.D., Dunblane, Scotland. *BLISS, George Ripley, D.D., LL.D., Professor of Biblical Exegesis, Crozer Theological Seminary, Chester, Penn. BOEHMEE, Eduard, Ph.D., Professor in Strassburg. *BOMBEEGER, J. H. A., D.D., President of Ursinus College, Freeland, Penn. BONNET, L., Ph.D., Pastor in Frankfurt-am-M. *BRIGGS, Charles Augustus, D.D., Professor of Hebrew in the Union Theological Seminary, New-York City. *BEOADUS, John Albert, D.D., LL.D., Professor of Theology in the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, Louisville, Ky. BROCKHAUS, Carl, Leipzig. *BROWN, Francis, Professor in the Union Theo- logical Seminary, New-York City. *BROWNE, John, Eev., Wrentham, Suffolk, Eng. BUCHRUCKER, Dekan in Munich. BUCHSENSCHUTZ,Georg, Pastor in St. Denis. BUNZ, Georg, Ph.D., Pastor in Ohmenhausen. BURGER, C. H. A. von, D.D., Oberkonsistorialrath in Munich. BURGER, Karl, Pastor in Kempten. BURK, JolHCANN Christian Friedrich, Pastor in Lichtenstern, Wurttemberg. *CAIRNS, John, D.D., Principal of the United Pres- byterian College, Edinburgh. CALAMINUS, Pastor in Elberfeld. *CALDERWOOD, Henry, D.D., LL.D., Professor of Moral Philosophy, University of Edinburgh. *CALDWELL, Samuel Lunt, D.D., President of Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, N.Y. *CAPEN, Elmer Hewitt, D.D., President of Tufts College, College Hill, Mass. *CARROLL, Henry King, New-York City. CARSTENS, Propst in Tondern. CASSEL, Paulus, D.D., Professor in Berlin. *CATTELL, J. P., Miss, Philadelphia. *CATTELL, William Cassiday, D.D., LL.D., Ex- President of Lafayette College, Easton, Penn. *CHAMBERS, Talbot Wilson, D.D., Collegiate Reformed Dutch Church, New- York City. *CHASE, Thomas, LL.D., President of Haverford College, Montgomery Co., Penn. CHRISTLIEB, Theodob, D.D., Professor of Theol- ogy in Bonn. *CLIFFORD, John, D.D., London. *COIT, Thomas Winthrop, D.D., LL.D., Professor in the Berkeley Divinity School, Middletown, Conn. COMBA, Emilio, D.D., Professor in Florence. *COOK, Albert S., Associate of Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. *CORNING, J. Leonard, Morristown, N.J. *COXB, Arthur Cleveland, D.D.,LL.D., Bishop of Western New York, Buffalo, N.Y. *CREIGHT0N, Mandell, Rev., Chathill, Northum- berland, Eng. CREMER, Hermann, D.D., Professor of Theology in Greifswald. LIST OF WRITERS. *CROOKS, George E., D.D., LL.D., Professor of Churcli History in Drew Theological Seminary, Madison, N.J. CUNITZ, Eduard, D.D., Professor in Strassburg. *CURTISS, Samuel Ives, Ph.D., D.D., Professor of Old-Testament Literature, Theological (Congre- gational) Seminary, Chicago, 111. •DABNEY, EOEBRT Lewis, D.D., LL.D., Professor of Philosophy, University of Texas, Austin. *DALE, James Wilkinson, D.D., Media, Penn. (D. 1881.) *DALES, John B., D.D., Philadelphia. *DE COSTA, Benjamin Franklin, D.D., New- York City. *DEEMS, C. F., New-York City. DE HOOP SCHEFFER, J. G., D.D., Professor in Amsterdam. DELITZSCH, Franz, D.D., Professor of Theology in Leipzig. DELITZSCH, Friedrich, Ph.D. , Prof essorin Leipzig. *DEMAREST, David D., D.D., Professor in the Theological Seminary, New Brunswick, N.J. *DE SCHWEINITZ, Eduard, D.D., Bishop of the Moravian Church, Bethlehem, Penn. •DEXTER, Henry Martyn, D.D., Editor of The Congregationalist, Boston. DIBELIUS, Franz, D.D., Konsistorialrath in Dres- den. DIESTEL, L0DWIG, D.D., Professor of Theology in Tiibingen. (D. 1879.) DILLMANN, Christian Friedrich August, D.D., Professor of Theology in Berlin. DILTHEY, Wilhelm, D.D., Professor of Philosophy in Breslau. DORNER, August, Ph.D., Professor in the Theo- logical Seminary at Wittenberg. DORNER, Isaac August, D.D., Professor of Theol- ogy in Berlin. DORSCHLAG, Georg, Pastor in Veigast. DORTENBACH, P., Heidenheim. DRYANDER, Hermann, Superintendent in Halle. »DUBBS, Joseph Henry, D.D., Professor in Frank- lin and Marshall College, Lancaster, Penn. DUCHEMIN, Pastor in Lyons. »DUFF, Robert S., M.A., Rev., Tasmania. •DUFFIELD, Samuel W., Pastor of the Westmin- ster Presbyterian Church, Bloomfleld, N.J. DUSTERDIECK, Franz, D.D., Oberkonsistorial- rath in Hanover. •EASTON, Peter Zacoheus, Missionary in Persia. EBERT, Adolph, Ph.D., Professor of Philology in Leipzig. EBRARD, JoHANN Heinrich August, D.D., Pastor and Konsistorialrath in Erlangen. EIBACH, R., Pastor in Neuteroth. ENGELHARDT, J. G. v., D.D., Professor of The- ology in Erlangen. (D. 1855.) ERBKAM, Heinrich Wilhelm, D.D., Professor of Theology in Konigsberg. (D. Jan. 9, 1884.) ERDMANN, Christian Friedrich David, D.D., General Superintendent of the Province of Sile- sia in Breslau. ETJCKEN, K., Ph.D., Professor of Philosophy in Jena. EULER, Carl, Ph.D., Berlin. *FISHER, George Park, D.D., LL.D., Professor of Church History in Yale Theological Seminary, New Haven, Conn. *FLEMING, D. Hay, Aberdeen. *FLICHTNER, George Frederick, Rev., Secre- tary for Domestic Missions (Protestant-Episcopal Church), New- York City. FLIEDNER, Fritz, Missionary in Madrid. *FLINT, Robert, D.D., LL.D., Professor of The- ology in the University of Edinburgh. FLOTO, Hartwig, D.D., Berlin. *FOSTER, Robert Verrell, Professor in the Theo- logical School, Cumberland University, Lebanon, Tenn. *FOX, Norman, Rev., New- York City. FRANK, Franz Hermann Reinhold, D.D., Pro- fessor of Theology in Erlangen. FRANK, Gustav Wilhelm, D.D., Professor of The- ology in Vienna. FREYBE, Albert, Ph.D., Gymnasium Upper-class Teacher in Parchim. FRIEDBERG, Bmil, Ph.D., Professor of Canon Law in Leipzig. FRITZSCHE, Otto Fridolin, D.D., Professor of Theology in Ziirich. FRONMtiLLER, P. F. C, Pastor in Reutlingen. *FROTHINGHAM, Octavius Brooks, Eev., Boston, Mass. GALIFFE, Eduard, D.D., Professor in Geneva. GASS, Wilhelm, D.D., Professor of Theology in Heidelberg. *GAST, Frederick Augustus, D.D., Professor in the Theological Seminary, Lancaster, Penn. GEBHARDT, Oskar von, Ph.D., Librarian in Got- tingen. GEFFCKEN, Johann, Ph.D., Pastor in Hamburg. (D.-.) GELPKE, E. T., D.D., Professor of Theology in Bern. *GEEHAET, Emanuel Vogel, D.D., Professor in the Theological Seminary, Lancaster, Penn. GERMANN, Wilhelm, Ph.D., Pastor in Winds- heim. GERTH VAN WIJK, J. A., Pastor at The Hague. *GILES, Chauncey, Rev., Philadelphia. *GILFILLAN, Joseph A., Rev., Protestant-Episco- pal Missionary to the Indians, Minnesota. GILLET, J. F. A., D.D., Court-Preacher in Breslau. *GILMAN, Arthur, M.A., Cambridge, Mass. *GILMAN, Daniel Coit, LL.D., President of Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. *GILMAN, Edward Whiting, D.D., Secretary of the American Bible Society, New-York City. *GOEBEL, Julius, Ph.D., New-York City. GOEBEL, Karl, Ph.D., Konsistorialrath in Posen. (D. 1881.) GOEBEL, Maximilian. (D. — .) *GODET, Frederic, D.D., Professor of Theology in Neuchatel. GOLTZ, VON DER, Heinrich, D.D., Professor of Theology in Berlin. *GOOD, Jeremiah Haak, D.D., Professor in Heidel- berg Theological Seminary, Tiffin, O. »GOODSPEBD, Thomas Wakefield, D.D., Secre- tary of Baptist Theological Union, Chicago, III. LIST OP WRITERS. Vll •GOODWIN, Daniel Eaynes, D.D., LL.D., Pro- fessor in the Theological Seminary (Episcopal) in Philadelphia. GOSCHE, R. A., Ph.D., Professor of Oriental Lan- guages in Halle. GOSCHEL, Kakl Fkiedkich, Pli.D., President of the Consistory of Magdeburg. (D. 1861.) *QB ATTAM , William, D.D., Professor of Church History in the English Presbyterian Theological College, London. •GRAY, Geokoe Zabbiskle, D.D., Professor in the Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge, Mass. •GREEN, Samuel G., D.D., Secretary of Religious Tract Society, London. •GREEN, William Henry, D.D., LL.D., Professor of Hebrew, Theological Seminary, Princeton, N.J. GREGORY, Caspar Rene, Ph.D., Leipzig. •GRIFFIS, William Elliot, Rev., Schenectady, N.Y. GRUNDEMANN, R., Ph.D., Pastor in MOrz. GRUNEISEN, Carl von, D.D., Chief Court- Preacher in Stuttgart. G0DER, EDrAED, D.D., Pastor in Bern. (D. 1882.) GUNDERT, Heineich, Ph.D., in Calw. •GiJNTHER, Martin, Professor in the Concordia Theological Seminary, St. Louis, Mo. GUTHE, Heinrich, Ph.D., Privatdocent in Leipzig. HACKENSCHMIDT, Karl, Pastor in Jagerthal (Elsass). HAENCHEN, Philipp E., Pastor in Erlangen. . HAGENBACH, Karl Rudolph, D.D., Professor of Theology in Basel. (D. 1874.) HAHN, Heinrich August, D.D. (D. — .) »HALL,Isaac Hollister, Ph.D., Philadelphia, Penn. •HALL, John, D.D., Pastor of the Fifth Avenue Presbyterian Church, New- York City. •HALL, Robert W., New- York City. HAMBERGER, Julius, Ph.D., Professor in Munich. HARNACK, Adolf, D.D., Professor of Theology in Giessen. •HARPER, James, D.D., Xenia, O. •HARRIS, J. Rendel, Professor in Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. •HARSHA, W. W., D.D., Jacksonville, 111. •HASTINGS, Thomas Samuel, D.D., Professor of Sacred Rhetoric, Union Theological Seminary, New-York City. •HATFIELD, Edwin Francis, D.D., New-York City. (D. 1883.) HAUCK, Albert, D.D., Professor of Theology in Erlangen. HEER, Justus, Pastor in Erlenbach, Canton Zurich. HELLER, LuDWiG, Pastor in Travemiinde. (D. — .) HEMAN, C. F., Ph.D., Missions Inspector, Basel. HENKE, Ernst Ludwig Theodor, D.D., Professor of Theology in Marburg. (D. 1872.) HEPPE, Heinrich Ludwig Julius, D.D., Professor of Theology in Marburg. (D. 1879.) HEROLD, Max, Pastor in Schwabach. HERRLINGER, Diakonus in Niirtingen. HERZOG, Johann Jakob, D.D., Professor of The- ology in Erlangen. (D. 1R82.) HEYD, WiLHELM, Ph.D., Chief Librarian in Stutt- sart. HEYDER, Karl Ludwig Wilhelm, Ph.D., Profes- sor of Philosophy in Erlangen. HINSCHIUS, Paul, Ph.D., Professor of Canon Law in Berlin. •HITCHCOCK, RoswELL Dwight, D.D., LL.D., President, and Professor of Church History, in the Union Theological Seminary, New- York City. HOCHHUTH, C. W. H., Ph.D., in Cassel. •HODGE, Archibald Alexander, D.D., LL.D., Professor of Theology, Theological Seminary, Princeton, N.J. , •HOFFMAN, Eugene Augustus, D.D., Dean of the General (Episcopal) Theological Seminary, New- York City. HOFFMANN, J. A. G., D.D., Professor of Theology in Jena. (D. 1864.) HOFMANN, Rudolf, D.D., Professor of Theology in Leipzig. •HOGE, MosES D., D.D., Richmond, Va. •HOLLAND, Henry Scott, M.A., Senior Student, Christ Church, Oxford University. HOLLENBERG, W. a., Ph.D., Director of the Gym- nasium in Saarbriicken. HOLTZMANN, Heinrich, D.D., Professor of The- ology in Strassburg. HOPF, Georg Wilhelm, Ph.D., Rector in Nurem- berg. •HOPKINS, E. W., Professor in Columbia College, New- York City. •HOPKINS, Samuel Miles, D.D., Professor of Church History in Auburn Theological Semi- nary, Auburn, N.Y. •HOVEY, Alv.\h, D.D., President of Newton Theo- logical Seminary, Massachusetts. HUNDESHAGEN, Carl Bernhard, D.D., Profes- sor of Theology in Heidelberg. (D. 1873.) HUPFELD, David, Ph.D. , Superintendent in Schleu- singen. •JACKSON, George Thomas, M.D., New-York City. •JACKSON, Samuel Macauley, Rev., New-York City. JACOBI, Justus Ludwig, D.D., Professor of The- ology in Halle. •JACOBS, Henry Eystee, D.D., Professor in the Lutheran Theological Seminary, Philadelphia. JACOBSON, Heinrich Franz, Ph.D., Professor of Law in Konigsberg. (D. — .) •JESSUP, Henet Harris, D.D., Missionary of the Presbyterian Board in Syria. JUNDT, A., Gymnasium-Professor in Strassburg. KAHLER, MARTDi, D.D., Professor of Theology in Halle. KAHNIS, Karl Friedrich August, D.D., Professor of Theology in Leipzig. KAMPHAUSEN, ^..dolph Hermann Heinrich, D.D., Professor of Theology in Bonn. KAUTZSCH, Emil Friedrich, D.D., Professor of Theology in Tubingen. KEIM, Carl Theodor, D.D., Professor of Theology in Giessen. (D. 1879.) •KELLOGG, Samuel Henry, D.D., Professor of The- ology, Theological Seminary, Allegheny, Penn. KESSLEB, K., Ph.D., Docent in Marburg. Vlll LIST OF WRITERS. *KINGSLEY, William L., New Haven, Conn. KIRCHHOFEK, G. KLAIBEE, Kakl Fkiedkioh, Ph.D., Army Chap- lain at Ludwigsburg. KLEINEBT, Hugo Wilhelm Paul, D.D., Professor of Theology in Berlin. KLING, Christian Friedkich, D.D., Dekan in Mar- bach. (D. 1861.) KLIPPEL, Georg Heinrich, Ph.D., Kector of the Gymnasium in Verden. KLOSE, Cakl Rudolph "Wilhelm, Ph.D., Libra- rian, Hamburg. l^LOSTEEMANN, August, D.D., Professor of The- ology in Kiel. KLUCKHOHN, August, Ph.D., Professor and Di- rector of Polytechnic Institute in Munich. KLUPFEL, Karl, Ph.D., Librarian in Tubingen. KNAPP, Joseph, Diakonus in Stuttgart. K06EL, Rudolf, D.D., Court-Preacher in Berlin. KOHLER, August, D.D., Professor of Theology in Erlangen. KOHLER, Karl, D.D., Professor in Friedberg, KOLBE, Alexander, Ph.D., Professor in Gymna- sium at Stettin. KONIG, Friedrich Eduard, Ph.D., Docent in Leipzig. KOSTER, Adolph, Ph.D., Pastor in Erlangen. (D. -.) KOSTLIN, Julius, D.D., Professor of Theology in Halle. KRAFFT, C, Pastor in Elberfeld. KRAFFT, "Wilhelm Ludwig, D.D., Professor of Theology in Bonn. KRAMER, Ph.D., Professor and Director of Francke's Institution in Halle. KUBEL, Robert Benjamin, D.D., Professor of The- ology in Tiibingen. LANDERER, Max Albert ton, D.D., Professor of Theology in Tubingen. (D. 1878.) LANGE, JoHANN Peter, D.D., Professor of Theology in Bonn. LAUBMANN, G., Ph.D., Director of the City Li- brary, Munich. LAUXMANN, Stiftsdiakonus in Stuttgart. LECHLER, GOTTLOE "S^iktor, D.D., Professor of Theology in Leipzig. *LEE, "William, D.D., Professor of Ecclesiastical History, University ot Glasgow. LEIMBACH, C. L., Ph.D., Director in Goslar. LEPSIUS, Karl Richard, Ph.D.,ProfessorinBerhn. LEYRER, E., Pastor at Sielmingen in "Wiirttemberg. LIST, Franz, Ph.D., Professor in Munich. *LI"VERM0RE, Abiel Abbot, Rev., President of the Theological School, Meadville, Penn. *LOYD, H. S., Rev., Secretary of the Theological Seminary, Hamilton, N.Y. LiJHRS, Fr. LUTHARDT, Christoph Ernst, D.D., Professor of Theology in Leipzig. LUTTKE; Mobitz, Pastor in Schkeuditz. MALLET, Hermann, Pastor in Bremen. MANGOLD, "Wilhelm Julius, D.D., Professor of Theology in Bonn. *MANN, "William Julius, D.D., Professor in the Lutheran Theol. Seminary, Philadelphia, Penn. *MARLING, Francis H., Kev., New-York City. *MATHB"WS, George D., D.D., Quebec, Can. MATTER, Jacques, Professor in Paris. (D. 1864.) *MAXSON, Darwin E., D.D., Alfred Centre, N.Y. *McCOSH, James, D.D., LL.D., President of the Col- lege of New Jersey, Princeton, N.J. *McFARLAND, Henry Horace, Rev., New- York City. *McKIM, Randolph H., D.D., New- York City. MEJER, Otto, Ph.D., Prpfessor of Canon Law in Gottingen. MEEKEL, Paul Johannes, Ph.D., Professor of Law in Halle. (D. 1861.) MERZ, Heinrich von, D.D., Pralat in Stuttgart. MEURER, MoRiTz, Licentiate, Pastor in Callenberg, Saxony. MEYER V. KNONAU, Ph.D., Professor in Ziirich. MICHAEL, Superintendent in Chemnitz. MICHELSEN, Alexander, Pastor in Liibeck. *MITCHELL, Alexander F., D.D., Professor in the University of St. Andrews, Scotland. MOLLER, "Wilhelm Ernst, D.D., Professor of The- ology in Kiel. *MOMBERT, Jacob Isidor, D.D., Paterson, N.J. *M00RE, Dunlop, D.D., New Brighton, Penn.. *MORRIS, Edward Dafydd, D.D., Professor of Theology, Lane Seminary, Cincinnati, O. *M0RSE, Richard C . , Rev. , Secretary of the Internar tional Committee of Y. M. C. A., New-York City. MtJLLER, Carl, Ph.D., in Tubingen. MULLER, IwAN, Ph.D., Professor of Philology in Erlangen. MULLER, JoHANN Geobg, D.D., Professor of The- ology in Basel. (D. — .) NAGELSBACH, Eduard, D.D., Pastor in Bayreuth. NESTLE, Eberhabd, Ph.D., Dekan at Ulm. , NEUDECKER, Christian G., D.D., Schuldirector in Gotha. (D. 1866.) NEY, Pastor in Speier. *NINDE, "William Xavieb, President of the Gar- rett Biblical Institute, Evanston, HI. NITZSCH, Friedrich August Beethold, D.D., Professor of Theology in Kiel. *NOTT, Henry J., Rev., Bowmanville, Ontario. •NUTTING, Mary O., Miss, Librarian of Mount Holyoke Female Seminary. OEHLER, GusTAV Friedrich, D.D., Professor of Theology in Tiibingen. (D. 1876.) OLDENBERG, p. OOSTERZEE, Jan Jakob van, D.D., Professor of Theology in Utrecht. (D. 1882.) ORELLI, Carl von, Professor of Theology in Basel. *ORMISTON, "William, D.D., LL.D., Collegiate Re- formed Dutch Church, New- York City. *OSGOOD, Howard, D.D., LL.D., Professor of He- brew, Theological Seminary, Rochester, N.Y. OSIANDER, Ernst, Ph.D., Diakonus in Gbppingen. OVERBECK, Joseph, Ph.D., Professor of German in the British Military College, Sandhurst. *PACKAED, Joseph, D.D., Professor in Theological Seminary of Episcopal Church, Alexandria, "Va. LIST OF WRITERS. IX PALMER, Christian von, D.D., Professor of The- ology in Tubingen. (D. 1875.) PAEET, Heinrioh, Diakonus in Brackenheim. (D. -.) •PARK, Edwards Amasa, D.D., LL.D., Professor of Theology, Theological Seminary, Andover, Mass. •PATTERSON, R. M., D.D., Philadelphia. *PATTON, Francis Landev, D.D., LL.D., Professor in the Theological Seminary, Princeton, N.J. *PEABODY, Andrew Pkbston, D.D., LL.D., Cam- bridge, Mass. PEIP, Albert, Ph.D., Professor of Philosophy in Gottingen. PELT, A. P. L. A., Ph.D., Superintendent in Kem- uitz. (D. 1861.) PENTZ, A., Jabel. PESTALOZZI, Karl, Pastor in Zurich. PBTERMANN, Julius Heinrioh, Ph.D., Professor in Berlin. (D. 1876.) •PETERSEN, Clemens, M.A., New- York City. PPENDER, Carl, Pastor in Paris. PFLEIDERER, J. G., Ph.D., Bern. •PICK, Bernhard, Rev., Ph.D., Allegheny, Penn. PIPER, Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand, D.D., Professor of Theology in Berlin. PLITT, GuSTAv Leopold, D.D., Professor of Theol- ogy in Erlangen. (D. 1880.) PLITT, Thkodor, D.D., Pastor at Dossenheim in Baden. POHLMANN, R., Ph.D., Decent in Erlangen. POLENZ, Gottlob von, in Halle. •POOR, Daniel Warren, D.D., Secretary of the Presbyterian Board of Education, Philadelphia. •POPOFF, P. J., Ph.D., New- York City. •POWER, Frederick D., Pastor of the " Christian " Church, Washington, D.C. PREGER, Wilhelm, D.D., Professor at the Gymna- sium in Munich. •PRENTISS, George Lewis, D.D., Professor of Pas- toral Theology in the Union Theological Semi- nary, New- York City. PRESSEL, Theodor, Ph.D., Archdeacon in Tubin- gen. (D. — .) PRESSEL, Wilhelm, Pastor near Tubingen. •RAND, William W., D.D., Secretary American Tract Society, New-York City. RANKE, Ernst, D.D., Professor of Theology in Marburg. •RAYMOND, RossiTER Worthington, Ph.D., Brooklyn, N.Y. EEUCHLIN, HEKM.iNN, Ph.D., in Stuttgart. (D.1873.) REUSS, Eduard Wilhelm Eugen, D.D., Professor of Theology in Strassburg. REUTER, Hermann Ferdinand, D.D., Professor of Theology in Gottingen. REVECZ, Emerich, Pastor in Debreczin, Hungary. •RICE, Edwin Wilbur, Rev., Editor of the Ameri- can Sunday School Union, Philadelphia. •RIDDLE, Matthew Brown, D.D., Professor of New-Testament Exegesis, Theological Semi- nary, Hartford, Conn. EIGGENBACH, Bernhard, Pastor in Arisdorf, Canton Baselland. RITSCHL, Albrecht, D.D., Professor of Theology in Gottingen. •ROBERTS, William Hbnrt, D.D., Librarian of the Theological Seminary, Princeton, N.J. RODIGBE, Emil, Ph.D., Professor of Oriental Lan- guages in Berlin. (D. 1874.) RONNEKE, K., Rome. RUETSCHI, Rudolf, D.D., Pastor in Bern. •SABINE, William T., Rev., New- York City. SACK, Karl Heinrioh, D.D., Professor of Theology in Bonn. (D. 1875.) •SAVAGE, George S. F., D.D., Secretary of the Chicago Congregational Theological Seminary. SCHAAESCHMIDT, Carl, Ph.D., Professor of Philosophy in Bonn. •SCHAFF, David Schley, Rev., Kansas City, Mo. SCHAFF, Philip, D.D., LL.D., Professor in the Union Theological Seminary, New-York City. SCHERER, Edmond, Ph.D., Professor in Paris. SCHEURL, C. T. Gottlob, Ph.D., Professor of Canon Law in Erlangen. SCHMID, Heikrich, D.D., Professor of Theology in Erlangen. SCHMIDT, Carl Wilhelm Adolf, D.D., Professor of Theology in Strassburg. SCHMIDT, Hermann, Professor of Theology in Breslau. SCHMIDT, J., Frauenfeld. SCHMIDT, Karl, Privatdocent of Theology in Erlangen. SCHMIDT, Oswald Gottlob, D.D., Superintendent in Werdau. (D. 1882.) SCHMIDT, Woldemar Gottlob, D.D., Professor of Theology in Leipzig. SCHMIEDER, H. E., D.D., Professor and Director in Wittenberg. SCHNEIDER, J., Pastor in Finkenbach (Rhelnpfalz). SCHOBERLEIN, Ludwig, D.D., Professor of Theol- ogy in Gottingen. (D. 1881.) •SCHODDE, George H., Ph.D., Professor of Greek, Capitol University, Columbus, O. SCHOELL, Carl, Ph.D., Pastor of Savoy Church in London. SCHOTT, Theodor, Librarian in Stuttgart. SCHULTZ, Fhiedrich Wilhelm, D.D., Professor of Theology in Breslau. SCHURER, Emil, D.D., Professor of Theology in Giessen. SCHWARZ, JoHANN Karl Eduard, D.D., Professor of Theology in Jeua. (D. 1870.) SCHWEIZER, Alexander, D.D., Professor of The- ology in Ziirich. •SCOVEL, Sylvester Fithian, Eev., President of Wooster University, Wooster, O. SEMISCH, Carl ^notheus, D.D., Professor of Theology in Berlin. •SHEA, John Gilmary, LL.D., Elizabeth, N.J. •SHEDD, William Greenough Thayer, D.D , LL.D., Professor of Systematic Theology in the Union Theological Seminary, New- York City. •SHIELDS, Charles Woodruff, D.D., LL.D., Pro- fessor of Philosophy in the College of New Jer- sey, Princeton, N.J. SIEFFEET, Friedrich Ludwig, Ph.D., Professor of Theology in Erlangen. SIGWAET, Christian, Ph.D., Professor of Philoso- phy in Tiibingen. LIST OF WRITERS. *SLOANE, J. R. W., D.D., Professor of Theology, Pittsburgh, Penn. »SMYTH, Egbert Coffin, D.D., Professor of Church History, Theological Seminary, Andover, Mass. *SMYTH, Newman, D.D., New Haven, Conn. SPIEGEL, Fkiedrich, Ph.D., Frankfurtam-Main. 'SPBAGUE, Edward E., New-York City. STAHELIN, Ernst, D.D., Pastor in Basel. STAHELIN, Rudolf, D.D., Prole.ssor in Basel. STAHLIN, Adolf, D.D., President of the Upper Consistory, Munich. *STBARNS, Lewis French, D.D., Professor of Theology, Theological Seminary, Bangor, Me. •STEELE, David, D.D., Philadelphia. STEITZ, Georg Eddard, D.D., Konsistorialrath at Frankfurt-am-Main. (D. 1879.) •STEVENS, William Bacon, D.D., LL.D., Bishop of P. E. Diocese of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. •STILLS, Chakles Janeway, LL.D., Philadelphia. »STOUGHTON, John, D.D., London. STRACK, Hermann Ludwig, D.D., Professor of Theology in Berlin. •STRIEBY, Michael E., D.D., Corresponding Sec- retary of the American Missionary Association, New- York City. •STRONG, James, S.T.D., LL.D., Professor of He- brew, Drew Theological Seminary, Madison, N.J. SUDHOFF, Carl, Pastor in Frankfurt^am-Main. (D. 1865.) »TAYLOR,WiLLiAM Mackebgo, D.D., LL.D., Minis- ter of the Broadway Tabernacle, New-York City. THELEMANN, Karl Otto, Konsistorialrath in Detmold. THIERSCH, Heinrich, D.D., in Basel. THOLUCK, Friedrich August Gotttkeu, D.D., Professor of Theology in Halle. (D. 1877.) •THOMSON, William McClure, D.D., Author of Tlie Land and the Book, New- York City. •TILLETT, Wilbur Fisk, A.M., Rev., Professor of Systematic Theology in Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tenn. TISCHENDORF, Loeeoott Friedrich Constan- TiN, VON, D.D., etc.. Professor of Biblical Pale- ography in Leipzig. (D. 1874.) •TOY, Crawford Howell, D.D., LL.D., Professor of Hebrew in Harvard University. TBECHSEL, Franz, Pastor in Bern. •TRUE, Benjamin Osgood, D.D., Professor in the Theological Seminary, Rochester, N.Y. •TRUMAN, Joseph M., Jun., Philadelphia. •TRUMBULL, Henry Clay, D.D., Editor of the Snnday-School Times, Philadelphia. TSCHACKERT, Paul Moritz Robert, Ph.D., Pro- fessor of Theology in Halle. •TUTTLE, Daniel Sylvester, D.D., Missionary Bishop of Utah and Idaho, Salt-Lake City, Utah. •TYLER, William Seymour, D.D., Professor in Amherst College, Massachusetts. TZSCHIBNER, P. M., Ph.D., Leipzig. UHLHORN, Johann Gerhard Wilhelm, D.D., Oberkonsistorialrath in Hanover. ULLMANN, Carl, D.D., Karlsruhe. (D. 1805.) ULRICI, Hermann, Ph.D., Professor of Philosophy in Halle. VAIHINGER, J. G., Pastor in Wiirttemberg. •VAN DYKE, Henry Jackson, jun., Pastor of the Brick (Presbyterian) Church, New-York City. •VINCENT, J. H., D.D., New Haven, Conn. ♦VINCENT, Marvin Richardson, D.D., Pastor of the Church of the Covenant (Presbyterian), New- York City. VOGEL, Carl Alerecht, D.D., Professor of The- ology in Vienna. VOIGT, G., Ph.D., Professor of History in Leipzig. VOLCK," Wilhelm, D.D., Professor of Theology in Dorpat. WACKERNAGEL, K. H. Wilhelm, Ph.D., Pro- fessor in Basel. (D. 1869.) WAGENMANN, Julius August, D.D., Professor of Theology in Gottingen. WANGEMANN, Ph.D., Missionsdirector in Berlin. •WARD, William Hayes, D.D., Editor of The In- dependent, New-York City. •WABFIELD, Benjamin -BRECKiNRrDGE, D.D., Pro- fessor of New Testament Exegesis in the Theo- logical Seminary, Allegheny, Penn. WARNECK,G., Ph.D., Pastor in Bothenschirmbach. •WARREN, William Fairfield, D.D., LL.D., President of Boston University, Boston, Mass. •WASHBURN, George, D.D., President of Robert College, Constantinople, Turkey. WASSERSCHLEBEN, F. W. H. voN, Ph.D., Pro- fessor of Jurisprudence in Giessen. WEIN6ARTEN, Hermann, D.D., Professor of Theology in Breslau. WEIZSACKER, Carl Heinrich, D.D., Professor of Theology in Tiibingen. WEIZSACKER, Julius, Ph.D., Professor of His- tory in Gottingen. WERNER, August, Pastor in Guben. •WHIPPLE, Henry Benjamin, D.D., Bishop of P. E. Diocese of Minnesota, Faribault, Minn. •WHITFIELD, Edward E., M.A., Oxford. WIESELER, Karl, D.D., Professor of Theology in Greifswald. (D. 1883.) WILCKEN, Ph.D., Stralsund. •WILLIAMS, Samuel Wells, LL.D., Professor of Chinese, Yale College, New Haven, Conn. •WILSON, Joseph R., D.D., Wilmington, N.C. •WILSON, Samuel Jennings, D.D., LL.D., Pro- fessor of Church History, Theological Seminary, Allegheny, Penn. (D. 1883.) •WOLF, Edmund Jacob, D.D., Professor in the Theological Seminary, Gettysburg, Penn. WOLFFLIN, Eduard, Ph.D., Professor in Erlangen. •WOOLSEY, Theodore Dwight, D.D., LL.D., Ex- President of Yale College, New Haven, Conn. •WRIGHT, George Frederick, Ph.D., Professor in the Theological Seminary, Oberlin, O. ZAHN, Theodob, D.D., Professor of Theology in Erlangen. ZEZSCHWITZ, Gerhard von, D.D., Professor of Theology in Erlangen. ZIMMEBMANN, Karl, D.D., Pralat in Darmstadt. ZOCKLEB, Otto, D.D., Professor of Theology in Greifswald. ZOPFFEL, Richard Otto, Ph.D., Professor of The- ology in Strasshurg. INDEX. p. Pacca, Bartolommeo, 1715. Pace, Richard, 1715. Pachomius, 1715. Pachymeres, Georgiua, 1716. Paciauus, 1716. Pacification, Edicts of, 1716. Padua, 1716. Paedobaptism, 1716. Psedobaptist, 1716. Paganism, 1716. Page, Harlan, 1717. Pagi, Antoine, 1717. Pagoda, 1717. Paine, Robert, 1717. Paine, Tliomas, 1717. Painting, Christian, 1718. Pajon, Claude, 1722. Palafoz de Mendoza, Juan de, 1722. Palanias, Gregoi'ius, 1722. Paleario, Aonio, 1722. Palestine, 1723. Palestrina, G-iovanni I*ierluigi, 1727. Paley, WilUam, 1728. Palimpsest. See Bible Text. Palissy, Bernard, 1728. Pall, 1729. Palladius, 1729. Palladius, Scotorum Episcopns, 17S0. Pallavicino, or Pallavicini, Sforza, 1730. Pallium, 1730. Palmer, 1730. Palmer, Chiistian David Friedrich, 1730. Palmer, Edward Henry, 1731. Palmer, Herbert, 1731. Palm-Snnday, 1731. Palm-Tree, 1731. Pamphilus, 1732. Pamphylia, 1732. Panagia, 1732. Pan-Anglicaa Synod, 1732. Panegyricon, 1733. Panis Literse, 1733. Panormitanus, 1733. Pan-Presbyterian Council. See Alliance of the Reformed Churches. Pantscnus, 1733. Pantheism and Pantheist, 1733. Pantheon, 1735. Papacy and Papal System, 1735. Papal Election. See Couclave. Papebroeck. See Bollandists. Paphnutius, 1737. Paphos, 1738. Papias, 1738. Papin, Isaac, 1739. Papyrus. See Bible-Text, Writing. Parables, 1739. Parabolani, 1742. Paracelsus, Philippns Anreolus Theo- phrastus Bombastus, 1742. Paraclete. See Holy Spirit, Trinity. ParacleticS, or Paracleticon, 1742. Paradise, 1742. Paraguay, 1743. Paran, Wilderness of, 1743. Pardee, Richard Cray, 1743. Parens, David, 1743. Paris, 1743. Paris, Francois de, 1745. Paris, Matthew. See Matthew of Paris. Parish, 1745. Parity, 1746. Parker, Matthew, 1746. Parker, Samuel, 1746. • Parker, Theodore, 1747. Parkhurst, John, 1749. Parnell, Thomas, 1749. Parseeism, 1749. Parsons, Robert. See Persons, Robert. Parsons, Levi, 1752. Particular and General Baptists, 17o2. Paasagians, the, 1752. Pascal, Blaise, 1752. Pascal, Jacqueline. See p. 1752. Paschal Controversies, 1754. Paachalis (popes), 1756. Faschasius, Radbertus. See Radberlus. Pasqualis, Martinez, 1757. Passion, the, of our Lord, 1757. Passion-Plays. See ReligiouB Di-amas. Passion-Week. See Holy Week. Passionei, Domiuic, 1757. Paasionists, the, 1757. Passover, the, 1757. Pastoral Letters, 1759. Pastoral Theology, 1759. Pastorells, 1762. Patarenes, 1762. Paten, 1762. Pater-Noster, 1762. Patience, 1762. Patmos, 1763. I'ntonillet, Louis, 1763. Patriarch, 1763. Patrick, St., 1763. Patrick, Symon, 1765. Patripassiaus, 1765. Patristics and Patrology, 1765. Patronage, 1767. Pattesou, John Coleridge, 176S. Paul the Apostle and his Epistles, 1768. Paul (popes), 1774. Paul, Father. See Sarpi. Paul of Samosata. See Monarchianism. Paul of Thebes. See Monastery. Paul, Vincent de. See Vincent de Paul. Paul the Deacon, 1776. Paula, 1776. Pauliciana, 1776. Paulinus of Aquileja, 1777. Paulinus, Pontius Meropius Anicius, 1778. Paulinus of York, 1778. Paulists, 1778. Paulus, Heiurich Eberhard Gottlob, 177S. Pauperes de Lugduno. See Waldenses. Pavia, the Council of, 1779. Pavilion, 1779. Payson, Edward, 1779. Pazmany, Peter, 1780. Peabody, George, 17S0. Peabody, William Bourne Oliver, 1781. Peace, Kiss of. See Kiss of Peace. Peace Offering. See Offerings. Pearson, Eliphalet, 1781. Pearson, John, 17S2. Peck, George, 1783. Peck, Jesse Truesdell, 1783. Peck, John Mason, 1783. Pedersen, Christiern, 1783. Pedobaptism, Pedobaptists. See Psedo- baptism, Piedobaptists. PelagiuB and the Pelagian Controversies, 1783. Pelagius (popes), 1785. Pelagius, Alvarus, 1786. Pellikan, Konrad, 1786. Pelt, Anton Friedrich Ludwig, 1786. Penance, 1787. Penitentials, 1787. Penitential Psalms, 1788. Penn, William, 17S8. Pennaforte, Raymond de, 1790. Penry, John, 1790. Pentateuch, the, 1790. Pentecost, 1801. Peratee. See Gnosticism. Percy, Thomas, 1801. Perea, 1802. Pereira, Antonio de Figueiredo, 1802. Perfectionism, 1802. Pergamos, 1802. Pericopcs, 1802. Perikau, Synods of, 1806. Peiizzites. See Canaan. Perkins, Justin, iS06. Perkins, William, 1806. Perpetua, Ste., 1806. Perrone, Giovanni, 1S06. Perronet, Edward, 1S07. Persecution of the Christians in the Ro- man Empire, 1807. Perseverance of the Saints, 1S08. Persia, 1808. Persons, Robert, 1811. Peru, 1811. Peshito. See Bible Versions. Pessimism. See Optimism, Schopen- hauer. Pestalozzi, Johaun Heinrich, 1812. Petavius, Dionysius, 1812. Peter the Apostle, 1813. Peter, Festivals of St., 1817. Peter of Alcantara, 1818. Peter of Alexandria, 1818. Peter d'Ailly. See Ailli. Peter of Blois, 1818. Peter of Bruys and the Petrobrnsians, 1818. Peter of Celle, 1818. Peter Lombard. See Lombard. Peter Martyr, or Peter of Verona, 1S18. Peter Martyr Vermigli, 1818. Peter the Hermit, 1819. Peter the Venerable, 1819. Peterborough, 1819. Peter-Pence, 1819. Peters, Hugh, 1820. Petersen, Johann Wilhelm, 1820. Petit, Samuel, 1S20. Petra. See Selah. Petri, Olaus, 1820. Petri, Laurentius, 1820. Petrobmsians. See Peter of Bruys. Peucer, Caspar, 1820. Pew, 1821. Pezel, Christof, 1821. Pfaff, Christof Matthaus, 1821. Pflng, Julius, 1821. Pharaoh, 1821. Pharisees, the, 1S21. Philadelphia, 1822. Philadelphia (U.S.A.), 1822. Philadelphian Society, 1823. Philaster, or Philastrius, 1824. Philemon. See Paul. Philip the Apostle, 1S24. Philip the Arabian, 1824. Philip the Evangelist, 1S24. Philip the Fair, 1824. Philip the Magnanimous, 1825. Philip n., 1826. Philip the Tetrarch. See Herod. Philippi, 1826. Philippi, Friedrich Adolf, 1827. Philippians, Epistle to the. See Paul. Phillppists, 1827. Philistines, 1827. Phillpotts, Henry, 1831. Philo, 1831. Philo Carpathius, 1833. Philopatris, 1833. Philoponus. See John Phttoponus. XI Xll INDEX. Philosophy and Religion, 1833. Philosophy, Christian, American Insti- tute of, 1835. Philostorgius, 1836. Philostratus, Flavius, 1836. Philoxenus, 1836. Phocas, 1836. Phoenicia, 1836. Photinus, 1837. Photius, 1837. Phiygla, 1838. Phylactery, 1838. Piarists, or Fathers of the Pious Schools, or Paulinian Congregation, 1839. Picards, 1839. Pictet, Benedict, 1839. Picus of Mirandula. See Mirandula. Pierce, Lovick, 1839. Pierpont, John, 1840. Pietism, 1840. . Pighius, Albert, 1841. Pilate, Pontius, 1841. Pilate, Procla, or Claudia Procula, 1842. Pilgrimages, 1842. Pilkington, James, 1843. Pinkney, William, 1843. Pirk^ Aboth, 1843. Pirmin, St., 1843. Pisa, Councils of, 1843. Piscator, Johannes, 1844. Pise, Charles Constantine, 1844. Pisgah, 1844. Pisidia, 1845. Pistorius, Johannes, 1845. Pithom, 1845. Pius (popes), 1845. Pius Societies, 1849. Placet, 1849. Placeus, 1849. Plagues of Egypt. See Egypt. Planck, Gottlieb Jakob, 1849. Planck, Heinrich Ludwig, 1849. Platina, Bartholomaaus, 1849. Platonism and Christianity, 1850. Platonists, the Cambridge, 1853. putt, Gustav Leopold, 1855. Plumer, William Swan, 1855. Pluralities, 1866. Plymouth Brethren, 1856. Pueumatomachi, 1859. PocGck, Edward, 1859. Podiebrad, George of, 1859. Poetry, Hebrew. See Hebrew Poetry. Pohlman, William John, 1860. Poimenics. See Pastoral Theology. Poiret, Pierre, 1860. Poissy, Conference of, 1860. Poland, 1861. Pole, Reginald, 1862. Polemics, 1862. Polentz, George of. See George of Po- lentz. Poliander, Johann, 1863. Polity, 1863. Pollok, Robert, 1863. Polycarp, 1863. Polj'chronius, 1864. Polygamy. See Marriage. Polyglot Biblej, 1864. Polytheism, 1867. Pomfret, John, 1868. Pomponatius, Petrus, 1868. Pond, Enoch, 1868. Pontianus, 1868. Pontiflcale, 1868. Poole, Matthew, 1868. Poor, Daniel, 1869. Poor Men of Lyons. See Waldenses. Pope, the, 1869. Pope, Alexander, 1871. Pordage, John, 1871. Poritoppidan, Erik Ludwigsen, 1872. Porphyry. See Neo-Platoniem. Porter, Ebenezer, 1872. PortiuDCUla Indulgence, 1872. Port Royal, 1872. Portugal, the Kingdom of, 1873. Poschl, Thomas, 1874. Positivism. See Comte, Auguste. Possession, Demoniacal. See Demoniacs. Possevino, Antonio, 1874. Possidius, or Possidonius, 1874. Postel, Guillaume, 1874. Postil, 1874. Potter, Alonzo, 1874. Potts, George, 1876. Poulain, Nicolas, 1876. Pouring, 1876. Powell, Baden, 1876. Practical Theology, 1877. Prades, Jean Martin de, 1S77. Pradt, Dominique Dufour de, 1877. Praemunire, 1877. Prsetorius, Abdias, 1877. Praetorius, Stephan, 1877. Prayer, 1877. Prayer, Book of Common, 1880. Prayer for the Dead, 1882. Prayer, the Lord's. See Lord's Prayoi". Preachers, Local. See Local Preachers. Preaching, 1883. Preaching Friars, 1885. Prebend, 1885. Precious Stones, 1885. Preconization, 1886. Predestination, 1886. Premillennialism, 1887. Premonstrants, or Premonstratensians, 1890. Prentiss, Elizabeth, 1890. Presbyter and the Presbyterate, 1890. Presbyterian Churches, 1892. Presbytei-ianism, 1917. Presbyterium, 1921. Presbytery, 1921. Presence, the Real. See Lord's Supper. Presiding Elders, 1921. Pressly, John Taylor, 1921. Prester John. See John the Presbyter. Preston, John, 1921. Prideaux, Humphrey, 1921. Prierias, Sylvester, 1922. Priests and Priesthood in the Old Testa- ment, 1922. Priesthood in the Roman-CatholicChurch, 1926. Priestley, .loseph, 1927. Primacy, Primate, 1927. Primiceilus, 1927. Primitive Methodist Connection. See Methodism. Prince, Thomas (1), 1927. Prince, Thomas (2), 1928. Princeton, the Village, its Institutions, Theology, and Literature, 1928. Prior and Prioress, 1930. Priscillianists, 1930. Probabilism, 1931. Probation, Future, 1931. Procession of the Holy Ghost. See Filio- que. Processions, 1932. Proclus. See Neo-Platonism. Procopius of CiEsarea, 1932. Procopius of Gaza, 1932. Procopius the Great, 1932. Prodicians, 1933. Professio FideiTridentinse. See Triden- tine Profession of Faith. Prolocutor, 1933. Pronier, C6sar Louis, 1933. Propaganda, the, 1933. Prophetic Office in the Old Testament, 1936, Prophets in the New Testament, 1940. Propitiation, 1940. Proselytes of the Jews, 1941. Prosper of Aquitania, 1942. Protestanten-Verein, 1942. Protestantism. See Reformation, Protevangelium. See Apocrypha. Protonotarius Apostolicus, 1942. Proto-Presbyter, or Proto-Pope, 1942. Proudfoot, William, 1942. Proverbs of Solomon, 1943. Providence, 1948. Provincial, 1949. Provost, 1949. Prudeutius, Aurelius Clemens, 1949. Prudentius of Troyes, 1949. Prussia, 1949. Prynne, William, 1950. Psalmanazar, George, 19.50. Psalmody in the Early Christian Church, 1950. Psalms, 1951. Psalms, Use of the, in Worship, 1959. Psalter, 1961. Psellus, 1961. Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament, 1961. Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals, 1966. Ptolemseus, Ptolemy, 1968. Ptolemy I., Soter, 1968. Ptolemy 11., Philadelphus, 1988. Ptolemy III., Euergertes, 1968. Ptolemy IV., Philopator, 1968. Ptolemy V., Epiphanes, 1969. Ptolemy VI., Philometor, 1969. Publican, 1969. Publicani, 1969. Pufendorf, Samuel, 1969. Pul. See Tiglath-pileser. Pulcheria, 1969. Pulleyn, Robert, 1969. Pulpit, 1970. Pulpit-Eloquence. See Homilelics, Preaching. Punishment among the Hebrews, 1970. Punishment, Future, 1971. Punshou, William Morley, 1974. Purcell, Henry, 1974. Purcell, John Baptist, 1975, Purgatory, 1976. Purifications, 1976. Purim, 1979. Puritan, Puritanism, 1979. Purvey, John, 1983. Pusey, Edward Bouverie, 1984. Pym, John, 1984. Pynchon, William, 1986. Pyx, 1986. (^Quadragesima. See Lent. Quadratus, 1986. Quakers. See Friends. Quarles, Francis, 1986. Quarterly Meeting. See Friends. Quartodecimani. See Paschal Contro- versy. Queen Anne's Bouuty. See Taxes. Quenstedt, Andreas, 1986. Quesnel, Pasquier, 1986. Quetif, Jacques, 1986. Quietism. See Moliuos, Guyon. Quinisextum Concilium, 1987. Quirinius, 1987. Rabanus Maurus, 1988. Rabaut, Paul, 1988. Rabaut, St. Etienne, 1988. Rabaut, Pommier, 1988. Kabbah. See Ammonites. Rabbinism, 1988. Rabbula. See Kabulas. Kabsaris, 1990. Rabshakoh, 1990. Rabulas, 1990. Raca, 1990. Racovian Catechism. See Socinianisra. Rachel. See Jacob. Radbertus, Paschasius, 1990. Raffles, Thomas, 1991. Ragged Schools, 1991. Rahab, 1991. Raikes, Robert, 1991. Rainerio Sacchoni, 1991. Rale, Scbastien, 1992. Raleigh, Alexander, 1992. Raleigh, Sir Walter, 1992. Ramah, 1992. Ramadan, 1992. Rambach, August Jakob, 1992. Rambach, Johann Jakob, 1992. Rameses. See Exodus. Rammohuu Roy, 1993. Ramus, Petrus, 1993. Ranci;, Armand Louis le Bouthillier, de, 1993. Randall, Benjamin. See Freewill Bap- tists. Randolph Macon College, 1993. Ranters, 1994. Raphael, 1994. Raphall, Morris Jacob, 1994. Rappists, 1994. Rashi, 1994. Raskolniks. See Russian Sects. Eatherius, 1994. Rathmann, Hermann, 1995. , ' Rationalism and Supranaturalism, 1995. Ratisbon, the Conference of, 1998. Ratramnus, 1998. Ratzeberger, Matthilus, 1998. Rau, Christian, 1998. Ranch, Frederick Augustus, 1998. Rauhe Hans. See Wichern. Rautenstrauoh, Franz Stephan, 1999. Ravenna, 1999. INDEX. xiu Ravigoan, Gustave Francois Xavier de la Croix de, 2001. Kaymoud Martini, 2001. Raymond of Pennaforte. See Penna- forte. Raymond of Sabunde, or Sabiende, 2001. Raymundus LuJlus. See Lullua. Reader. See Lector. Realism. See Scholastic Theology. Real Presence. See Lord's Supper. Rechabites, 2U02. Recluse, 2002. Recollect, 2002. Reconciliation. See Atonement. Rector, 2002. Redeemer, Orders of the, 2002. Redemption, 2002. Redemptorists, or Congregation of Our Most Blessed Redeemer, 2003. Red Sea, the, 200i. Reed, Andrew, 2004. Reformation, 2004. Reformed (Dutch) Church in America, 2013. Reformed Episcopal Church. See Epis- copal Church, Reformed. Reformed (German) Church in the United States, 2015. Reformed Presbyterian . Church. See Presbyterian Churches." Regalia, 2016. Regeneration, 2017. Regensburg. See liatisbon. Regiuo, 2018. Regionarlus, 2018. Regius, Urbanus. See Rhegius. Regula Fidei, 2018. Regulars, 2018. Rehoboam, 2013. Reichel, Johann Friedrich, 2019. Reid, Thomas, 2019. Reihing, Jakob, 2021. Reimarus, Hermann Samuel, 2021. Reinhard, Franz Volkmar, 2021. Reland, Hadrian, 2021. ReUcB, 2021. Relief Synod: See Presbyterian Churches. Religion and Revelation, 2021. Religion, the Pliilosophy of, 2024. Religious Dramas in the Middle Ages, 2025. Religious Liberty. See Liberty. Religious Statistics, 2026. Relly, James, 2026. Remigius, St., 2027. Remphan, 2027. Renaissance, the, 2027. Renata, 2030. Renaudot, Eusfebe, 2030. Repentance, 2030. Rephidim. See Wilderness of the Wiin- dering. Reprobation. See Predestination. Requiem, 2031. Reredos, 2031. Reservation, Mental, 2031. Reservation, Papal, 2031. Residence, 2032. Restoration. See Apokatastasis. Eesigoation, 2032. Resurrection of the Dead, 2032. Rettberg, Friedrich Wilhelm, 2033. Rettig, Heinrich Christian Michael, 2033. Reuben. See Tribes. Reuehlin, Johann, 2033. Reuterdahl, Henrik, 2034. Revelation, Book of, 2034. Revivals of Religion, 2038. Revolution, the French, 2041. Reynolds, Edward, 2043. Reynolds, John, 2044. Rhegium, 2044. Rhegius, Urbanus, 2044. Rhetoric, Sacred. See Homiletics. Rhodes, 2044. Ricci, Lorenzo, 2014. Ricci, Scipione de', 2045. Rice, John Holt, 2045. Rice, Ifathan Lewis, 2045. Rich, Edmund. See Eadmund, St. Richard, Fitzr.ilph, 2045. Richard of St. Victor, 2046. Richard, Charles Louis, 2046. Richards, James, 2046. Richards, William, 2046. Richelieu, Armand Jean Dnplessis de, 2046. Richer, Edmund, 2046. Richmond, Legh, 2048. Richter, .^milius Ludwlg, 2047. Richter, Christian Friedrich Gottlieb, 2047. Riddle, Joseph Esmond, 2047. Ridgley, Thomas, 2047. Ridley, Nicholas, 2047. Rieger, Georg Conrad, 2048. Righteousness, Original, 2048. Rimmon, 2048. Ring, Melchior, 2049. Rings, 2049. Rinkart, Martin, 2049. Ripley, Henry Jones, 2049. Ripon, 2049. Rippon, John, 2049. Risler, Jeremiah, 2049. Ritter, Karl, 2050. Ritual, 2050. Rituale Romanum, 2050. Ritualism, 2050. Rivet, Andr^, 2053. Robber-Council. See Kphesus. Robert the Second, 2053. Robertson, Frederick William, 2053. Robertson, James Craigie, 2054. Robinson, Edward, 2054. Robinson, John, 2055. Robinson, Robent, 2056. Robinson, Stuart, 2056. Roch, St., 2056. Rochester, 2056. Rock, Daniel, 2056. Rodgers, John, 2056. Rodiger, Emil, 2056. Rogations, 2057. Rogers, Ebenezer Piatt, 2057. Rogers, Henry, 2057. Rogers, John, 2057. Rohr, Johann Friedrich, 2057. Rokycana, John, 2057. Romaine, William, 2058. Roman-Catholic Church, 2058. Roman-Catholic Church in the United States, 2062. Roman Empire and Christianity, the, 206S. Romance Bible \'ersion8. See Bible Ver- sions. Romans, Epistle to the. See Paul. Romanns, 2072. Rome, 2072. Ronsdorf Sect. See Eller. Rood, 2073. Roos, Magnus Friedrich, 2074. Rosa of Lima, 2074. Rosa of Vilerbo, 2074. Rosalia, St., 2074. Rosary, the, 2074. Roscelin, 2074. Rose, the Golden. See Golden Rose. •Rose, Henry John, 2074. Rose, Hugh James, 2074. Rosenbach, Johann Georg, 2075. Rosenmiiller, Ernst Friedrich Karl, 2075. Rosicrucians, 2075. Roswitha, 2075. Rota. See Curia. Rothe, Richard, 2075. Koumania, 2076. Rous, Francis, 2076. Rousseau, Jean Jacques, 2076. Roussel, Gerard, 2078. Routh, Martin Joseph, 2078. Row, Thomas, 2078. Rowe, Mrs. Elizabeth, 2078. Rowlands, Daniel, 2078. Royaards, Hermann Jan, 2078. Rubrics, 2078. Ruchat, Abraham, 2078. Ruckert, Leopold Immanuel, 2078. Rudelbach, Andreas Gotllob, 2079. Riidinger, Esrora, 2079. Ruet, Francisco de Paula, 2079. Ruflnus, Tyrannins, 2079. Ruinart, Thierry, 2079. Rule of Faith. See Regula Fidei. Rulman Merswio, 20S0. Rupert, St., 20SO. Rupert of Deutz, 2080. RuseeU, Charles William, 2080. Russia, 2080. Russian Sects, 2082. Rutgers Theological Seminary. See New- Brunewick Theological Seminary. Ruth, 2085. Rutherfurd, Samuel, 2085. Ruysbroeck, or Uusbroek, 20S.J. Ryerson, Adolphus Egerton, 2086. Ryland, John, '2086. Saadia ha Gaon, Ben Joseph, 2087. Saalschiitz, Joseph LeWu, 2087. Sabaoth, 2087. Sabae, St., 2087. Sabbatarians. See Seventh-Day Baptists, Sabbath, 2088. Sabbath-Day's Journey, 2089. Sabbath Laws. See Sunday Legislation. Sabbathaism. See Israel. Sabbatharians, or New Israelites, 2089. Sabbatical Year and Yearof Jubilee, 2089. Sabbatier, Pierre, 2090. Sabbatius, 2090. Sabellius, 2090. Sabians, 2091. Sabina, 2091. Sabinianus, 2091. Sacerdotalism. Bee Priesthood. Sacheverell, Henry, *2091. Sachs, Hans, 2091. Sack, August Friedrich Wilhelm, 2092. Sack, Friedrich Samuel Gottfried, 2092. Sack, Karl Heinrich, 2092. Sack, Brethren of the, 2093. Sacrament, 2093. Sacred Heart, Society of the. See Jesus, Society of the Sacred Heart of. Sacrificati, 2093. Sacrifices. See Offerings. Sacrilege, 2094. Sacristy aud Sacristan, 2094. Sacy, Louis Isaac Le Maistre de, 2094. Saddncees, 2094. Sadoleto, Jacopo, 2096. Sagittarius, Kaspar, 2096. Sahak. See Armenia. Sailer, Johann Michael, 2096. Saint Albans, 2096. Saint John, Knights of. See Military Religious Orders. Saint-Martin, Louis Claude de, 2096. Saint-Simon de Rouvroy, Count Claude Henri, 2097. Saints, Day of All. See All-Saints' Dav. Saints, Worship of the, 2097. Sakya Muni. See Buddliism. Salamis, 2098. Salem Witchcraft. See Witchcraft. Sales, Fi'ancis de. See Francis of Sales. Salig, Christian August, 2098. Salisbury, or New Sarnm, 2098. Salisbury, John of. See John of Salis- bury. Salmanticenses, 2098. Salmasins, Claudius, 2098. Salmeron, Alphonso, 2098. Salt, 2098. Salt Sea, 2099. Saltzmann, Friedrich Rudolph, 2099. Salvation. See Redemption. Salvation Army, the, 2099. Salve, 2100. Salvianus, 2100. Salzburg, 2100. Samaria and the Samaritans, 2101. Samaritan Pentateuch. See Samaria. Samosata, Paul of. See Monarchianism. Sarapsaean. See Elkesaites. Samson, 2104. Samson, Bernhardin, 2105. Samuel, 2105. Samuel, Books of, 2106. Sanballat, 2107. San Benito. See Inquisition. Sanchez, Thomas, 2107. Sanchuniatbon, 2108. Sancroft, William, 2108. SanctiAcation, 2108. Sanction, Pragmatic, 2108. Sandeman and the Sandemanians, 2109. Sandwich Islands, the, 2109. Sandys, Edwin, 2110. Sandys, George, 2110. Sanhedrin, 2110. Santa Casa. See Loreto. Sarcerius, Erasmus, 2112. Sardis, 2112. Sargon, 2112. Sarpi, Paolo, 2113. Sartorins, Ernst Wilhelm Christian, 2113. Sarum Use, 2123. Satan. See De\il. XIT INDEX. Satanael, 2113. Sedulius, Cajus Cojlius, 2147. Shuckford, Samuel, 2178. Satisfaction. See Atonement. Sedulius Scotus, or Sedulius Junior, 2147. Shushan, 2178. Saturninue, 2114. Seeing God, 2147. Sibbes, Richard, 2178. Saturninus the Gnostic. See Gnosticism. Seekers, 2148. Sibel, Caspar, 2179. Sibylline Books, 2179. Saul, 2114. Begneri, Paolo, 2148. Saumur. 2115. Seir, or Land of Seir, 2148. Sicarii, 2180. Saurln, t^lie, 2115. Sela, or Selah, 2149. Sickingen, Franz von, 2180. Saurin, Jacques, 2113. Selah, 2149. Sidney, Sir Philip, 2180. Savonarola, Hieronymus, 2115. Selden, John, 2149. Sidon. See Zidon. Savoy Conference. See Conference. Seleucia, 2150. Sidonius, Michael, 2180. Saybrooli Platform. See Congregation- Seleucidiau Era. See Era. Siena, Council of, 2180. alism. Seineceer, Nicolaus, 2150. Sieveking, Amalie, 2181. Scaliger, Joseph Justus, 2117. Selwyn, George Augustus, 2150. Sigebert of Gemblours, 2181. Scapegoat. See Atonement, Day of. Semi-Arians, 2150. Sigismund, Johanu, 2181. Scapulary, 2117. Schade, Georg, 2117. Seminaries, Theological, Continental, Sign of the Cross. See Cross. 2161. Sigourney, Lydia Howard Huntley, 2181. Schade, Johann Caspar, 2117. Seminaries, Theological, of the United Sihor, 2182. Schaeffer, Charles Frederick, 2117. States. See Theological Seminaries. Siloah. See Jerusalem. Schall, Johann Adam, 2117. Semi-Pelagianisra, 2151. Simeon. See Tribes. Schauffler, William Gottlieb, 2117. Semitic Languages, 2153. Simeon in Bible. See Simon, the Name SchefHer, Johanu, 211S. Seraler, Johann Salomo, 2156. iu Biblical History. Schelhorn, Johann Georg, 2118. Seneca, Lucius Anuseus, 2167. Simeon Mctaphrastes. See Metaphrastes. Schelling, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von , Sennacherib, 2158. Simeon Stylites. See Btylites. 2118. , Separates, 2160. Simeon, Archbishop of Thessalonica, Schelwig, Samuel, 2120. Separatism, 2160. 2182. Schera, Ale.\ander Jacob, 2120. Sephar\'aim, 2160. Simeon, Charles, 2182. Schinner, MatthauB, 2120. Septuagint. See Bible Versions. Simler, Josias, 21S2. Schism, 2121. Septuagesima, 2161. Simon ben Yochai, 2182. Schlatter, Michael, 2121. Sepulchre, Holy. See Holy Sepulchre. Simon, the Naijie in Biblical History, Schleiermacher, Friedrich Daniel Ernst, Sequence, the, 2161. 2182. 2121. Seraphim, 2161. Simon Maccabeeus. Bee Maccabees. Schleusncr, Johann Friedrich, 2125. Sergius Paulus. See Paul. Simon Magus, 21S3. Schmalkald, League and Articles of, 2125. Sergius, 2161. Simon, Richard, 2185. Sohmid, Christian Friedrich, 2126. Sergius (confessor), 2161. Simon of Tonrnay, 2185. Schmid, Konrad, 2126. Sergius (popes), 2161. Simony, 2186. Schmidt, Oswald Gottlob, 2126. Sermon. See Homiletics. Simplicius, 2186. Schraolke, Benjamin, 2126. Serpent, Brazen, the, 2162. Sin (city), 2186. Schmucker, Samuel Simon, 2126. Servetus, Michael, 2162. Sin, 2186. Schneckenburger, Matthias, 2127. Servia, 2163. Bin against the Holy Spirit, the, 2188. Sin-Offerings. See Offerings. Schoberlein, Ludwig Friedrich, 2127. Servites, 2164. Scholastic Theology, 2127. Servus Servorum Dei, 2164. Sins, the Forgiveness of, 2188. Scholium, the, 21.'50. Session, 2164. Sinai, 2189. Schonherr, Johann Heinrich, 2130. Sessionof Christ, 2161. Sinaita. See John Scholasticus. Schoolmen. See Scholastic Theology. Sethiani. See Gnosticism. Binaiticus, Codex. Bee Bible Text. Schott, Heinrich August, 2130. Seton, Elizabeth Ann, 2164. Singing. See Hymuology, Music, Psalm- Schottgen, Christian, 2130. Seven, the Sacred Number, 2164. ody. Schvookh, Johaim Matthias, 2130. Seven Sleepers of Ephesus. See Ephe- Sintram, 2190. Schulteus, Albert, 2131. sus. Seven Sleepers of. Sion College, 2190. Schwartz, Christian Fiiedrich, 2131. Seventh-Day Baptists, 2166. Sirach. See Apocrypha. Schwarz, Friedrich Heiurich Christian, Severianus, 2167. Siricius, 2190. 2131. Severinus, St., 2167. Sirmond, Jacques, 2190. Sohwebel, Johann, 2131. Severinus (pope), 2167. Bisters of Charity. See Charity, Sisters of. Schwegler, Albert, 2131. Severus, 2167. Sisters of Mercy. See Mercy, Sisters of. Schwenkfeld and the Schwenkfelders. Severus, Alexander, 2168. Sisterhoods. See Deaconesses. See Tuiikers. Severus, Septimus, 2168. Siva. Bee Brahmanism. Schyn, Hermannus, 2132. Severus, Sulpicius, 2168. Six Articles, the, 2190. Scotch Confession of Faith, 2132. Sewall, Samuel, 2168. Bix-Priuciple Baptists, 2191. Scotch Paraphrases, 2132. Sewell, Willi.ara, 2168. Sixtus (popes), 2191. Bkelton, Philip, 2192. Scotland, Churches of. See Presbyterian Sexagesima, 2168. Churches. Sexton, 2168. Skinner, Thomas Harvey, 2192. Scott, Elizabeth, 2132. Sfondrati, Francis, 2168. Slater Fund for the Education of Freed- Scott, Levi, 2133. Sfondrati, Nicholas, 2168. men, 2192. Scott, Thomas, 21S5. Sfondrati, Celestiue, 2168. Slavery among the Hebrews, 2192. Scott, Thomas, 2133. Shaftesbury. See Deism, Infidelity. Slavery iu the New Testament, 2193. Scottish Philosophy, 2133. Shakers, 2168. Slavery and Christianity, 2194. Scotus Eiiijeiia, John, 2134. Shalmancaer, 2170. Slavic Bible Versions. See Bible Ver- Scotus, Mariaiins, 2135. Shammai, 2171. sions. Scribes in the New Testament, 2136. Sharp, Granville, 2171. Sleidan, Johannes, 2198. Scviver, Christian, 2137. Sharp, James, 2171. Bmalcald Articles and League. See Scudder, John, 2137. Sharpe, Samuel, 2172. Schmalcald Articles. Sculpture, Christian, 2137. Shastra, 2172. Smalley, John, 2198. SoultetUB, Abraham, 2140. Sheba. See Arabia. Bmaragdus, 2198. Beabury, Samuel, 2140. Shechem, 2172. Smart, Christopher, 2198. Seagrave, Robert, 2142. Shechinah, the, 2172. Smectymnuus, 2198. Seals. See Kings. Shekel. See Weights. Smith, Eli, 2199. Seaman, Lazarus, 2142. Shem Hammephorash, 2172. Smith, George, 2199. Seamen, Missions to, 2142. Shemitic Languages. See Semitic Lan- Smith, Henry Boynton, 2199. Sear, Barnas, 2145. guages. Smith, John, 2200. Sears, Edmund Hamilton, 2145. Sheol, 2172. Smith, .John Cotton, 2200. Sebaldus, 2145. Shepard, Thomas, 2172. Smith, John Pye, 2201. Se-Baptist. See Smyth, John. Shepherd, Thomas, 2173. Smith Joseph. See Mormons, Sebastian, 2146. Shepherd of Hermas. See Hermas. Smith, Samuel Stanhope, 2201. Secession Church. See Presbyterian Sherlock, Richard, 2173. Smith, Sydney, 2201. Smith, William Andrew, 2201. Churches. Sherlock, William, 2173. Seckendorf, Veit Ludwig von, 2146. Sherlock, Thomas, 2173. Smyrna, 2201. Becker, Thomas, 2146. Sherlock, Martin, 2173. Smyth, John, 2201. Second Adventisls. See Adventists. Bhinar, 2173. Bnethen, Nicholas, 2203. (Appendix.) Second Coming of Christ. See Millena- Shin-Shin, or " Reformed " Buddhism, Socialism, 2203. SociStS Evaugilique de Geneve, 2207. 2175. rianism, Preraillenianism. Shinto, 2176. SociitS Centrale Protestante d'Evang^ll- Secret Discipline. See Arcani Disci- Shirley, Hon. Walter, 2177. sation, 2207. plina. Shishak, 2177. Bocinus and the Socinians, 2207. Secular Clergy. See Clergy. Bhowbread, 2177. Socrates, 2210. Secularization, 2146. Showbread, Table of the, 2178. Socrates (historian) , 2211. Beoundus, 2146. Shrine, 2178. Sodom, 2212. Sedes Vacans, 2146. Shrive, 2178. Sodor and Man, 2212. Sedgwick, Daniel, 2146. Shrove-Tuesday. See Shrive. Sohn, Georg, 2212. Sedgwick, Obadiah, 2147. Shrubsole, William, 2178. Boissons, 2212. INDEX. XV Solemn League and Covenant. See Cov- enant. SoUtarius, Philip, 2-212. Solomon, 221ii. Somoschians, the Order of the, 2214. Soothsayer, 2214. Sophia, 2214. Sophia Senatrix, 2214. Sophia, St. See Architecture. Sophrouins, 2214. Sorboune, the, 2215. Soter, 221.i. Soteriology, 2215. Soto, Bomiuicus de, 2213. Soto, Petrus de, -2213. Soul-Sleep, or Psychopannychism, 2218. Boule, Joshua, 2218. South, Robert, 2218. Southcott, Johanua. See Sabbatarians. South-Sea Islands. See Fiji Islands. Southwell, Robert, 2219. Sozomenos, Salamaues Hermias, 2220. Spain, 2220. Spalatin, Georg, 2221. Spalding, Johaun Joachim, 2221. Spangenberg, Augustus Gottlieb, 2221. Spangeuberg, Cyriacus, 2222. Spanheim, Fri^drich (1), 2222. Spanheim, Friedrich (2), 2222. Sparrow, William, 2222. Spee, Friedrich von, 2223. Speucer, John, 2223. Speuer, PUlipp Jakob, 2223. Spongier, Lazarus, 2225. Spenser, Edmuod, 2225. SperatUB, Paulus, 2226. Spice among the Hebrews, 2226. Spiera, Francesco, 2227. Spifame, Jacques Paul, Sieur de Passy, 2227. Spina, Alphonso de, 2227. Spinola, Oristoval Rojas de, 2227. Spinoza, Baruch de, 2228. Spires (city), 2230. Spirit, Holy. See Holy Spirit. Spiritual Gifts. See Gifts, Spiritual. Spirit, the Human, in the Biblical Sense, 2230. Spiritualism, 2231. Spitta, Karl Johann Philipp, 2232. Spoudauus, 2232. Sponsors. See Baptism. Sports, Book of, 2232. Spotswood, John, 2232. Sprague, William Buell, 2232. Spreng, Jakob, 2233. Spring, Gardiner, 22.33. Spring, Samuel, 2234. SUbat Mater, 2234. Stackhouse, Thomas, 223-3. Btahl, Friedrich Julius, 2435. Stancaro, Francesco, 2235. Stanhope, Lady Hester Lucy, 2235. Stanislaus, Bishop of Cracow, 2235. Stanislaus, St., 2233. Stanley, Arthur Penrhyn, 2236. Stapfer, Johann Friedrich, 2237. Stapfer, Johannes, 2237. Stapfer, Philipp Albert, 2237. Staphylus, Friedrich, 2i3T. Stark, Johann August, 2237. Statistics, Religious. See Reh'gious Sta- tistics. Staudeumaier, Franz Anton, 2238. Staudlin, Kari Friedrich, 2238. Staupitz, Johann von, 2238. Stedingers, the, 2239. Steele, Atme, '2239. Steinhofer, Maximilian Friedrich Chris- toph, 2239. Steitz, Georg Eduard, 2239. Stennett, Joseph, 2239. Btennett, Samuel, 2240. Btephan, Martin, and the Stephanlsts, 2240. Stephen, 2240. Stephen (popes), 2241. Stephen de Vell;;villa, 2241. Stephen of Hungary. See Hungary. Stephen of Tournay, 2241. Stephens, Henry (1), 2241. Stephens, Robert (1), 2241. Stephens, Francois, 2242. Stephens, Robert (2), 2242. Stephens, Henry (2), 2242. Stephens, Paul, 2242. Stephens, Joseph, 2242. Stephens, Antoiue, 2242. Stercoranists, 2243. Sternhold, Thomas, 2243. Sterry, Peter, 2213. Steudel, Johann Christian Friedrich, 2243. Steward, '2244. Stewart, Dugald, 2244. Stichometry, 2244. SUefel, Michael, 2247. Stiekna, Conrad, 2247. Stier, Rudolf Ewald, 2248. Stigmatization, 224S, Stiles, Ezra, 2248. Stilling, 2249. Stillingfleet, Edward, 2249. Stocker, John, 2250. Stockton, Thomas HewUngs, 2250. Stoddard, David Tappan, 2250. Stoddard, Solomon, ^50. Stoicism, 2250. Stolberg, Friedrich Leopold, Count von, 2250. Stoning among the Hebrews, 2251. Storr, Gottlob Christian. See Tubingen School. Stowell, Hugh, 2251. Strabo, Walafried, 2251. Stiiiphau, Joseph, 2251. Strauss, Bavid Friedrich, 2251. Strigel, Victorinus, 2253. Strigolnike. See Russian Sects. Strong, Nathan, 2-253. Strypc, John, 2*2.54. Stuart, Moses, -2254. Studites, Simeon, 2-255. Studites, Theodore, 2-255. Sturm, Abbot of Fulda, 2265. Sturm, Jakob, 2255. Sturm, Johann, -2255. Stylites, or Pillar-Saints, 2255. Stylites, Simeon, 2*255. Suarez, Francis, 2256. Snbdeacon, 2-256. Snbintroducta?, 2*256. Sublapsarianism, 2*256. Subordinatiouism. See Trinity. Succession, Apostolical, 2256. Succoth-Benoth, 2257. Sudaili, Stephanus Bar, 2257. Suffragan, 2257. Suger, 2257. Suicerus, Johann Caspar, 2*257. Suidbert, 2257. Sulzer, Simon, 2257. Sumraertield, John, 2258. Summers, Thomas Osmond, 2258. Sumner, John Bird, 2258. Sun, Worship of the, 2258. Sunday, 2259. Sunday Legislation, 2260. Sunday Schools, 2261. Supererogation, 2267. Superstition, 2*267. Supralapsariauism, 2268. Supranaturalism. See Rationalism, ^- ligion, and Revelation. Surins, L.iurentius, 2268. Surplice, 226S. Susannah. See Apocrypha. Suso, Heinrich, 2268. Suttee. See Brahmanism. Sutton, Christopher, 2269. Swain, Joseph, 2269. Swedeu, 22G9. Swedenborg, Emanuel, 2270. Swift, Elisha Pope, 2272. Swithin, St., 2*272. Switzerland, 2272. Syllabus, the Papal, -2274. Sylvester (popes), 2275. Sylvester, Joshua, 2275. Sylvestrians, 2*275. Symbol, *2276. Symbolic.-*. 2276. Symbolum Apostoiicum. See Apostles* Creed. Symmachians, 2276. Symmachus, 2276. Symphorianus. 2276. Symphorosa, 2270. Synagogue, the Great, 2276. Synagogues of the Jews, *227^. Syncellus, 227S. Syncretism, 227S. Synergism, *2279. Syuesius, 22>i0. Synod, the Holy. See Russia. Synods. See Council. Syria, and Missions to Syria, 22S1. Syriac Literature, 2285. / Syriac Versions. S5e Bible Versions. Syropulos, Sylvester, 2287. Tabernacle, 2288. Tabernacle (for the Eucharist), 2289. Tabernacles, the Feast of, 2*290. Tabor, 2*290. Taborites. See Utraquists. Tadmor, 2291. Tai-ping, 2*291. Tait, Archibald Campbell, 2292. Tallis, Thomas, 2*292. Talmud, '2*292. Tammuz, 2296. Tanchelm, 2296. Tancred of Bologna, 2*296. Taoism, 2'296. Tappan, David, 2297. Tappan, Henry Philip, 2297. Tappan, William Bingham, 2297. Tarasius, 2'297. Targum, 2297. Tarshish, 2299. Tarsus, 2300. Tartau, 2300. Tascodrugites, 2300. Tasmania, 2300. Tate, Nahum, 2301. Tatian, 2302. Tattam, Henry, 2302. Tauler, Johaimes, 2302. Tausen, Hans, '2303. Taverner, Kichard, 2303. Taxation, Ecclesiastical, 2303. Taylor, Dan, 2304. Taylor, Isaac, 2304. Taylor, Jane, 2304. Taylor, Jeremy, 2304. Taylor, John, *2305. Taylor, Nathaniel William, 2306. Taylor, Thomas Rawson, 2307, Taylor, William, 2307. Tc Deum. See -Ambrosian Music. Teleology, 2308. Telesphorus, *230S. Teller, Wilhelm Abraham, 2308. Tellier, Michael le, -2308. Temperance, '2308. Temple at Jerusalem, 2313. Templars. See Military Orders. Temporal Power. See Church and State ; Church, States of the. Tempus C:iausura, 2315. Ten Articles, the, 2315. Ten Commandments. See Decalogue. Teuisou, Thomas, '2315. Tennent, William (1), 2316. Tennent, Gilbert, 2316. Tennent, William (2), 2316. Tennent, John, 2317. Tennent, Charles, 2317. Teraphim, 2317. Terminism and the Terministic Contro- versy, 2317. Territorialism, 2317. Tersteegen, Gerhard, 2317. Tertiaries, Terliarii, 2318. Tertullian, 2318. Test Act, the, 2319. Testament, the Old and New, 2319. Tetragrammatou, 2319. Tetrapolitan Confession, 2319. Tetrarch, 23'20. Tetzel, Johann, 2320. Textns Receptus. See Bible Text. Thacher, Peter, 2320. Thaddasus. See Judas. Thamer, Theobald, 2320. Theatines, 23*20. Theatre, the, and the CHiurch, 2320. Thecia and Paul. See Apocrypha. Theiner, Augustin, 2321. Theism, 2322. Theocracy, 2323. Theodiev, 2324. Theodora, *2324. Theodore (popes), 2324. Theodore, St., 2324. Theodore, Graptus, 23*24. Theodore Lector, 2325. Theodore of Mopsuestia, 2325. Theodoret, 2326. Theodosius the Great, 2326. Theodotlon. See Bible Versions. XVI INDEX. Theodulph, 2326. Theognoslus, 2327. Theologia G-ermanica, 2327. Theological Education, 2327. Theological ScmiQai-ies, Complete List of, 2328. Theological Seminaries, Sketches of, 2333. Theologus, or Theologal, 2344. Theology, 2344. Theology, Monumental. See Monumen- tal Theology. Theology, New-England. See New- England Theology. Theology, Speculative, 2345. Theonas, or Theon, 2348. Theopaschites, 2346. Theopbanes of Byzantium, 2346. Theophanes, Cerameus, 2346. Theophany, 2346. Theophilanthropists, 2347. Theophilus, Bishop of Alexandiia, 2347. TheophiluB, Bishop of Antioch, 2347. Theophylact, 2347. Theopneusty. See Inspiration. TheoBophy, 2348. Theotokos, 2348. Therapeutse, 2348. Theremin, Ludwig Friedrich Franz, 2348. Theresa, Ste., 2348. Thessalonians, Epistle to the. See Paul. Thessalonica, 2318. Theudas, 2349. Theurgy, 2349. Thibet, Keligion of. See Buddhism and Lamalsm. Thietmar, 2349. Thilo, Johann Karl, 2349. Thirlwall, Connop, 2349. Thirty Years' War, the, 2350. Tholuck, Friedrich August, 2351. Thomas the Apostle, 2362. Thomas a Becket. See Becket. Thomas k Kempis. See Kempis. Thomas Christians. See Christians of St. Thomas. Thomas of Aquino, 2353. Thomas of Celano, 2355. Thomas of Villanova, 2355. Thomasin of Zirklaria, 2355 Thomasius, Gottfried, 2355. Thoraassin, Louis, 2355. Thompson, Joseph Parrish, 2355. Thomson, Andrew, 2356. Thomson, Edward, 2356. Thomson, James, 2356. Thorah, 2356. Thorn, the Conference of, 2357. Thorndike, Herbert, 2358. Thornton, Robert H., 2358. Thornwell, James Henley, 2358. Three-Chapter Controversy, the, 2359. Thugs, 2360. Thummim. See Urim and Thummim. Thurible, 2360. Thuriflcati. See Lapsed. Tbyatira, 2360. Tiara, 2360. Tiberias, 2360. Tiglath-pilcser, 2360. Tillemont, Louis S6bastien le Nain de, 2361. TUlotson, John, 2361. Timothy, 2362. Timothy, Epistles to. See Paul. Tindal, Matthew, 2362. Tischeiidorf , Lobegott Friedrich Coustan- tin, 2-i63. Tithes, 2364. Tithes among the Hebrews, 2365. Tittmann, Johann August Heinrich, 2366. Titular Bishop. See Episcopus in Parti- bus. Titus, 2366. Titus, Bishop of Bostra, 2366. Tobit. See Apocrypha. Tobler, Titus, 2366. Todd, Henry John, 2366. Todd, James Henthorn, 2367. Todd, John, 2367. Toland, John, 2367. Toledo, Councils of, 2367. Toledoth, Jeshu, 2368. Toleration. See Liberty, ReUglous. Tolet, Francis, 2368. Tombes, John, 2369. Tomline, George, 2369. Tongues, Gift of, 2369. Tonsure, the, 2369. Toplady, Augustus Montague, 2370. Torquemada," Juan de, 2370. Torquemada, Thomas de, 2370. Torrey, Joseph, 2370. Tossanus, Petrus, 2370. Toulmin, Joshua, 2371. Toulouse, Synods of, 2371. Tournemine, Ren6 Joseph, 2371. Tours, Synods of, 2371. Towianski, Andreas, 2372. Townley, James, 2372. Townson, Thomas, 2372. Trachouitis, 2372. Tractarianism, 2372. Tract Societies, Religious, 2374. Tradition, 2378. Traditores. See Lapsed, the. Traducianism. See Creationism. Trajan, 2380. Transcendentalism in New England, 2380. Transfiguration, 2382. Transmigration, 2385. Transubstantiation, 2385. Trapp, John, 2387. Trappists, the, 2387. Trauthson, Johann Joseph, 2388. Trcgelles, Samuel Prideaux, 2388. Tremellius, Emmanuel, 2388. Trent, Council of, 2389. Trespass Offering. See Offerings. Treves, Holy Goat of, 2390. Trials, 2390. Tribes of Israel, 2391. Trichotomy, 2394. Tridentine Profession of Faith, 2394. Tridentinum. See Trent, Council of. Trine Baptism, 2395. Trinitarians, 2395. Trinity, 2395. Trinity Sunday, 2397. Trlsagion, 2397. Tritheism, 2397. Trithemius, Johann, 2397. Troas, 2397. Tronchin, Theodore, 2397. Tronchin, Louis, 2398. . Truber, Primus, 2398. Truce of God, 2398. True Reformed Dutch Church. See Re- formed (Dutch) Church. Trullan Councils, the, 2398. Tubingen School, the, 2398. Tuckerman, Joseph, 2401. Tuckney, Anthony, 2401. Tudela, Benjamin of. See Benjamin of Tudela. Tunkers, or Dunkers, 2401. Turibius, Alphonso, 2405. Turkey, 2405. Turlupins, the, 2407. Turner, Daniel, 2407. Turner, Francis, 2407. Turner, James, 2408. Turner, Samuel Hulbeart, 2408. Turretini, or Turrctin, Benedict, 2408. Turretini, or Turretin, Fraugois, 2408. Turretini, or Turretin, Jean Alphonse, 2408. Twesten, August Detlev Christian, 2408. Twin, or Dwin, Councils of, 2409. Twisse, William, 2409. Tyana, ApoUonius of. See Apollonius of Tyana. Tyana, the Synod of, 2409. Tychonius, 2409. Tychsen, Oluf Gerhard, 2409. Tyler, Bennet, 2409. Tyndale, William, 2410. Type, 2412. Tyre, 2412. Tzschirner, Heinrich Gottlieb, 2413. u. Ubbonites, 2414. Ubertinus, 2414. Ubiquity, 2414. Ullmann, Karl, 2415. Ulphilas, 2416. Ulrich, 2416. Ulrich von jS '^n. See Hutten. Ultramontane, or Ultraraontanists, 2417. Umbrcit, Friedrich Wilhelm Karl, 2417. Unbelief. See Infidelity. Uncial and Cursive Manuscripts, 2417. Ifncleanness. See Purifications. Uuction. See Extreme Unction. Uniformity, Acts of, 2417. Unigenitus, 2418. Union of Churches, 2418. Union Evangelical Church. See Union of Churches. Unitarianiem, 2419. Unitarians, 2422. Uuitas Fratrum. Sec Moravians. United Brethren in Christ, 2422. United States of America, Religious His- tory, 2423. Uuiversalism, 2427. Universities, 2430. University in America, 2433. Upham, Thomas Cogswell, 2434. Ur of the Chaldees, 2434. Urban (popes) , 2434. Urim and Thummim, 2435. Urlsperger, Johann August, 2435. Ursicinus, 2435. Ursinus, Zacharias, 2435. Ursula, 2436. UrsulincB, the, 2437. UsBher, James, 2437. Usteri, Leonhard, 2438. Usuardus", 2438. Usury, 2438. Utenheim, Christoph von, 2439. Utilitarianism, 2439. UtraquiBts and Taborites, 2441. Uytenbogaert, Jan, 2443. Uzziah, 2443. Vadian, 2444. Vagantes, 2444. Valdes, Alonso and Juau de, 2444. Valens, 2445. Valentine, St., 2445. Valentiuiau III., 2445. Valentiuus, St., 2445. Valentinus the Gnostic. See Gnosticism. Valerian, 2446. Valerian, St., 2446. Velesius, Henri de Valois, 2446. Valla. See Laurenti us Valla. Vallorabrosa, the Order of, 2446. VandalB, 2446. Vanderbilt University, 2447. Van Doren, William Howard, 2447. Vane, Sir Heury, 2447. Van Lennep. See Lennep. Various Readings, 2447. Vassar College, 2448. Vaasy, 2448. Vatablus, Francois, 2448. Vater, Johann Severin, 2448. Vatican Council, 2448. Vatican, Palace of the, 2450, Vaticanus, Codex. See Bible Text. Vatke, Johann Karl Wilhelm, 2450. Vaud Canton, Free Church of the, 2451. Vaudois. See Waldenses. Vaughan, Henry, 2451. Vaughau, Robert, 2451. Vedas. See Brahmanism. Vedder Lectures. See Lectures. (Ap- pendix.) Vehmic Court, 2451. Veil, 2452. Veil of the Tabernacle, Temple. See Tabernacle, Temple. Veil, Taking the, 2452. Vellum, 2452. Venantius Fortunatus. See Fortunatus. Venatorius, Thomas, 2452. Vence, Henri Fran50is de, 2452. Venema, Hermann, 2452. Venerable, 2452. Venerable Bede, the, See Bede. Veni, Creator Spiritus, 2452. Veni, Sancte Spiritus, 2452. Venn, Henry, 2452. Vercellone, Carlo, 2452. Verena, 2453. VergeriuB, Petrus Paulus, 2453. Vermigli. See Peter Martyr. Vernacular, Use of. See Latin, Use of. Veronica, 2453.' Verses. See Chapters and Verses. Versions. See Bible Versious. Very, Jones, 2463. Very, Washington, 2463. Vespasian, Titus Flavins, 2453. Vespers, 2454. • Vestments and Insignia iu the Christian Church, 2454. Vestry, 2455. INDEX. xvu VU Dolorosa. See Jcrasolcm. Viaticum, 2455. Vicir, il56. Vicai-j Aposlo'ic, General. See Vicar. Vicarioaa Atonement. See Atonement. Vicelin, 2156. Victor (popes), 2456. Victor, Claudius' Marius, 2457. Victor, Bishop of Autioch, ^57. Victor, Bishop of Capua, 2457. Victor, Bishop of Carteuna, 2457. Victor, Bishou of Tununa, 2457. Victor, Bishop of Vila, 2457. Victorious, 2457. Victrlclus, St., 2457. Vieiinc, 2457. Vlgilautius, 2457. Vi^lius, 2458. Vlgiliua the Deacon, 2458. Vigilius, Bishop of Tapsus, 2458. Vigilius, Bishop of Trent, 2458. Vigils, 24oS. Viguollea, Alphonse de, 2459. Villcgagnou, Nicholas Durand de, 2459. VlUurs, Charles Francois Dominique de, 2459. Vilmar, August Friedrlch Christian, 2459. Vincent of Beauvais, 2459. Vincent of Lerins, 2460. Vincent de Paul, 2160. Vioceut of BaiTagossa, 2460. Vincent, Samuel, 2460. Vine, Cultivation of the. See Wine. Vines, Kichard, 2461. Vinet, Alexandre Rodoiphe, 2461. Vinton, Francis, 2462. Viret, Pierre, 2462. Vlrglilus, St., 2462. Virginia, Protestant -Episcopal Theologi- cal Seminary of, 2463. Vishnu. See Brahmanlsm. Visitants, or Nuns of the Visitation, 2463. Visitatio Liminum SS. Apostolorum, 2463. Vitalian, 2463. Vitalis, 2464. Vitringa, Campegius, 2464. Vitus, St., 2164. Vives, Juan Ludovico de, 2484. Vocation. See Calling. Voetlus, Gyabertus, 2464. . . Volney, Constantiu Fran90is Chaaseboeuf , Comte de, 2464. Voltaire, 2465. Voragine. See Jacobus do Voragine. Voratius, Conrad, 2466. Vossius, Gerard, 2467. Vossius, Gerard Jan, 2467. Votive-Offerings, 2467. Vowel-Points. See Bible Text. Vowel -Points, Controversy respecting. See Buxtorf, Oapellus. Vows, 2487. Vows among the Hebrews, 2463. Vulgate, 246S. w. Wackcmagel, Karl Eduard Phlllpp, 2469. Waddcll, James, 2469. Wadding, Luke, 2469. Waddingion, George, 2469. Wafer, 2469. Wagenseil, Johann Christoph, 2469. Wababees, 24t9. Wainwright, Jonathan Mayhew, 2470. Wake, William, 2470. Wakefield, Gilbert, 2470. Walch, Johann Georg, 2470. Walch, Christian Wilhelm Franz, 2470. Waldegrave, Samuel, 2470. Waldenses, 2470. Waldhausen, Conrad von, 2477. Waldo, Peter. See Waldenses. Walker, James, 2477. Wall, William, 2477. Wallafrid Strabo. See Strabo. Waller, Edmund, 2477. Wallin, Benjamin, 2477. Wallis, John, 2477. Walloon Church. See Holland. Walpurgis, or Walpurga, St., 2477. Walsh, Thomas, 2477. Waller of St. Victor, 2478. Wolther von dcr Vogslweide, 2478. Walton, Brian, 2478. Wandelbert, St., 2478. Wandering in the Wilderness. See Wil- demess of the Wandering. Wandering Jew. See Jew, Wandering. 2— in War, 2479. War, Hebrew Methods in. Bee Army. Wnrburton, William, 2479. Warburtonian Lecture, 2480. Warden, 2480. Wardlaw, Ralph, 2480. W^are, Henry, 2481. Ware, Henry, juu., 2481. Warham, 2481. Washburn, Edward Abiel, 2481. Watch-Night, the, 2482. Water, Holy. See Holy Water. Water of Jealousy. See Jealousy. Waterland, Daniel, 2482. Watson, Richard, Bishop of Llandaff, 2482. Watson, Richard, 2482. . Watson, Thomas, 2483. Watt, Joachim von. See Vadian. Watts, Isaac, 2483. Waugh, Beverly, 2484. Wayland, Francis, 2484. Wazo, 2484. Week, 2484. Wegscheider, Julius August Ludwig, 2485. Weigel, Valentin, 2485. Weights and Measures among the He- brews, 2485. Weir, Duncan Harkness, 2486. Weiss, Charles, 2487. Weiss, Pantaloon, 2487. Weisse, Chilstian Hermann, 2487. Wells, Edward, 2487. Welsh Calvioistic Methodist Church, 2487. Wendelin, or Wandelin, 2489. Wendelin, Markus Friedrlch, 2489. Wends, 2489. Werenfels, Samuel, 2489. Werkmeister, Benedikt Maria von, 24S9. Wernsdorf , Gottlieb, 2490. Wertheim, the Bible of, 2490. Wesel, Johann von, 2490. Wesley, Charles, 2490. Wesley, John, 2491. Wesley, Samuel, sen., 2495. Wesley, Samuel, jun., 2495. Wesley, Susannah, 2495. Wesleyan Female College, 2496. Weslcyan Methodists, Theology of. See Armlnianism. Wessel, Johann, 2496. Wesseuberg, Ignaz Heinrich, 2497. West Goths. See Goths. West, Stephen, 2497. Westen, Thomas von, 2498. Western Theological Seminary, the, 2498. Westminster Abbey, 2499. Westminster Assembly, 2499. Westminster Standards, 2501. Westphal, Joachim, 2503. Westphalia, the Peace of, 2603. Wetsteln, Johann Jakob, 2504. Wette, de, Wilhelm Martin Leberecht, 2504. Wclzer, Heinrich Joseph, 2506. Whately, Richard, 2506. Wheelock, Eleazer, 2507. Wheelock, John, 2508. Whewell, William, 2508. Whichcote, Benjamin, 2508. Whiston, William, 2509. Whitaker, William, 2509. Whitby, the Council of, 2509. Whitby, Daniel, 2509. White, Henry, 2510. White, Henry Kirke, 2510. White, Joseph, 2510. White, William, 2510. Whitefield, George, 2511. Whitgift, John, 2512. Whitsunday. Sec Pentecost. Whittemore, Thomas, 2513. Whittingham, William RolUnson, 2513. Whittlesey, William, 2513. Wicelius, or Witzel, Georg, 2513. Wicheru, Johann Heinrich, 2514. Wiclif, John, 2514. Widows, Hebrew, 2519. Widows in the Apostolic Church. See Deaconesses. Wigand, Johann, 2519. Wigbert, St., 2520. Wigglesworth, Michael, 2520. Wightman, William May, 2520. Wilberforce, Samuel, 2520. Wilberforce, William, 2520. Wilbrord, or Willlbrord, 2521. Wilderness, 2521. Wilderness of the Wandering, 2522. Wilfrid, 2522. Will, the, 25-22. Willehad, St., 2528. Willeram, or Wiltramus, 2528. William of Auvergne, 25'J8. William of Champeaux, 2528. William of Malmeebury, 2529. William of Nassau, 2529. William of St. Amour, 2529. William of Tyre, 2529. William of Wykeham, 2530. Williams, Daniel, 2530. Williams, Helen Maria, 2530. Williams, Isaac, 2530. Williams, John, Archbishop of York, 2530. Williams, John, Missionary, 2531. Williams, Roger, 2531. Williams, Rowland, 2533. Williams, William, 2533. Williamson, Isaac Dowd, 2533. Willibald, St., 2533. Willibrod. See Wilbrord. Williram. See Willeram. Willson, James P^nwick, 2533. Wilmer, William Holland, 2533. Wilson, Bird, 2533. Wilson, Daniel, 2534. Wilson, John, 2534. Wilson, Thomas, 2534. Wimpheling, Jakob, 2535. Wimpiua, Conrad, 2535. Winans, William, 2535. Winchester, 2535. Wiuchester, Elhauan, 2535. Winckler, Johann, 2535. Windesheim, or Windesen, 2536. Wine-Making among the Hebrews, 2536, Wine, Bible, 2536. Winebrennerians, 2538. Winer, Georg Benedikt, 2539. Wines, Enoch Cobb, 2540. Winfrid. See Boniface. Winslow, Miron, 2540. Winterthur, Johann of, 2540. Wisdom of Solomon. See Apocrypha. Wiseman, Nicholas Patrick Stephen, 2540. Wishart, George, 2540. Wishart, or Wiseheart, George, 2541. Witchcraft, 2542. Wither, George, 2642. Witherspoon, John, 2543. Witness-Bearing among the Hebrews, 2.543. Witeius, Hermann, 2543. Wittenberg, the Concord of, 2544. Wodrow, Robert, 2544. Wolf, Johann Christoph, 2545. Wolfenbiittel Fragments, 2545. Wolff, Bernard C, 2545. Wolff, Christian, 2545. Wolff, Joseph, 2547. Wollaston, William, 2547. Wolleb, Johannes, 2547. Wolsey, Thomas, 2547. Wolteredorff, Ernst Gottlieb, 2548. Woman, 2548. Woodd, Basil, 2549. Woods, Leonard, 2650. Woods, Leonard, jun., 2550. Woolston, Thomas, 2550. Worcester, 2550. Worcester, Samuel, 2550. Wordsworth, Christopher, 2551. Works, Good, 2551. Worid, 2551. Worms, 2553. Worship, 2554. Wotton, Sir Henry, 2555. Wotton, William, 2555. Writing among the Hebrews, 2555. Wolfram, St., 2557. Wiirtemberg, the Kinedora of, 2557. Wuttke, Karl Friedrich Adolf, 2557. Wylie, Samuel Brown, 2557. Wyttenbach, Thomas, 2557. Xavler. See Francis Xavler. Ximenes de Cisneros, Francisco, 2659. Y. Tale University, 2560. Yates, William, 2561. xvin INDEX. Tear, the Church, 2562. Zaccheeus, 2567. Zidon, or Sidon, 2672. Year, Hebrew, 2662. Zacharia, Gotthilt Traugott, 2567. Ziegenbalg, Bartholomew. See Misflioua. Yeomans, Edward Dorr, 2563. ZachariaB, 2567. Zillerthal, 2673. York, 25M. Zacharius Scholasticus, 2567. Zimri, 2573. Young, Brigham. See MormonB. Zamzummim, or Zuzim, 2567. Zinzendorf, Nicholas Lewis, Count von, Young, Edward, 2564. Zanchi, Hieronymus, 2567. 2573. Young, Patrick, 2564. Zealot, 2567. Zion, or Slon, 2575. Young Men's Christian AssociationB, Zebulun. See Tribes of Israel. Zizka, John. See Hussites, Utraquists. 2564. Zecbariah, 2668. Zoan, 2575. Young Women's Chiistian ABSociations, Zedekiah, 2570. Zoar, 2576. 2566. Zeisberger, David 2570. Zoba, or Zobah, 2676. Tule, 2566. Zelli MatthauB, 2671. Zoilikofer, Georg Joachim, 2676. YvonetUB, 2566. Zend-Avesta. See Parseeiam. ZonaraB, Johannes, 2576. Zeno, 2571. Zoroaster. See Parseeism. z. Zephaniah, 2571. Zoslmus, 2576. ZephyrinuB, 2572. Zwick, Johannes, 2576. Zabarella, or De ZabareUis, 2567. Zerubbabel, 2572. ZwlugU, Huldrelch, 2576. INDEX TO APPENDIX. Accad. 8ee Sbinar. Adams, Mi-s. Sarah Flower, 2581. Adams, Eliza Flower, 2581. Adveutists, 2581. Advowsou, 2582. Allatiua, Leo, 2582. Alleiue, Joseph, 2582. Allen, James, 2582. Auan the Kai-aite. See Karaite Jews. Andrew, 2582. Anstice, Joseph, 2582. Anti-Mission Baptists, 2583. Atwater, Lyman Hotchkiss, 2583. Auber, Harriet, 2583. Austin, rXohn, 2583. Baker, Sir Heniy Williams, 2583. Bakewell, John, 2583. Barton, Bernard, 2583. Bathurst, William Hiley, iSSS. Bauer, Bruno, 2583. Beaumont, Joseph, 2584. Beddorae, Benjamin, 2584. Besg, James, 25S4. Bellows, Henry Whitney, 2585. Berridge, John, 2585. Bible ChristiauB, 2585. Blacklock, Thomas, 2586. Boden, James, 2586. Boston University, School of Theology of, 2586. Bowdler, John, jun., 2587. Brown, James, 2587. Brown, Matthew, 2587. Brown, Phoebe, 2587. Browne, George, 2587. Browne, l*eter, 2587. Browne, Simon, 2587. Bruce, Michael, 2588. Bryant, AVilliam Cullen, 2588. Bulfinch, Stephen Grceuleaf, 25SS. Burder, George, 2588. Burleigh, William Hem-y, 2588. Bnrnham, Richard, 2588. Byrom, John, 2588. Carlyle, Joseph Dacre, 2588. Gary. Alice, 2588. Cary, Phffibe, 2588. Caswall, Edward, 2588. Cawood, John, 2589. Cennick, John, 258S. Chandler, John, 2589. Christadelphiaus, 2589. Coan, Titus, 2590. Coleman, Lymau, 2590. Coleuso, John William, 2590. Collyer, William Bengo, 2590. Couder, Josiah, 2590. Cooper, Peter, 2590. Cotterill, Thomas, 2591. Cotton, Nathaniel, 2592. Cowley, Abraham, 2592. Croly, George, 2592. Grossman, Samuel, 2592. Crosswell, William, 2592. Darby, Johu Nelsou, 2592. Davies, Sir John, 2593. Dewey, Omlle, 2393. Dobell, John. 2593. Dodge, Hon. William Earl, 2693. Dorerous, Mrs. Thomas C, 2594. Drummond, William, 2595. Dunn, Professor Robinson Porter, 2595. Edmeslon, James, 2595. Elliott, Charlotte, 2595. Elliott, Julia Anne, 2595. Elliott, Darid, 2595. Enfield, William, 2595. Ephraim. See Tribes of Israel. Erskine, Ralph, 2595. Eucharist, 2595. Fawcett, John, 2596. Fitch, Eleazar Thompson, 2596. Follen, Eliza Lee, 2596. Friends, the Society of, 2596. Frothingham, Nathaniel Langdon, 2597. General Baptists. See p. 2202. Gibbons, Thomas, 2597. Gilman, Samuel, 2597. Gisborne, Thomas, 2597. Goode, William, 2597. Graham, James, 2597. Grant, Sir Robert, 2597. Grigg, Joseph, 2597. Gurney, John Hampden, 2597. Habington, William, 2597. Hammond, William, 2597. Hanna, William, 2598. Hart, Joseph, 2593. Hastings, Thomas, 2598. Batlicld, Edwin Francia, 2599. Hawels, Thomas, 2599. Heginbotham, Ottiwell, 2599. Heraans, Felicia Dorothea, 2599. Herbert, Daniel, 2599. Herrick, Robert, 2599. Herron, Francis, 2599. Herzog, Johann Jakob, 2599. Horublower, William Henry, 2600. Hoskins, Joseph, 2600, Hum, William, 2600. Hyde, Abby, 2601. Indians of North America, 2601. Irons, Joseph, 2692. Irons, William Josiah, 2602. Johns, John, 2602. Joyce, James, 2603. Kent, John, 2603. Key, Francis Scott, 2603. Kranth, Charles PortorBeld, 2603. Leiand, John, 2604.' Lenox, Jaraes, 2604. Le Qnien, Michael, 2604. Lloyd, William Freeman, 2604. I.owrie, Hon. Walter, 2604. Lynch, Thomas Toke, 2604. Macurdy-, Elisha, 2605. Madan, "Martin, 2605. McMillan, John, 2605. Medley, Samuel, 2605. Merrick, James, 2606. Mills, Henry, 2606. Moffat, Robert 2608. Moncreiff, Sir Henry Wellwood, 2606. Monaell, Johu Samuel Bewley, 2607. Moore, Thomas, 2607. Morgan, Edwin Denison, 2607. Patterson, Joseph, 2607. Primitive Baptists. See Anti-Mission Baptists (Appendix). Schwab, Gustav, 2607. Stark, Johann Friedrich, 260S. Starke, Cbvistophi 2608. Stuart, Robert L., 2608. Stuart, Alex.-inder, 2608. Ueberweg, Friedrich, 2608. Veni, Creator Spirttus, 2608. White, Norman, 2609. Wilson, Samuel Jeunings, 2609. Zschokke, Johann Heinrich Daniel, 2609. Martenseu, Hous Lassen, 2610. PAOCA. 1715 PACHOMroS. P. PACCA, Bartolommeo, b. at Benevento, Dec. 15, 1756; d. in Rome, April 19, 1844. The Roman curia answered the Congi-ess of Ems by sending Pacca as nuncio to Cologne in 1786. Though he was not recognized, even not received, by the prince-bishops, he carried every thing be- fore him with a hip,h hand, until the advance of the French ai-mies in 1794 compelled him to leave Germany. He filled another equally successful nunciature at Lisbon, 1795-1800 ; and on his re- turn to Rome he was made a cardinal. His suc- cess led him to adopt the maxim, — never to give in, never to abandon a hair's breadth of his origi- nal claim, never to compromise ; and he followed it till his death. He became one of the leaders of the Zelanti; and it was he who in 1809 drew up, and induced Pius VII. to sign, the bull of excommunication against Napoleon I. He was seized, and imprisoned in the Piedmontese for- tress, Fenestrella, but was released in 1813, and took, after the restoration, an active part in the revocation of the Jesuits, the re-establishment of the Inquisition, etc. Though in the conclaves of 1823, 1829, and 1831 he failed to obtain a major- ity, he continued to exercise a great influence on the papal government. He wrote Mem. sloriche d. Ministero e cle' due Viaggi in Francia, etc., 1828, 5th ed., 1831 ; Memorie storlche sid soggiomo del C. B. P. in Gennania, 1832 ; Notlzie sul Portogallo, 1832, 3d ed., 1845; Relazione del Viaggio di Pio VII. a Genova, 1815, 1833; of which writings there exist both French and German transla- tions. [See Historical Memoirs of Cardinal Pacca, Prime-Minister of Pius VII. Translated from the Italian by Sir George Head, London, 1850, 2 vols.] BENEATH. PACE, Richard, English ecclesiastic, diploma- tist, and man of letters ; b. at or near Winchester, Hampshire, about 1482 ; d. at Stepney, near Lon- don, 1532. His studies were principally conducted at Padua; and although, on his return, he entered Queen's College, Oxford, he very soon left it for the service of Cardinal Bainbridge, whom he ac- companied to Rome end of 1509. In May, 1510, he became prebendary of Southwell ; on May 20, 1514, archdeacon of Dorset; in October, 1519, dean of St. Paul's ; and in the summer of 1522, dean of Exeter. Meanwhile he had attracted the notice of Henry VUI. and Wolsey. The former sent him as ambassador to Vienna ani Venice : the latter sent him to Rome to promote his (Wol- sey's) election to the Papacy. The mission was vmsuccessful, and Wolsey accused him of lack of zeal in his service. Being then in diplomatic service in Europe for two years, Wo&ey, out of spite, sent him no directions and no money. Pace's distress made him temporarily insane. On his recoveiy, Wolsey accused him of treason ; and for two years he was imprisoned in the Tower of London. He resigned his preferments in 1537, and lived thenceforth in retirement. Pace was a skilful diplomatist and a man of learning. He enjoyed the friendship of Erasmus, Colet, and More. He had the courage to publish a book against Henry VlII.'s marriage with Catharine of Aragon (1527) ; but his most important work is Defructu qui ex doctrina percipitur, Basel, 1517. PACHOMIUS, b. in the Egyptian province of the Thebais about 292 ; d. in Tabennse, an island in the Nile, in 348 ; a younger contemporary of St. Anthony; was the real founder of monastic life. As long as the ascetic instinct inherent in Christianity remained in a healthy condition, it found its satisfaction within the life of the con- gregation. But by degrees, as the church became more and more familiarized with the surrounding world, the ascetic instinct, under the influence of the dualism of the Neo-Platonizing, Alexandrian theology, and seduced by the example of the monks of the Serapis worship, fell into extrava- gances; and tlie ascetics fled into the deserts,' and became hermits. Pachomius was also swayed by this tendency ; and in his twentieth year he settled in the desert to fight for the prize of asceticism under the training of Palemon, one of the most austere pupils of St. Anthony. But the move- ment had already reached such a speed and such a compass, that it could not go on any farther without some kind of organization ; and to have effected this is the great merit of Pachomius. Something had already been done before his time. As the desert became peopled by anchorets, the laura arose; that is, a number of novices in as- ceticism built their cells around the cell of some hero in asceticism, in order to follow his example, and to receive his training ; and thus the first trace of organization originated. Pacho- mius made the next step, transforming the laura into a monastery. In the Island of Tabennse he founded the first ccenohium (koivo^lov) ; that is, a house in which the anchorets, who had hitherto lived separately, each pursuing his own scheme of asceticism, came to live together, with common practices and exercises, according to certain fixed rules, and under the guidance or government of a director. The success of Pachomius' undertak- ing was enormous. Palladius states that in his time the monastery of Tabennse contained no less than fourteen hundred monks. Of the original rules of Pachomius, nothing certain is known. The Regula S. Pachomii, containing a hundi-ed and ninety-four articles, and printed by Holsteni- us, in his Codex Regularum, i. pp. 26-36, and a shorter regulative, containing fourteen articles, and printed by Gazaus as an appendix to his edition of Cassianus' De Comoliorum Instil., may contain fragments of the original rules ; but their authenticity cannot be established. They pre- sent many curious features : thus, the monks are divided into twenty-four classes, named after the letters of the alphabet, the simple souls rankuig in the first classes, the smart fellows in the last ; but in this respect they agree very well with the writings generally ascribed by antiquity to Pa- chomius, — Monita ad Monaclios, Verba Mystica, Letters, etc., printed by Holstenius, I.e., most of PACHYMBRBS. 1716 PAGANISM. which are entirely unintelligible. See, besides the above-mentioned writers, Acta Sanct., May 14; Gennadius : De viris illus., cap. 7. MANGOLD. PACHYMERES, Georgius, b. at Nicsea about 1242 ; d. in Constantinople, probably about 1310 ; held high offices at the Byzantine court during the reigns of Michael Paleeologus and»Andronicus the Elder ; took part with great energy in the ne- gotiations for a union between the Greek and the Latin churches ; and wrote a history, in thirteen books, of the two reigns during which he lived. He also wrote some treatises on Aristotle, on the procession of the Holy Spirit, etc. ; but only his historical work has any interest. PACIANUS, Bishop of Barcelona; d. about 390; is spoken of by Jerome in his JDe viris ill., 106 and 132, and in his Contra Rufin., 1, 24. Of his works, distinguished by the neatness of their style, but without any originality of ideas, are still extant, three letters. Contra Novalianos, and two minor treatises, Parcenesis ad pcsnitenliam and Sermo de baptismo, which are found in Bib. Max. Lug., iv., and Migne : Patr. Lat., xiii. See Act. Sanct., March 9. PACIFICATION, Edicts of, is the name gen- erally given to those edicts which from time to time the French kings issued in order to "pacify " the Huguenots. The first of the kind was that issued by Charles IX. in 1562, which guaranteed the Reformed religion toleration within certain limits : the last was the famous Edict of Nantes. See Nantes. PADUA (Patavium), a city of Northern Italy; stands on the Bacchiglione, an affluent of the Brenta, twenty miles west of Venice, and has about sixty-six thousand inhabitants. At the beginning of the Christian era it was the largest and most important city of Noi'thern Italy; and very early it became the seat of a bishop, accord- ing to legend, even in the times of the apostles. Afterwards the see belonged under the metropoli- tan of Venetia. But during the Lombard rule the city was more than once compelled to accept an Arian bishop, and the Catholic bishop then moved his residence to Chioggia. The first cathedral of the city was built in the beginning of the fourth centui-y by Paul, the fifteenth occupant of the episcopal chair. The present cathedral was be- gun in 1524, but not completed until 1754. The most magnificent church of the city is that of St. Anthony, begun in 1232, and finished in the fourteenth century. In 1797 the French carried away from that chm'cli treasures valued by some at 20,116,010 francs, by others at 38,305,446 francs ; six candelabra of pure silver, weighing 5,399, ounces ; fifty-two lamps belonging to the chapel of the saint,- — one of pure gold, weighing 361 ounces, the others of gold and silver, etc. Yet the greatest and most costly treasures of the chm-ch were saved by bribing the French commis- sioners. See Bernardo Gonzati : La Basilica di S. Antonio di Padova, Padua, 1852, 2 vols. The University of Padua was founded in the twelfth century, and was for centuries the most famous school of law and medicine in Europe : it had at times twelve thousand students. Its theological faculty was founded in the middle of the four- teenth century by the Bishop Francesco Carrara. At present the university has sixty-five profess- ors, and about eleven hundred students. Py€DOBAPTISM (»riio(fi6piov, super-lmmerale, shoulder-band of the high priest, which, by being- adopted by the Christian Church, came to sym- bolize the Lord seeking after the lost lamb, and carrying it, when found, on his shoulder. From the East it was early transferred to the West, where it became a custom for the bishop of Rome to present it to the metropolitans connect- ed with his see. The testimonies to the existence of this custom in the beginning of the sixth cen- tm-y are spurious; but under Gregory I. (590-604), it appears to have been firmly established ; and from the time of Boniface IV. (608-615) the popes protested that it was necessary for every metropolitan or archbishop to obtain the pal- lium from Rome. See WUedtwein: Bonifacii Epistolm, Mayence, 1789, Ep. 73. Though the candidate might have been confirmed and con- secrated, the title of Archiepiscopus and the full pontifical authority, the plenitude ponlijicalis officii, still depended upon the actual possession of the pallium : before receiving that, the arch- bishop could, for instance, not call a synod. On its reception, the archbishop took an oath of obedience to the pope. Originally the pallium was given gratis, but later on a very high price was paid for it. With respect to the fabrication of palliums, it was enacted that the wool should be taken only from certain sheep. On Jan. 21, the Day of St. Agnes, a number of white lambs are driven by the Vatican, where the pope speaks a benediction over them, into the Church of St. Agnes. The nuns of St. Agnes then take care of the lambs, cut and spin the wool, and make up the palliums. These are laid on the altar of the Church of the Vatican, that is, on the tomb of the apostle Peter; and on June 28, the festival of St. Peter and St. Paul, the palliums are blessed by the pope. In the East every bishop has his pallium ; in the West, only the pope, the metro- politans, the archbishops, and such bishops as are " exempt." When, in 1753, the pallium was pre- sented to the bishop of "Wiirzburg, though he stood under the authority of the metropolitan of Blayence, the measure aroused considerable criti- cism. See Casp. Bartiiel : De pallio, Bam- berg, 1753 {pro) ; and J. G. Pertsch : De oriyine, usu et autoritate pallii archiepAscopalis, Helmstadt, 1754 (contra). H. F. JACOBSON. PALMER meant originally a pilgrim who re- turned home from the Holy Land, having fulfilled his vow, and bringing back with him the palm- branch to be deposited on the altar of his parish church ; but came afterwards to denote the per- petual pilgrim, who, without any fixed abode or anjr settled purpose, roved about from shrine to shrine. PALMER, Christian David Fi-iedrich, eminent as a pulpit orator of the evangelical church in Wiirtemberg ; b. at Winnenden, near Stuttgart, Wiirtemberg, Jan. 27, 1811 ; d. at Tubingen, May 29, 1875. He studied theology at Tubingen, 1828-33, and was appointed preacher at Marbach in 1839, and at Tiibingen in 1843, and professor of practical theology in the university in 1851. He published Evangelisclie Homiletik, Stuttgart, 1842, 5th ed., 1867 ; Euangelische Katechelik, 1844, 6th ed., 1875; Evangelisclie Kasualreden, 1846, 4th ed., 1865 ; Evangelische Pddagogik, 1852, 5th ed., 1882; Evangelische Predigten, 1857; Evan- PALMER. 1731 PALM-TREE. gelische Pastoraltheologie, 1860, 2d ed., 1863; Evan- gelisclie Hymnologie, 1864; Prediglen aim 7ieuerer Zeit, 1874 ; Die Gemeinschafien u. Sekten Wiirtlem- bergs, 1877, etc. He wrote eighty-one articles, mostly on homiletical topics, in the first edition of Herzog. PALMER, Edward Henry, English orientalist; b. in Cambridge, Aug. 7, 1840 ; murdered by the Bedawin in the Wady Sudr, Desert of Et Tlh, Sinaitic Peninsula, Friday evening, Aug. 11, 1882. He was graduated at St. John's College, Cam- bridge, 1867 ; -went with the British Ordnance Sinai Survey Expedition in 186S, 1869, and in 1869, 1870, in company with Mr. C. F. Tyrwhitt Drake, explored the Desert of Et Tih and lloab, having acquired perfect familiarity with the lan- guage and manners of the Bedawin. On his re- turn he was appointed Lord- Almoner's professor of Arabic at Cambridge, isovember, 1S71. About the end of June, 1882, on the outbreak of the war between Egypt and England, he volunteered to attempt " to dissuade the Bedawin from attack- ing the Suez Canal, to collect camels for trans- port, and to raise the wild men of the Tih against the rebels." For this end he landed at Jaffa, and came by the short desert route to Suez. He left Suez with two European companions, Capt. Gill and Lieut. Charrington, R.X., Aug. 8; but at midnight of Aug. 10, the little party was cap- tured in the Wady Sudr by a large body of Tera- bin and Huwaytat Bedawin, acting under the direction of the' Turkish governor at Nakhl, who probably had received his orders; and the next night the three Europeans were shot. Palmer was a remarkable linguist, and performed very valuable services to literature. His works, bear- ing directly upon biblical and religious studies, were The Negeb, or South Country of Scripture and the Desert of Et Tih, London, 1871; The Desert of the Exodus; Journeys on Foot in the Wilderness of the Forty Years' Wandering, 1871, 2 vols, (a valu- able volume, throwing light upon the Bedawin) ; History of the Jewish Nation from the Earliest Times, 1874; Outline of Scripture Geography, 1874; ■TJie Quran, 1880, 2 vols., besides reports on the nomenclature of Sinai, the Bedawin of Sinai, and their traditions, etc. See Walter Bes.\nt : The Life and Achievements of Edward Henry Palm- er, London, 1883. PALMER, Herbert, b. March 29, 1601, at Wing- ham, County Kent, Eng. ; entered St. John's Col- lege, Cambridge, March 23, 1615 (16) ; took the master's degree in 1622 ; became fellow of Queen's College, July 17, 1023 ; ordained to the ministry in 1624; was made lecturer at Alphage Church, Canterbury, in 1626 ; removed to the vicarage of Ash well by Archbishop Laud in 1632 ; and in the same year was made university preacher at Cam- bridge. In 1643 he was appointed a member of the Westminster Assembly of Divines, and was chosen one of the assessors in 1646. Soon after, he became minister of Dukes-place Church, Lon- don, and was subsequently transferred to the larger field of the new church, Westminster. April 11, 1644, he was made master of Queen's College, Cambridge. He died Aug. 13, 1647, in the prime of life. Palmer was a devout man, scholarly, moderate, and a powerful preacher. He was especially devoted to catechising. He prepared several forms, the most matm-e of which is his Endeavour of maJcinij the principles of Chris- tian Religion, namely, the Creed, the Ten Command- ments, the Lord's Prayer, and the Sacraments, plaine and easie, 6th ed. , 1645. The peculiarity of his method is a double series of answers; first, either yes or no, then a definite proposition summing up replies to several questions. This Catechism became the basis of the \^'estminster Catechism, as the minutes of the Westminster Assembly clearly show. Palmer was chairman of the com- mittee on the directory of worship, and the sub- ject of catechising was especially committed to him. He then became chairman of the commit- tee on the Catechism, and acted as such until his death, when Anthony Tuckney was appointed in his place. Palmer was also earnest for sabbath observance. He united with Daniel Caudrey in composing one of the best works on the sabbath iu existence, e.g., Vindicice Sahhathi, Loudon, 1645- 52, 2 vols. 4to. He was a moderate Presbj'- terian, and hesitated about the divine right of ruling elders, and favored a presiding bishop. He was appointed by Parliament one of the Commit- tee of Accommodation in 1645. His deep piety is manifest in his Memorials of Godliness and Christianity, in three parts, 1644, 11th ed., 1673, 13th, 1708, including the Christian Paradoxes, wrongly ascribed to Lord Bacon. This work is equal if not superior to Jeremy Taylor's Holy Living. He frequently preached before Parlia- ment. His sermons exhibit eloquence and power. He was an excellent linguist, especially in French and Latin, and was intrusted with drawing up the correspondence of the Westmiustei- Assembly with the various churches of the Continent. He was a man of wealth, and used his means espe- cially in the aid of candidates for the ministry. He was one of the noblest spirits among the AN'est- minster divines. See Clarke : Lives, London, 1677; Reid: Memoirs, Paisley, ISll ; and Gro- SART : Lord Bacon not the Author of Christian Paradoxes. C. a! BRIGGS. PALM-SUNDAY, the last Sunday in Lent, is celebrated ,in many Christian churches, both in the East and the West, in conmiemoration of the entrance of our Lord into Jerusalem, when the multitude saluted him by waving with palm- branches, and strewing them before him (Matt, xxi. 1-11 ; Mark xi. 1-11 ; John xii. 12-16). In the East the celebration dates back to the fifth century : in the West it is somewhat later. PALM-TREE. When the Bible speaks of palm- trees, it always means the date-palm, as the only other kind of palm-trees occurring in Palestine, the dwarf fan-palm, does not fulfil the various requirements of the passages. The date-palm — Hebrew, ""?'")', which in Aramaic and Arabic de- notes the fruit — is found in various places in Palestine, both along the coast of the Mediterra- nean and in the interior of the country, sometimes in forests : Phoenicia is said to have received its name from it, ^oiwf. At present it cannot ripen its fruit in Palestine, e.xcept in the sub-tropical climate of Jericho and the Dead Sea: it requires an annual average temperature of 16° 48' E.; and that of Jerusalem, for instance, is only 14° 16' K. In antiquity it was cultivated with gi-eat care in the above-mentioned places. As the male and female flowers occur on different trees, it is neces- sary, in order to secure a plentiful harvest, to PAMPHILUS. 1732 PAN-ANGLICAN SYNOD. facilitate the fructification by cutting off the male flowers, and suspending them above the female. Five months later on, the reddish, sweet fruit is ripe. It is eaten fresh or dried. A kind of wine and a honey-like sirup are made from it. The tree is very graceful, with its slender, branchless trunk, between one and two feet in diameter and from forty to fifty, rarely eighty, feet high, and its evergreen crown of from forty to eighty feath- ery leaves, each from six to twelve feet long. No wonder, therefore, that it made a deep impression on the imagination of the people. Tliamar {palm) was a favorite name for girls (Gen. xxxviii. 6 ; 2 Sam. xiii. 1, xiv. 27), and for cities, among which Jericho was specially called the " city of palm- trees " (Deut. xxxiv. 3 ; 2 Cliron. xxviii. 15 ; Ezek. xlvii. 19, xlviii. 28). Palm-branches were used at the feast of tabernacles, in triumphal processions, etc. Palm-leaves were stamped on the Hebrew coins, and occur, also, as architectonic ornaments (1 Kings vi. 29, xxxii. 35). rubtschi. PAMPHILUS, the great patron of learned the- ology ; descended from a distinguished family at Berytus in Phoenicia ; studied at Alexandria under Pierius, a pupil of Origen; and was or- dained a presbyter by Bishop Agapius of Caesa- rea. For the study of theology he did very much, — by supporting poor students ; by defraying the expenses of copying the Scriptures and the works of the Fathers, especially those of Origen ; and by enriching, if he did not found, the library of Csesarea, from which not only Eusebius, but also Jerome, derived so great advantages. It con- tained the Ilexapla and Tetrapla of Origen, the Hebrew Gospel which was connected with the name of Matthew, and translated by Jerome, and many other works written by the hand of Pam- philus. As a great admirer of Origen, he became entangled in the Origenistic controversy. In 307, during the Maximinian persecution, he was thrown into prison by Urbanns, prefect of Pales- tine. In 309 he suffered martyrdom. During his imprisonment he wrote in connection with Euse- bius, who (on account of the intimate relation in which he stood to him) bears the surname Pam- phili, an apology of Origen in five books, to which Eusebius afterwards added a sixth ; but only the first book is still extant, and that only in a not so very reliable translation by Rufinus, found in the editions of Origen's works by De la Rue, Loramatzsch, etc. For the life of Pamphilus see Eusebius : Hist. EccL, VI., 32, 33 ; VII., 32 ; De Mart. Pal., 11 ; Sockates, III., 7; Jerome : Cat., 75; Photius ; Cod., 118. w. MOLLER. PAMPHYL'IA, aproviuce of AsiaJMinqr, bound- ed south by the Mediterranean, east by Cilicia, north by Pisidia, and west by Lyoia. Its chief cities were Perga and Attalia. Paul first entered Asia Minor through the city of Perga, coming from Cyprus (Acts xiii. 13) ; and he again visited the city on his return from the interior of the country (Acts xiv. 21), though he left Pamphylia through Attalia. PANAOIA (jravayia, "all-holy"), a surname of the Holy Virgin, occurring in the later confes- sions, but also used among the later Greeks as a name for the consecrated bread. In the Greek monasteries it became custom to place a piece of the consecrated bread and a cup of wine before the image of the Virgin. Prayers were then offered, incense was burned, and finally the bread and wine were distributed among those present. This rite, which was generally performed at the beginning of a journey, or some other impor- tant undertaking, was called -rravayiac vtpuaic. See GoARUS : Eucholog., p. 867 ; Codixus : De officiis, 7, 32. G.-vss. PAN-ANGLICAN SYNOD. This has become the popular title of certain conferences lield at Lambeth (A.D. 1867 and 1878), to which all bishops in communion with the Primatial See of Canterbury were invited. In 1851 Archbishop Sumner invited the American bishops who de- rived their episcopate from his predecessors to unite in the celebration of the hundred and fif- tieth anniversary of the Venerable Society for the Propagation of the Gospel ; and to the very cordial and fervent words in which he referred to "the close communion which binds our churches in America and England in one " must be attributed the awakening of a general desire for the open manifestation of this unity. Cordial responses were elicited, and the idea took root and grew, till in 1867, on Washington's birth- day, as it happened (Feb. 22), Archbishop Longley issued a call to the American and Colonial bishops " in visible communion with the United Church of England and Ireland," to assemble at Lambeth on the 24th of September in the same year, under his presidency. The sessions were limited to that and the three following days; and the sub- jects to be discussed were pre-arranged by the primate in correspondence with the home and foreign prelates. At the appointed time seventy- six bishops assembled accordingly, in the ancient chapel at Lambeth, when the Ploly Communion was celebrated, and a sermon preached; none being present save the bishops only. The con- ferences were held in the great hall of the library, and the following were the subjects discussed, upon most of which conclusions were reached with very marked unanimity : (1) The best way of promoting the re-union of Christendom ; (2) The establishment of new sees, how to be made known to the churches ; (3) Letters commendatory, i.e., for intercommunion ; (4) Colonial churches and their metropolitans ; (5) Metropolitical dis- cipline; (6) Courts for the same; (7) Appeals; (8) Colonial and home churches, conditions of union; (9) New missionary bishoprics, how to be made known to the churches; (10) Missionary jurisdiction. But the most interesting and most important result of this conference was the rati- fication of the sentence of deposition passed upon the bishop of Natal (Dr. Colenso) by the bishop (Gray) of Capetown and his comprovincial bish- ops, although this was not a formal act of the conference as such, which was not assembled for purposes "of discipline. An encyclical letter was issued to the churches, and the same, in the Latin and Greek languages, was sent to divers parts of Christendom. The second conference was held at Lambeth, in 1878, under the presidency of Archbishop Tait. It was attended by English, Scottish, Irish, and American bishops, " gathered from the Ganges to Lake Huron, from New Zealand to Labrador, from both shores of the Pacific, and from the Arctic and Antarctic circles." One of these was of African lineage. This conference, after pre- PANBGYRICON. 1733 PANTHEISM AND PANTHEIST. limiiiary services in the Cathedral of Canterbury, at which the primate welcomed his brethren from abroad to the seat of their historic unity, was formally opened at Lambeth on the 2d of July, and was closed by public solemnities at St. Paul's, London, on the 27th of the same month. During the session (and afterwards at Farnham Castle, July 31, to discuss the work of Pere Hya- cinthe, under the presidency of the Bishop of Winchester), many informal meetings were held, for missionary and ecclesiastical purposes, which were greatly influenced by the conference itself, and reflected its spirit in a striking manner. The matters less informally disposed of at this conference were chiefly these: (1) The best mode of maintaining union ; (2) Voluntary boards of arbitration; (3) Relations of missionary bishops and missionaries meeting in the same fields of labor from divers churches of this communion; (4) Anglican chaplaincies on the Continent of Europe ; (5) The Old Catholics; (6) West-Indian dioceses ; (7) Marriage laws; (8) Missionary boards of reference ; (9) Ritual and confession. A report on all these subjects was sent to the churches, with a letter, of which the concluding words ex- press the true character and spirit of these con- ferences: " We do not claim to be lords over God's heritage ; but we commend the results of this our conference to the reason and conscience of our brethren enlightened by the Holy Spirit of God, praying that all throughout the World who call upon the name of our Lord Jesus Christ may be of one mind, may be united in one fellowship, may hold fast the faith once delivered to the saints, and may worship their one Lord in the spirit of purity and love." This second confer- ence was attended by precisely one hundred bish- ops, and, though not a synod itself, its counsels have been greatly respected in the synodical action of the churches represented. See The Second Lambeth Confer., a personal narrative, by the bishop of Iowa (Perry), Davenport, 1879. A. CLEVELAJSTD COXE (Bp. of Western New York). PANEGYRICON was in the Greek Church the name of a kind of homiliary, or collections of panegyrics on the saints, aiTanged after the months, and destined to be used at the celebra- tion of the respective saints' days. Manuscript collections of this kind are still current in the Greek Church, but they have no official character any more. See Leo Allatius : Be libris Grceco- rum ecclesiasticis ; diss. i. PANIS LITER/E ("bread briefs ") were letters of recommendation by which a secular lord or- dered a monastery or hospital, or other institution of charity, to receive a certain person for support The right of issuing such letters was connected with the duty, originally imposed upon such insti- tutions, of showing hospitality to princes and other great lords when they were travelling. During the middle ages the Emperor of Germany exercised a very extensive right of this kind ; but the custom existed also in other countries. PANORMITANUS, the common surname of the celebrated canonist, Nicholas de Tudeschis ; b. at Catanea in Sicily, 1386; d. at Palermo, 1445. He entered the order of the Benedictines in 1400 ; studied canon law at Bologna, under Francesco Zabarella, and taught it afterwards himself, with great success, at Siena, Parma, and Bologna. From Martin V. he received in 1425 the abbey of Maniacum, in the diocese of Messina, and was shortly after called to Rome, and made auditor of the Rota Romana and referendarius Aposlolicus. In 1427, however, he entered the service of King Alphonso of Sicily, and went as his representative to the Council of Basel, where he took the side of Eugenius IV. When the latter removed the Council of Fei-rara, Panormitanus remained in Basel (see his treatises of defence, in Mansi: Coll. Con., xxxi., and 'W'iii-dtwein : Subsidia diplomatica, vii.) until the council deposed Eugenius. He then left, but returned soon after, on the order of King Alphonso, and was in 1440 made a cardinal by Felix V. His commentaries on the decretals of Gregory X. and the Clementines, his Quoes- tiones, Consilia, and treatises, which fill nine vol- umes folio, in the last edition (Venice, 1617), enjoyed great respect among his successors, even among the Reformers. Melanchthon quotes him as an authority in the Apologia, art. 4. See Pan- CIROLUS: De Claris legum interpret., Leipzig, 1721 ; ScHULTE : Gesch. d. Quellen u. Litteratur d. canon- ischen Rechts, 1877, 2 vols. H. r. JACOBSON. PAN-PRESBYTERIAN COUNCIL. See Alli- ance OF THE Reformed Churches. PANT/ENUS was the first teacher of the cate- chetical school of Alexandria. Very little is known of him ; but, as the principal teacher of Clement of Alexandria, he is, of course, of great interest. Philip of Side (fifth century) calls him an Athenian. A notice by Clement seems to indi- cate that he was a native of Sicily. In the first year of the reign of Commodus, when Julian was bishop of Alexandiia (that is, in 180), he was already active as a teacher in the school, and during the reign of Septimius Severus he was succeeded by Clement. After the persecution of 203 he is not heard of any more. The mis- sionary tour, which, according to Eusebius, he made to India, and on which he discovered the Hebrew Gospel according to Matthew, — brought thither by the apostle Bartholomew, — is by some placed after 203 ; but as Jerome says that he was sent by Bishop Demetrius, and Demetrius was bishop in 190, he must have made the tour while he was still a teacher in the school. According to Jerome, he wrote numerous Commentaries on the Scriptures ; but all his writings have been lost, with the exception of two small fragments, found in Potter's edition of the works of Clement, and in Routh : Reliq. sacr., i. His original philo- sophical stand-point was stoicism, from which he passed through the Platonic-Pythagorean eclec- ticisms prevalent in the second century, to Chris- tianity. As a teacher, he gave the catechetical school of Alexandria that peculiar scientific stamp which it has retained ever since. See literature under Alexandria. w. moller. PANTHEISM and PANTHEIST are names of very recent origin, not yet two centuries old. In the works of Aristotle, the expression TimBeiov occurs, but only once, and in the sense of ndveeiov icpov, denoting a temple or holy place dedicated, like the Pantheon in Rome, to all the gods. In a similar sense, the phrase n-avteof tiHtti, trans- lated by Scaliger pandiculare sacrum, occurs three times in the so-called " Orphic hymns," probably products of the Xeo-Platonic philosophy. Other- wise the names are entirely unknown to antiqui PANTHEISM AND PANTHEIST. 1734 PANTHEISM AND PANTHEIST. ty, nor are they found in the middle ages. Down to the eighteenth century, all pantheistic doc- trines were designated with the odious name of "atheism." Even Boyle objects to Spiuoza, not that he was an atheist, but that he was the first to bring atheism into system. Neither Leibnitz, Wolff, Brucker, nor the Protestant theologians of the seventeenth century, know the word, though several of them are adroit enough in combat- ing the idea. The first to use it, and probably its inventor, is the English free-thinker Toland, in his Socinianisme Truly Stated . . . recovi- mended by a Pantheist to an Orthodox Friend, 1705. Four years later, ^le word " pantheism " occurs in J. Fay's Defensio religionis, 1709 ; and after that time both names become frequent. On the first page of his Pantheisticum sire for- mula Societatis Socraticce, etc., 1720, Toland thus defines pantheism : Ex Toto quidem sunt omnia et ex omnibus est Totum ("From the whole come all the parts, and from all the parts comes the whole "), which on p. 8 he further explains by adding, Vis et eneryia Totius, creatrix omnium et moderatrix ac ad optimum jinem semper tendens, est Deus, quern Mentem dicas si placet el Animum Uni- versi, unde Sodales Socratici appellantur Pantheistce (" The power and energy of the whole, creating all the parts ruling over them, and always leading them towards the good as their goal, is God, whom you may call the mind of the universe, or its soul ; and thence the Sodales Socratici are called pan- theists"). Fay contented himself with saying, Panthelstarum enim Natura et Numen unum idemque sunt (" To the pantheists nature and God are one and the same thing"); and this vague formula became the current definition, though Buhle, and, in harmony with him, also Kant, gave him more explicit descriptions, until with Schelling pan- theism, which had hithei-to been left rather un- noticed in the coi'ner, came to the foreground, at least in German philosophy. In order to defend himself and his spiritual cousin, Spinoza, against the reproach of pantheism, Schelling endeavored to confine the name to " the doctrine of the immanence of all things in God." But every thing depends upon in what way this " imma- nence" is explained. The ways are many, and the name "pantheism" might thus be made to cover quite enormous differences. Schleiermach- er's definition corresponds to his conception of the inseparableness of God and the world, which presupposes not only their identity and difference, but also a third something; and he protests that pantheism will always be the result whenever the idea of the identity of God and the world succeeds in throwing the idea of their difference into the shade. A new constituent was introduced in the definition of pantheism by A. Tholuck, in his Ssujismus sive theosophia Persarum, 1821 : Emana- tismus, he says, doctrina ilia antiqua vocanda est respectu ad placitum de origine mundi ex Deo, Pan- Iheismus eatenus, quoad malum tollit liominemque prope modum in wquo ponit Deo ; that is, the doc- trine of emanation and the doctrine of pantheism are identical, with the only distinction between them, that the former refers to the problem of the origin of the world, and the latter to the problem of the origin of evil ; and, indeed, no pantheistic conception of the world can admit the existence of evil in the full sense of the word, nor explain creation, without employing some form of emana- tion. Whenever Hegel speaks of pantheism, he always returns to the distinction between ■niv in the sense of " all," and "H" in the sense of " every thing ; " protesting that the doctrine of the abso- lute identity of the substance in the "all" is pure "monotheism," which was only exaggerated into " acosniism " by Spinoza's denial, not of the exist- ence of God, but of the existence of the world ; while the doctrine that "every thing" which exists has a substance, and that the substantiality of all those " every thing " existences is God, is an " idolatry " which no philosopher has ever taught. H. Ritter, finally, in his Die Halb- Kantianer und der Pantheismus (1827), written against G. B. Jasche's Der Pantheismus nach seinen verschiedenen Hauplformen (1826, 3 vols.), explains pantheism as a dissolution of the difference be- tween God and the ■\\orld, either by the immer- sion of God into the world, or by the immersion of the world into God, " so that either God alone is, or the world alone." See E. Bohmer : De Pan- theismi nominis origine et usu et notione, Halle, 1851. Amidst these differences of definition, what is the true meaning of the term " pantheism " ? The Greek iruv means both " all " and " every thing." In tlie latter sense, comprising all that exists without any exception, it is left undecided whether the "every thing "is in any way held together by some sort of a unity, Or '\\'hether it is split up in a mere multitude of separate things indifferent to each other. According, however, to the general acceptation of the word, " every thing" means simply the sum total of all the things that are ; but as Hegel is perfectly right, when protesting that a doctrine making every single thing that is, divine, and God the mere sum total of existing things, — that is, an absolute polytheism has never been propounded, — it is necessary to refer the term " pantheism " to the other sense of rcav, that of "all." Now, "all" denotes, indeed, a unity of "every thing," a whole, a totality; but here, again, it is left undecided whether the totality indicated is an absolute iden- tity, excluding all difference, or whether it is an organization into unity of manifold differences. In the former case, the apparent manifoldness and difference which characterize existence must be explained away as mere appearance, or illu- sion — as the Eleatic school did, at least Par- menides and Zeno, and as Spinoza did again when he declared the " attributes " and " modes " of the one absolute substance, God, to be mere subjec- tive ideas of the human mind, dependent on the peculiar organization of the organ of conception. This form of pantheism may be called the ab- stract, or absolute, excluding every and any dif- ference between God and the world. Another form of pantheism, the concrete and relative, appears when the totality is conceived as a unity of the manifold, a harmony of differences; and, as a rapid glance over the natui-al growths of religion shows, it presents a great variety of in- dividual characteristics, according as the relation between unity and manifoldness, between har- mony and differences, is explained. Tholuck remarks, that pantheism is as old as the human race ; and, so far as the religious de- velopment of the view is concerned, he is right. From Shamanism and Fetioism, up to the most PANTHEISM AND PANTHEIST. 1735 PAPACY AND PAPAL SYSTEM. elaborate mythologies, all natural forms of re- ligion started, not from the deification of some single natural or spiritual phenomenon, but from a vague and obscure idea of something abstractly divme, from an awe-inspiring feeling of a highest Bemg standing behind the phenomena as their true cause. Only by degrees, as knowledge of nature increased, this primitive and fundamental deity was gradually identified with some special natural power, which, beginning as its represen- tative, ended with superseding it. But, even in the most developed polytheism, the pantheistic foundation never fully disappeared. See A. Wuttke : Geschichte des Heidentkums, Breslau, 1852 ; E. Burnouf : La science des religions, Paris, 1872; Max Miiller: Introduction to the Science of Religion,London,187S; Ulrici: Gottund die Natur, Leipzig, 3d ed., 1875; Reville: Prole'gomenes de I'histoire des religions, Paris, 1881 ; [but see also Herbert Spencer: Sociology, i., London, 1879]. In India the original conception of God as the vivifying power of light and heat gradually changed under the overwhelming impression of the vegetative productivity of the soil. As the plants burst forth from the earth in astounding multitudes, only to stay a little while, and then return to the earth again, giving room for new multitudes, so gods and men, and animals and plants, issue forth from the bosom of Brahma, not to stay, and persevere in that diversity, but soon to sink back again into the Source whence they came, the one Absolute Being in which there is no form, no difference, no change. In the Persian religion a strongly marked dualism was developed ; and the " all " was actually split into two halves under the rule, respectively, of Ormuzd and Ahriman. Nevertheless, the differ- ence between the two gods was not merely a fixed contrast, but a conflict ever going on ; and as the result of the conflict should be the overthrow of Ahriman by Ormuzd, and the swallowing-up of the realm of darkness by the realm of light, the pantheistic monism was still preserved. In the star-worship of the Babylonians, Phoenicians, Arabs, etc., the so-called SabseiSln, the pantheistic idea of one God, seems at first glance lost in the multitnde of star-gods, each of whom represents some law in the course of nature and history ; and yet, dimly behind the iron necessity of the stars looms up the autocratic god of chance, who gives good or bad fortune arbitrarily, just as he likes. But there is here no contradiction. Ne- cessity without reason is only another name for chance without reason : the idea is the same. The Egyptian religion was, so to speak, based on the contrast between life and death. But death was only a transition from life in time to life in eternity ; and that general power of life which manifested itself at once in time and in eternity was, indeed, the one gi-eat God of Egypt. With the conception of Godhead as the soul of the world, religious pantheism reaches its consum- mation ; and this form was developed to perfection by the Greeks. Though so thoroughly anthropo- morphitic as to become the fully adequate and perfectly artistic expressions of the Greek ideas of manhood and womanhood, the Greek gods were, nevertheless, not severed from nature. Each of them had his own part of nature, smaller or larger, which was his field of activity, his abode, his body ; and, thus organized, the world was governed rationally and morally by the gods. At two different points, pantheism has endeav- ored to domicile itself in Christianity; viz., the doctrine of the omnipresence of God and the Logos doctrine. But the omnipresence of God does not mean omnipresence of substance, but only omnipresence of energy invisibly present, acting at a distance, like gravitation, light, elec- tricity, etc. ; and the Logos doctrine simply pro- pounds that creation by God was the beginning of all things, and reconciliation to God their final goal. By its doctrine of a creation out of noth- ing, Christianity has placed an efficient bar against any pantheistic mixing together of God and the world. As an element of Christianity, pantheism is a foreign importation. From the Gnostics and the Neo-Platonists it penetrated in antiquity into Christianity through the writings of Pseudo- Dionysius and in the form of mysticism. Thence it was brought by John Scotus Erigena to the mystics of the middle ages ; but, the sharper and more logically it was developed, the more decid- edly it again separated itself from Christianity. Lit. — Essay sur le Pantlieisme, Paris, 3d ed., 1857 ; J. Hunt : An Essay on Pantheism, London, 1866 ; J. B. Fellexs : Le Pantlieisme, Paris, 1873 ; R. Flint : Anli-Theistic Theories, Edinburgh, 1879 ; W. Driesenberg : Theismus und Pantheis- mus, Vienna, 1880 ; C. E. Pldmptre . General Sketch of the His(ory of Pantheism, London, 1881, 2 vols. ( H. ULRICI. PANTHEON (OToKteoi^), a place consecrated to all the gods. The Pantheon of Rome, built on a circular foundation, surmounted by one of the lagrest domes in the world, was erected in 27 B.C., by Marcus Agrippa, the son-in-law of Augustus, and originally consecrated to Jupiter Vindicator, but afterwards destined to contain statues of all the gods. Despoiled of all its treasures by the barbarian invaders, it was falling into decay, when it was saved from ruin by Boniface IV., who in 608 restored it, and transformed it into a Christian church dedicated to the Virgin and the saints, and hence called Sancta Maria ad Martyres, or Sancta Maria Rotunda. PAPACY and PAPAL SYSTEM. According to the doctrine of the Roman-Catholic Church, Christ has, in founding the Christian Church as a visible institution, given to the apostle Peter the precedence of the other apostles, made him his representative and the centre of the Church, and conferred on him the highest sacerdotal, doctrinal, and administrative authority (Matt. xvi. 18, 19 ; Luke xxii. 32; John xxi. 15-17). Now, as the Church was founded for all time, Peter must have a successor ; and, as the see of Rome was a foundation of Peter, the succession of the primacy, with all the rights therein involved, was forever united to that see. It descends from bishop to bishop ; and in the bishops of Rome, the popes, Peter is still living.' See the union decree of the Council of Florence, 1439, in Mansi : Coll. Con., 31, 1031 ; the Roman Catechism, P. i. c. 10, qu. 11, and P. ii. c. 7, qu. 24; and the Constitutio Dogmatica, i., of the Council of the Vatican, 1870. According to history, however, the primacy of the Pope is the result of a long development, going on for centuries, and so is the very doctrine of the Roman-Catholic Church itself. Of course, PAPACY AND PAPAL SYSTEM. 1T36 PAPACY AND PAPAL SYSTEM. the Romanists cannot deny, that, during the first period after the foundation of the Christian Church, the bishops of Rome exercised no pri- macy ; but they protest, that, though not exercis- ing it, they still possessed it. It is true, that, as early as the second and third centuries, the congregation and the Bishop of Rome enjoyed great respect throughout the whole Occident. Not only was the Roman Church con- sidered a foundation of Peter, but it was the only Occidental church which could boast of apostolic foundation. But though it may have tried in the third century to support its claim on precedence by an appeal to the succession from Peter, the prince of the apostles, the Council of Nicfea (325) knows nothing of a primacy of Rome over the rest of the Church. The much discussed Canon 6 places the Bishop of Rome, on account of his greater power, — that is, his right to ordain all the bishops of Italy, — beside the Bishop of Alex- andria, who had the right to ordain all the bish- ops of Egypt, Libya, and the Pentapolis ; but it does not contain the slightest hint of a primacy. It was other circumstances which proved decisive for the bishops of Rome in their endeavors to acquire a legally fixed and generally recognized primatical power : first, their riches ; next, their residence in the political centre of the world, with the prestige it gave them and the immense facili- ties of communication it afforded ; and, finally, the truly diplomatic position they assumed in the dogmatical controversies beginning with the fourth century, — cautious, persevering, always on the orthodox side. In 343 a council of Sar- dica allowed any bishop who had been deposed by a metropolitan synod to appeal to the Bishop of Rome, who might give a prima facie verdict, or institute a new examination of the case by his legate and a number of bishops, just as he found it necessary; and thus the see of Rome became established as a kind of supreme court. In 44.3 Valentinian III. issued the famous deci-ee which recognized the Bishop of Rome as the primate of the Christian Church, and that, not only in judicial, but also in legislative respects, authorizing not only the appeals which came to him, but also the orders which issued from him. The Council of Sardica, however, was never ac- cepted as cecuraenioal; and the decree of Valen- tinian was valid only in the West, and enhanced the power of the pope, without emancipating him from the still higher power of the emperor. The claims, therefore, based on such a council and such a decree, might easily prove to be mere pretension. Nevertheless, in the latter part of the fifth century, Rome was able to make its influence felt in many important questions, even in the Orient. And though the process of cen- tralization already begun was arrested by , the invasion of the Germanic tribes ; and though the new Icingdoras which were organized in Britain, Gaul, and Spain, seemed to have left no door open for the Pope, — Rome was as patient under ad- verse circumstances as it was bold when its oppor- tunity came. Though in Merovingian France the Pope was respected as the first bishop of Christendom, and though it was considered necessary to keep up community of faith with him, he was, neverthe- less, by law excluded from any direct interference in the affairs of the Frankish Church : he could even not send the pallium, a mere token of honor, to an archbishop without the consent of the king. The king retained the power of deciding in all ecclesiastical matters : he convened the national synod, and its decrees became legally binding only by his confirmation. In the course, how- ever, of the eighth century, under the rule of the Carolingian Majores Domus, a change took place. They entered into communication with Boniface, and adopted his plans for the reform and re- organization of the Frankish Church. But Boni- face acted as the legate of the Pope in accordance with instructions received from Rome ; and thus it came to pass that the primacy of Rome was actually established in Gaul, though the Pope was not formally recognized as the highest au- thority. This state of affairs continued under Charlemagne, who exercised the highest power in the Church as in the State, and bestowed privi- leges and immunities on the Pope simply as the first bishop of his realm; but his whole ecclesi- astical policy aimed at complete conformity be- tween the Frankish Church and the Church of Rome. After the death of Charlemagne, during the political contests between Louis the Pious and his sons, and the ecclesiastical controversies between the Frankish bishops and their metro- politans, the royal and imperial power proved too weak to maintain its leadership of the Church ; and gradually the moral influence which the Pope had hitherto exercised grew into a direct and decisive interference, not only in ecclesiasti- cal, but also in political affairs. It was especially Nicholas I. (858-867), who, adroitly availing him- self of every opportunity, proved successful in the realization of the grand papal scheme, — the subjection of every secular power to the Church, and of the Church to the Pope ; and he received, in that respect, a mighty help from the Pseudo- Isodorean decretals, which became known just at that time. But the policy of Nicholas I. was not allowed to develop without interruption. ' The dissolution of the Frankish 'Empire brought confusion also into Italy. Rome was under the thumb of an aristocratic faction, which again was swayed by a couple of scandalous women. Without the aid of the young German Empire the degraded Papacy would perhaps never have been able to raise itself from the mire. Now, it is very true, that, from the middle of the tenth century (Otho I., Roman Emperor, 962) to the middle of the eleventh century, the German emperor was the real ruler of the Church ; but he ruled on another moral and legal basis than the Frankish emperor had done. He never arrogated to himself the high- est judicial or legislative power in ecclesiastical affairs. If he considered himself the head of the universal State, he considered the Pope the head of the universal Church ; and many of the most important branches of the administration of the Church he left entirely to the Pope, such as the foundation of new bishoprics, the enforcement of older ecclesiastical laws, the introduction of re- forms, etc. Then, in the middle of the eleventh century, there arose in Rome, under the leader- ship of I-Iildebrand (Gregory VII., 1073-85), a party whose settled purpose it was to free the Papacy from any influence from any secular PAPACY AND PAPAL SYSTEM. 1737 PAPHNUTIUS. power, and establish the Pope as the umpire of the world, politically as well as ecclesiastically. Gregory VII. protested that he was subject to no judge on earth, that he had power to depose the emperor, that he had a right to wear the imperial insignia, that he alone could convene a general council, depose a bishop, transfer him to another see, §tc. On the question of the right of investiture, it came to a deadly contest between the Papacy and the German Empire ; but the result was the com- plete emancipation of the Pope from the imperial power. He stood from that moment as the high- est, the absolute, authority in all ecclesiastical affairs ; and, in his further conflicts with the Ger- man emperor, it was political rather than ecclesi- astical questions which occupied the foreground. He wanted to make himself the corner-stone of the political system of Europe; and under Inno- cent III. (1198-1-216) the goal was reached. The Pope claimed to be the representative of Christ, of God on earth, and was considered as such. All power was consequently his, not only in spii'itual matters, but also in matters of the world. His power in the latter sphere he left in charge of the princes, though under his control ; but in the former sphere he exercised his power personally, and without responsibility to any judge on earth, not even to the oecumenical council. His power of legislation was not limited by the older canons or the oecumenical councils : it was only circum- scribed by the dogma. His power of absolution and dispensation was absolute. He could ap- point, depose, and transfer bishops ad libitum; and he could tax the clergy in general, or any individual church. Certain benefices were re- served exclusively for him, and appeals could be made to him from everywhere. Finally, he sent out his legates, to be implicitly obeyed according to his instructions; for not only was all power imaginable his, but all power existing was de- rived from him. This idea of the Papacy, the so-called Papal . System, found its classical ex- pression in the bull of Boniface VIII., Unam sanctum, ecclesiam, 1302. The rigid monarchical form, however, which the government of the Church had assumed in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, could not fail to call forth a re-action ; and in the fourteenth century the opposite tendency, leading to a more aristocratic form of government, the so-called episcopal system, began to develop. The epis- copal system is based upon the view that Christ has conferred the power to bind and to loose on all the apostles equally, and given to Peter a kind of precedence only, in order to establish a visible token of unity. It is not opposed to the primacy of the Pope, or unwilling to grant him those rights and privileges without which no primacy could exist ; but, considering the episcopate itself as a divine institution, the Bishop of Rome can never be anything more than primun inter pares. In the ancient church these views were generally adopted, as may be seen, for instance, in the works of Cyprian (Z)e unitate ecclesice, etc.) ; and they were now again set forth with great force in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries by Pierre d'Ailly, J. Gerson, Xicholas of Clemanges, and others, while at the same time public opinion was well prepared to accept them by the startling encroachments of the curia upon all old estab- lished rights, by the scandalous behavior of many of the popes, and more especially by the great schism. They were espoused by the councils of Pisa, Basel, and Constance ; and in the course of the sixteenth century they assumed definite shape in the French Church. See Pierre Pithou: Les lil/erte's de I'Eijlise Galiicane (1594), and the article " Gallicanisra.'' Towards the close of the eighteenth century they found in Germany a brilliant spokesman in Nikolaus of Hontheim, and an ardent champion in Joseph II. ; and, though steadily denounced by the Pope, they were steadily gaining ground in the Church up to the middle of the nineteenth century. But the re- action which set in everywhere in Europe after 1848 once more gathered the bishops around the Pope; and in 1870 it was possible for Pius IX. to have the episcopal system condemned, and the papal system formally recognized by an oecumeni- cal council. See, for list of popes, art. Pope. Lit. — Ellendorf : Der Primal der romiscJien Piipste, Darmstadt, 1841-4?, 2 vols.; Rothensee : Der Primal des Papstes, Mainz, 1846 ; Maasen : Der Primal des Bischofs von Rome, Bonn, 1853 ; Riddle : History of the Papacy, London, 1854, 2 vols. ; T. Greenwood : Cathedra Petri, a Politi- cal History of the Great Latin Patriarchate, Lon- don, 1856-72, 6 vols. ; Wattenbach : Geschichte des romischen Papstthums, Berlin, 1876 ; [Fevre : Hisloire apologe'tique de la papaute depuis s. Pierre Jusqu'a Pie IX., Paris, 1878-82, 7 vols.] ; J. Fried- KICH : Geschichte des Primates in der Kirche, Bonn, 1879 ; [F. Fournier : Rule de la papaute dans la socidte, Paris, 1881 ; J. v. Pflugk-Harttung : Die Urkunden der pdpsllichen Kanzlei vom x.-xiii., /aAr/i., Miinchen, 1882, pp. 76; J. N. Murphy: The Chair of Peter ; or, the Papacy and its Benefits, London, 1883]. See also Hixschius : Kirchen- recht, Bd. I. § 22, 22-25, 74 ; [Jaffe : Regesta pontificum romanorum, Leipzig, 1851, 2d ed., 1881 sqq. ; Kenrick : Primacy of the Apostolic See vin- dicated, ISf.Y., 1845, 7th ed., 1855; Brycb : Holy Roman Empire, Lond. and N.Y., 5th ed., 1875; Creighton : Papacy during the Reformation, Lond. and N.Y., 1882, 2 vols.]. P. hinschius. PAPAL ELECTION. See Conclave. PAPEBROECK. See Bollandists. PAPHNUTIUS, b. 275(?); d. 350(?); Bishop of a city in the Upper Thebais ; a confessor of the Diocletian persecution, in which he had lost an eye. He was one of the most prominent mem- bers of the Council of Nicjea (325), where he spoke against the proposition that all bishops, presby- ters, and deacons should send away the wives they had married while they were laymen. His high character, and known absolute and inviolate con- tinence, gave great weight to his opposition ; and the status quo, according to which marriage was forbidden only after ordination, was continued. Different from him is the Paphnutius, abbot of a monastery in the Scetic Desert, who in 399 caused a considerable commotion among the monks by adopting and supporting the views of Bishop Theophilus of Alexandria concerning the crea- tion of man in the image of God. See, for the first, Maccracken : Lices of the Leaders of the Church Universal, "p^. 57-59; and Schaff: His- tory of the Christian Church, new edition, vol. ii. p. 411. PAPHOS. 1738 PAPIAS. PA'PHOS, a city of Cyprus; was visited by Paul, who converted the proconsul of the island, Sergius Paulus, and smote Elymas, the Jewish sorcerer, with blindness (Acts xiii. 7-13). See Lives of Paul by Conybeare and Howson, Lewin and Farrar. See also, for description of Cyprus, De Cesxola : Cyprus, New York, 1870. PAPIAS, Bishop of Hierapolis in Phyrgia. He was born probably between 70 and 75 A.D., and died, perhaps, A.D. 163.1 jJq fact save his episco- pacy is definitely known about him, yet he is of great interest from his relation to the apostolic age. He was, according to Irenseus {Ado. Hcer., V. 33, 4), " a hearer " of John the apostle, " a com- panion of Polycarp," "an ancient man," i.e., a man of the primitive days of Christianity. By "John," Eusebius (Hist. EccL, iii. 39) rmderstands the presbyter, not the apostle, of that name, and de^ clares that Papias had no personal acquaintance with any apostles. Papias, who was certainly acquainted with the present New Testament, wrote in Greek, about A.D. 130, An Interpretation of the Sayings of the Lord, in five books. His work appears to have been a collection of the words and works of the Master and his disciples, with explanatory matter derived from oral testi- mony. It has entirely perished, with the excep- tion of a few small fragments preserved by Ire- nfeus and Eusebius. The " fragments " in later writers are somewhat dubious. The first passage Eusebius quotes (I.e.) is from the preface of Papias' work, as follows : — [" But I shall not regret to subjoin to my interpre- tations, also, for your benefit, whatsoever I have at any time accurately ascertained and treasured up in my memory as I have received it from the elders, and have recorded it in order to give additional coii- firmation to the truth by my testimony. For I have never, like many, deliglited to hear those that tell many things, but those that teach the truth; neither those that record foreign precepts, but those that are given from the Lord to our faith, and that came from the truth itself. But, if I met with any one who had been a follower of the elders anywhere, Tmade it a point to inquire what were the declarations of the elders; what was said by Andrew, Peter, or Philip; what by Thomas, James, John, Matthew, or any other of the disciples of our Lord; what was said by Aristion and the presbyter John, disciples of the Lord. For I do not think that I derived so much benefit from books as from the living voice of those that are still surviving."] Besides quoting this passage, Eusebius speaks of Papias' stories of the daughters of Philip, who raised one from the dead, and of Justus, sur- named Barsabas, who drank poison with impu- nity (probably told by Papias in illustration of Mark xvi. 18), of Papias' strange accounts of the Lord's parables and doctrinal sayings, which were " rather too fabulous," and of his recital concern- ing a woman accused of many sins, apparently an allusion to the story of the woman taken in adul- tery, now found inserted in the texlus receptus of John's Gcspel (viii. 1 sqq.). But of more account is the other verbal quota- tion from Papias which Eusebius gives (I.e.) : — ["And John the presbyter also said this, Mark being the interpreter of Peter, whatsoever he re- ^ [But as the date of Polycarp's martyrdom haa by recent research been put back to X.D. 15.5, the date of his contempo- rary friend Papias must likewise be put about ten years ear- lier.— Ed.] corded he wrote with great accuracy, but not, how- ever, in the order in wliich it was spoken or done by our Lord, for he neither lieard nor followed our Lord, but, as before said, was in company with Peter, who gave him such instruction as was necessary, but not to give a history of our Lord's discourses. Wherefore Mark has not erred in any thing, by writing some things as he has recorded them ; for he was carefully attentive to one thing, not to pass by any thing that he heard, or to state any thing falsely in these ac- counts. . . . Matthew composed his history in the Hebrew dialect, and everj' one translated it as he was able."] Eusebius mentions Papias' use of 1 John, 1 Peter, and the Epistle to the Hebrews; the first two, probably, with the intention of show- ing that only these Epistles were rightly attribut- able to John and Peter. But out of the omission to spea,k in any way of the third and fourth Gos- pels and the rest of the New Testament, nothing can be made ; for the faihire to speak lies to the charge of Eusebius, not of Papias; and the silence arose merely from Eusebius' desire to quote a few characteristic things from Papias. The attempt to prove from this silence that Papias was igno- rant of the other books is vain. Besides the quotations already given, there are several fragments of Papias of interest. [See Routh, ReliquicB sacrce, vol- i., Eng. trans., in The Apostolical Fathers, Ante-Nicene Library, vol. i. pp. 441-448.] Thus in the Scholia of Maximus Confessor on Dionysius the Areopagite's De ccelesli hicrarchia (c. 2, p. 32), it is stated, on the authority of Papias in the first book of his Interpretation, " The early Christian called those children who practised guilelessness toward God." Georgius liamartolos (ninth century) cites in his Chroni- cle the second book of Papias as authority for the incredible statement that John, the brother of James, was killed by the Jews at Ephesus. Ire- nseus {Ado. Ilwr., v. 33, 3) quotes the fourth book of Papias as authority for our Lord's saying : — ["The days will come in which vines shall grow, having each ten thousand branches, and in each branch ten thousand twigs, and in each true twig ten thousand shoots, and in every one of the shoots ten thousand clusters, and in every one of the clus- ters ten thousand grapes; and every grape when pressed will give twenty-live metretes (i.e., two hun- dred and twenty-five English gallons). And when any one of the saints shall lay hold of a cluster, another shall cry out, ' I am a better cluster: take me. Bless the Lord through me.' In like manner he said that a grain of wheat would produce ten thou- sand ears, and that every ear would have ten thou- sand grains, and every grain would yield ten pounds of clear, pure, flue flour; and tliat apples and seeds and grass would produce in similar proportions; and that all animals, feeding then only on the produc- tions of the earth, would become peaceable and har- monious, and be in perfect subjection to man. "J Eusebius apparently refers to this passage (Hist. EccL, iii. 39) in proof that Papias interpreted the future millennium as a corporeal reign of Clirist on this very earth, and further says that Papias misunderstood the apostolic mystical narrations. Eusebius, moreover, charges Papias with leading Irenteus and most of the ecclesiastical w-riters to. chiliastic notions. Another quotation from the fourth book in CEcumenius relates to the last sickness of Judas the apostate, in flat contradic- tion to the New-Testament account, — a proof that Papias credulously rested upon lying tradi- tion, not that he was ignorant of Matthew and PAPIN. 1739 PARABLES. the Acts. Other quotations show his preference for typico-allegorizing exposition. A note in a Vatican \ ulgate manuscript of the ninth century speaks of Papias as the amanuensis of John. Eusebius appears to vacillate in his judgment of Papias ; for whereas in iii. 3G he calls him " a man most learned in all things, and well acquaint- ed with the Scriptures " in iii. 39 he says he had "a small mind" [referring to his allegorizing tendency]. The former statement lacks satisfac- tory manuscript support, and is probably an in- terpolation. Not enough of Papias is left upon which to form an independent judgment [except that he was pious, credulous, and industrious]. ["The work of Papias was extant in the time of Jerome. Perhaps it may yet be recovered; for some work with the name of Papias is mentioned thrice (234, 267, 556) in the catalogue of the Library of the Benedictine Monastery of Christ Clmrch, Canter- bury, contained in a Cottonian manuscript, written in the thirteenth or beginning of the fourteenth cen- tury (E. Edwards, Memoirs of Libraries, London, 1859, vol. 1. pp. 122-235); and according to Menard, the words ' I found the book of Papias on the Words of the Lord ' are contained in an inventory of the property of the church at Nismes, prepared about 1218." — Donaldson, pp. 401,402.] Lit. — The Papias fragments are in Route : ReliquicE sacrce, ed. ii. Oxford, 18i6, vol. i. 8-6; Von Gebhardt uxd IIarxack : Patrum aposloU- corum Opera, 1 fasc. Ap., Leipzig, 1875, [Eng. trans., Ante-Nicene- Fathers, vol. i. ; Funk: Pa- trum Apos., Tubingen, 1881, vol. ii. 276-300]. — Monographs. Halloix : Vita S. Papim ([purely imaginary], in Illus. ecc. orient, script, scec. I. vita et documenta, Douay, 1633, fol. 637-645) ; James Donaldson : The Apostolical Fathers, London, 1874j [published in 1864 as the first volume of A Critical History of Christian Literature and Doc- trine from the Death of the Apostles to the Nicene Council, 1864-66, 3 vols.] ; W. Weifkenbach : Das Papiasfragment bei Eusebius, Giessen, 1874; C. L. Leimbach : Das Papiasfrae/ment, Gotha, 1875; Weiffenbach : Das Papiasfragment uber Markus u. Matthdus, Berlin, 1878 ; Ludemann : Zur Erkldrunp d. Papiasfrag. (Jahrb. fUr protest. Theologie, 1879, pp. 365 sqq.); [cf. Canon (now Bishop) J. B. LiGHTFOOT, in Contemp. Rev., Lond., 1875]. G. E. STEITZ. (C. L. LEIMBACH.) PAPIN, Isaac, b. at Blois, March 24, 1657; d. in Paris, June 19, 1709. He studied theology at Saumur, but could obtain no certificate, as he would not sign a condemnation of Paganism. Having been ordained in England by the Bishop of Ely, he published in Holland his La Foy reduite a ses veritables principes, and was appointed pastor of the Reformed congregation in Hamburg, but was soon dismissed on account of the intrigues of Jurien. After a short stay in Dantzig, he returned to Paris, abjured the Reformed faith, and em- braced Romanism, 1690. After his death, his collected works were published by a relative of his, Pajan of the Oratory. PAPYRUS. See Bible-Text, Writing. PARABLES. Figurative speech is natural to all primitive peoples, but especially to those of the Shemitic race, because among them imaginar tion and feeling have the ascendency over the intellect. By the word maschal, from a root de- noting " to compare," the Hebrews designate all forms of speech in which an abstract idea is clothed with an image ; as, for instance, the max- ims of Proverbs, consisting of two propositions, the one setting forth the image almost in the form of a riddle, and the other giving in a direct manner the corresponding moral truth. In the teaching of Jesus, figurative speech plays a con- spicuous part ; as, for instance, in the following passages : " And if the blind guide the blind, both shall fall into a pit ; " " Ye are the light of the world ; " " The salt of the earth ; " " Neither do men light a lamp and put it under the bushel, but on the stand." The image may extend be- yond the single sentence, and through a whole discourse ; as, for instance (in Isa. v.), the song which the prophet sings to his well-beloved touch- ing his vineyard; or (Ezek. xvii.) the picture of the great eagle and the highest branch of the high cedar ; or, still more striking, the tale which Nathan tells David, and by which he compels the king to look into his own soul for the evil deed (2 Sam. xii.); or, finally, the fable in which Jotham, the son of Gideon, shows the people of Shechem that the man who would consent to become their king would be the one least worthy of the position, and most likely to become a scourge to them (Judg. ix.). It is to this last kind of figurative speech that the so-called para- bles of Jesus belong. The word "parable,'' from a root signifying to place things beside each other for the x^urpose of comparing them, is the Greek translation of the Hebrew maschal, and denotes, as a special term, a higher kind of figurative speech than the fable. The fable is inferior in dignity to the parable. It uses the image in order to inculcate natural truth and practical advice, or to turn certain faults into ridicule. It can consequently allow the imagination a very wide scope, putting beings into activities contrary to their nature, lending intelligence and speech to animals and plants, etc. It is play^. The parable has a higher purpose. Its teaching refers to the kingdom of God and the salvation of souls. The imagery, consequently, by which it images forth the truth, must conform strictly to reality. Each being must act in accordance with its nature : each action must be described accurately as it could have occurred. The object of the representation is too sacred to allow the imagina- tion free scope. It appears from the Gospels that Jesus began to teach in parables at a certain given moment of his ministry; and that circumstance naturally leads us to ask why he did not do so from the very beginning. Of course, he always used im- ages in order to express his ideas more strikingly. By the incompatibility of an old garment and a piece of undressed cloth, he demonstrated the. impossibility of maintaining the old dispensation by merely introducing into it some new elements borrowed from a diiferent order of things (Mark ii. 21). Under the image of two house-builders, one prudent and the other foolish, he represented that hearer who contents himself with simply knowing the truth, and that one who carries out the teaching he has received in the practice of his every-day life (Matt. vii. 24-27). But in the very midst of his career, and, so to speak, at its point of culmination, there came a day when he suddenly began to employ this form of teaching so largely, that his disciples were surprised, and PARABLES. 1740 PARABLES. asked for au explanation (Matt, xiii., Mark iv., Luke viii.). The explanation, however (Matt, xiii. 10-17), is not so easy to understand. Some have found in that passage, simply the idea that Jesus clothed the truths of the kingdom of heaven with images in order to make them more intelli- gible, and imprint tliem with greater force on the mind of his hearers. At first glance the inter- pretation seems very natural. Nevertheless, a second reading of the words of Jesus cannot fail to show that they contain just the opposite mean- ing: "Unto you it is given to know the myste- ries of the kingdom of heaven ; but to them it is not given. Therefore speak I to them in para- bles; because, seeing they see not, and hearing they hear not, neither do they understand." How could the multitude who heard the parables of the sower and the tares, which Jesus told on that very occasion, ever understand those parables, when even the apostles themselves did not appre- hend the meaning of Jesus, but were compelled to ask him about it? Was it, then, for the pur- pose of making his teaching unintelligible, that Jesus used the parable? There are some who think so. They consider that the moment had arrived when the people who had heard the appeals of Jesus without repentance, deserved no better than falling under that judgment of obdu- ration of which Isaiah speaks in the very words which Jesus quotes on the occasion. Of course, there is added, the parable was intended to make the divine truth clearer and more intelligible to those whose hearts had been prepared by repent- ance and faith ; but at the same time it also served to veil the truth to the eyes of those who had not been moved by the teachings of Jesus. A kind of sorting, preparatoiy to judgment, was thus effected. The latter explanation is certainly more in har- mony with the words of Jesus than the former. Nevertheless, there is room for doubt whether it hits the sense exactly, and exhausts it. It seems probable that the divine truth, if set forth directly and without veil, would be more likely to produce the eifect of obduration than in a state of half- concealing figurativeness. Nor is it a gospel preached so as not to be generally understood, of which the apostle says, " To the one, a savor from death unto death ; to the other, a savor from life unto life" (2 Cor. ii. 16). It seeitjs to me that the true explanation lies in the middle, between those two extremes. The moment had arrived, when, after the moral teach- ing of which the Sermon on the Mount is the type, Jesus foiuid it necessary to reveal the true nature of the kingdom of heaven, of the new order of things which he had com-e to establish. But that was just the point at which the divine plan, whose interpreter he was, stood in the most direct opposition to popular expectation. On questions of moral obligation the conscience of the multitude followed him with ease, and was willing to do homage to the sublimity of his teaching (Matt. vii. 28, 29). But the foundation and development of the kingdom of heaven were the secrets, or, as Jesus called them, the myste- ries of God. They were the heavenly things be- tween which and the earthly things he made a sharp distinction (John iii. 12). How could he say openly to the people, that the Messiah should not found the kingdom of God by a stroke of omnipotence, but by the slow and peace- able action of the Word and the Holy Spirit? that, in the new order of things, the wicked must still be endured, because human existence should not be transformed in a moment, but in a pro- gressive and spiritual manner? that the judg- ment, separating the true members from the false, should not come until the end of the kingdom of heaven ? To say such things to peo25le \\'lio ex- pected to see the Roman Empire overthrown, and the sovereignty of Israel over the universe estab- lished, by some grand revolution of the Messiah, would be like crying out from the roofs, that he, Jesus, was not the Messiah, and his work not the fulfilment of the prophecies. And yet the mo- ment had arrived when it had become necessary to reveal the new order of things, of which the apostles were to take charge after his own death, and for which every faithful follower was to work. But that which it was necessary to reveal to some, it was necessary to conceal from others; and this double object could not have been at- tained by any other means so surelj' as by the parables which Jesus explained in private to those who ought to understand the secrets of God, while to others they were like a veil thrown over the truth. Compare the precept of Jesus (Matt. vii. 6). The number of parables which have come down to us exceeds thirty, but cannot be precisely stated, as several pieces of the teaching of Jesus are by some considered parables, by others, simple metaphors ; as, for instance, Luke xii. 35-40, 42-46, xiv. 34, 35, etc. Classifications of the parables have been attempted, on various princi- ples. From an historical point of view, Goebel, in his Die Paraheln Jesu, 1880, arranges them in three groups : (1) those belonging to the stay of Jesus near Capernaum, and collected in Matt. xiii. ; (2) those belonging to his journey from Galilee to Jerusalem, and collected in Luke xxviii. ; and (3) those belonging to his last days in Jerusalem. The first group refers to the king- dom of heaven as a totality; the second, to the individual members of it ; and the third, to the end of the existing economy and the judgment of the members of the kingdom. These observa- tions are all very just. Nevertheless, we propose another classification, which seems to us to be more natural. Out of the thirty parables, prop- erly speaking, six refer to the kingdom of heaven in its preparatory existence under the old dispen- sation ; six, to its actual realization in the form of a church, that is, to the new dispensation from its foundation to its consunnnation ; and eighteen, finally, to the life of the individual members of the church. The first group consists of : 1. The Vine-dresser (Matt. xxi. 33-41), representing the criminal con- duct of the Israelitish authorities against the Lord, acting through the prophets, and then through his son; 2. The Marriage of the King's Son (Matt. xxii. 1-14), representing the conduct of the Jewish people in response to the summons of Jesus and the apostles to enter the kingdom of heaven, then the call of the Gentiles, and, finally, the judgment which awaits also them ; 3. I'he Great Supper {Luke xiv. 16-24), which by some is considered identical with the preceding, thougli PARABLES. 1741 PARABLES. it differs from it in several essential features ; 4. The Strait Gate (Luke xiii. 24-30), in which Jesus predicts that the larger portion of the Jewish people shall be excluded from the kingdom of heaven, because they -will not enter through the strait gate of humiliation, while the Gentiles shall enter in multitudes ; 5. I'he Barren Fig-Tree (Luke xiii. 6-9), an image of the condemnation hovering over Israel, and the intercession of the Messiah, which alone averts the fatal blow; 6. The Two Sons (Matt. xxi. 28-32), in which Jesus places the conduct of the Pharisees (who pretend to obey God, but in reality are filled with revolt against him) over against that of the toll-gatherers, who externally refuse obedience, but at heart hesitate, and end with surrendering themselves. The second group consists of: 1. 2'Ae Soicer, which seems to have been the first perfect speci- men of this kind of teaching, and still stands forth as the typical parable (it describes the differ- ent reception which the Word finds in the hearts of the hearers, from complete indifierence to per- fect devotion ; and thus it emphasizes the foun- dation of the kingdom of heaven by preaching the AVord, and not, as the Jews expected, by a sudden intervention of the arm of God); 2. The Tares, representing the co-existence of good and bad members of the church as the true method of development in the new order of things, though so contrary to Jewish expectation ; 3 and 4. The Muslard-seed and The Leaven, which form a pair of parables representing the same idea, but under two different aspects, a combination which occurs often (the final victory of the kingdom of heaven is the idea common to both; but the former refers to its external extension, from its first ap- parition in the sole person of Jesus to its final consummation in the whole human race; and the latter, to its internal action, transforming spir- itually the whole human life) ; 5. The Draw-net, describing the end of the kingdom of heaven by a sorting of the good and the bad members which the preaching has brought pell-mell into the visi- ble church. To these five parables, which are found in Matt, xiii., together with several others — The Hidden Treasure, The Pearl — belonging to the third group, may be added, 6. The Widoia (Luke xviii. 1-9), representing on the one side ■the dangerous state of the church from the de- parture of its chief to its final deliverance, and on the other side the only power which still remains to her during that period, — perseverance in prayer. The last group consists of eighteen parables referring to the realization of the kingdom of heaven in individual life. 1, 2, and 3, The Lost Sheep, The Piece of Silver, and The Prodigal Son (Luke XV.), describe the entrance into the king- dom by the gi-ace of God and the faith of man. 4 and 5, The Pharisee and the Publican and The Friend at Midnight (Luke xviii. 9-14 and xi. 5-10), set forth the indispensable conditions of effective prayer, — repentance and faith. 6 and 7, 'The Hidden Treasure and The Goodly Pearl (Matt. xiii. 44-46), and 8 and 9, Building a Tower and Declaring War (Luke xiv. 28-33), form two pairs of parables treating nearly the same subject, — the absolute decision and complete sacrifice of every thing else, without which no one can take possession of the kingdom. Properly speaking, these nine parables refei' all to such as are enter- ing the kingdom, while the rest of this group refer to those who have already become members. 10 and 11, The Chief Seat (Luke xiv. 7-11) and The Laborers in the Vineyard (Matt. xx. 1-16), inculcate humility — the former with re.spect to brethren, the latter with respect to God — as the true disposition of the faithful. 12 and 13, The King taking Account of his Servants (Matt, xviii. 23-35) and The Good Samaritan (Luke x. 29-35), inculcate charity : the former in spiritual things, — forgiveness of other people's faults ; the latter in practical things, — pity on other people's suf- ferings. 14 and 15, 7 he Unjust Steward and The Rich Man and Lazarus (Luke xvi. 1-0 and 19- 31), teach the right use of the good things of this world; not for the sake of a momentary and egotistic enjoyment, but in the service of chari- ty. The same lesson is inculcated bj' 16, 7'he Rich Man (Luke xii. 16-21). 17 and 18, The Talents and llie Ten Virgins (Matt. xxv. 14-30 and 1-13) demand of the faithful that to the vir- tues of humility, charity, mercj', etc., he unites a practical activity and perpetual vigilance in the service of Christ. The ten virgins represent the total membership of the church, of which some profess the faith merely swa3'ed by an instanta- neous and fugitive emotion ; that is, they have no other provision of oil than that which happens to be in the lamp, and which may be soon ex- hausted, while otheis hold a separate provision of oil, which allows them to renew the flame of the lamp ; that is, they stand in permanent com- munication with the vei'y source of celestial life, — Christ. Such is the system of the parables which the Lord told at different times and on various occa- sions. And what a wealth of religious and moral intuitions it contains ! All the stages of the his- tory of the kingdom of heaven, from its begin- ning under the old dispensation to its consumma- tion at the threshhold of eternity, are spread out before us. In some of the teachings of Jesus it is the powerful popular orator we admire ; in others, their profound philosophical spirit. But in the parables it is the poet, or rather the paint- er, who lets the creations of his genius pass before our eyes. For in Jesus all the gifts of the human soul were united, and each and every one of them was put in play for the instruction and salvation of humanity. Lit. — Outside of dissertations in the various Lives of Christ, the following books treat of the ' parables : ViTRixt;.\ : Schriftmassige Erldarung ' d. evangelischen Parabeln, 1717; Samuel Bouen; " Discourses on the Parables " (vol. 3, 1763, and vol. 4, 1764) of his Series of Discourses, London, 1760-64, 4 vols. ; Andrew Gray : A delineation of the parables of our blessed Saviour, London, 1777; N. VON Brunx: Das Reich Gottes, nach den Lehren Jesu Christi, besonders seine Gleichniss- reden, erklart, Basel, 1816, 2d ed., 1831 ; F. Gus- TAVUS Lisco : Die Parabeln Jesu, Berlin, 1832, 5th ed., 1841, [Eng. trans, by P. Fairbairn, Edin- burgh, 1840] ; E. Buissox : Paraboles de I'lSvan- gile, Basel, 1849 ; Trench : Notes on the Para- bles of our Lord, London, 1841, 14th ed., 1882; S. Goebel: Die Parabeln Jesu, Gotha, 1880; [Ox- ENDEN : Parables of our Lord, London, 1865 ; Thomas Guthrie: The Parables, London, 1866; PARABOLANI. 1742 PARADISE. W. Arnot : The Parables of our Lord, London, 1870; A. B. Bruce: The Parabolic Teaching of Christ, London, 1882]. F. GODBT. PARABOLANI, from irapa^aUsoBai, " to expose one's self," was, in the congregations of the an- cient church, the name of the voluntary nurses of the sick. They occur chiefly in Egypt and Asia Minor, rarely, if ever, in the Latin West. They were rough but spirited fellows. At the robber synod in Ephesus (449), they acquired a sad celebrity. Even before that time, they had become obnoxious ; and, in Alexandria, Theodo- sius placed them under the superintendence of the prefect. HERZOa. PARACELSUS, Philippus Aureolus Theophras- tus Bombastus, b. at Einsiedeln in Switzerland, 1493; d. at Salzburg, 1541. He studied medicine and natural science ; visited all the European uni- versities; became a furious antagonist of Galen and Aristotle ; acquired great fame on account of his wonderful cures; was appointed professor of medicine at Basel in 1526, but expelled from the city two years later, probably on account of the jealousy of his colleagues ; strolled about as a mountebank and charlatan, though often sought for by t'he highest personages on account of his great medical skill ; and found finally an asy- lum at the court of the Archbishop of Salzburg. His collected works appeared at Strassburg, 1616- 18, in three volumes folio. The second volume contains his philosophical works. His system is a combination of the theosophy of the Cabala and natural science, founded on experience and ex- periment, — a kind of pantheism, whose mysti- cism every now and then becomes superstitious. His distinction, however, between faith and rea- son as two different organs of perception, with two different fields of activity, is not unlike mod- ern attempts of the same tendency. PARACLETE. See Holy Spirit, Trinity. PARACLETICE' or PARACLETICON is, in the modern Greek Church, the name of a kind of prayer-book, containing prayers to God and the saints appropriate to the various canonical festi- vals. Its general plan is due to John of Damas- cus, though since his time it has undergone con- siderable modification. The first printed edition appeared in Venice, 1625. PARADISE (Oil?, N"eh. ii. 8 ; Eccl. ii. 5; Song iv. 13 ; also the Targums and the Talmud ; irapadaao; LXX. and N". T.) means in Persian, whence the word has been adopted into all other languages in which the Bible has appeared, a wooded garden or park. But in the Bible it is used in a twofold sense: (1) for the garden of Eden; (2) for the abode of the blessed in heaven, of which Jesus spoke to the penitent robber (Luke xxiii. 43), to which Paul was caught up (2 Cor. xii. 4), in which are those who have overcome (Rev. ii. 7). For the determination of the word in the geographical sense, see Eden. Attention is limited in this article to its Jewish and patristic interpretation. I. It was taken allegorically. The chief representatives of this view are Philo (iiofiuv iepuv ul'kriyopia), Origen {Horn, ad Gen., Contra Celsum, iv., Principia, iv. 2), and Ambrose (De Paradiao ad Sabinum). To Philo, Paradise stood for virtue; its planting toward the east meant its direction toward the light; the division of the one river into four, the fourfold aspect of virtue as cleverness, thought- fulness, courage, and righteousness. This method of allegorical interpretation came over into the Christian Church, and appears in Papias and Ire- njeus, Pautaenus, and Clement of Alexandria; and although it at first encountered great opposition from the sober-minded, especially from the An- tiochian school, and from such scholars as Epi- phanius and Jerome, it was finally so triumphant under the lead of Origen and Ambrose, that the latter counted the majority of the Christian writers of his time as its advocates. To Origen, who in the Old Testament, and particularly in the account of the creation and the Paradise, found much that was derogatory of God, Para- dise was a picture of the human soul, in which flourish the seeds of Christian virtues ; or a pic- ture of heaven, wherein the " trees '' represent the angels, and the " rivers " the outgoings of wisdom and other virtues. He did not, however, deny a literal Paradise : he only sought in alle- gorizing the harmonization of the Mosaic and New- Testament conceptions. To Ambrose, the Pauline Paradise was the Christian soul. He also distinguished between the literal and the Pauline Paradise. Many of the other Fathers trifled in similar fashion with the sacred text. II. Paradise was interpreted myslically. The Mosaic and the New-Testament representations of Paradise were considered identical, and place was found for it in a mysterious region belonging both to earth and heaven. The chief representa- tives of this interpretation were Theophilus of Antioch (Hpof AvtoXvicov Tzepl rfj^ tuv XptoTtavuv ma- Tf(Jf), TertuUian (Apologeticus), Ephrpein Syrus, Basil (Oratio de Paradiso), Gregory of Nazianzum, Gregory of Nyssa, Cosmas Indicopleustes (Xpia- TLavuifi ToTToypafia), and Moses Bar-Cepha. {2'ractatus de Paradise). Those who doubted the identity of the two paradises were few, as Justin Martyr, the Gnostic Bardesanes, and Jerome. The Scriptures were not to blame for the identification, — for they clearly set forth the geographical character of the one, and the unearthly character of the other, — but the commentators themselves. Excuse for the latter is to be found in the laxness of the prevailing exegesis, in its ascetic character, in the ignorance of the times respecting geography, and in the influence of the classical mythology. In the poems of Ephrsem (fourth century), which embody the speculations of Theophilus, Tertul- lian, and Basil, Paradise was generally conceived to have three divisions. The first begius at the edge of hell, around which fiowed the ocean, and in a mountain which overtops all earthly moun- tains. The one river of Paradise flows from under the throne into the garden, divides itself into four streams, which, when they have reached the bor- der of hell upon the lowest division, sink under hell, and, through underground passages, flow to the ocean and a part of the earth, where they re- appear in three different localities, forming in Armenia the Euphrates and the Tigris, in Ethio- pia the Nile (Gihon), and in the west of Europe the Danube (Pishou). Cosmas Indicopleustes (sixth century) represents the divisions as rising in trapezoid form, and understands by " Pishon " the Ganges. Moses Bar-Cepha (tenth century) puts Paradise this side of the ocean, but behind mountains which remain inaccessible to mortals ; PARAGUAY. 1743 PARIS. giving as his reason for this change of position, that he could not conceive of another earth on the hither side of the ocean. The synagogue teachers, influenced first by Josephus, and later by the great mediaeval Jew- ish exegetes, in their commentaries upon Genesis and in some dictionaries, put Paradise in the very centre of the earth, somewhere in the shadowy East, far removed from the approach of mortals. The four streams were Euphrates, Tigris, Nile, and Danube. " Cush " was Ethiopia, " Havilah " ■was India. Paradise was the intermediate home of the blessed. Islam gave the name Paradise to four regions of the known earth, famed for their beauty: (1) On the eastern spurs of Hermon; (2) Around Bavan in Persia ; (3) Samarkand in the Bucharest ; (4) Basra on the Shatt el Arab. The true Paradise was a future possession, on the other side of death. Cf . the elaborate article by Wilhelm Pressel, in Herzog, 1st ed., vol. xx. pp. 332-376. It is remarkable that the word " paradise " oc- curs but once in Christ's discourses, public or private. The explanation probably is, that it had become associated with sensuous ideas of mere material happiness. But in speaking to the peni- tent robber (Luke xxiii. 43) he uses the word, because it was the most intelligible expression for the salvation our Lord promised him. Paul only uses the woi'd when speaking symbolically (2 Cor. xii. 4) ; so also John in the Revelation (ii. 7). PARAGUAY, a republic of South America, situated between the Rivers Paraguay and Parana, between 27° 32' and 22° 20' south latitude, with a population of 293,844, according to the census of 1876. With the exception of a few immi- grants, all the inhabitants belong to the Roman- Catholic Church, which has established an epis- copal see at Asuncion, the capital of the republic. In the history of the country the Jesuit mission forms an interesting chapter. In 1586 the society sent its first missionaries to Paraguay. They founded stations among the Guarani Indians, learned their language, and began to teach them, not only Christianity, but also agriculture and the simplest branches of manufacturing industry. In spite of many difficulties, they finally succeeded ; but they gradually assumed the complete govern- ment of their converts, secular as well as ecclesi- astical , and, in order to protect their flocks from the various vices and temptations of European civilization, they excluded from the country, not only foreign immigrants, but also visitors. Under such cii'ciimstances, nobody could vouch for the truth of the charming tales which were circulated in Europe about the Paraguayan paradise estab- lished by the Jesuits ; but it was apparent to all that there reigned peace and order in the estab- lishments, and that the Fathers grew immensely rich. But in 1768 the Jesuits were expelled from Spanish America ; and in an incredibly short time the whole fabric collapsed, leaving no other trace of itself but the decaying catliedrals and palaces, and a fatal talent for submissiveness in the char- acter of the people. See Muratoki: Chrislia- nesimo felice nelle missione net Paraguay, Venice, 1713; IbaSez: Regno da Soced., etc, Lisbon, 1770 : DuGRATY : La republique de P., Brussels, 1864 ; Mastebman : Seven Years in Paraguay, 4 — ni London, 1869; Washburn: History of Paraguay, New York, 1871 ; Gothein : Der christlicli-sociale Staat der Jesuiten in Paraguay, Leipzig, 1883 (pp. 68). PA'RAN (place of caverns'), Wilderness of, bounded on the north by the Wilderness of Shur and the Land of Canaan, on the east by the Arabah and the Gulf of Akibah, on the south by a sand-belt which separates it from Sinai, on the west by the "Wilderness of Etham.. It is now called Badiet et Tih (" desert of the wandering "), the scene of the thirty-eight years' scattering of Israel between Egypt and Palestine. It is a high limestone plateau, crossed by low ranges of hills. Its few water-courses run only in the rainy season. The vegetation is scanty. The north-eastern portion of this plateau is the Negeb (" south country ") of Scripture. The caravan- route to Egypt crossed Paran. PARDEE, Richard Gay, Sunday-school worker; b. at Sharon, Conn., Oct. 12, 1811; d. in New- York City, Feb. 11, 1869. He was a Presbyterian layman, from 1853 to 1863 agent of the New- York Sunday-School Union, and all his life an enthusiastic and wise champion of the Sunday- school cause. He was the author of two widely used volumes. The Sunday-Scliool Worker, and The Sunday-School Index. PAREUS, David, b. at Frankenstein, Silesia, Dec. 30, 1548 ; d. at Heidelberg, June 15, 1622. He studied theology in the Collegium Sapientice in Heidelberg, and was in 1584 appointed teacher there, and in 1598 professor of theology. His so- called Neustadter Bibel, 1587, the text of Luther's translation, with notes of Pareus, involved him in a violent controversy with AgTicola, Sieg- wart, and others; and his Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans, 1609, caused still more strife, and was publicly burnt in England, on the order of James I. He was, however, not a controversialist himself : on the contrary, besides his commentaries, Summarische Erkltirung der wahren Katholischen Lehr, etc., his principal work is his Irenicum sive de unione et synodo evangelico- rum liber votivus, 1614, which, however, was not well received by the orthodox Lutherans. A life of him and a complete list of his works are found in the unflnished edition of his works, by his son, Francfort, 1647. net. PARIS, the capital of France, and, next to London, the most populous city of Europe, has for the past four or five centuries exerted an influ- ence second to that of no other city in the world upon the destinies, civil and religious, of Christen- dom. In a sense in which it is true of no other capital, Paris has shaped and still shapes the prevalent sentiment of France, as it has again and again made and overturned its government. Under the name of Lutetia Parisiorum, a small town existed in the time of Julius Csesar, on an island in the River Seine, about a hundred and ten miles from its mouth, which is still known as the He de la Cite. This town graduallj"^ extended to the banks on either side, until, by the time of the Crusades, it had come to be regarded as one of the largest and wealthiest of European cities. Two special causes may be mentioned as having contributed to its growth, — the choice of Paris by the kings of France for their customary abode, and the possession of the most famous educational PARIS. 1744 PARIS. establishment of the middle ages. The Univer- sity of Paris, under the patronage of the mon- archs, and enjoying the services of such eminent teachers as Abelard and Peter Lombard, Gerson and Clemangis, was thronged with scholars from all parts of the West, who were divided, accord- ing to their origin, into the four " nations " of France, Picardy, Normandy, and England. In the fifteenth century they are said to have num- bered not less than twenty-five thousand ; and so important an element of the population did they constitute, that the entire southern part of Paris, commonly called, even to the present day, the " quartier Latin," was known as the " Uni- versite." The various disasters of pestilence, famine, and siege, that have befallen Paris, have not checked its steady growth. A hundred years or more ago the city had spread far beyond its former fortifications, of which traces remain only in the line of its razed bulwarks (boulevards), now turned into broad and stately avenues. While the increase of the population of France has of recent years been alarmingly slow, Paris has ad- vanced from 1,525,942 in 1856, to 1,696,141 in 1861, 1,852,000 in 1872 (despite the great loss of life during the siege by the Germans and the conflict of the Commune), and 1,988,806 in 1876. Of this immense population the most careful esti- mates allow 75,000 at the utmost for the adherents of Protestant churches (i.e., 35,000 Reformed, 30,000 Lutherans, and 10,000 belonging to other branches of the Protestant stock), and 32,000 to 35,000 for the Jews, chiefly natives of Alsace and Lorraine. With the exception of this small mi- nority, all the rest of the Parisians are claimed by the Roman-Catholic Church, although no insig- nificant part is composed of more or less avow- ed free-thinkers or atheists. The Roman-Catholic Church in the city of Paris is, perhaps, as thoroughly organized as in any other city of the world. The archbishop is assisted by a coadjutor and six vicars-genei'al. The chapter of the cathedral church of Notre Dame consists of 98 canons, resident, titular, or honorary. The city and its suburbs are divided into three arch-diaconates. The archdeacon of Notre Dame has under him 50 curates, and 355 vicars ; the archdeacon of Ste Genevieve, 20 curates and 144 vicars; and the archdeacon of St. Denis, 74 curates and 81 vicars : total, 144 curates, and 580 vicars. These figures do not include the clergymen constituting the Roman- Catholic faculty of the Sorbonne (seven professors and one adjunct professor), nor those engaged in the Seminary of St. Sulpice and in the University or Roman-Catholic Institute of Paris, in the Rue de Vaugirard, etc. There are sixty-three Roman- Catholic chaplains attached to the public pris- ons, hospitals, and other benevolent institutions. Their gradual removal is, however, believed to be only a question of a few years. The num- ber of schools supported by the Catholic Church, both for primary and for secondary education, has heretofore been large ; but the hostile attitude of the government in respect to clerical instruction, as well as the greatly increased efficiency of the government itself in the matter of the training of the young, tends inevitably to the rapid dimi- nution of the number of establishments under ecclesiastical control. In 1870 the annual appro- priation made by the city for education was only about $1,200,000. In the first ten years of the present repuiilic it has risen to three times that sum Before the decree of June 19, 1880, order- ing the dissolution of all unauthorized congrega- tions (or societies of friars and nuns) to take effect Nov. 5, 1880, there were 10 authorized and 24 unauthorized congregations of men. There were also 88 congregations of women, of which 40 were more especially devoted to teaching, or the care of orphans. A large number of orphan- asylums, hospitals, houses of correction, and chari- table and missionary associations, are intimately connected with the Roman-Catholic Chui-ch, being sustained in great part by endowments, or by the voluiitary contributions of adherents of that church. The Protestants of Paris belong mostly either to the Reformed Church or to the Lutheran (Con- fession d'Augsbourg). The Reformed Church of Paris dates from the year 1555, when the handful of persecuted " Lu- therans," or " Christaudins " as they were for the moment styled (the name " Huguenot " was not known throughout Northern France until five years later), first attempted an ecclesiastical or- ganization. The great development of this church did not take place until after the Edict of Nantes secured to the Huguenots a good meas- ure of religious liberty. (See Huguenots.) Even then, however, the Protestants of Paris were not permitted to worship within the walls, or in the immediate suburbs, but were compelled to resort, at great inconvenience and with no little personal exposure and peril, to the village of Ablon. (See Ablon.) Subsequently the king was induced to grant a more accessible spot, the village of Charenton. Here a " temple," or Prot- estant church, was erected, which was so large, and skilfully planned, that with its galleries it was said to be able to seat not less than fourteen thousand worshippers. This remarkable build- ing was destroyed, and all open profession of Protestantism was suppressed, at the time of the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685). When Protestantism was, after the lapse of over one hundred years, re-organized, and made a state religion by Bonaparte as first consul, by the law of the eighteenth Germinal, year x (1802), the ad- herents of that religion in Paris (of the Reformed faith) were constituted a single consistorial church. The number of pastors (from two in 1808) and of places of worship has gradually in- creased during the past three-quarters of a cen- tury; but no division of the church was made until 1882. For thirty years the evangelical party in the church had commanded the majority of the votes in the election for members of the consistory, and had secured the church an ortho- dox ministry. At length the "Liberal" party pre- vailed upon the government, without consulting the wishes of the people, to dismember the church. By a decree signed by President Grevy, March 25, 1882, the consistorial church of Paris was split up into eight parishes. In consequence of this arrangement, the Liberals, in the election of May 14, 1882, secured the control of one of the par- ishes, — the important parish of the Oratoire; and they have since then succeeded in introducing a single minister of their sentiments into the con- PARIS. 1745 PARISH. sistory. There are (1883) 17 pastors and 10 assistant pastors, chaplains, etc., and 18 churches, besides other places of worship. Several of the church edifices, and among them the Oratoire, were formerly Roman-Catholic churches. Provis- ion is made for the care of the poor by the ap- pointment of 120 deacons, by whom the sum of about $20,000 is annually distributed to the needy. The number of electors entitled to vote for members of the consistory of Paris is 3,500. Of these 2,144 exercised their privilege in the election of May 14, 1882, in which the orthodox or evangelical party had a majority of 620 in all the parishes. The " Confession d'.\ugsbourg ' (Lutheran Church) is composed of Protestants of German origin, descendants, for the most part, of families belonging to Alsace and Lorraine. There are (1883) 21 pastors and assistants, including clergy- men officiating in the German, Swedish, and Dan- ish languages, and 16 churches and other places of worship. The number of electors is estimated at 1,300. Belonging to the union of the free churches, there are five churches and chapels and seven ministers. The well-known Chapelle Taitbout is the principal place of worship. The Methodist Church has six places of worship, and five minis- ters preaching in French, besides two preaching in English. The Baptist Church has two places of worship, and four ministers. The government supports at Paris a theologi- cal seminary lately established, in part, to take the place of the theological school for the train- ing of j'oung men for tthe ministry of the Luthei'- an Church, formerly, and until the session of Alsace to Germany, maintained by the State at Sta-assburg. The new seminary (Faculte de theo- logie protestante de Paris) is, however, intended to meet the wants of the Reformed as well as of the Lutheran Church. Of the ten professors and teachers, two teach respectively the Lutheran and the Reformed dogmatic theology. It is not practicable here to enumerate the various missionary, educational, and benevolent institutions under Protestant control. Reference may, however, be made to the important work done by the Societe de I'histoire du Protestan- tismfe fran(;ais in throwing fresh light upon the histoiy of the Huguenots, by means of its monthly bulletin and other publications. The remarkable mission to the working-men of Paris, begun under the auspices of Rev. R. W. :M'A11, is treated in a separate article. (See M'All Mission.) Lit. — J. A. Dulaure : Histoire physique, civile et morale de Paris, 10 vols., with atlas, Paris, 1823, 1824; Bulletin de la Sociele de I'histoire du Protes- tantisme franfais, vols, iii., iv., and v. (arts, upon the " temple " and " worship " at Charenton) ; Almanack des Reforme's et Protestans pour 1808, contenant " Le Code protestant," Paris, 1808 ; F. LiCHTENBERGER : art. " Paris," in his En- cyclopedie des Sciences Religieuses, vol. x., Paris, 1881 ; Decoppet : Paris protestant, 1876 ; Frank PuAUX : Agenda protestant pour I'annee 1883, Paris, 1883. HENET M. BAIRD. PARIS, Francois de, b. in Paris, June 3, 1690 ; d. there May 1,' 1727. He studied theology, and was ordained deacon, but retired, and led, in a house of one of the suburbs of Paris, a life of seclusion and austere asceticism. He wrote some commentaries, and was a zealous opponent to the bull Unigenitus ■ but he is chiefly of interest to church history on account of his connection with Jansenism and the miracles which were said to take place at his tomb in the Cemetery of St. Medard. See his life, written by Barbeau de la Bruyere, by Barthelemi Doyen, and by Boyer, in 1731 ; also P. F. Matthieu : Histoire des Miracles et de Convulsionnaires de Saint Medard , and the art. Jansenism. PARIS, Matthew. See Matthew of Paris. PARISH {parochia, vapomia), the Christian con- gregation so far as it is represented by a ter- ritorial circumscription, the circuit of gTound committed to the spiritual care of one priest, or parson, or minister. The first Christian congre- gations were formed in the cities, and such a city congregation was originally called a -napoiKia. In the Eastern Church the name was retained for a long time, even though the irapuiKia gradually de- veloped, both externally and internally, so as to become what we now call an episcopal diocese {itoinriaii). The bishop arose above the presbyters, and became the head of the college of presbyters. Congregations were formed in the country by missionaries, and superintended, first by their foimders, then by appointed presbyters, but in both cases under the authority of the city bishop. Only in his church complete divine service was celebrated. He consecrated the elements of the Lord's Supper, and sent them to the country churches. Even in the third century, when com- plete service was generally celebrated also in the dependent churches, the bishop still reserved the administration of baptism to himself. But in the Eastern Church the iioiiaiatg still continued to be called napomia. The distinction between parochia and dicecesis was first made in the Western Church by degrees, as it developed its great missionary activity. The dioceses were so large, that a district subdivision of them became necessary for administrative purposes. Churches were built in which com- plete service was celebrated every Sunday, and in which baptism, burial, etc., v/ere duly performed by the appointed presbyter. These first subdi- visions, however, tituli majores, ecclesice baptimales, were not yet the present parishes : they were still much larger, and corresponded, in many cases, to the present superintendencies in certain Protest- ant countries. But by degrees, as the population grew denser, a new subdivision became necessary. Oratories and chapels were built in the castles, in the monasteries, or^ear by; and when, in course of time, these new subdivisions, the tituli minores, became definitely established, with well- defined boundaries and fully organized adminis- trations, the present parish system may be said to have fairly entered into existence, though of course, it was, and still is, subject to many modi- fications. At what time the development was definitely completed cannot be stated ; it took place at va- rious times in the various countries. The city of Rome had forty fully organized parish churches before the end of the "third century. Parish or- ganization is spoken of in France in the begin- ning of the fifth centiuy. In England the first legislation on the subject is found in the laws of PARITY. 1746 PARKER. Edgar, about 970. Before the Reformation, how- ever, the connection between the bishop of the diocese and the priest of the parish continued very close. The plenitudo poleslatis ecclesiasticce was vested solely in the bishop, and the priest was nothing but his representative. After the Reformation, the connection became, in the Prot- estant countries, much laxer, and in many par- ticular points the State assumed the power of the bishop; and, in more recent times also, the con- nection between the State and the parish has loosened, the whole idea of a parish system, as a system of territorial circumscriptions, gradually giving way to the idea of free congregations. In the United States the Roman-Catholic and the Protestant-Episcopal churches have retained the parish system, though in a modified form, on account of the complete separation between State and Church. PARITY, a technical term first occurring in the instrument of the peace of Westphalia, 1648, denotes equality between various religious de- nominations in their relation to the State. Be- fore the Reformation, the European States recog- nized only one religion within their respective dominions ; but by the peace of Augsburg, 1555, the old legislation of the German Empire was cancelled, and parity was established between Roman Catholics and Protestants. It must be noticed, however, that the parity thus established concerned only the empire, not the particular states of which it was made up. In each single state the territorial system, with its cujus regio ejus relicjio, pi'evailed, and it was only when the states met to decide upon the affairs of the em- pire, that Protestants and Roman Catholics had equal rights. In the separate states of the Ger- man Empire, parity was not introduced until the beginning of the present century. Prussia took the lead by the religious edict of July 9, 1788 ; and, later on, the great changes which took place in the boundaries of the German States during the Napoleonic wars induced them to follow her example. See Toleration. mejer. PARKER, Matthew, the second Protestant archbishop of Canterbury ; b. in Norwich, Aug. 6, 1504 ; d. at Lambeth, May 17, 1575. Entering Coi-pus Christi College, Cambridge, in 1522, he was made fellow in 1527, and during the succeed- ing five years devoted himself to the diligent study of the Church Fathei's. His scholarship is attested by AVolsey's fruitless effort to secure his services for his new college at Oxford. In 1533 he publicly espoused the cause of the Reforma- tion in a sermon preached before the university. He became quite famous as a preacher, and Anne Boleyn appointed him her chaplain. The king nominated him to the mastership of Stoke-Clare College, near Cambridge, and in 1544 to the same office at Corpus Christi. In 1545 he was chosen vice-chancellor. Parker distinguished himself at the university, and was an earnest student and admirable administrator. It would have been well for him if he had remained at the university, for he had not the administrative talents for a larger sphere. He did not hesitate to meet an opponent with the pen, but he was by nature too timid and cautious to meet him face to face. Under Edward he remained in the background, and rose no higher than the deanery of Lincoln, Under Mary he lost every thing but his life. Soon after her accession, Elizabeth appointed him Archbishop of Canterbury, Reginald Pole having died just before. He no doubt com- mended himself to the politic queen by the middle position he occupied between the two extreme parties in the church, and by the relation he had sustained to her mother, Anne Boleyn. The consecration took place Dec. 17, 1559. The difficult work lay before him of building up the Anglican Church at a time of ecclesiastical confusion, and under a queen whose religious purpose at least seemed to be fickle. Without himself being a Puritan, he sought to modify the severity of the measures passed by Parliament, Jan. 1, 1565, against all who refused to take the oath of supremacy. But at the queen's command he became more rigorous, and carried out the Advertisements which prescribed the rules (con- cerning dress, etc.) which the clergy were to obey in order to secure a license to preach. The Church of England honors his memory for his having enforced the Act of Uniformity. The Puritans blame him for forcing the division in the church. Whatever may be the opinion about Parker's services to the church, there can be but one opin- ion about his services to letters. He was more prominent than any other single individual in arousing in England an interest in the records of antiquity, founded the Antiquarian Society, and was the instrument of rescuing a multitude of manuscripts from the ruins of the monastic estab- lishments. The rich treasures of Corpus Christi and other colleges at Oxford are largely due to his assiduity. He was particularly interested in the antiquities of England, and had published the Chronicles of Matthew Paris, Thomas Wal- singham, etc. It was with his co-operation that Ackworth wrote the De Antiq. Britan. Eccles., 1572. His private virtues seem to have been many, He gave much away in charity to the poor, founded hospitals, endowed colleges, etc. His body lies buried in Lambeth, [Elizabeth, on one occasion, showed her resentment against Parker for his refusal to introduce the crucifix and celibacy, by an insult to his wife, which was characteristic of her temper. When Mrs. Parker advanced, at an entertainment at Lambeth, to take leave of the queen, Elizabeth said, " ' Mad- am " I may not call you, and ' mistress ' I am loath to call you ; however, I thank you for your good cheer," "Madam" was the title by which married ladies, and " mistress " the one by which unmarried ladies, were addressed.] See Lines of Parker by Strype and Josselyn, and Hook : Lives of the Arclihislwps of Canterbury, vol. ix. c. SCHOELL. PARKER, Samuel, Bishop of Oxford; b, at Northampton, September, 1640; d. at Oxford, May 20, 1687. He was graduated B.A. from Oxford, 1659; became E.R.S,, 1665; published Tentamina pliysico-theologica de Deo, which pleased Archbishop Sheldon so much that he made him one of his chaplains, 1667, and in 1670 archdeacon of Canterbury. In 1672 Parker became preben- dary of Canterbury, and in 1686 bishop of Oxford. He was a vigorous, if not formidable, defender of episcopacy, and was more than suspected of Romanism. See lists of his works in Allibone and Darling, PARKER. 1747 PARKER. PARKER, Theodore, the son of John and Hannah (Stearns) Parker; b. at Lexington, Mass., Aug. 24, 1810 ; d. at Florence, Italy, May 10, 1860. His father — a farmer and wheelwright — and his mother were intelligent, highly respectable, and thoroughly conscientious. They had a large fam- ily, and but slender means of subsistence, so that they could do little for their children, except by their example and influence. Their distinguished son seems to have inherited largely from both his parents, — from his father, an inflexibility little short of sternness ; from his mother, an emotional nature susceptible of gTeat stress and tenderness of feeling. Theodore had in his boyhood little formal instruction other than that of the district- school, and that only in the winter after he was old enough to assist his father in the labor of the farm and the workshop; but by his greediness for knowledge, and his eager receptivity of what- ever came within his reach, he attracted the special notice, interest, and aid of several of his teachers. At the age of seventeen he became a teacher, at first in a district-school, and continued to serve in that profession, in schools public and private, till 1834. Meanwhile he prepared him- self for Harvard College, passed the examinations for admission in 1830, and subsequently pursued, or rather exceeded, — at least in the classical department, — the regular college course ; so that, but for a required year of residence, he might have taken his bachelor's degree -svith his class. In the spring of 1834 he entered the Divinity School of Harvard University, having prepared himself to join the class that had entered the previous autumn. He had already studied the Hebrew language with a Jewish teacher then of high reputation, and had acquired sufficient pro- ficiency in it to undertake the instruction of a class of under-graduates, and, during a long ab- sence of the professor, to fill his place in the Divinity School. His capacity of continuous and various literary labor during his life at Cam- bridge, and, indeed, until the final failure of his health, can have been seldom equalled, perhaps never exceeded. At all times his reading of books demanding the closest attention was, per- haps, too rapid for accurate remembrance and citation ; but the mass of his acquisitions and his facility in their use, in classical learning, history, philosophy, and theology, were almost imprece- dented. He graduated at the Divinity School in 1836. His sermons during his novitiate had been se- verely criticised by the professor of homiletics as dry and scholastic; but he no sooner appeared as a preacher Ijefore a larger public than he was heard with eager interest, and was regarded as a man of marked ability and promise. After several months of highly acceptable service in various churches, some of which sought to retain him per- manently, he received and accepted an invitation to the pastorate of a church in "West Roxbury, now a part of Boston. It was a small rural congregation, consisting in part of the families of intelligent and prosperous farmers, in part of persons whose social affinities were chiefly with the neighboring city. It is difficult to determine the period when he began to diverge from the then prevailing type of Unitarianism which was his by birthri^t, education, early choice, and, for a time, sincere and devout loyalty. His private papers, obviously not meant for any eye but his own, yet unsparingly used by his biographers, indicate the progress of serious, anxious, and often painful inquiry, and at the same time a pervading and profound sense of religious obliga- tion, and a deeply devotional spirit; so that, how- ever little quarter may be given to his theology, it is impossible to doubt his integrity and honesty of aim and pm-pose. Early in his ministry, it became known that he was latitudinarian in his opinions and in the expression of them ; and the more conservative of the Unitarian clergj', while not formally dissolving fellowship with him, were no longer ready to admit him into their pulpits. He, meanwhile, became intimate with George Ripley, Alcott, and other leaders of what was then called the " transcendental school ; " and though his was a mind adapted to make, rather than to receive, strong impressions, this association un- doubtedly broadened for him the field of specula- tion, and stimulated him on the career of free thought by the consciousness of sympathy. He cannot be said to have belonged to their school, though his philosophy was certainly transcen- dental in contradistinction to the sensualism of Locke and his adherents. On the most funda- mental of all religious truths — the personality of God, with the correlative truth, the reality of the communion of the human spirit with him in prayer — he seems never to have entertained a doubt ; while in this entire region of thought they were utterly befogged and adrift, though some of them ultimately came out into clearer light, and upon solid ground. Parker's first open and fully avowed dissent from prevailing religious beliefs was in 1841, in a sermon preached at the ordination of Rev. Charles Chauncy Shackford, at South Boston. The subject was The Transient and Pej-manent in Christianity: the text, "Heaven and earth shall pass away; but my words shall not pass away." In this sermon, while maintaining the identity of Christ's teachings with the absolute and eter- nal religion, and presenting his character as the else unapproached ideal of human perfection, he put the brand of exaggeration, myth, or fable, on all that is supernatural in the Gospel narrative, the full authenticity of which was by implication denied. The alarm-note was thus struck for vehement controversy. Not only dissent, but strong dissiliency was almost unanimously ex- pressed by the Unitai'ian clergy. This feeling was intensified by several lectures delivered in Boston during the ensuing autumn, and after- ward published, in which Parker expounded more at large, illustrated, and defended the views, which, at the first statement, had awakened such surprise and consternation. There remained very few of his clerical brethren who were willing to exchange pulpits with him; and those few did so at the imminent risk, and in some instances with the loss, of their professional standing. It is believed that no then settled minister avowed agreement in opinion with him, though some were disposed to regard his ground as within the legitimate limits of Christian speculation. The Boston Association of Ministers, to which he be- longed, took prompt action of dissent and dis- approval, and, without a formal vote of dismissal. PARKER. 1748 PARKER. held a position which led to his virtual with- drawal from their body. But among the laity he had a strong following. In 1845 he was urged by many friends to commence a i-egular religious service in Boston, and early in the following year he became the minister of a congregation which assumed the name of the Twenty-eighth Congre- gational Society. The permanent members of this society were not numerous ; but they were, for the most part, of superior intelligence and culture, and of deservedly high social position, — some of them in full sympathy with him in opin- ion; some, who did not agree with him, won by his simplicity, frankness, earnestness, and fervor ; some, attracted by his firmness in the advocacy of the great philanthropic enterprises then under popular odium ; yet others, dissatisfied with the previously existing churches, and, from weariness of the old, inclined to make experiment of the new. His audiences from the first were large. The smaller hall rented at the beginning for the Sunday service was soon found inadequate ; and the jMusic Hall, to which the society early emi- grated, with at least three thousand sittings, was always well filled, often crowded. His parishion- ers organized under his direction various local and general charities which were liberally sus- tained, while he busied himself equally in diligent parochial work, in the instruction of classes of his stated heai'ers, in the advocacy by voice and pen of the antislavery and temperance reforms, and in meeting the constant applications for counsel and aid which multiply upon a city minister in proportion to his willingness to bear the burden. At the same time he carried through the press several volumes, and not a few sermons, lectures, and addresses. In fine, but for the evi- dence remaining in contemporary records, reports, and documents, the amount of labor crowded into the few years of his Boston pastorate would transcend belief. But he was undoubtedly becoming a victim to overwork. Though in appearance robust and hardy, he had inherited from his mother a ten- dency to pulmonary disease ; and, during his student life, he must have enfeebled his constitu- tion, though unconsciously, by insufficient food and clothing, by scanting the hours of sleep, and by the utter neglect of exercise and recreation. As early as 1850 there are entries in his journal that indicate declining health, though his own is almost the duly record of it for the seven fol- lowing years. In 1857 the exposure and fatigue of a lecturing tour in the interior of New York resulted in an illness of several months' duration. After a brief but intensely busy period of conva- lescence, he was seized in 1859 with a severe hemorrhage from the lungs. It was then found that tubercular disease was far advanced ; and immediate arrangements were made for sending him, first to the West Indies, then to Europe. Change of scene and a genial climate may have retarded the progress of the fatal malady, but there were at no time any hopeful symptoms ; and, after several weeks of extreme debility, he died in Florence on the 10th of jMay, 1860. If Parker's theology be defined as anti-super- iiaturalism, the definition needs to be still further limited. There is a school of physico-theology, which, without denying the being of God, makes him the mere figure-head of a self-developing, automatic Nature. With this school Parker had no sympathy. His faith in the universal and discretionary providence of God, in his nearness to the individual soul, in the influence of his Spirit and man's need of that influence, and in the reality of prayer and of the answer to prayer, corresponded in all I'espects with the literal and commonly received interpretation of the Chris- tian Scriptures. His private papers abound in devotional thought, which often, especially at marked epochs, as on a birthday, or the close of a year, takes the form of direct address to the Supreme Being in thanksgiving and petition. The Divine Providence, in his theory, assigns to every man his place, his endowments, his life- work : to some, pre-eminence ; to others, subordi- nate offices. Jesus Christ was, like all others, a providential man, but unlike, because transcend- ing, all others in the perfectness of the divine image borne in various degrees of resemblance by all God's children. Jesus he characterizes "as the highest representation of God we know;" and thus as holding in the divhie will and pur- pose a unique and unapproached position as a teacher of eternal truth, and "as the noblest example of morality and religion." He regai'ds the divine inspiration as the source of all in man that is not " of the earth, earthy ; " of all in phi- losophy, art, and literature, that can enrich and ennoble the spiritual nature ; of all high aspira- tion, virtuous aim, and worthy endeavor; and of whatever of the true and the good there may have been in the ethnic religions. Inspiration in any given instance is a question, not of fact, but of degree. It is not the communication of truth, but the quiokeuing and energizing of those perceptive and apprehensive powei's by which truth is discerned and appropriated. There is no express revelation, nor is there need of any. There is absolute truth, in God, in nature, in the soul of man, which is perceived intuitively, and can be verified by intuition alone. Jesus Christ had a fuller, clearer, more profound intuition of absolute truth, than any other human being, in- asmuch as his pre-eminent godlikeness clarified and intensified his spiritual vision. His teach- ings, therefore, ai-e of inestimable worth ; and on all the essentials of religion and morality they are their own sufficient proof to the recipient soul. But they have, and from their very nature could have, no other verification. Objective truth can be proved only by becoming subjective, and thus forming a part of the believer's conscious- ness. But, while Christ's moral perfection made him incapable of false intuitions, on matters out- side of the range of spiritual consciousness he was liable to error. His predictions were mere conjectures. He had false notions as to the authority of the Hebrew Scriptures. He believed in a personal devil and in demoniacal possession. Nor was he entirely free from distinctively He- brew prejudices. Parker did not account miracles as impossible ; but he regarded them as irrelevant and worthless as credentials of religious truth, as therefore im- probable, and as resting on insufficient evidence. Nothing was more natural than that reverence for a teacher of superior sanctity and of com- manding influence should surround his common PARKHURST. 1749 PARSBEISM. life, and especially his deeds of mercy, with a supernatural halo; that such narratives should grow by tradition ; and that biographies written in a succeeding generation should in perfect good faith blend myth with fact. In this respect Juda- ism and Christianity belong to the same category with other religions that have had their origin within the period covered by history. The Hebrews were, according to Parker, en- dowed with a special religious genius, or apti- tude ; and their sacred writings have a superior religious and ethical value, though by no means free from gross anthropomo.phism, false repre- sentations of the Divine character, and instances in which the Divine approval is ascribed to deeds, persons, and maxims, that merit disapproval and condemnation. With these qualifications, the Old Testament is, in large part, a veracious record of the development of the religious sentiment, under the most favorable auspices, in a people destined to hold the foremost place in the religious his- tory of mankind. The Gospels are honest tran- scripts of such traditions with reference to the life and teaching of Christ, as were current in the Christian Church at the several dates of their authorship ; and when allowance is made for ex- aggerations on the side of the mar\'ellous, and for misconceptions incident to the limited intelli- gence of the writers, they may be regarded as furnishing an authentic biography of the Founder of our religion. Parker's principal publications were. Discourse of Matters pertaining to Religion, 1842 ; Critical and Miscellaneous Writings, 1843 ; Ten Sermons of Religion, 1853; Sennons on Theism, Atheism, and the Popular Theology, 1853 ; and four volumes of Speeches, Addresses, and Occasional Sermons, 1852 and 1855. To these must be added a very large number of articles, sermons, and lectures. A collective edition of his works, in twelve volumes octavo, was published in London in 1863-65. Among his earlier literary works should be named a translation of De Wette's Critical and Histori- cal Introduction to the Canonical Scriptures of the Old Testament, with annotations by the translator. This appeared in 1843. His Prayers were pos- thumously published, Boston, 1861, new ed., 1882. His Life has been written by Weiss, Boston, 1864, 2 vols., and by Frothingham, New York, 1874. A. P. PEABODY. PARKHURST, John, Churoh-of-England lexi- cographer; b. at Catesby, Northamptonshire, June, 1728 ; d. at Epsom, Surrey, March 21, 1797. He was graduated B.A. at Cambridge, 1748; en- tered into orders, but soon thereafter retired to his estate at Epsom, and devoted himself to bibli- cal studies. He is remembered for his Hebrew and English Lexicon, viithout Points, with a Hebrew and Chaldee Grammar, without Points, London, 1762 (three editions in the author's lifetime, and five since ; the prefaced Hebrew and Chaldee grammar was subsequently separately reprinted by James Prosser, London, 1840), and Greek and English Lexicon to the New Testament, to zohich is prefixed a Plain and Easy Greek Grammar, 1769, last edition by Rose and Major, 1851. These works are now superseded, but they have done long and excellent service. PARNELL, Thomas, D.D., b. at Dublin, 1679; d. at Chester, July, 1718 (or 1717) ; was educated at Trinity College, Dublin ; ordained, 1700 ; arch- deacon of Clogher, 1705 ; prebendary of Dublin, 1713 ; and vicar of Finglass, 1716. He frequently visited London, and was intimate with Pope and Swift. Pope published in 1722 his Poems, to later editions of which was prefixed a sketch of his life by Goldsmith. Another volume appeared, 1758 : its contents were chiefly on sacred themes. Their authenticity has been doubted, it would seem without reason. Campbell found " a charm in the correct and equable sweetness of Parnell; " and Goldsmith considered him " the last of that great school that had modelled itself upon the ancients." To the devout reader the later book ascribed to him is the more interesting of the two. F. M. BIED. PARSEEISM was, under the Achemenides and the Sassanides, the ruling religion of Persia, but is now professed only by a few congregations, the so-called Parsees living in and around the Persian city of Yasd and in the western portion of India. To India the Parsees emigrated in the middle of the seventh century after Christ, in order to escape the persecutions of the Moslem caliphs ; but very little is known of their settle- ment and later vicissitudes there. In 1852 they numbered 50,000 souls ; of whom 20,184 lived in Bombay, 10,507 in Surate, and the rest scattered around in the districts of Barotsh, Balsar, Nau- sari, and Ahmedabad. In 1879 they numbered 8,499 in Persia. The origin of Parseeism dates back to prehis- toric times. Its fundamental ideas must have been formed at a time when the Hindus and the Persians still lived together as one people ; that is, at a time when the Vedas were not yet pro- duced, at least fifteen hundred years before Christ. The contrast between light and dark- ness, the most prominent characteristic of Par- seeism, must have been developed by both peoples in common, as also the first outlines of certain deities which afterwards, after the separation, assumed differently specialized features, — Andra among the Persians, Indra among the Hindus, Mithra and Mitra, NSsatyan and NSonghaithya, and others. But it was only the very beginning of a religion and a civilization which was thus made. The two peoples separated, at what time and for what reason, we know not. And among the Persians the contrast between light and dark- ness was gradually raised to a moral contrast between good and bad, and developed into an elaborate dualism. Ormuzd, in the older idiom Ahura^Mazda, is the cause of every thing good, and dwells in the perfect light: Ahriman, or Angra-Mainyas, is the cause of all evil, and dwells in the densest darkness. The inscriptions of Darius mention the good principle, imder the name of Aura, or Auramazda : the evil principle they do not mention, but it may be that the omission is accidental. Plato and Aristotle knew both the principles, as well as several of the subor- dinate spirits ranging under each principle. On the relation between those two fundamental principles, Ormuzd and Ahriman, depends the whole visible world, its origin, the course of its history, and its end. The cosmology of the Par- sees is somewhat differently held by the different sects. An elaborate representation of it is found only in writings from a later period. We give PARSEBISM. 1750 PARSEBISM. below the most common, and probably, also, the oldest, version of it which was known to Plutarch, at least in all its principal features. From the very beginning, Ormuzd and Ahri- man were in decided opposition to each other. The one dwelt in perfect light, the other in com- plete darkness; but between them was an interval of empty space. Somehow, however, Ahriman discovered the existence of Ormuzd ; and, full of wrath, he rushed against him to destroy him. By virtue of his omniscience, Ormuzd was aware of the existence and movements of Ahriman ; and he also knew that the contest with him would present formidable difficulties. The victory was, indeed, very doubtful ; as the two principles wei-e of equal strength, and each of them perfect in its own way. But while it is in the character of Ormuzd to think first, and then to act, it is in the character of Ahriman to act first, and then to think. Ormuzd, after taking p, survey of his means of contest, saw that he could secure victory by protracting the contest. He then began creat- ing spirits, or beings suitable for his purpose ; and Ahriman immediately took up imitating him. Three thousand years thus passed away. Then Ormuzd persuaded Ahriman to make a truce with him for nine thousand years ; but hardly had the contract been concluded, before Ahriman under- stood its true bearing, and, seized with despair, he rushed down into the depths of darkness, and there he remained for three thousand years,, dumb and idle. During this whole period Ormuzd continued creating ; first the heaven, then the water, finally the earth with the trees, the cattle, and the human race. He was aided by the spirits he had first created (Bahman, the protector of all living beings ; Ardibihisht, the spirit of fii-e ; Sharevar, the spirit of the metals; Spendarmat, the spirit of the earth ; ChordSd and Amerdad, the spirits of the waters and the trees), while the corresponding spirits created by Ahriman (Aco- man, Andar, Saval, Naoghaithya, Taritsh, and Zaritsh) were doing their utmost to disturb him. But Ahriman had no truly creative power. He could pi'oduce only the negations of Ormuzd's works. Thus when Ormuzd created the stai'S, four hundred and eighty-six thousand in num- ber, and arranged them like an army to defend heaven (Tistar in the east, Satvep in the west, Vanant in the south, Haptoirang in the north, and Mes-gah in the middle), Ahriman created evil stars to counteract them, and placed Tlr against Tistar, Ormudzd (Jupiter) against Vanant, AnS- hid against Satvep, Behrani (Mars) against Hap- toirang, and Kevan (Saturn) against iVIes-gah. When the earth was done, it was lowered from heaven, and suspended as a kind of outpost in the empty space between the realms of Ormuzd and Ahriman. Meanwhile the latter awakened from his stupor, and saw with amazement what had happened, but determined to risk the last before succumbing. He bored a hole through the earth, and appeared on its surface. Urstier and Gayomard, the first two human beings ci-eat- ed, could not withstand him, but were utterly destroyed. Ormuzd then created Meshia and Meshiane ; but they, too, fell a prey to the temp- tations of Ahriman ; and hunger, sleep, old age, sickness, and death were the result of their fall. Thus the earth became the true arena on which takes place the great contest between Ormuzd and Ahriman ; but, however fearful this contest may be, there can be no question, that when the nine thousand years of the truce have run out, and the great battle begins, the power of Ormuzd will have increased so much that he will easily overthrow Ahriman. For twelve thousand years the world shall last. Of this period the first quarter is taken up with the creation ; the second reaches from the com- pletion of the creation to the appearance of Ah- riman on the earth ; and the third, from that moment to the birth of the great prophet of Parseeism, Zarathustra, or Zoroaster. This third quarter is the heroic or mythical age of Parsee- ism. Sei-pents, dragons, and evil kings — Dahak, Zohak, Afrasiab, and others — are poured down upon the earth by Ahriman ; and Ormuzd is hardly able to counteract the effect by the crea- tion of great heroes, such as Jenjib, Feridan, Caicobad, and others. To send his great prophet he dares not : the power of Ahriman is still too great. Not until the opening of the third quar- ter Zoroaster can be born. Ahriman knew of the event, and understood its importance. By the aid of the evil spirits he first tried to prevent the birth of Zoroaster ; and, having failed in that, he endeavored to destroy him. In his thir- tieth year he was summoned before Ormuzd, and received from him the necessary instructions and commandments. He then presented himself be- fore the king, Vishtaspa ; and, by the miracles he wrought, he succeeded in gaining the king and his court over to the new doctrine. The ac- counts, however, of Zoroaster, are wholly legen- dary, and give not the smallest evidence with respect to time and place. Persian theologians simply tell us that Zoroaster was born three thousand years before the occurrence of the last judgment ; and when foreign historians place him five thousand years before the Trojan War, or six hundred years before Xerxes, they have as little historical evidence to offer. Vishtaspa has by some been identified with Hystas'pes, the father of Darius ; but the supposition is very little probable. The immediate result, however, of the appearance of Zoroaster is described as being very great ; for the divine word which he brings along with him is a weapon ■tvhich has the same effect on the supernatural adherents of Ahri- man, the Devs, as natural weapons have on natu- ral bodies. After the appearance of Zoroaster, the Devs are unable to assume an earthly body : they can act only invisibly. There are now, also, other ways in which Ormuzd can fight against Ahriman. Every thousandth year he shall send a new prophet,' — Oshedar, Oshedar-mah, and Sosiosh ; and though mankind may still have many sore trials to go through, there can be no doubt that in the last moment, when the mountains sink, the ocean roars with streams of molten metals, and the whole earth is on fire, Ahriman will be utterly overthrown, and Ormuzd will gather the whole human race into the eternal light whei'e he dwells. The practical bearing of this theoretical con- struction is clear and decisive. Living on the earth, where the great contest takes place between Ormuzd and Ahriman, man is not allowed to remain neutral. He must make his choice, [f PARSBBISM. 1751 PARSBBISM. he chooses Ormuzd, it is not impossible that he may become very imhappy in life, for Ahriman's power on earth is very great ; and for the very same reason he may become very happy in life, though he chooses Ahriman. But the end of life is not the end of him. Three days after his death, judgment will be passed on his life on earth. His good and evil deeds will be weighed in the balance. If there is an overweight of good, he will pass directly across the bridge Jinvad into Paradise; but, if there is an over- weight of evil, the bridge wiU prove so narrow and steep, that he will become dizzy, and tumble down into the depths of darkness, where Ahri- man and the Deys will receive him with laugh- ter and scorn, and torture him until the day of the final judgment comes. In his choice, however, the Parsee is not left without the necessary guidance. His sacred book, Avesta, contains the commandments of Ormuzd, by obedience to which he will soon find himseK on the right path. First, he must believe in Ormuzd ; and he must prove his belief, not only by his words, but also by his thoughts and actions, avoiding all arrogance and envy, all lying and slander, all unchastity, magic, and vice of any kind. Next, he must show his reverence for the Amshaspands by protecting those creations in which they live, — Bahman, by keeping sacred all clean living beings ; Ardibihisht, by maintaining the fire ; Sharevar, by preserving the metals pure ; Chordad and Amerdad, by taking care of the trees and the waters. Nor must he neglect the still more subordinate spirits, but aid them in their working by his own doing. To gather a fortune by useful activity, to raise cattle, to make waste land fertile, to destroy serpents and weeds, and other vicious animals and plants, are meritorious works, which contribute to the extension of the realm of Ormuzd. But more especially he must always keep himself clean. Of all uncleanliness, contamination by a corpse is the worst. As soon as the soul has left the body, evil spirits take pos- session of it ; and any one who comes in contact with a corpse must undergo a purification, gener- ally consisting simply in ablutions, but some- times requiring ceremonies which cannot be properly performed without the assistance of a priest. It is, however, not enough to keep the body clean : also the soul must be preserved pure. Evil thoughts and passions are, indeed, nothing more or less than Drujas, a sort of evil spirits, less powerful than the seven Devs, which Ahriman has succeeded in introducing in the human soul. The way by which they enter is always some evil action ; and the only means by which they may be expelled are free and open confession to a priest of the sin committed, and proper fulfilment of the penance he enjoins, which often consists in killing a certain number of vicious animals, but often, also, in saying a certain number of prayers. The Avesta, however, does not simply give a system of personal morals : it contains a com- plete code of civil law, based upon the two funda- mental ordinances, to tell the truth, and to keep one's word. To tell a lie, and to break a promise, are still, in our times, by the Parsees considered as almost inexpiable crimes. Hence the reason why they everywhere occupy so respected and so influ- ential a position in society. Of all contracts, mar- riage is considered the most sacred ; and, probably on account of the great pride of the ancient Persian families, the best form of marriage is that between very near relatives. For the dead it is the duty of the Parsee to pray during the three days intervening between the death and the judg- ment. General prayers are also offered up for the dead during the last ten days of the year, as it is generally believed, that during that term the dead are allowed to revisit the earth. Between Ormuzd and the spiiit-world on the one side, and man on the other, the priest acts as a kind of mediator. Formerly the priesthood most probably belonged to one certain tribe ; but at present it is not inherited, but acquu-ed. The priest shall know the law by heart. He is ordained with many ceremonies, and his principal duty is to celebrate service every day. The service begins at midnight, the moment at which the spirits of darkness exercise their highest ]Dower, and lasts until morning. It consists of three parts : first, hymns, and offering of sacrifices; then hymns, and recitation of portions of the law ; and, finally, hymns and prayers. As sacrifices are offered small breads, called Damn, of the size of a dollar, and covered with a piece of meat, incense, and Haoma or Horn, the juice of a plant unknown to strangers. The Damn and the Horn are after- wards eaten by the priests. Besides celebrating service, it is also the duty of the priest to confess his flock. It is, indeed, the dutj' of each Parsee family to have a confessor among the priests, to whom one-tenth of the income of the family shall be paid. The young Parsee becomes a member of the congregation when he is fifteen years old : after a preparatory iustruetion by the priests, he undergoes an examination, performs certain ceremonies, and then receives the sacred cord, the so-called Costi, which he never puts off any more. The Parsees acknowledge that their sacred books such as they now exist are not complete. The teachings they contain were in old times rarely put down in writing, but simply confided to the memory; and thus it can easily be under- stood how parts of them could be lost during the whirlwind which Alexander brought down upon Persia. What has remained falls into two groups, — an older and a younger. The older gToup con- tains, besides some minor collections of prayers and hymns, the Avesta ; which again consists of the two liturgical works, Vispered and Ya9na, and the law-book, Vendidad. These three books are sometimes put together in parts, such as they are used in the divine service, and sometimes separately, each provided with a translation, and with fflossce, called Zend. The proper name of the book would consequently be Avesta and Zend, and not Zendavesta. The younger group contains, besides the older books translated into Pehlevi, a Persian dialect spoken under the Sas- sanides, the Bundehesh, a treatise on the creation, the Bahmanyascht, a treatise on the resurrection, the Minokhired, a dialogue on moral questions, and the Arda-Viraf-name, a Persian transcription of the apocryphal ascension of Isaiah. The oldest translations of the Avesta are the French by Anquetil du Perron, Paris, 1771, and the German by Kleuker, Riga, 1776. The latest translations are the German by Spiegel (Leipzig, 1852-62, PARSONS. 1752 PASCAL. 3 vols.), the English by J. Darmestetev, in M. Miiller's Sacred Books of the East (London, part first, 1880), and the French by Harlez (Paris, 1876-78, 3 vols., 2d ed., 1881). See M. Haug : Essays on the Sacred Language, Writings, and Reli- gion of the Parsis, Bombay, 1862, 2d ed. by E. W. West, London, 1878 ; Spiegel : Eranische Alter- thumskunde, Leipzig, 1871-78, 3 vols. ; A. Hove- LACQUE : L'Avesta, Zoroastre el le Mazdeisme, Paris, 1880 ; W. Geiger : Ostiranische Kullur im Alterlhum, Erlangen, 1882. SPIEGBL. PARSONS, Robert. See Persons, Robert. PARSONS, Levi, Congregational missionary; b. in Goshen, Mass., July 18, 1792 ;■ d. at Alexan- dria, Egypt, Feb. 22, 1822. He was graduated at Middlebury College, 1814; sailed Nov. 3, 1819, with Pliny Fisk, for the East, under commission of the American Board. They landed at Smyrna ; and on Feb. 12, 1820, Mr. Parsons arrived at Jeru- salem, the first Protestant missionary to enter that city. He left it May 8. On his journey to Smyrna, where he arrived Dec. 3, he was de- tained by severe illness on the island of Syra, and shortly thereafter died. See his biography by D. V. Morton, Boston, 1824, also Sprague's Annals, ii. 644-648. PARTICULAR AND GENERAL BAPTISTS, Among the Baptists of England are the Gen- eral Baptists and Particular Baptists ; the former being Arminian in theology, and holding to a " general " atonement ; and the latter Calvinistic, holding to a " particular " atonement. The Gen- eral Baptists are descended from the company, which, having embraced Baptist doctrines, with- drew from the main body of the Separatist exiles in Holland, and afterwards returned to England in 1612, under the lead of Thomas Helwys. The Particular Baptists are descended from the company, which, under the lead of John Spilsbury, withdrew in 1633 from Henry Jacobs's Independ- ent congregation at Southwark. See J. Clif- ford : The Origin and Growth of the English Baptists, London, n.d., and arts. Baptists and (in the Appendix) General Baptists. PASAGIANS, The (Pasagii, Passagini), were a sect which we first hear of in the latter part of the twelfth century, and were condemned at the Council of Verona in 1184. We learn some- thing of their doctrines from Bonacursus (Mani- fesiatio hcer. Catharorum, in d'Achery, Spicilegium i., 212) and Bergamensis (Specimen opusc. c. Catharos et Pasagios, in Muratori, Antqq. Hal. med. aoi, V. 152). Both say that the Pasagians taught that the Mosaic law was still in force, the offer- ings only excepted, and denied the doctrine of the Trinity. Frederick II., in his law against heretics (1224), calls them "the Circumcised." According to Landulphus the younger (Hist. Mediolan. 41), the excommunication which the archbishop of Milan pronounced upon the oppo- nents of Pope Anacletus in 1133 was the occasion of niauy Christians falling away to Judaism. xV more probable explanation of the origin of the sect may be found with Neander in the inter- course of Jews with Christians. It is, however, best to look to Palestine for their origin ; the term passagium ("passage") pointing to pilgrim- ages. Du Cange falsely derived the name from iraf uyio; ("all holy"). Erroneous is also the view that Pasagians was another designation for the Cathari. The sect seems to have shown itself principally in Italy. c. SCHMIDT. PASCAL, Blaise, one of the greatest thinkers of the seventeenth century; a master of French prose above all his contemporaries; an original inves- tigator in the physical sciences and mathemat- ics; prominent as a philosopher and theologian, and one of the most conscientious, pious, and noble sons of the Catholic Church ; was b. at Clermont, June 19, 1623; d. at Paris, Aug. 19, 1662. He came from an old and respected fami- ly, and was one of three children. His sister Gil- berte (b. Jan. 7, 1620), who married her cousin Florin Perier, became his biographer. His youn- ger sister, Jacqueline (b. at Clermont, Oct. 4, 1625 ; d. at Port Royal, where she was sub-prior- ess, Oct. 4, 1661), was endowed with the gifts of genius, as well as the graces of womanhood, de- veloped her remarkable powers at an early age, and became one of the principal figures at Port Royal. In 1626 the mother died ; and in 1631 the father went to Paris in order to devote himself wholly to the education of Blaise, whose fine tal- ents he had already discerned. The son made excellent progress in the classics, and was to be kept for the time being from mathematics. But his mathematical genius burst forth naturally into expression, and the boy was found to have dis- covered several of Euclid's propositions before he was twelve years old. In 1640 his father was sent to Rouen by Richelieu, and Blaise invented the counting-machine as a help for him in his duties. He spent five years upon its .perfection. The years 1647, 1648, he devoted to investigations about atmospheric pressure, confirmed Toricelli's law, and discovered the principle of barometric measurements. These are only examples of his investigations in the department of natural sci- ence. In 1646 the Pascal family became ac- quainted, through some friends, with the writings of Arnauld, St. Cyran, Jansen, etc., and the Jan- senist pastor, Guillebert. Jacqueline, at the death of her father (1651), who had opposed it, took the vows of a nun at Port Royal. Blaise, on the other hand, seemed to lose his religious disposi- tion. He indulged in play, and lost. His favorite author was the sceptical Montaigne. But he was not satisfied. An unrequited affection for a lady of high rank increased his dissatisfaction, and the evangelical piety of Port Royal won his admi- ration. The pooi-ly accredited accident on the bridge of Neuilly, when the horses ran over into the river, and the carriage was left behind on the bridge, is not to be regarded as having had much infiuence on his conversion. The strange docu- ment which was found, after his death, carefully wrapped up, and sewed in his coat, dated his conversion on Nov. 23, 1654. The document was designed to keep him always mindful of the divine grace which had impressed him so power- fully that night. A sermon by Singlin (Dec. 8) confirmed him in his new purpose ; and at his advice Pascal retired to the quiet of Port Royal, where De Sacy became his confessor. His re- markable conversation with De Sacy about Mon- taigne and Epictetus proves how difiioult it was for him to crush his doubts, and shows that he was determined to secure peace of heart by a severe ascetic discipline. Without assuming mo- nastic vows, he resided at Port Royal, renoun- PASCAL. 1753 PASCAL. cin^ the world, practising a strict discipline of fasting, nocturnal church attendance, wearing a girdle of thorns, etc., and enjoying the respect of all. In the contest against Port Royal, which broke out after the Pope's condemnation, on May 31, 1653, of the five articles of Jansenism, Pascal took the side of Port Koyal, and became its bold and witty champion. On June 23, 1656, his first Pro- vincial letter (Lettre e'crite a un Provincial par un de ses amis) appeared, and was followed by seven- teen others. They were, in the best sense of the word, tracts for the times ; for, when Pascal was writing the first, he did not think of any others. Put in the form of a dialogue, and written in a lively style, they unmasked to the public the in- consistencies and weakness of the Jesuits' code of ethics. They were earnest in tone, and free from all scurrility, and in this particular furnish contrast to the famous Epistolce ohscurorum viro- rum. The author was concealed for a long time under the pseudonyme of IMontalte. The letters were scattered far and wide. Their publication was forbidden, but the police strove in vain to stop the circulation. In the first three letters, Pascal defended the theological tenets of Arnauld; but in the fourth, reminded by a friend that a severe theological controversy would soon weary the reader, he passed over to a tilt with Jesuits ism, and struck it at its most vulnerable point, — its moral principles, and their danger to the state. He showed up with wonderful skill the laxity of theu- ethical maxims and practices. In the last letters he seeks to exonerate Port Royal from the charge of heresy, and to show that Jansenism is in accord with the Universal Church. These let- ters are the most able and powerful condemna- tion that Jesuitism has ever received from the Catholic side. They did not secure very visible results at the time, because court and clergy were in favor of the Jesuits ; but the wound was a deadly one, nevertheless. In 1700 a synod of French clergy condemned Jesuitical casuistry, and they prepared the way more than any thing else for the expulsion of the Jesuits from France in 1764. In spite of these several attacks, Pascal was a good Catholic, and remained so, even after the condemnation of his Letters by Pope Alexan- der VII. (Sept. 6, 1657), and their burning by the hand of the public hangman (Oct. 14, 1660). He positively denied all connection with the Cal- vinists. These years (1656, 1657) in which Pascal wrote his Provincial Letters were his happiest years. It w£is at this period that the celebrated miracle of the holy thorn occurred. On March 24, 1656, a thorn from Christ's crown of thorns was put upon the high altar at Port Royal. As the teacher of the children was passing by, she took the thorn, and touched it to the diseased eye of Pas- cal's niece, Margaret Perier. In the evening it was suddenly discovered that the eye was healed. This rendered the proposed operation unneces- sary; and, eight days subsequeijtly, the physician affirmed that the cure was a miracle. Other mira- cles were afterwards accomplished with the holy thorn. Pascal was deeply impressed with the miraculous cure of his niece, and determined to make much of the proof from miracles in his Apology for Christianity. He never succeeded in carrying out his plan, but left behind those thoughts and reflections which after his death were published in the much praised Pense'es. From 1656 Pascal spent most of his time in Paris. His health, always poor, declined very perceptibly after 1658; but he continued to de- vote himself to a severe ascetic discipline and works of charity. His last years were made pain- ful by the measures of the court and Rome (1660) for the suppression of Port Royal, and by the con- cession of Arnauld, Nicole, and the nuns in agree- ing to the pastoral letter. (See Port Royal.) He received the sacrament from his confessor. He lies buried in the Church of St. fitienne du Mont. A bronze statue at the Tower of St. Jacques, Paris, bears witness to his wonderful experiments as a natural philosopher in deter- mining the weight and elasticity of air. Pascal stands for the re-action of an offended and pious conscience against Pelagianism and Jesuitism. The depth of his nature and the strength of his Christian convictions are attested by thousands of passages in his Pensees, from whose flashes of thought, acute observation of human nature and its needs, multitudes have drawn spiritual comfort, strength, and hope. He broke a new path for the defence of Christianity by emphasizing its adaptation to the needs of the human heart, and bringing out its ethical ele- ment. He is one of those rare religious charac- ters whom both Catholics and Protestants love to claim ; and his defence of Christianity is, to use the fine words of Neander, "a witness to that religious conviction which is founded in imme- diate perception, and is elevated above all re- flection." Lit. — Complete edition of Pascal's works by Bossi'T, La Haye, 1779, 5 vols. ; later editions, Paris, 1819, 1830, 1858, 1864, etc. The Provincial Letters at first appeared under the title Lettres escrites a un provincial par un de ses amis sur la doctrine des Jesuits, 1656 (no place), and later under the title Les Provinciales ati les lettres escrites par Louis de Montalte, Cologne, 1657, innumerable editions since. Latin translation by Wendrock, 1658, Spanish by Gratian Cordero, ItaUan by CosiMO Brunetti, German by Hartmann, 1850, English by Royston, 1657. The Pense'es sur la Religion were published in 1670 (1669?) but, to soothe the Jesuits, with some changes. The ori- ginal text was published by Faugere, Paris, 1844, 2 vols. Innumerable editions have appeared, including those of Condorcet, 1776, Voltaire (with notes), 1778, Rocher, 1873, J. de Soyres, English notes, Cambridge, 1880; Eng. trans, of Thoughts and Provincial Letters, by Wight, New York, 2 vols. In 1728 Pascal's conversations with De Sacy about Montaigne and Epictetus was published. The literature about Pascal is very large. Lives by Gilberte Perier, 1684 ; Reuchlin : Pascal's Leben, etc., Stuttgart, 1840 (reliable) ; St. Beuve : Port Royal, Paris, 1842-48. vols. ii. iii. (able, accurate, and elegant) ; Maynabd, Paris, 1850 ; ViNET : JStudes sur B. P., Paris, 1856 [Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1859]; Cousin: Etudes sur B. P., Paris, 1857 ; Dreydorff : Pascal, sein Leben u. seine Kampfe, Leipzig, 1870 (a minute critical study) ; H. Weingarten : Pascal als Apologet d. Christenthums, Leipzig, 1863. PASCAL. 1754 PASCHAL CONTROVERSIES. [The miscellaneous works, letters, and poems of Jacqueline Pascal, were edited by Faugere, Paris, 1845, and her life written by Cousin, Paris, 1849, and Sophy Winthrop Weizel (Sister and Saint), New York, 1880.] th. schott. PASCAL, Jacqueline. See p. 1752. PASCHAL CONTROVERSIES. The anniver- sary of Christ's death was called "the passover" in the second and third centuries. From the fourth century this designation included the fes- tival of the resurrection ; and at a later period the idea of the passover was confined to the festi- val of Easter. The controversies concerning the differences of opinion about the special day of celebrating the anniversary of our Lord's death are known as the " Paschal Controversies." 1. The Celebration of the Passover in tJie First Three Centuries. — There is no doubt that Jesus was crucified during the week of the Jewish passover. According to the synoptists, Jesus ate the regular Paschal meal on the 14th, and died on the loth, o£ Nisan. According to John, he died on the 14th, "the preparation of the pass- over " (John xix. 14, 31). The attempts to recon- cile this difference have proved unsatisfactory for the unprejudiced exegete. [Some of the most eminent commentators and chronologists deny, and Justly, that an irreconcilable difference exists between John and the synoptists. Among these critics are Lightfoot, Wieseler, Robinson {Harm, of the Gospels, pp. 212-223), Lange, Ebrard, West- cott, Milligan, Plumptre, and Schaff.] It is difficult to determine when the celebration of the passover originated in the Christian Church. There is no doubt that the Jewish Christians continued to observe the Jewish feasts, associat- ing with them Christian ideas. It may be that the reference in 1 Cor. v. 7, 8, justifies the assump- tion that the feast was celebrated with Christian rites at Corinth. The Christian festivals are not mentioned, either by the apostolic Fathers or Justin Alartyr, and are not noticed till the second half of the second century. These considerations, and the evident connection in which they stood to the weekly festivals, have made Neander's view the prevailing one, — that the Christian festivals of the early church were developed out of the weekly festivals. The resurrection gave to the first day of the week a joyous character; and the memories of Christ's passion must have given to Friday an impressive and solemn significance. According to Hermas, Friday was passed in fast- ing, and the Lord's Supper was generally regarded as inappropriate to it. Every week was made to bear the impress of the week in which the Saviour was crucified. At the annual anniver- sary of the passion, these two days, Friday and Sunday, would have an augmented significance, and the solemnity of the former, and the joyous- ness of the latter, be intensified. The Christian celebration of the passover did not assume this double character in the second century, as Nean- der and Hilgenfeld suppose. The two features referred to were associated with the passover and Pentecost. In the wider application of the term, Pentecost covered fifty days, and commemorated the resurrection and ascension of Christ, and the outpouring of the Holy Spirit, and was a period of joyous festivity. The passover, in the second and third centuries, was exclusively a memorial of the passion and crucifixion, as is apparent from the following considerations : (1) All the oldest Fathers agree that Christ was the true Piischal lamb, and looked upon iiaaxa ("passoVer") and vaaxsiv (" to suffer ") as related terms (Justin : Dial, 40; Ii-en., IV. 10; Tertul. : Ado. Jud., 10). Augustine was the first to declare definitely against thisrelation. Starting with this assumption, they concluded that Christ's offering of himself could only have occurred on the day of the passover offering, the 14th of Nisan. (2) TertuUian {De bapt., 19) speaks of the passion of the Lord and Pentecost as proper times for baptism : on the former we are baptized into Christ's death ; on the latter, into his resurrection. Origen (c. Cel- sum, VIII. 22) speaks of those who are risen with Christ as continually walking in the days of Pentecost ; and, as he contrasts the passover with Pentecost, he cannot have associated the resur- rection with the passover. According to Hippo- lytus, the annual Christian passover, as late as the third century, was celebrated on the Friday which fell on the 14th of Nisan, or the one next follow- ing it. It was marked by fasting, which, as Ter- tullian states, was continued through Saturday (De jejun., 14), or even to Sunday morning (Ad uxor., II. 4). Some fasted forty hours. The Eoman Christian prolonged the fast till the cock-crowing on Sunday morning. In the fifth book of the Apostolic Constitutions the rules are further elabo- rated. " The fast of the forty days " preceded Paschal '\^'eek, and lasted each week five days. During Paschal Week, only bread, salt, and vege- tables could be eaten. The congregations were assembled in the vigil preceding the sabbath for the baptism of catechumens, and the reading and preaching of the gospel. At the cock-crowing the Eucharist was observed, a]id the evidences of joy substituted for the signs of mourning. 2. The Celebration of Passover in the Church of Asia Minor, and the Paschal Controversy. — The Church of Asia Minor differed from the Roman Church in regard to the observance of the pass- over. In the second century this difference was the occasion of a protracted controversy which agitated all Christendom, and remained for the historian, for a long time, one of the darkest pages in the history of early Christianity. The Church of Asia Minor celebrated the passover on the 14th of Nisan. The older theologians sup- posed it was the festival of the resurrection. Herrmann (vera descriplio priscce contentionis . . . de paschate, 1745) properly looked upon it as the festival of the Lord's passion. But Neander, in 1823, made the assertion that these churches, fol- lowing the Jewish custom, partook of a lamb on the 14th of Nisan, commemorating thereby the Last Supper. The Tiibingen school developed this idea more fully, using it as a proof against the genuineness of John's Gospel. Baur urged, that if this Gospel was designed to represent Christ as the true Paschal lamb, and to prove that the 14th of Nisan was the day of the cruci- fixion, it could not have been written by John ; for the churches of Asia Minor based their prac- tice upon his testimony, but, notwithstanding, must have regarded the 15th as the day of the crucifixion. But Neander, in the second edition of his Church History, proved that the churches of Asia Minor looked upon the 14th as the day PASCHAL CONTROVERSIES. 1755 PASCHAL CONTROVERSIES. on -which Christ died, because the Paschal lamb was the type of Christ's sacrifice. When, ill the year 160 (according to Lipsius, 155), Polycarp of Smyrna visited Anicetus, bishop of Rome, the question of the passover was dis- cussed. Anicetus could not persuade Polycarp to relinquish the observance of the 14th of Nisan as the day of the passover; the latter referring, in his justification, to the example of the apostle John. They parted on friendly terms. The controversy finally broke out in 190 (Lipsius, 192- 19i), when the Roman bishop Victor, with tlie presentiment of the primacy of his bishopric, at- tempted to force the Roman practice upon the churches of Asia JNlinor. Victor came to an understanding with other territorial churches. Synods were lield in Palestine, Pontus, Gaul, Osroene, Alexandria, Corinth, and Rome ; and the Roman practice was confirmed. The aged Poly- crates of Ephesus I'eplied in the name of all the bishops of Asia Minor, appealed to the apostles Philip and John, to Polycai-p, Thraseas, etc., all of whom had celebrated the passover on the 14th of Nisan, and added that he himself had studied up the Scriptures, and would not be intimidated by Rome. Victor declared the Oriental chm-ches heterodox, broke communion with them, and attempted to induce the other churches to do the same. Irenseus and many other bishops declared against this course. Victor was unsuccessful in influencing the other churches to follow him, and the rupture confined itself to Rome and Ephesus. Between 160 and 190 there was another con- troversy, which fell in 170, and was confined to the churches of Asia Minor. Eusebius (IV. 26, 3) speaks of a "great controversy about the pass- over in Laodicea." Melito and ApoUinaris wrote about it, but only fragments of their writings are preserved. The difference between Rome and the churches of Asia Minor is thus described by Eusebius (V. 23) : - " The churches of all Asia believed, upon the basis of older traditions, that the passover of the Saviour was to be celebrated on the fourteenth day of the mouth, on which tlie Jews were enjoined to offer the lamb; so that the fast might be terminated on tliis day, no matter on wliat particular day of the week it fell. The other churches of the world, did not adopt this practice, but held fast to the practice founded upon apostolic tradition, and still in vogue, that it was not fitting to break the fast on any day but the day of the resurrection." The synods, with the exception of that of Asia Minor, declared that the festival of the resurrec- tion was only to be kept on a Sunday, and that not till that day was the Paschal fasting to be concluded. From the above it is evident, that, as the churches of Asia Minor concluded their fasting on the 14th of Nisan, this day was regarded as the anniversary of the Lord's death. This con- clusion is confirmed by the later accounts of the Quartodecimans (the Fourteeners ; that is, those who commemorated the Lord's death on the 14th). Epiphanius states further (Hcbi:, L. 1), that the festival of the passover in Asia Minor continued only during a single day. The majority of the churches fixed the celebration by the day of the week (Friday) on which the crucifixion occurred; the churches of Asia Minor, by the day of the month of the Jewish passover. The case was different with the Laodicean con- troversy of 170. ApoUinaris, Clemens, and Hip- polytus opposed a party, which, proceeding upon the assumption that Jesus ate the Paschal meal on the 14th, and was crucified on the 15th, celebrated a feast on the 14th in commemoration of the last passover. 27i«se Quartodecimans, these three Fathers agree in opposing, on the ground that the true Paschal lamb suffered on the 14th. This party, although orthodox, had Jewish sympathies, and referred more especially to the Gospel of Matthew, the Gospel which the Ebionites used. It aroused the heated controversy at Laodicea, in which Melito of Sardis, and ApoUinaris of Hie- rapolis, took part. A certain Blastus, who, Tertul- lian says (-De prmscr., 53), wanted to smuggle in Judaistic practices, transplanted the party to Rome, and secured a following (Eus., V. 15). The increase of these schismatic Quartodecimans undoubtedly foiuned the occasion of Hippolytus' treatment of them in his Refutation of all Uerexies. Baur, Hilgenfeld, and others falsely assert that the distinction between Christian and Judaizing Quartodecimans is an arbitrary one. The Laodi- cean discussion was only a passing act in the great passover controversy, and the Roman Church succeeded in securing a representative for its views in ApoUinaris. The churches of Asia Minor continued to cling to the old Christian Paschal celebration as it had been introduced by John. It must be remarked (1) That every attempt to reconcile the fragments of the Paschal writings which have been preserved, and the notices about the practice of the churches of Asia Minor, has failed, so that the Laodicean discussion was not a mere passing act; (2) The Tiibingen school goes upon the false assumption, that John, after Paul's death, and in a hostile spirit, introduced the Judaistic practice ; and (3) That the celebra- tion of the Eucharist in Asia Minor was marked by features which distinguished it from the usual celebration in the cliurch, and was more nearly like the celebration in the church of the first days, etc. The church at large, appealing to the testimony of Peter and Paul, saw an approach to the Juda- istic mode of observance in the practice of the churches of Asia Minor. The more intense the conflict of the Geutile churches was with Ebion- ism, the more keen was its vision to spy out Judaizing tendencies. The observance of the 14th of Nisan was beyond dispute the only ground of this charge ; and historians failed to observe that the spirit of the Paschal celebration in Asia Minor was as much at variance with Judaizing Christianity as was that of Rome. In consequence of this divergence, and other differences in the time of observing the passover feast (the Romans putting the day of the equi- nox on March 18; the Alexandrians, on March 21), the passover and resurrection days often fell in the different churches in different weeks. The synod of Aries (314) sought, but in vain, to secure a uniform practice. This result was brought about by the Council of Nicsea (325), the Oriental churches agreeing to the new ordinances. (See Easter.) In spite of the decree of the council, many Oriental congregations held to the old prac- PASCHALIS. 1756 PASCHALIS. tice. The synod of Antioch (341) punished its advocates with excommunication. In the canons of the councils of Laodicea (364) and Constan- tinople (381) they were called TeaaapsaicaideKanTai, or Quartodecimani (" Fourteeners "). In the fourth century, Peter, bishop of Alexandria (d. 311), had a controversy with the Quartodeciman, Tri- centius. The latter rejected the accusation of Judaistic leanings when he said, " We intend nothing else than to commemorate the passion of our Lord, and at the very time which the early eye-witnesses have handed down." Epiphanius distinguished three factions. Theodoret, in the fifth centm-y {Hceret. fabul., III. 4), states that the Quartodecimans "say that John the evangelist, when he was preaching in Asia Minor, taught them to observe the 14th ; but, as they misunder- stood the apostolic tradition, they do not wait for the day of the resurrection, but commemorate tlie Lord's passion on Tuesday, Thursday, Saturday, or any other day on which the 14th of Nisan might fall. The Quartodecimans seem to have completely disappeared in the sixth century. For the further history and celebration, see Easter. Lit. — HiLGENFELD : D. Passahstreit u. d. Evdng. Johannis, in the Theol. Jakrb., 1849 (pp. 209 sqq.), 1857 (pp. 523 sqq.); JVoch ein Wort iiher den Passahstreit, in Zeitschr. f. wissensch. Theol., 1858 (pp. 151 sqq.) ; Baur ; D. Christenthum d. er^sten Jahrhunderte (2d ed., pp. 156 sqq.), and arts, against Dr. Steitz, in the Theol. Jahrh., 1857 (pp. 242-257), and Zeitschr. f. loissensch. Theol., 1858 (pp. 298 sq.); Steitz: D. Differenz d. Occi- dentalen u. d. Kleinasiaten, in Stud. u. Kritiken, 1856 (pp. 751 sqq.), and arts, against Dr. Baur, in Studien und Kritiken, 1857 (pp. 772 sqq.) and 1859; SchUrer: De controvv. paschalibus, 1869; Rexan: L'eglise chretienne, pp. 445 sqq.; [the Church Histories of Neander and Schaff (re- vised edition, vol. ii., 1883, pp. 209-220, where a different view is presented); art. "Paschal Con- troversies," in Smith and Cheetham : Diet, of Clir. Anlqq.\ G. E. STEITZ. (WAGENMAKN.) PASCHALIS is the name of two popes and two antipopes. • — ^Paschalis, antipope, is ignored as a schismatic in the list of popes, but was chosen bishop of Rome in September, 687. Knowing that the infirmities of Pope Conon indicated the speedy termination of his life, he prevailed, by a bribe upon John, Exarch of Ravenna, to instruct his officials at Rome to vote for him as Conon's successor. A second candidate, Theodorus, was elected at the same time. The majority of the clergy finally agTeed upon Sergius I., who was consecrated Dec. 15, 687 ; and Pasehalis was shut up in a cloister, where he is said to have survived five years. See jNIuratori : Tier. Ital. scr., iii. pp. 147 sq. ; JaffS : Rerj. Pontif. Rom., pp. 170 sq. — Pasehalis I., pope (Jan. 25, 817-824), was abbot of the convent Of St. Stephen when he was ele- vated to the chair of St. Peter. When Ludwig the Pious, in 817, nominated Lothaire at Aix-la- Chapelle to share his imperial throne, Pasehalis summoned Lothaii-e to Rome to receive the crown at his hands, as the successor of Peter alone had the right to confer the imperial dignity. Lothaire obeyed, and was crowned at Rome, April 23, 823. Pasehalis had made himself so unpopular among the Romans by his administration, that at his death they refused to allow his remains to be buried in the Lateran. He has, however, been canonized. If fame he has, he owes it to his reconstruction of the churches of St. Cecilia in Trastavara, St. Prassede on the Esquiline, etc. See Mdratori : Rer. Ital. scr., iii. 213 sqq. Jaffe: Reg. Pontif.; Sybel : D. Schenkungen d. Karolinger an d. Papsle, in Sybel's Kleinen hist. Schriften, Stuttgart, 1881, 3 vols., pp. 108 sqq. — Pasehalis II., pope (Aug. 13, 1099-Jan. 21, 1118), whose family name was Rainer, was b. in Bleda, Tuscany, probably; became a Cluuy monk, fully sympathized with Gregory VH. in all his movements looking to church reforms, and was by him made cardinal. The security of his power as pope was assured by the death or silencing of three rival claimants, — Clement III., who died 1100; Theodorich of St. Rufina, who was imprisoned; and Maginulf, who was declared pope Nov. 18, 1105, under the name of Sixtus IV., and for a time occupied the Lateran, but was compelled in 1111 by Henry V. to sub- mit to Pasehalis. In France, Pasehalis confirmed his authority by compelling Philip I., who had separated from his wife in 1092, and was living with Bertrade of JMontfort (the wife of Fulk, Count of Anjou), to give up the adulterous connec- tion. Very different was the result of his efforts to extend his authority in England and Germany. In the appeal of Anselm, Archbishop of Canter- bury, and Plenry I. of England, to the papal chair, Pasehalis decided, in favor of the former, that the right of investing bisiiops with ring and staff did not belong to the temporal power. Henry, who at first refused to submit to the decision, in 1105 accepted it, after receiving the right to demand the oath and service of fealty from the bishops. This conclusion of peace be- tween the Church and the State was exceedingly favorable to the latter. The conflict between Pasehalis and the German emperors turned out likewise to the disadvantage of the papal power. Pasehalis pronounced " eternal excommunica- tion " against Henry IV. on March 12, 1102, and carried his bitterness so far as to release his son from the obligation of filial obedience. Henry IV. died in 1106, and Henry V. was pledged to defend the interests of the church with the sword; but after the Council of Troyes (1107), at which the Pope asserted his sole right of investi- ture, he found in Pasehalis his most dangerous enemy. When, in 1110, Henry marched upon Rome with the purpose of demanding the crown, and settling the question of investiture, Pasehalis determined to make a treaty on the basis of the principles he had learned as a Cluny^monk. He proposed, in lieu of the right of investiture, that the German bishops should renounce all theii- rights as temporal princes, and depend upon vol- untary gifts and tithes for their support. As an idealist, he never dreamed of opposition. Henry V. agreed to the stipulations on Feb. 9, 1111 ; but when they were made public, three days subse- quently, on the occasion of Henry's coronation, the German bishops refused to accept them, and demanded their revocation. Pasehalis, remaining firm, was taken prisoner by Henry, was forced to put the crown on his head April 13, 1111, and to acknowledge his authority of investiture. These concessions aroused a tumult in Italy and France; and even such temperate ecclesiastics as Ivo of PASCHASIUS. 1767 PASSOVER. Chartres and Peter of Porto thought the Pope had gone too far. The strict Gregorian party demanded the annulling of the concessions and the excommunication of Henry V.; but Pasohalis remained true to his oath. The synod of Vienna of Sept. 16, 1112, and other synods, excommuni- cated the emperor. In 1117 Henry again marched upon Rome to take measures to prevent the gift of Mathilde of Canossa falling to the papal chair, and to again treat about his right of investiture, fearing the Pope would give way. Paschalis fled from the city, and his death soon after his return stopped any further measures against the emperoi". He was a man of religious earnestness and high ideals, but was destitute of firmness. See Vita a Petro Pisano, in Watteuich, Pontif. Rom. vitce, ii. 1 sqq. ; Jaffe : Reg. Pontif. Rom. His letters are found in ]Migxe, vol. 163; Hasse: Anselm von Canterbury ; Hefele : Conciliengesch., vol. v. ; Gervais : Polk. GescTi. Deutsclilands unler d. Re- gierung Heinrich V. u. Lolhar III., Leipzig, ISll ; Giesebrecht : Geschich. d. deutschen Kaiserzeit, 2d part, 4th ed., Braunschw., 1877. — Paschalis III., anti-pope (1164-68). See Alexander III., p. 51. R. ZOEPFFEL. PASCHASIUS, Radbertus. See Radbertus. PASQUALIS, Martinez, b. in ProvenQe in 1715; d. in St. Domingo in 1779. He was of Jewish origin, and the Cabala was the source from which he drew his ideas. He introduced cabalistic rites in several of the Masonic lodges in France, and finally developed them into a kind of theology, by the aid of which he pretended to be able to work miracles. He staid in Paris from 1768 to 1778, and formed a kind of sect called the " Mar- tinists." One of his principal disciples, Louis Claude de St. Martin, was a quite prolific author. Perhaps the most characteristic of his works are Des erreurs et de la ve'rite, Lyons, 1782 ; L'esprit des choses, Paris, 1800, 2 vols. ; L'homme de de'sir, new edition, Metz, 1802. PASSION, The, of our Lord, is hig crucifixion. Cf. F. L Steixmeyer : Die Geschichte der Pas- sion des Herrn in Abwehr des kritischen Angriffs betrachtet, Berlin, 1868, 2d ed., 1882 ; Eng. trans., The History of the Passion and Resurrection of our Lord considered in the Light of Modern Criticism, Edinburgh, 1879. See Cross ; Jesus Christ. PASSION-PLAYS. See Religious Dramas. PASSION-WEEK. See Holy Week. PASSIONEI, Dominic, b. at Fossombrone, Dec. 2, 1682 ; d. near Rome, July 5, 1761. He entered the service of the church ; was used in various diplomatic missions, and was in 1738 made a cardinal, and librarian of the Vatican. He pub- lished Acta apostoliccE legationis Helvetica, Zug, 1724 ; and after his death his letters and his col- lection of inscriptions were published, — Inscript. Antiq., Lucca, 1765. PASSIONISTS, The, or members of the Con- gregation of the Holy Gross and Passion of the Saviour (Congregatio clericorum excalceatorum SS. Crucis et Passionis), are an order of the Roman- Catholic Church, dating from the eighteenth century. The founder, Paolo della Croce (b. at Ovada in Piedmont, Jan. 3, 1694, d. in Rome, Oct. 18, 1775), resembled in disposition, Liguori. At first fired with enthusiasm for military pur- suits, he devoted himself to a religious life, and, with the sanction of the bishop of Alexandria, founded in 1720 tlie Order of the Cross, and in 1727 was consecrated priest. The first establish- ment of the new order was founded on ^Monte Argentaro ; the second, at Orbitello in Tuscany, etc. Benedict XIV., in 1741, sanctioned the order; and Clement XIV., in 1769, sanctioned it again. The latter pope sent a special letter to the found- er, whose zealous missionary labors and peniten- tial severity had won for him the fame of unusual sanctity. The object of the order is to preserve and propagate the memory of Christ's atoning passion and death. The members wear a black robe with the name of Christ printed on the left side, and a small heart, over which is a white cross. Pius IX. canonized Paolo deUa Croce on May 1, 1867. See D. hi. Paul v. Kreuze Leben, Regensb., 1846 ; Pius a Spiritu Sancto : Life of St. Paul of the Cross, Dublin, 1868. ZOCKLER. PASSOVER, The, one of the three principal festivals of the Jews, is designated by the He- brew word Pessah (np3), which was also used of the lamb offered, and is derived from a verb meaning "to pass by," "to spare." The Bible connects it with the exodus of Israel from Egypt. At the command of the Lord the people on that occasion killed and ate a lamb, striking the blood on the doorposts as a protection against the de- stroying angel (Exod. xii. 3-10). At that time the annual repetition of the custom was insti- tuted. The laws governing its observance are preserved by the Elohistic writer in Exod. xii. 1-20,42-51; Lev. xxiii. 5-14; Num. ix. 10-14; xxviii. 16-25. Celebration. — The celebration of the passover was put in the month of the exodas (Nisan). Evfery head of a family was commanded to choose, on the 10th of the month, a male lamb or goat, without blemish, and to kill it on the 14th, " be- tween the two evenings" (Exod. xii. 6, margin). The Karaites and Samaritans explain the last expression to mean between sunset and darkness ; the Pharisees, between three o'clock and sunset; Raschi and Kimchi, of the time just before and after sunset. The lamb was roasted, and eaten with unleavened bread and bitter herbs. No bone was to be broken, and no parts were either to be removed from the house, or left over to the next day. The meal was to be taken in haste, the partakers having their loins girded, shoes on their feet, and staff in their hand (Exod. xii. 11). Only the circumcised could partake of the meal. This meal introduced the seven days of the Feast of Unleavened Bread. From the 15th to the 21st, leavened bread was forbidden, on penalty of ex- termination. The first and last days were gi-eat holidays, on which no work was done, and people gathered for worship. Connected with this feast was the offering of the sheaf of the first-fruits (Lev. xxiii. 10 sqq.), which does not mean crushed grains of wheat, as Josephus supposes (Ant., IH. 10, 5). The use of the harvest was forbidden till after this offering had been made. The Jehovist document contains accounts of the passover in Exod. xii. 21-39, siii. 3-16. Here, likewise, the institution of the feast is connected with the exodus ; and the failure to leaven the bread is explained as a result of the people's great haste. Deuteronomy also gives an account of the pass- over (xvi. 1 sqq.), which is shorter than that of the Elohist, bat presupposes more extensive regu- PASSOVER. 1758 PASSOVER. lations. Distinct mention is made of only a few passovers in the historical books of the Old Tes- tament, although there can be no doubt that the passover was the principal feast after the time of Moses. Moreover, it is plain that the Mosaic ordinances respecting it were not always rigidly obeyed (2 Chron. xxx. 5). The failure of all Israel, from " Dan to Beersheba," to observe it, was, at least in part, due to the political trou- bles of the period. "We have mention of the first passover celebrated after the crossing of the Jordan (Josh. v. 10), and two others are specially mentioned before the period of the exile. In the notice of the one under Hezekiah (2 Chron. XXX. 26), it is stated that such a feast had not been celebrated in Jerusalem since the days of Solomon, by which the length and ostentation of the festivities are meant, the feast lasting four- teen days. In the notice of the other passover, under Josiah, the same historian observes (2 Chron. xxxv. 18), that no such passover had been kept since the days of Samuel. He means by this, as a comparison of 2 Kings xxiii. 21 sqq. shows, that in no case had the legal regulations been so strictly kept. Meaning. — The passover was at once an agri- cultural festival of thanksgiving and an historical anniversary. It was a feast of consecration at the beginning of harvest (Deut. xvi. 9), and an aimiversary in honor of the emancipation from Egypt by the divine hand. Some modern schol- ars, like Hupfeld, Schultz, and Wellhausen, hold that the historical idea had a secondary place, and was associated with the harvest festival at a later period, and look upon the lamb as having been, in the first instance, an offering of the first- born, on the part of the shepherds. But this is mere assumption. All the accounts dating from Moses give no indication of any such idea, and agree in associating the passover with the exodus; and the unleavened bread is distinctly referred to, not as an offering of the first-fruits of the ground (Exod. xxiii. 10), but as the "bread of affliction," to remind the people of the Egyptian servitude. The passover lamb was a sacrifice ; and this we say in spite of the Reformers, who denied to it this character. Such expressions as, " it is the sacrifice of the Lord's passover " (Exod. xii. 27), "an offering," pip (Xum. ix. 7), etc., fully jus- tify our classification. The idea of sacrifice is not brought out in the first celebration in Egypt ; for there was then no priesthood and no altar. At a later time, the blood was sprinkled, and probably the fatty pieces burned on the altar (Exod. xxiii. 18, xxxiv. 25). It belonged to that class of offerings in which the meal was the prin- cipal part, and in which that was a representa- tion of the communion between God and man. It was a home or family offering, where the membei'S of the family united, and confessed themselves to be the Lord's people. Every family was a little congregation of worshippers by itself. The blood had an expiatory efficacy, by keeping the divine wrath away from the home. The sac- rificial natui-e of the occasion is shown by the regulations governing the selection of the lamb (or goat) ; and the injunction against breaking its bones points to its consecrated character. The hurried completion of the meal brings out the importance of the moment of salvation, when the people were waiting anxiously for deliver- ance. The bitter herbs referred back to the Egyptian oppression, and the unleavened bread also had an historical meaning (Exod. xiii. 8; Deut. xvi. 3). In the New Testament, the pass- over Iamb is a type of Christ (1 Cor. v. 7), whose sacrificial death secures deliverance from the wrath of God for his church, which enters into communion with God by partaking of his body and blood. Celebration at the Time of Christ. — Our authori- ties on this point are, for the most part, the later Talmudic and rabbinical writers. The Paschal lamb, like the other sacrifices, might only be slain in the forecourt of the temple. For this reason the passover feast attracted an immense con- course of people to Jerusalem,— a fact which gave rise to great fear of, and precautions on the part of the Romans against, national revolts at this season of the year (Matt. xxvi. 5 ; Josephus, Ant., XVII. 9, 3, XX. 5, 3). The custom which the governor practised, of giving up a prisoner, was designed to make a favorable impression upon the Jews, and quiet them. A terrible fate overtook the people at the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, when they were shut in, and involved in its horrors. Josephus {Bell. Jud., VI. 9, 3) states, that a few years previous, the Paschal lambs were counted at the solicitation of Cestius, and found to number 256,500. Reckoning ten men to a Iamb, this would give a throng of neai-ly 3,000,- 000 in attendance upon the feast. The pilgrims could not find room in the city, and were obliged to resoi't to the surrounding towns, or live in tents. The time of celebrating the feast depended upon the condition of the harvest. If the fruits of the field were not far enough advanced in the middle of the twelfth month to seem to justify the har- vest a month later, the twelfth month was re- garded as an intercalary month, and a thirteenth was added. The Sanhedrin announced when the Paschal month began as soon as the new moon had been seen, and the news was spread through the country by means of fire-signals. But when the Samaritans began to deceive the Jews by false signals, the news was communicated by messen- gers. The lambs were killed in the afternoon of the 14th of Nisan, at half-past two, and offered an hour later. If the day was the preparation of the sabbath, the killing began an hour earlier. The priests received the blood in silver vessels, and poured it upon the altar, and put the pieces to be offered up in another vessel. Then the Levites began to sing the Hallel. Not less than ten, seldom more than twenty, men partook of one lamb. The Talmud enjoined that each party should eat a portion, at least as large as an olive. Josephus and the Mishna assume that women also partook of the meal, but according to the Gemara they were not obligated to do so. After the first cup Was drunk, the first-born son asked for an explanation of the passover cei-emonies, where- upon followed a detailed account of their insti- tution (Exod. xii. 26 sq., xiii. 8). The company then started the Hallel (Ps. cxiii.-cxviii.), and, after singing the first two psalms, drank the sec- ond cup followed by two others, and then com- pleted the Hallel. It was after this that our Lord went out and sang a hymn with his disciples (Matt. xxvi. 30; Mark xiv. 26). PASTORAL LETTERS. 1759 PASTORAL THEOLOGY. [The Samaritans still celebrate the passover at the same time as the Jews did; namely, on the full moon of Nisau. Dean Stanley, who witnessed the rites in 1862, describes the scene in a note appended to vol. i. of his Jtioish Church. The community of Nablus, numbering a hundred and fifty-two individuals, gathered on Mount Gerizim, a few hundred feet below its summit. At sunset they collected about a trench ; and, after the chant- ing of some praises and prayers, six sheep were driven into their midst. The history of the exo- dus was then recited, after which the sheep were killed, and the noses and foreheads of the chil- dren touched with the blood. The parties then all saluted one another with a kiss, and the sheep were fleeced, and roasted in holes dug in the ground. After midnight the feast began, and proceeded in silence, and as if in haste. In ten minutes all was consumed but a few remnants, which were thrown into the fire, care being taken that none should be left.] Lit. — BocHART : Hierozoicon, London, 166.3 (i. pp. 551 sq.); Spencer: De legg. Hebrceorum, Lips., 1705; Hitzig: Ostern u. Pfingsten, Heidel- berg, 1S3S ; Bachmaxx : D Festgesetze d. Penta- teuchs, 185S. For the later Jewish rites ; Hot- TINGER : Juris HebrcE. leges, Zurich, 1655 ; Otho : Lex rabbin. phiL; Ewald : \_.Antiquilies of the Old Testament]; Oehler : \_Tki:olog!j of the Old 7es- tame;!^ X-Y., 1883; Stanley: Hist, of the Jewish Church, vol. i.; E. SchOrer : Ueber ipaydv rd naaxa, John jcriii. 28, Giessen, 188:3]. VON ORELLI. PASTORAL LETTERS are letters addressed by the pastor, the shepherd, to his flock, generally by the bishop to the clergy under his jurisdic- tion, or to the laity of his diocese, or to both par- ties at once. At various times and in various places the secular government has claimed the right of exercising a kind of censure over such pastoral letters ; but the claims have always been met with the most decided protest from the side of the clergy. The term also applies to letters issued by ecclesiastical bodies to the pastors under their jurisdicfeion, e.g., by a Presbyterian synod. PASTORAL THEOLOGY. Theology is di- vided into two parts, — Theoretical and Practical. Under the second division are included Homiletics, Catechetics, Liturgies, and Poimenics. Of these subdivisions the first three are treated in other articles under their respective headings : the fourth, Poimenics, is the one to be considered here. The qualifications and the call of the ministry are themes incidental and introductory, and may be passed without discussion, as the proper lim- its of this article demand. We have to do rather with the practical work of the pastor. A presbytery, or other ecclesiastical body, in licensing a candidate for the ministry, passes its verdict upon his fitness for the service. That verdict is to be confirmed by the call of a church and congregation to the licentiate to become their pastor: without. such a call, or its equivalent in a missionary appointment, the licensure is not to l5e consummated by ordination. The call of a church and congregation, when accepted, involves reciprocal obligations. These obligations are represented, but cannot be fully expressed, much less can they be limited by the terms of the call ; 5 -III for the church and congregation owe the pastor, and the pastor owes them, more than can be put into any writing. The call made and accepted is a contract, but it is more than that. Not only nmst it be fulfilled on both sides with business- like fidelity, but it must be fulfilled in the large- ness of the spirit of mutual Christian love. The true minister will never be a place-seeker. In the spirit of the saying of Confucius, — "I am not concerned that I have no place, I am con- cerned how I may fit mj'self for one," — the true- hearted minister, having done his work of prepa- ration with fidelity, will trust the Great Head of the church to find him a place ; and the old prov- erb will hold good, " A stone that is fit for the wall will not be left in the roadway." Absolute personal consecration to Christ and to his king- dom is fundamental to the tiue idea of an evan- gelical ministry. Considerations of adaptation and of family ties must have weight ; but alway should predominate the question, " Lord, what will thou have me to do ? " Once settled in a parish, the pastor needs, not only power in the pulpit, but also power to reach and sway men hy personal contact and influence. Preaching prepares tlie way for pastoral work ; and pastoral work inspires and guides and warms the preaching, and gives it practical adaptation and power. The true pastor finds the themes cf his sermons among his people, rather than in his own tastes and tendencies; and so he preaches, not for himself, but for his hearers. If for preach- ing, talent is first, and tact is second, for pastoral work, tact is first, and talent is second ; piety being equally necessary in both relations. Tact is de- fined as "a finer love : " it is of the heart; and, other things being equal, the heart that is the warmest will have the most of that address, facility, and skill which we call tact. The large and general relation of the preacher to his con- gregation as a whole becomes in the pastor a personal and an individual relation to each mem- ber of the flock, without regard to condition or character. This involves the dealing with a great variety of natures, each one of whom is a separate and a sacred responsibility to the pastor. The work is endless. There are always some souls in need of personal ministrations. Men are reached and saved one by one, and not in mass. The preacher nmst be a pastor to gather in one by one the souls to whom he has spoken from the pulpit the words of truth. As the pastor goes among the people, what he is will couditiou what he says : his character and life will helper hinder his work. "The visible rhetoric " of the minister's daily ^conduct is more decisive in influence than the audible rhetoric of his sermons. Clerical affectations and assump- tions can no longer deceive or awe the people : there must be in the pastor a simple, transparent manliness sanctified by the love of Christ, and yet only the more intensely human because christly. Once the minister was first, and the man second : now the man is first, or the minister has no place or power. In St. Paul's Epistle to Titus (i. 7-9), there are thirteen virtues enjoined as condition- ing the one thing, — ability to preach ; as if to show that character is to pulpit-power as thirteen is to one. Scholarly tastes and habits must be watched, PASTORAL THEOLOGY. 1760 PASTORAL THEOLOGY. lest they disqualify for genial and effective con- vei'se with the common people. The scholarly must be qualified by the christly, then the small courtesies, which are of such value in the com- merce of society, will not be neglected, and love ■will make the pastor a gentleman, welcome to every household and heart. There is an old saying, as trite as true, "A house-going minister makes a church-going peo- ple." The work of pastoral visitation must be systematized. A "calling-book" should be kept, in which, with the name of each family, the names of the children should be recorded. The date of each call should be noted, so that the pastor can learn at any time where his next calls should be made. Only in this way can thoroughness, regu- larity, and impartiality be secured in the visita- tion of the people. The pastor in these calls should not be alway preaching; for a minister who is alway preaching, never really preaches. The aim should be to enter into the sympathies of the people, to know their home-life, and to win their confidence and affection. Besides this general visitation there should be special calls made upon the sick and the afflicted. The tenderness and the sympathy of Christ as toward the suffering, and the words of promise, of counsel, and of comfqrt with which the Bible abounds, will suggest to the true pastor how he should minister among the sick and the sorrow- ing. Such calls should be short and frequent, and the words spoken should be few and careful. Other special calls nmst be made to reach pai-- ticular cases of spiritual need. As soon as may be, the pastor should inform himself concerning the spiritual condition of every member of his congregation. His work should begin with the officers of the church, to enlist them in active co-operation ; then the membership, of the church should be roused to prayer and labor; then Chris- tians outside of the church should be urged no longer to delay confessing Christ. By this method of working from the centre outward, by the time he comes to seek those who are without Christ (beginning with the thoughtful, then approaching the careless, and then the sceptical), the pastor will find that the way has been prepared for him. JNIeanwhile the course of preaching should cor- respond with the course of pastoral labor, begin- ning at the centre of the church, and working outwards toward those who are farthest from the truth. There will be morbid Christians, given to too much introspection, who make the radical mistake which Hamman has characterized as "the attempt to feel thought, and to comprehend feeling." Such spiritual egoism can be cured only by Christian work. The morbid Christian -must stop feeling his own pulse, and go out into the vineyard, and try to win souls tor Christ : there can be no spiritual health and vigor with- out such work. Hence that pastor will be the most successful, who, instead of trying to do all the work of the parish himself, strives to enlist and stimulate the members of the church to work with him as their appointed leader. There are such varieties of temperament, di.spo- sition, character, and condition, that the pastor must break from bondage to himself and to his experience, and learn to judge men, not by him- self, but in themselves, making large and gener- ous allowances for differences that come of nature or of education, of antecedent or of present cir- cumstances In order to this, he must be a many-sided man, always studying in a docile way the endlessly varied manifestations of human nature. He must be stimulated and sustained in his systematic pastoral work, not by natural personal attractions, but by divine motives. He should school himself to see in each soul a spe- cial responsibility, for which he must account to Christ. He should see men, not in the common human way, but as made in the image of God, and as redeemed by the blood of the Son of God. This will make the pastor impartial, and faithful to all ; and so his pai'ochial work will not depend upon fitful impulses, but will be sustained by the deepest and divinest principles. There are special relations which the pastor sustains to the officers of the church and congre- gregation and to the heads or leaders in the organized work of the parish. The trustees, or those in charge of the secular interests of the congregation, may ask coimsel of him, and then he should give it; but he should not interfere with them, always recognizing the principle that business men should manage the business inter- ests of the parish. The pastor's relations to the spiritual officers of the chui'ch should be cordial and confidential. He should not dictate to them, but rather coimsel with them, treating them with studied respect and consideration, while main- taining his personal independence. As to the heads oi- leaders in the organized work of the church, the general rule is, that the pastor should be loyal to their leadei-ship, and should show respect for the positions they have been appointed to occupy. The sabbath-school should be under the care of the spiritual officers of the church, and the same may be said of the choir, or the conductors of the nmsic. It may be remarked, however, in passing, that it would be an inexcusable egoism in the pastor to demand that the devotional music in the sabbath worship should be adapted only to his individual taste and culture, and not rather to the average taste and culture of the w'hole congregation. And of the other relation it may be said, that, for the sabbath- school, teachers should be selected, not primarily with reference to the good they may get by having such work to do, but rather with reference to their competency to do the children good. The sabbath-school is not a gymnasium for feeble Christians, but rather is it the institution for the religious education of the children of the con- gregation. Not all good people will make good teachers. The pastor should visit both the choir and the sabbath-school in the spirit of courte- ous Christian sympatliy with the departments of church life there represented. There may be within the church, organizations for varied Christian work; such as young people's associations, young men's Christian associations, Dorcas or sewing societies, missionary societies, foreign and home; and to the leaders in these organizations the relations of the pastor are always delicate, and sometimes difficult. It is a question how far it is wise to multiply organiza- tions within the church ; since the church is itself the divinely appointed organization as against all evil, and for all good. PASTORAL THEOLOGY. 1761 PASTORAL THEOLOGY. Some things must be said with reference to the pastor in his relations to the ordinances of public worship. Here we imist not trespass upon the subject of homiletics, elsewhere treated. There isa danger in almost every parish, that the people will demand more frequent calls or visits than the pastor can make consistently with what he owes to his study and pulpit. There should be a careful division of time between the claims of the study and the demands for household visita- tion. Five hours a day at least should be kept sacred for reading, study, and writing. During these hours, besides what is required for the preparations for the sabbath, some portion of time should be given to systematic courses of study. The time thus devoted should be pi'otected in all possible ways from unnecessary iutenuptions. To be a good pastor, a minister must be a good preacher; and the couverse is equally true, — to be a good preacher, a minister must be a good pastor. Nothing in the way of activity and zeal can take the place of systematic, close, sus- tained study; and no amount of study can take the place of systematic, house-to-house visitation. The two departments of work, pulpit and paro- chial, must not conflict, but be proportionate, harmonious, and mutually subsidiary. There should be preparation in the study, not only for preaching, but also for the other parts of public worship. The Scripture-reading should be, in spirit and manner, instructive and interesting. Kegular courses of reading, continued from sab- bath to sabbath, with brief expository hints, may be profitable to both preacher and hearer. The hymns should be selected with care, not merely to enforce the lesson of the sermon, but mainly to kindle and express the devotions of the people There should be thoughtful preparation for lead- ing the people in prayer, so that the actual condi- tion of the congregation and of the country may be represented in the thanksgivings and supplica- tions of the sanctuary. The benevolences of the church constitute an important part of public worship. The pastor should not only keep himself informed concern- ing all the aggressive work of the church, so that he can inform his people, but he should study methods of reaching their hearts, so as to make them feel the claims of Christ in all departments of his work. They should be taught, not only that giving is worship, but that, under existing conditions, it is doubtful whether there can be true and acceptable worship unless the offerings of the heart and the lips are accompanied, some- times at least, by the generous offerings of the ' hand. The sacraments of the church involve some special pastoral obligations. As to baptism, the Eastor should know the condition and habits of is people. He should know what parents have had their children baptized, and he should kindly and faithfully instruct such parents as to their covenant privileges and obligations ; and, with those parents who are neglecting this ordinance for themselves and for their children, he should remonstrate, urging them to the performance of their duty. As to the Lord's Supper, the pastor should exercise the gi-eatest care, lest, on the one hand, he may be the means of admitting to the ordi- nance those who are not truly regenerated ; or, on the other hand, he may repel or restrain those timid and doubting Christians who need that spir- itual refreshment which Christ gives only at his table. The celebration of the sacramental feast should be made bright and hopeful, self and sin disaj)pearing, for the time, in the ascendency of the exalted Christ. The prayer-meeting, or, as it is sometimes called, the conference-meeting, under the sole conduct of the pastor, it is to be feared is fast changing into a mere lecture, and so is losing its social character. It is a question whether it is better that the prayer-meeting should be con- ducted by the pastor, or by such of the officers and members of the church as have the spiritu- ality, the tact and skill, to make this social ser- vice both interesting and profitable. No one method should constrain the liberty of the pastor in this relation : a variety of methods is more con- ducive to the freshness and effectiveness of this important service. A schedule of topics may be prepared, printed, and distributed, so that the people will know from week to week the theme that will be considered. Questions may be sent in to the pastor to be answered in the prayer- meeting. A course of familiar exposition, if not too long or labored, may be tried with profit. The pastor should be bound by no method, but should impress his people with the deep signifi- cance, sacredness, and power of united prayer. Unselfish consecration, the love of men for Christ's sake, power in the pulpit, tact, tender- ness, a profound knowledge of human nature, and a Christlike manliness, are the fundamental necessities to success in pastoral work. Lit. — Chrysostom (d. 407): On the Priesthood (trans, by B. H. Cowper), Lond., 1866 ; George Herbert : Country Parson, Lond., 1652 (often reprinted) ; Richard Baxter : The lieformed Pastor, Lond., 1656; Gilbert Burnet: A Dis- course of Pastoral Care, Lond., 1692 ; Cottot Mather: Angels preparing to sound the 7'rumpets; Samuel Miller : Letters on the Constitution and Order of the Christian Ministry, N.Y., 1809, and Clerical Manners and Habits, Phila., 1827; Bridges: The Christian Ministry, Lond., 1829; John Angell James : Earnest Ministry, Lond., 1848; L S. Spencer: A Pastor's Sketches, 'S.Y., 1850-53, 2 series; William Wisner: Incidents in the Life of a Pastor, N.Y., 1851 ; J. S. Can- non : Lectures on Pastoral Theology, N.Y., 1853 ; ViNET : Homiletics (trans, by T. H. Skinner), N.Y., 1854 ; William Arthur : The Tongue of Fire, Lond., 1856; Francis Wayland: Letters on the Ministry of the Gospel, Bost., 1863 ; Enoch Pond : Lectures on Pastoral Theology, Andover, 1866 ; W. G. T. Shedd : Homiletics and Pastoral Theology, N.Y., 1867; J. B. Lightfoot: Com- mentary on Philippians (Dissertation on " The Christian Ministry," pp. 179-267, issued separate- ly), Lond., 1868; Hoppin: Office and Work of the Christian Ministry, N.Y., 1869, new ed.. Pastoral Theology, 1882 ; Kidder : The Christian Pastor- ate, Cincin., 1871; Joseph Parker: Ad clerum, Lond., 1871 ; W. G. Blaikie : For the Work of the Ministry, Lond., 1873, 3d ed., 1883; W. S. Plumer : Hints and Helps in Pastoral Theology, N.Y., 1874; S. H. Tyng : The Office and Duty of a Christian Pastor, N.Y., 1874; Patrick Fair- PASTORBLLS. 1762 PATIENCE. BAIRN : The Pastoral Epistles, Ediub., 1874, and Pastoral Theology, 1875; C. H. Spukgeox : Lec- tures to^ my Students, Lond., 1875, 1877, 2 series; Thomas Murphy: Pastoral Theoloyy, Phila., 1877; J.C.Miller: Letters to a Youny Clergyman, N.Y., 1878; Van Oostekzee: Practical Theology (trans, by M. J. Evans), Lond. and N.Y., 1878; C. J. Ellicott : Homiletical and Pastoral Lectures, Lend., 1880; Bishop G. T. Bedell: The Pastor, I'hila., 1880; Bishop Little.johx : Condones ad clerum, N.Y., 1881. See also the Yale Lectures on Preaching by H. W. Beecher (1871-74, 3 vols.), John Hall (1875), W. M. Taylor (1876), Phillips Brooks (1877), R. W. Dale (1878), Howard Crosby (1879), Bishop Simpson (1880), E. G. Robinson (1882), D. C. A. Agnew {The Theology of Consolation, London), J. Spencer Pearsall (Public Worship, London, 1869). For ■works on Revivals, see Charles G. Finney : Lec- tures on Revivals ojf Religion, Bost, 1835 ; Albert Barnes: Sermons on Revivals, 'S.Y.; Edwin F. Hatfield: Revivals of Religion, Phila., 1882; Kewell; Revivals, How and When, X.Y., 1882; and the art. Revivals. For untranslated Ger- man works upon Poinienics see Ebrard : Prak- tische Theolog., Kdnisfs., 1854; NiTZSCii : Praklische Theologie, Bonn, 1857, 3d vol. (separately issued) ; Hagenbacii: Grundzilge d. Homiletik u. Liturgik, Leip., 1863; Otto: Evangel, praktische Theologie, Gotha, 1869, 2 vols. t'iiomas s. Hastings. PASTORELLS. Those risings of the lower classes, which, under the name of pastorales or pastoraux, took place several times in France, were no doubt chiefly caused by the excitement produced by the Crusades; but it is apparent that also other causes, such as hatred to the clergy, despair of the miserable state of affairs in gen- eral, etc., were at work. When, in 1251, the report reached France that Louis IX. had been taken a prisoner, a former Cistercian, Jacob of Hungary, announced that he was called by God to liberate the king, and placed himself at the head of swarms of peasants and shepherds, boys and girls, whose number soon swelled into several thousands. At first the queen looked with favor upon the movement ; but when the swarms began to maltreat the priests, the monks, and the Jews, she was compelled to use armed force against them. Jacob was defeated at Bourges, his adher- ents were dispersed, and all the leaders decapi- tated. Half a century later on, in 1320, it was again the report of a new crusade which caused a sinular rising in Southern France, under the lead of a deposed priest and a runaway monk. The Jews were massacred, the monasteries were robbed, and at last the swarms began to threaten Avignon, where the Pope and the cardinals prom- ised rich spoil ; but then the movement was put down with military force. C. Schmidt. PATARENES (Patarini, Patareni, Patarelli, etc.), a name given in the eleventh century to the deacon Arialdus, a zealous opponent of clerical marriages, and, later, to the Cathari, who con- demned marriage altogether. The name does not come, as Du Cange supposes, from a certain Paternus Romanus, who spread the heresy of the Cathari in Italy and Bosnia; for then one would have expected Paternicini, but from pataria (" col- lector of rags"), a low quarter of the city of Milan, where the followers of Arialdus were wont to gather in 1058. Early in the thirteenth cen- tury the Cathari appropriated the name, errone- ously affirming that it came irompali ("to suffer"), because they were called upon to suffer for their faitli. C. SCHMIDT. PATEN (patena, Hbkoq), the wide, shallow plate on which tlie sacramental bread is put and con- secrated. In the primitive church, the bread for the Eucharist was supplied by the members of the congregation, and the " paten " was an ordinary plate ; but, in course of time, wafers expressly pre- pared took the place of bread, and tlie paten be- came an ecclesiastical vessel. Patens are and were most commonly made of silver; but they are found in glass, gold, alabaster, agate, and other sub- stances. In shape they are commonly round, but oblong and octagonal patens exist. They have always been appropriately decorated to indicate their sacred use. By law, in the Roman-Catholic Church the paten must be of the same material as the accompanying chalice, and both must be blessed by the bishop. PATER-NOSTER ("Our Father"), the name by which is generally designated the Latin trans- lation of tlie Lord's Prayer, especially in the Romah-Catliolic Church. As in the rosary of the Virgin Mary the Pater-noster is generally com- bined with the Ave Maria, the rosary itself is often called a Pater-noster. PATIENCE is that moral power by which the soul preserves its equanimity under all exciting and oppressive circumstances, and freely submits to the unavoidable, with the presentiment that it is a divine dispensation. In the most general sense, patience is the soul's dependence upon itself over against opposing elements from without, in contrast to the soul's active effort to overcome this opposition. God's whole government of the world is from this stand-point, and, in view of the opposition of men and demons, brings out the divine, patient, long-suffering gentleness and mercy. The real kernel of the work of salvation was in the patience of Christ, his patient endur- ance underneath the oppression of the curse which had gone forth upon the world (Heb. xii. 2 ; 1 Pet. ii. 21) ; and the fundamental principle in the Christian's temper is patience, which continues faithful unto the end (2 Tim. ii. 13). Adam's fall was an act of selfish anticipation, and there- fore an act of impatience, which is a pi-oininent element in all sin and crime. Despair is the culmination of impatience. From tliis general conception we derive the special Ciiristian grace of patience. Pagan ethics as little reached to the full idea of patience as to the idea of an atoning cross. It has no place among the virtues of the Platonic and Aristotelian systems. The Stoics seem to have recognized it; but tlie patience of Stoicism is only a dogged submission, which seeks to build itself up on an unfeeling, impassive indifference (patientia impatiens). We have an exemplification of the principle in the lives of Moses (Num. xii. 3), Job (Job ii. 10; Jas. v. 11), and the servant of the Lord (Isa. liii.). The New Testament presents a perfect picture of patience in Jesus Christ the Lamb of God (John i. 36). The virtue of patience very early received a prominent place in the systems of Christian ethics. Plermas mentions it among the four principal Christian graces. Thomas Aquinas, PATMOS. 1763 PATRICK. however, in the middle ages, regarded it as a con- stituent of courage (fortituclo). Protestant sys- tems of ethics should properly honor it upon the basis of such passages as Kom. ii. 7, v. 3, viii. 25 ; Col. iii. 12; 2 Pet. i. 6; Heb. x. 36, xii. 1. As a fruit of Christian faith, patience is the persist- ence of the believer in a state of sauctification in spite of temptations. Born of Christian love, it supplements Christia*! hope (Rom. viii. 25). It gradually learns to bear all things, endure all things, hope all things, to wait contentedly for the coining of the Lord (Jas. v. 7). Its founda- tion is the Lord's faithfulness. Scriptural songs of patience are found in Ps. xlii., Ixii., Ixiii., etc. LANGE. PAT'MOS, a rocky and barren island of the .Sgean, twenty-iive miles in circumference, and situated near the coast of Asia Minor, between !Naxos and Samos. It was used as a place of banishment in the time of the emperors, and the apostle John wrote there his Revelation {Rev. i. 9). The cave is still shown, where, according to tradition, he had his visions : above it stands now a celebrated Greek monastery, built by Alexius Commenus. The island is now called "Patmo" or " Patmosa." See Guerin : Descrip- tion de I 'He lie Patmos, Paris, 1856 ; Tischexdorf : Heise ins Morgenland, Leipzig, 1845-46, 2 vols, (ii., 257 sq.), and Connnentaries on the Apocalypse. PATOUILLET, Louis, b. at Dijon, 1699; d. at Avignon, 1779. He entered the Order of the Jesuits, and taught for some time philosophy in their school at Laon. He published an enlarged edition of Colonia's Diclionnaire Jes Licres Janse- nistes, Antwerp, 1752, which was put on the Index , La progres da J anse'nisine, Quiloa, 1753 ; Hisloire du Pelagianisme, Avignon, 1763-67, 2 vols. ; and was one of the chief editors of the Supplement aux jVoucelles eccle'siastiques and Lettres edijiantes. PATRIARCH, as a title in the Christian Church, was given in the fourth century as a mark of respect to bishops. For the proofs, see Suicer, T/ie.iaur., 640 sq., and especially Gregory Naziau- zen, Orat. 42, 23. It was used in this sense in Gaul as late as the fifth and sixth centuries ( Vit. Momani, 2; Gregor. Tur., H. Fr., 5, 21). When the bishops of Alexandria, Antioch, Constanti- nople, and Jerusalem, asserted authority over the metropolitans, the title was limited to them. The ecclesiastical divisions corresponded to the politi- cal division of the Roman Empire, — dioceses, eparchates, and states (civitate.i). The bishoprics corresponded to the states; and the metropolitan sees, to the eparchates. At first there were no ecclesiastical divisions corresponding to the dio- ceses, but the metropolitans of the larger cities early began to lay claim to extra authority. Alex- andria was the first metropolitan see to attain the position of diocesan or patriarchate authority. The sixth canon of Nicwa recognizes this. In the Aleletian schism, the bishop of Alexandria assumed the right to call the synod which deposed JMeletius. The situation was about the same at Rome and Antioch, except, that, in the case of the latter, the bishop only ordained the metropolitans, and not the other bishops (Innoc. I., Ep. xviii.). The prominence of the metropolitans of the more important cities was the origin of the patri- archal .system. The West never had a patriarch, the claims of Rome to the primacy being a suffi- cient assurance of her authority. By the second canon of the Council of Constantinople in 381, five larger districts (Alexandria, Antioch, Asia Minor, Pontus, and Thrace) are designated. Con- stantinople had already at this time taken the place of Herakleas as the centre of the Thracian diocese. The bishops of Ephesus (the central see of Asia Minor) and Csesarea in Cappadocia (the central see of Pontus) did not long retaiu the dignity of the other three sees, and they were put under the authoi'ity of Constantinople by the twenty-eighth canon of the Council of Chalcedon (A.l). 451, Mansi, vii. 369). To the three re- maining patriarchates — Alexandria, Antioch, and Constantinople — Jerusalem was added. An abortive attempt to give it the patriarchal dignity was made at the Council of Kphesus in 431. The- odosius II. assured it hy the subordination of the three eparchates of Palestine. This action was confirmed by the Council of Chalcedon (Mansi, vii. 178 sqq.). This same council gave to Con- stantinople the primacy (JIansi, vii. 361). The metropolitans of Ephesus and Csesarea in Cappa- docia were hereafter called " exarchs "' (Mansi, xi. 687, 689). For the patriarchate of the Russian Church, see art. Greek Church. The bishops of Aquileja, Grado- Venice, and Lisbon, bear the title "patriarch," but derive no special ecclesi- astical preiogatives from it. [There are eleven patriarchs in the Roman-Catholic Church. Nine were present at the Vatican Council.] See Bingham : Orig., i. 232 sqq ; Augusti : DenkwUrdigkeilen^sk. 148 sqq. ; HixscHius; Sys- tem d. kathol. Kirchenreclits, i. 538 sqq. ; Hefele : Concitiengesch, i. ii. HAUCK. PATRICK, St., Apostle of Ireland. The early references to St. Patrick are few. The- fir.st is made by Cummianus in A.D- 634; Adamnau, in the same century, also makes reference to the saint; and of later authorities there is no lack. Prosper of Aquitania, the Venerable Bede, Co- lumban, and others are silent on the subject : the remoteness of Ireland is sufficient to account for this. Our chief sources of information are two writ- ings which seem undoubtedly to be the work of St. Patrick, — the Confession, and the E/iistle to Corolicus. The former is found nr the Bool,: of Armagh, an Irish manuscript of about the year Sou ; and both, in later but independent manu- scripts. The Armagh copy professes to be tran- scribed from an original in the handwriting of the saint. The earliest lives extant quote from the Confession, showing that at an early date the work was considered genuine: so the external evidence is not without value. The internal evidence is so overwhelming that the two treatises are accepted practically universally as authentic. The poem known as Tlie Hijmn or Loricum of St. Patrick has been considered genuine. It is in very ancient Irish, gives no facts, and, whether genuine or not, is valuable as showing the simpli- city of doctrine of the early Patrician Church. The secondary sources of information are (1) The Hymn of Secundinus. This dates probably about A.D, 500, gives no facts, and has only the same value as the Loricum. (2) The Hymn of Fiiicc. This bears internal evidence of being later than A.D. 554. It gives only a few names, and already the miraculous and legendary has PATRICK. 1764 PATRICK. crept in. (3) The Acts of St. Patrick, by Muirchu Maccuraachtheni. This life is found in the Book of Armagh, belongs to about A.D. 700, and is probably the oldest life of St. Patrick. The author admits that even then the facts of the saint's life were hopelessly obscured, and we see legend already gathered about it. (4) Tlie Anno- tations of Tirechan. This is also found in the Book of Armagh, and is of about the same date as the Acts, but contains more legendary matter. The mission is ascribed to Pope Celestiue. (5) Legendary Lives. Of these Colgan has collected seven, some of which are very ancient. They make St. Patrick study with St. Germain of Aux- erre and St. Martin of Tours, visit Rome, receive episcopal ordination and commission to preach from Pope Celestine, and work miracles. Much of this, of which no trace appears in the Confes- sion or Epistle, is, perhaps, taken from some Acts of Palladius, now lost: it is repeated, with addi- tions, in successive lives, and culminates in that by Jocelyn in the twelfth century. It is possible that comparative study of the older lives might extract some truth ; but at present, as historical authorities, we can only reject them. It is impossible to settle the dates of St. Pat- rick's life. Nicholson labors to show that his work belongs to the third, instead of to the fifth century, but brings forward little in support of this view. Killen dates his mission A.D. 405 on insufficient and contradictory grounds. All the earlier ecclesiastical writers assume that St. Pat- rick was commissioned by Pope Celestine, and so fix the date of the mission A.D. 431 or 432. Todd makes out as strong a case as we can per- haps hope to have for about A.D. 440. A pas- sage in the Confession fixes his age at this period as forty-five, which would give A.D. 395 for his birth : this passage is, however, doubtful, not being found in the Armagh manuscript. The Annals of Connaugkt make the year of St. Pat- rick's birth 388 ; Ussher, Tillemont, and Petrie, 372 ; Lannigan, 387 ; the Bollandists, 378. The year of his death is equally uncertain. Tillemont gives 455; the Bollandists, 460; Nennius, 464; Lannigan, and many following him, 465 ; Us.sher, Petrie, and Todd, 492 or 49<3. Lannigan's date (465), which is the favorite with recent writers, rests on the assumptions of the comujission from Celestine and of a regular succession of bishops, such as prevailed at later date, at Armagh, of which St. Patrick was the first. There is noth- ing against the ordinary date of 492, and all tra- dition ascribes extreme old age to the saint. From the Confession we learn that St. Patrick ■was carried away captive at sixteen from Bonavem of Tabernije in the "Britanise," and it is usual- ly assumed that he was born there. His father, Calpurnius, was a deacon, and at the same time a Koman civil officer : his grandfather, Potitus, was a priest. The fact that a priest and deacon were married men does not seem to St. Patrick to have needed any explanation. Research has failed to identify Bonavem of Tabprnias. The authorities are divided between some point on the coast of Arn)oric Gaul, possibly Bologne-sur-Mer, and the place since called Kilpatrick, near Dumbarton, in Scotland. The probabilities are in favor of Gaul ; the strongest argument against the supposition, namely, that the Confession distinguishes between Gaul and Britain, being explicable. But it is quite possible that neither of these places is the right one. The young Patrick, being carried away -with many others, was sold in Ireland, Tirechan tells us, to a chieftain called Milcho. There he was set to watch cattle, and the religious teachings of his youth bore fruit. In six years, guided, as he be- lieved, by a divine vision, he made his escape ; and after long wanderings, and undergoing another captivity of sixty days, Patrick, now twenty-two years old, regained his fi'iends. All is unknown until the mission to Ireland ; and, if we assume his age at that period to have been forty-five, here is a gap unfilled of twenty-three years. His Latinity, his ignorance of the doctrine and prac- tice of the Roman Church and of the Hieronyian Vulgate, show that the time was not spent in study under learned doctors, like St. Germain of Auxerre, or St. Martin of Tours. But we know notiiing of his private life, which might explain all. We learn from the Confession, which is largely a justification of his life, that he formed the plan of pi-eaching to the Irish himself, that he persisted in it in spite of the opposition of his friends, and that he attributed his mission to no pope, bishop, or church. Patrick was consecrated bishop, and sailed for Ireland with a tew com- panions. Again the Confession fails us : we have almost no details of the work in Ireland. Tha pages of Lannigan and Todd may be consulted by any one who wishes to see arranged in the best foi'm possible the conflicting accounts. We can gather, however, that the work was by no means the. easy and perfect conquest of tradition. Danger and opposition were encountered, and the final success was only partial. Leoghaire, the over-king, lived and died a ferocious I'agan : heathen practices survived the saint many years. His plan, in fact, seems to have been to win the chiefs, and ti-ust to tribe feeling to draw the clan. Such Christianization must, of course, have been superficial ; but the work was done, and a native church with native clergy established. Of his death and burial-place we know nothing; although, of course, tradition and invention have been active enough in the interest of various churches. In the authentic writings of St. Patrick we find no trace of purgatory, adoration of the Virgin Mary, transubstantiation, or the authority of the Pope. Still we must not think of St. Patrick as oppos- ing these doctrines : he seems merely to have been ignorant of them. The church he founded was monastic, ascetic, and sacramental. To rep- resent St. Patrick as a protester against the spe- cial doctrines of the Roman-Catholic Church is not less absurd than to represent hijii as a Roman bishop, teaching the doctrine and practices of the twelfth century. Lit. — Vii.L.^XF.uvA : Synodi, Canones, Opus- cula et fragmenta Scriptorum, etc., Dublin, 1835; MiGNE : Pat. Cursus, Series Prima, tom. liii., Paris, 1847 ; Colgan : Triadis Thaumaturgoe, sive Divorum Palricii, Columhce et Brigidce, etc., tom. ii., Lovan, 1647; The Life and Acts of St. Pat- rick, etc., translated from the original Latin ofjoce- lin, by E. L. Swift, Dublin, 1800; Ledwich : Antiquities of Ireland, Dublin, 1793; Lannigan: Ecclesiastical History of Ireland, Dublin, 1829, 4 vols. ; Todd : St. Patrick, Apostle of Ireland, PATRICK. 1765 PATRISTICS AND PATEOLOGY. Dublin, lS6i ; Nicholson : St. Patrick, Apostle of Ireland, Dublin, 1868; Killen : Ecclesiastical History of Ireland, London, 1875, 2 vols. ; Skene : Celtic Scotland; a History of Ancient Allan, Edin- bui;gh, 1876, 3 vols.; Sheakman: Loca Patri- cinia: an Identification of Localities chiefly in Lein- ster, visited by St. Patrick, Dublin, 1879, 2d ed., 1882. €f. Scroll's art. Patricius, in Herzog, 2d ed., vol. xi. pp. 292-300. Robert w. hall. PATRICK, Symon, b. at Gainsborough, in Lin- colnshire, in 1626 ; d. at Ely, May 31, 1707. He was educated at Queen's College, Cambridge, -nhere he became fellow in 1648. Under the Commonwealth, in 1651, when Episcopacy was repressed, he obtained ordination from Dr. Hale, the ejected bishop of Norwich. After holding the vicarage of Battersea, upon which he entered in 1658, he obtained the rectory of Covent Garden in 16G2, — the year when the Act of Uuiformity was passed; and during the plague year (1665) he courageously remained at his post when many of the incumbents fled fi-om the city. In 1672 he was appointed to a stall in ^\'estulinster Abbey, and ill 1679 reached the deanery of Peterborough. That office he continued to hold until 1689, when he was chosen bishop of Chichester, whence he was translated to Ely in 1691. His Autobiog- raphy contains many interesting notices of passing historical events. He informs us how news reached him of the intention which the Prince of Orange had of coming over to England in the autumn of 1688, how Dr. Jenison called on him in the AVestminster cloisters to have some private con- versation with him on the subject, and how the people at Hastings were frightened out of their wits in 1690 from an expected French invasion. He was one of the commissioners intrusted with the consideration of a scheme for compre- hension immediately after the Revolution, and took an active part in the proposed revision of the Prayer- Book, fie drew up new forms of prayer couched in language unsuited to devotional ser- vices, and recommended several important changes in the Liturgy. He was a voluminous author, his publications amounting to no less than fifty-one distinct works. He is best known as a commen- tator. His Paraphrases of Job and the Psalms appeared in 1678. They were followed in 1681 by others on Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Solomon's Song. Then came Commentaries on Genesis (1694), Exodus (1698), Leviticus (1698), Njimbers (1699), Deuteronomy (1700). Joshua, Judges, and Ruth came out the same year; and, before the end of 1705, he issued volumes on Joshua. Judges, Ruth, the Books of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther. ^ He added to biblical work treatises on Christian Sac- rifice, The Sacraments, and The Popish Controversy, and even attempted allegory in his Parable of the Pilgrims, first published as early as 1665. Of course it cannot be compared with John Bunyan's dream; but Southey says, though "poorly ima- gined, and ill sustained," it contains sound in- struction felicitously expressed. Burnet speaks of Patrick as a great preacher. He is ranked amongst the Cambridge latitudinarian divines through his connection with John Smith and Henry More, and he caught something of a Pla- 1 His labors in this respect are criticised by Lord Macaulay, In bid History of England. tonic tincture from his philosophical reading; but from the bolder spirit of inquiry cultivated in his day he was an utter alien. He was emphatically Anglican in his dogmatic teaching, and attached authority to the decisions of the early church. He attacked dissent in his Friendly Debate (1668), and that in no very friendly spirit ; but in the House of Lords, after the Revolution, he expressed regret '■ for the warmth with which he had written against dissenters in his younger years." He was openly accused of favoring nonconformists, and on this account, it is said, " lost the love of the gentry." He was a good man, and aimed at maintaining in his diocese an unusual strictness of discipline. He wished to see an improvement in psalmody, and early published a Century of Psalms for the use of the Charter House. See Pathicic's Autobiogra/ihy, Oxford, 1839, and Complete U'ork.i, Oxford, 1858, 9 vols. His commentary was com- bined with those of Whitby, Lowman, and Ar- uauld (see those arts.). JOHN stoughton. PATRIPASSIANS(frompa/e)/ias.sus,"thesufler- ing father"), a name applied to those Christians, who, denying that there is a definite distinction between the personalities of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit in theTrinity, said that the Father had suffered in the Son. It occurs for the first time in the treatise of Tertullian against Praxeas. about 200. See Christology, p. 453. PATRISTICS and PATROLOGY are the names of that department of theology which gives in- struction concerning the lives, writings, and theo:- logical doctrines of the Church Fathers, and all else which has a direct bearing upon the study of the Church Fathers. If a distinction is to be made between the two names, then patrology concerns the external history, lives, etc., of the Fathers; patristics (^patristica sicut doctrina), their doctrinal teachings. 1. Definition of a Church Fatlier. — The hon- orable title "father" was used in the early church to designate ecclesiastical teachers and oflicers who had exercised a positive and permanent influence upon the doctrinal system or growth of the church. The view subsequently got currency that the Fathers Were the theological witnesses to the system of doctrine of the Christian Chiu'ch, and that the consensus of the Fathers was a source of ecclesiastical authority co-ordinate with the Scriptures. Such theological importance was ascribed to the Fathers by the great church coun- cils; such as that of Chalcedon, when it speaks of obeying the faith of the Fathers (ut patrum fidem servemus), or that of Constantinople (680), when it professes to follow the holy councils aiid the holy and chosen Fathers (rorc ayiou; koi eKKpiroii irarpuaiv). The Roman-Catholic Church now distinguishes three classes of church teachers, — writers, fa- thers, and doctors {scriplores, pntres, doctores). The "holy fathers" must possess four requisites: (1) Sufficient antiquity, a definition usually stretched to include Thomas Aquinas ; (2) Ortho- doxy — Origen, Tertullian, Lactantins, Eusebius, etc., for this reason being numbered only among the "writers;" (3) Sanctity of life; and (4) The approbation of the church, which is doubtful in the cases of Hippolytus, Theodoret, etc. A " doctor of the church " must possess the addi- tional quality of eminent learning (erudiiio emi- ncHs, comp. the Bull of Benedict XIV., Mililantis PATRISTICS AND PATROLOGY. 1766* PATRISTICS AND PATROLOGT. ecclestce, 1754). Ambrose, Augustine, Jerome, and Gregory represent this digliity among the scholars of the Western Church ; Athauasius, Basil, Gregory Nazianzen, and Chrysostom, of the Eastern Church. At a later time the number of doctors has been arbitrarily increased, and made to include Hilary, John of Damascus, Auselm, Thomas, Bonaventura. Alfonso da Liguori, etc. The Protestant Church includes under the desig- nation Church Fathers all those teachers and authors of the ancient church who made essential contributions to the development of Christian life and doctrine. The period to which the desig- nation may be properly regarded to refer is ex- tended to Gregoi-y the Great (d.'604), or to John of Damascus (d after 754). 2. Scope nf Piitri.ilics. — According to the old definition, patristics included all kinds of facts about the personal life, writings, and doctrines of the Fathers. It was, therefore, an introduction to church history and the history of Christian doctrine. In the stricter and more scientific sense patrology is concerned with the literature of the Fathers, its history and contents, and (1) investi- gates and determines the text of the writings and monuments of the patristic age, and (2) presents the biographies, literary works, and doctrines of the Fathers individually. Three periods are to be distinguished in the patristic literature, — that (1) of the early church in the apostolic and post-apostolic age, (2) the struggling church in the ante-Nicene age, and (3) the victorious church. Others distinguish only two periods, — (1) the ante-Nicene, and (2) the post-Nicene. The Fa- thers of each of the various periods are distin- guished into Greek or Latin ; or, according to nationality, into Orientals, Greeks, Occidentals; or, according to the literary form and contents of their works, into dogmaticians, writers on ethics, exegetes, historians, etc. 3. Hislori/ and Literature. — We distinguish two periods separated by the Protestant Reformation. (1) The first preliminary work for a history of Christian literature was done by the historians of the ancient church, and especially Eusebius. He gives many very valuable notices of Christian authors, and excerpts from their writings. The real father of patrology is Jerome, whose work on the writers of the church {De viris itiustribus s. (le scrijjiorihu.i ecclesia-iticis), as he distinctly says in a note to his friend Dexter, was designed to " briefly describe all those, who, from the passion of Christ to the fourteenth year of Theodosius, had produced any thing worthy of preservation about the Holy Scriptures." Beginning with James and Peter, he gives in a hundred and thirty-five sec- tions short biographies and notices of works. This production was much admired, translated into Greek by Sophronius, and continued by Gen- nadius of Alassilia (who about 492 wrote notices of ninety-five or a hundred ecclesiastical authors, mostly of the fifth century), Isidore of Seville (d. 636), and Tldefonsus of Toledo (d. 667). In the middle ages monks copied the writings of the Fathers, carefully preserved them in the con- vents, and made collections of excerpts; but there was no critical study of these writings. Collec- tions of notices were, however, made, some of which, uncritical though they be. are invaluable. Here belong the collections of Photius (d. 890), especially his Bihliotheca, or Uvpio^i/Jf^ov, the so- called Nomenclatiiresi reteres, who continued or imitated Jerome's Catalogue;. especially Honorius of Autun (d. 1120), who beginning his work De Iwninaribus eccles., etc., with the apostles, carries it down to Auselm ; Sigebert of Gemblours (d. 1112); and Johann Tritenheim (d. 1516) who begins with Clement of Rome, and concludes with the author himself, nine hundred and seventy writers being noticed. (2) A new period in the history of pati'ology dates from the rise of Humanism and the Refor- mation. The immense strides in culture in the fifteenth, century, the classical studies of the Hu- manists, the growing acquaintance with the Greek language in the West, the invention of printing, etc., all redounded to the interest of this science. Patristic writings were discovered, edited with notes, first those of Latin, then of Greek authors. Special mention in this connection is due to Eras- mus, Beatus Rhenanus, (Ecolanipadius, and the learned booksellers Robert and Henry Stephens, Froben, Oporin, and others. PMitions appeared of Lactantius (1465), the Lelters of Jerome (1468- 70), Augustine's City of God (lili)), Leo's Sermons, Cyprian's Letters, Orosius, and Origen's Contra Cehum (all 1471). In the sixteenth century Erasmus, in quick succession, issued editions of the works of Cyprian (1520), Hilary (1523), Jerome (1526), Irenseus (1526), Ambrose (1527), Augustine (1528), [Epiphanius, 1529], Chrysos- tom (1530), [Origen, 1531], Athanasius, and also Basil (1532). The Reformers, while denying to the Fathers an equal authority with the Scriptures, got wea- pons for the struggle in which they were engaged, from their writings. Luther was well read in them; although he passed an unfavorable judg- ment upon Jerome, ( )rigen, and Chrysostom. Me- lanehthon urged very earnestly the study of the Fathers, collected their opinions about the Lord's Supper (^Sententias patrum de ccena domini, 1530), etc. The \\'urttemberg theologian, Schopff, wrote Academia J. C/ir. s. breuis descriptio Patrum ac Doc- torum ecclesice (Tubingen, 1593) ; and Scultetus wrote the Medulla theol. Patrum (Amberg, Neu- stedt, and Heidelberg, 1598-1613, 4 vols.). Of the seventeenth century, deserve to be mentioned, Gerhard's posthumous work, Patrologta s deprin. eccl. doctorum vita et lucuhrationibus (Jena, 1653, 1673), Hiilseniann's Patrologia (Leipzig, 1670), Meelfurer's Corona patrum (Giessen. 1670), Olea- rius' Abacus patroloyicus (Jena, 1673, new ed., Jena, 1711, under the title Bdd. scr. eccl.). Xone of these works have any critical value. In the seventeenth century, the Roman-Catholic Church did far more in this department than the Prot- estant. Among the Italians, Baronius and Bel- larmin deserve mention ; the latter writing the liber de script, eccl. ( The Writers of the Church, Rome, 1613, Paris, 1616), which was often repub- lished, and supplemented by Labbe (1660) and Oudm (Paris, 1686) The Belgian theologian, Aubertus Miraus, published a Bibhotheca eccl. and Auctar.de script, eccl. (Antwerp, 1639 ; reprinted, A. Fabricins, Bibl. Eccles., 1718). The French CongTegation of St. Maur did a work of imper- ishable value in this department, by publishing editions (known as the " Benedictine ; '' for list see Bekedictikk) of the Fathers superior in PATRISTICS AND PATROLOGY. 1767 PATRONAGE. learning, completeness, and critical acumen to any thing that had preceded them. Du Pin published Noucelte bibliotheque des autturs eccL, Paris, 1686 sqq., 3d ed., 1698 sqq., 47 vols ; Le Xoun-y, Ap- paratus ad hibliolh. max Patrum, Paris, 1703-15; Kemy-Ceillier, Hist, generate des auteurs eccle'sias- tu/ues, Paris, 1729 sqq., 23 vols , new ed., Paris, 1860 sqq., 13 vols. ; and Tillemont, Memoires, etc., 1693 sqq., with their thorough, rich, patristic ex- cursuses. The move recent works in France are of less importance, as Caillau's Introd. ad Patrum lection., Charpentier's iStudes sur cesperes de I'e'glise, and the meritorious but somewhat uncritical and manufactured works of Abbe Migne, BM. unicer- salis s. patrum et scripturum eccles , or Patrologim cursus completus, — Series Lat., 221 vols., Series Grceca, 162 vols. In England, Ussher (d. 1656) distinguished himself by his patristic investigations; as also Grabe (d. 1706), by his Spicilegiuin patrum and his editions of Justin and Irenaeus, Pearson (d. 1686), Henry Dodwell (d. 1711), William Cave (d. 1713), and Lardner (d. 1768), who exhibits an abun- dance of patristic erudition in his Credibility of the Gospel History. [For the works of these authors, see the special articles ] Of the German works and authors of the eighteenth and nineteenth cen- turies, the following Roman-Catholic works and authors deserve mention: A\^ilhelra, Patrolog. ad usas acad. (Freiburg, 1775), Schramm, Anal Jidei opp ss. Patrum et script, eccl (Augsburg, 1780- 95, 18 vols ), Lumper, Hist, tlieol. crit. de vita, scriptis et doct. Patrum, etc. (Augsburg, 1753-99, 13 vols.), Permaneder, Patrol. (Landshut, 1841-44, 2 vols.), and the treatises and text-books on pa- trology of Lochner (Mainz, 1837), Mbhler (incom- plete, Regensburg, 1840), Magon (Regensburg, 1864, 2 vols.), Alzog (Freiburg, 1866, 3d ed., Leip- zig, 1877), J Schmid (Freiburg, 1880), Nirschl (Mainz, 1881). Among the Protestant works, those of Fabricius deserve prominent mention as of special value; viz., his Bibl. eccles. (Ham- burg, 1718), Bdil. grwca (1705-28, 14 vols., new ed. by Harless, 1790 sqq.), BM. latina (1697, new ed., 1774 sqq ), and their continuation, Bibl. lat. mediae et infimce latimtalis (Hamburg, 1734 sqq.). We mention further, Ittig, Schediasma de autori- bu.^, etc (Leipzig, 1711), Walch, Bibl. patrist. (Jeun, 1757, 1770, new ed. by Danz, Jena, 1834), Schone- mann, Bibl. . . Patrum latin: (Leipzig, 1792-94, 2 vols), Thilo, Btil patr. dogmat. (Leipzig, 1854), and the treatises on patrology of Pestalozzi (Got- tingen, 1811), Danz (Jena, 1839). For special editions of authors, see the special articles. Lit. — In addition to the literature already given, see the Manuals of Church History, the Histories of Philosophy of Ritter and Ueber- WEG [Eng. trans., New York, 1872, 2 vols.]; ElsERT : Gesch. d. cliristl.-lat. Lit., Leipzig, 1874- 80, 2 vols. A comprehensive treatise on patrolo- gy is a great desideratum. [Alzog's work, above referred to, is the most satisfactory manual on patristics. The fragments of Fathers of the sec- oiid and third centuries have been published by Routh: Beliquce Sacrce, Oxford, 1846, 5 vols. See also Gebhardt and Harxack: Texte und Untersuchungen zur Gesch. d. altchristl. Lit., Leip- zig, 1882 sqq. For English translations of the ante-Nicene Fathers, see Clark's Ante-Nicene Li- brary, ed. by Roberts and Donaldson, Edinburgh, 1867-71, 24 vols. ; of both ante-Nicene and post- Nicene Fathers, see Library of the Fathers if the Holy Catholic Church, anterior to the Dirision of the East and West, translated bt/ Members of the English Church, Oxford, 1839 sqq. (vol. 47, St. Cyril of Alexandria against Nestorius, 1880); and of Augustine, edited by Dods, Edinburgh, 1871- 78, 12 vols, (supplements the translations already in the Oxford Library ; cf . Lowndes, Manual, Bohn's ed., vol. iv., pp. 278-81). The most elaborate English treatise upon a limited field is DoxALDSON : Critical History of Christian Litera- ture and Doctrine, from the Death of the Apostles to the Nicene Council, Edinburgh, 1864-66, 3 vols. See also Sprinzl : Die IVieologie der apostolischen Vater, Vienna, 1880. For a glance at the ante- Nicene Fathers, see the Early Christian Literature Primers, edited by Professor G. P. Fisher, New York, 1879 sqq. Good biographies of different Fathers have been published by the S. P. C. K., London. See separate arts. Ihe great Diction- ary of Christian Biography, by Smith and Wage (London, 1880 sqq., 4 vols.), should always be con- sulted]. WAGENMAjSN. PATRONAGE (Jus patronatus). In the fifth century the opinion became current, both in the East and the AVest, that it was proper to grant to the founder of a church or some other reli- gious institution the right of appointing not only the manager of the property set aside for the purpose, but also the priest or other ecclesiastics to be maintained from the donation (Noe. Justin. 131, c. 10 (c. 545), c. 1, C. XVI. qu. 5, and can. 10, Council of Orange, 441). This tendency was further strengthened by a peculiar feature of the social organization of the Germanic nations. Among them the owner of the soil, the lord of the peasant-community, exercised full right of possession over any tiling in or on the glebe, and had perfect control over the temple or over the Christian church erected on the ground, ap- pointing and dismissing the priest according to will (can. 7, 26, 33, Council of Orleans, 541). This arrangement was continued during the Caro- lingian age, and the consecration of the building had no influence whatever on the title deed of the owner. But, after that time, the church endeav- ored to impose such restrictions upon the owner as to prevent him from any actions contrary to the ecclesiastical purpose. He was forbidden to can- cel the dotation, to have co-proprietors, to appoint incapable persons, to dismiss an incumbent with- out the consent of the bishop, etc. It was not, however, until the twelfth cpntury that the popes, more particularly Alexander III., succeeded in re-organizing the whole arrangement on a new and firmer basis. Maintaining that the ecclesi- astical character of the foundation, and not the ownership of the founder, was the decisive fea- ture in the legal position of the institution, he de- nied the proprietorship of the lord of the ground, and confined his right of appointment to a mere right of presenting a candidate to the bishop. Thus arose the Jus patronatus. The introduction of the Reformation brought no very considerable change in the ruling prac- tice as developed by the Roman-Catholic Church, though it gave rise to some curious complications, as, for instance, when a Roman-Catholic lord came to exercise patronage over a Protestant church. PATTBSON. 1768 PAUL THE APOSTLE. [Ill Norway the right of patronage was never established, as Christianity was introduced in the country, not by the voluntary adoption of the people, but by the forcible imposition of the kings. In Denmark it was completely abolished by the constitution of June 5, 1849. In Prussia it was abolished during the revolution of 1848, but quietly re-established when the re-action came into power again in ISiJO. In England, where the greater part of the benefices are presentative, it has proved impossible ,to abolish patronage. As real patronage — that is, a patronage which belongs to the gleb^, in contradistinction to per- sonal patronage, which belongs to the person, and is extinguished with the family of the founder — has a market-value, and can be the object of buy- ing and selling, its abolition would bring along with it a very difficult conflict with the estab- lished ideas of property; and in 1875 The Church Private Patronage Association was founded, for the purpose of maintaining, by every legal means, the immemorial rights of private patrons. In 1649 patronage was abolished in Scotland, but re-established in 1680. Once more abolished in 1690, a pecuniary compensation having been voted to the patron.s, it was suddenly restored by Queen Anne in 1712, and the patrons did not pay back the compensation received in 1690. The feeling against it was steadily increasing, however; and in 1842 a motion for its entire abolition was carried in the General Assembly. But the practical re- sult was only the so-called " Lord Aberdeen's Act," which, in rather vague expressions, gives a certain scope to objections from the side of the congregation. In the Roman-Catholic Church a patron saint is a saint who is chosen as a pro- tector, it may be of a nation, a city, a village, a church, a class, or an individual. The earliest •witness of this usage is Ambrose of Milan (386).] Lit. — Lippekt: Entickkelmuj d. Lehre v. Palro- natrechte, Giesseii, 1849 ; K Aiii : Z). Kirchenpatronat- rec/i^ Leip., 1845, 2 vols.; Bruno Sciiilli.vg: Das kirchliche Palronal, Leip., 1846. P. HINSCHIUS. PATTESON, John Coleridge, D.D., Bishop of Melanesia; b. iu London, April 1, 1827; murdered at Santa Cruz, by the IMelanesians, Sept. 20, 1871. He was the son of Sir John Patteson, an English judge, and studied at Eton, and afterwards at Oxford, where he was elected fellow of Merton College, 1850. After being some time curate at Alfington, Devonshire, he went out to New Zea- land in 1855, to assist Bishop Selwyn in his mis- sionary work among the South Sea Islands, and in 1861 was consecrated Bishop of ^Melanesia. Possessing great linguistic talent, he reduced to writing and grammar several languages which had only been spoken before. His work among the islands was noble and self-denying. In time of sickness he would watch and nurse the poor natives himself, and by love and kindly example lead them up to the thought of God, till he knew tlieir speech sufficiently to instruct them correctly. The kidnapping of the islanders, to be sent to the plantations of Queensland and Fiji, was the chief Iiinderance to the work in which he was engaged; and the ill feeling engendered by this traffic, to which he was much opposed, may be said to have been the cause of his death ; the natives mistak- ing, it is likely, the missionary ship in which he was cruising about among the islands of his dio- cese, for a kidnapper's craft. Accordingly, they opened fire, and he was killed. See Life of Bishop Patteson, London (S. P. C. K.), 1872; Frances Awdry: The Story of a Fellow-soldier, 1875; C. M. Yonge: Life of J. C. Patteson, 1878. ROBERTS. DUFF. PAUL THE APOSTLE AND HIS EPISTLES. This article will consider the life of the apostle and the scope and contents of his writings. LiP'E. — The life of Paul falls into three peri- ods: (1) The period, before his conversion, (2) The period between his conversion and the Roman imprisonment, (3) The period beginning -with the Roman iinjjrisonment. The sources of Paul's life are the letters by his hand and the Acts of the Apostles. 1. The Period before his Conversion. — Paul was of pure Jewish descent (2 Cor. xi. 22 ; Phil, iii. 5) ; belonged to the theocratic part of the nation after the exile, being of the tribe of Benja- min, an ardent Pharisee (Acts xxiii. 6); and was born at Tarsus in Cilicia (Acts ix. 11, etc.). The statement of Jerome (Cat., 5; Ad Pliilem., 23), that he lived at Giskalis in Galilee until it was taken by the Romans, when Tarsus became his abode, cannot be accepted, as no reooi'd exists of a Jew- ish war at the time of Paul's childhood (Josephus, B. J., iv. 2, 1). Paul inherited the dignity of Roman citizenship (Acts xxii,. 3.8). How his ancestors or father had secured the title is un- known. (See Cellarius : De Paidi Ram. cicilnte, Hal., 1706; Arntzen : De cic. I^auli, Traj.-ad- Rh., 1725; Eckermann : De Bom. Ap. Pauli cif., Ups., 1746.) His Hebrew name in its hellen- ized form was Saulos (Sav^og), in its Aramaic form, Saoul (ZaoC^). His Roman citizenship ex- plains his Roman name Paul, by which he is uni- formly known by the writer of the Acts, after Paul's meeting with Sergius Paulus on the Island of Cyprus (Acts xiii. 9). He did not get the name from his connection with the conversion of Paulus, as the teacher would hardly be called after the pupil ; nor from his insignificant stature (2 Cor. X. 10) ; nor did he assume it as an expres- sion of humility (1 Cor. xv. 9), Paul meaning little. It was customary for Jews who were Roman citizens to have two names, a Hebrew and Latin' (Acts xii. 25, xiii. 1) ; and the use of the Latin uame Paul, from the apostle's visit to Cyprus, is to be explained by the fact that he began to em- • ploy it exclusively in his relations to extra-Jew- ish peoples. The theory, based upon Rom. xvi. 22, that Paul had three names, is untenable (Roloff, De trilms Pi. nominihus, Jen., 1731). The accounts of Paul's youth are meagre. The date of his birth is unknown. It is not fair to con- clude from 2 Cor. viii. 22 that he had a brother, as Ruckert and Hausrath do ; but he had at least one sister (Acts xxiii. 16). Tarsus at that time was a very flourishing city, and, like Athens and Alexandria, a seat of schools and art (Strabo, xiv. 5, 13). If Paul belonged to the upper classes of society, as his Roman citizenship would seem to imply, he must have had access to these privileges of culture. But his character was formed under the strict Jewish discipline of his home and his training at Jerusalem. The time of his going to Jerusalem is not stated ; but the statements that he was " brought up " there (Acts xxii. 3), and that he was a " young man " (Acts vii. 58) at the PAUL THE APOSTLE. 1769 PAUL THE APOSTLE. death of Stephen, lead us to suppose that he left Tarsus at an early age. The object of his going to Jerusalem was probably to secure the training of a rabbi. He was the pupil of the celebrated Gamaliel (Acts xxii. 3), whose moderation of spirit he did not imbibe (Acts v. 34 sqq.). He probably, as Godet also affirms, witnessed the pub- lic activity of Jesus in Jerusalem ; but nowhere is it said that he saw Jesus, not even in 2 Cor. v. 16, where the reference is to a carnal conception of him before his conversion. His sudden appear- ance at Jerusalem at the death of Stephen has suggested the idea that his sojourn there had been interrupted for a while (Neander, Mangold, "Wieseler, Beyschlag, etc ) Following the usual custom of the rabbis, Paul learned and prac- tised a trade, — -the trade of a tent-maker (Acts xviii. 3) During this period, Paul was a zealot for the law and the doctrines of the Pharisees It has often been affirmed that Paul was married (Clem Alex.. Strom., HI 6; Origen • Op., IV., pp. 461 sq ; Eusebius H.E, III. 20; Luther, Grotius, Hausrath, Ewald) Erasmus and others explain the term "yoke-fellow." in Phil. iv. 3, of a wife [Canon Farrar zealously defends the theory of Pauls marriage, on the ground of his alleged membership in the Sanhedriii (.\cts xxvi. 10), his accurate description of domestic life, etc.] ; but the way Paul writes of his continence in 1 Cor. vii 7, and his argument in 1 Cor. ix. 5, abso- lutely forbid the view that he was married. Paul was bitterly hostile to Christianity, as his share in the stoning of Stephen as an approving witness of the bloody scene shows. In the persecution which began at that time, he took a zealous and fanatical part, going from house to house, drag- ging Christians to prison and to death (Acts xxii. 4, etc.) In the midst of this persecuting activity an event occurred which completely changed the attitude of the inquisitor Paul to Christianity. On his way to Damascus to persecute the Chris- tian sect, he was suddenly arrested by a brilliant light, above the brightness of the noonday sun. Paul declares he had seen Christ (1 Cor. ix. 1) ; but this can hardly have been the historical Christ, as he derives his apostolic dignity from the vision. In 1 Cor. xv. 5-8 we have a better guide for determining the nature of this vision. Mangold very justly has called this passage the " Achilles heel '' of the so-called vision hypothe- ses of Baur, Holsten, and others, which i-esolves Paul's vision of Christ into a mere subjective experience. The apostle put himself among the number of those who were witnesses of the resur- rection, because the appearance of Christ to him on the road to Damascus had objective reality. This event was the turning-point in Paul's life from an inquisitor to an apostle of the new faith. Three times the event is narrated in the Acts (ix., xxii., xxvi.). The rationalistic critics (Baur, Zeller, Holsten, etc) have explained the occur- rence as simply an ecstatic condition of Paul's own mind; so that Paul was a Chri.stian before the event, and had fought his way through spir- itual conflicts to faith, so that the vision was " an appearance of his own faith rising out of his own soul." Others, like Ammon, \\'iiier, .and Ewald. have explained the light and sound which Paul saw and heard to be lightning and thunder. Arbitrary as this explanation is, it fails to explain Paul's conversion. According to Luke, the real objective appearance of Christ made Paul a Chris- tian ; and Paul's own testimony (1 Cor. xv. 9 ; Gal. i 13; Phil. iii. 5) forbids the thought that a psychological preparation had been going on in Paul's mind through the influence of Gamaliel and the speech and cahnness of Stephen, as 01- shausen, Neander, [Farrar, Schaff, and others] urge. The date of Paul's conversion has repeatedly been derived from 2 Cor. xi. 32, 33 (conip. (Jal. i. 17 sqq. ; Acts ix. 19 sqq.), and, according to the best view, is put in 34. 2. From the Conversion to the Roman Imprison- ment. — Paul's conversion opened up to him a world-wide mission. He enjoyed a valuable ex- ternal preparation' He had no graces of person. The descriptions of the Ada Pauli et T/ieclce and Nicephorus {H.E., II. 37), which Renan accepts, are to be put down as distorted fancies ; but fiom 2 Cor. iv. 7, x. 10, Acts xiv. 12, we gather that he was insignificant in stature ; and in 2 Cor. ii. 3, Gal. iv. 13, physical infirmities are mentioned. The "thorn in the flesh" (2 Cor. xii. 7), from which he prayed in vain to be delivered, was not a spiritual temptation (Luther), but either an ophthalmic infirmity [Howson, Farrar, Plumptre], or epilepsy [Holsten, Ewald, Hausrath, Lightfoot, Schaff J. For pictorial representations of Paul, see Schultze : D. Katakomhen, Leipzig, 1882, pp. 149 sq. ; [Howson : Life of St. Paul, chap. vii. ; Mrs. Jaraieson : Legendary Arl'\. Paul had received ineffaceable impressions from the Greek world of culture, although he did not possess encyclopedic learning (Schramm : De stupenda eruriitione Pauli, Hei'b., 1710), or exhaustive knowledge of philoso- phy (Zobel : De Paulo philosopho, Alt., 1731) or jurisprudence (Stryck: De jurispr. Pauli, Hal., 1695; Ivirchmaier: De jurispr. Pauli, Vit., 1730; March: Specimen jurispr. Pauli, Leipzig, 1736). He cited Greek poets (Acts xvii.l8), but such sentences were too proverbial in their tone to justify us in attributing to the apostle large ac- quaintance with Greek literature. At Tarsus, Paul became thoroughly conversant with the Greek idiom, and there can be no doubt [?] that he learned to understand Latin (Ehrhardt: De latini- tate Pauli, 1755). Paul's spiritual preparation for his apostolate was derived from his conver- sion. He undoubtedly had, prior to that occur- rence, some historical knowledge of the life and teachings of Jesus, and refers in his Epistles to sayings of Jesus (1 Cor. vii. 10, 25, etc. ; compare Acts xiii. 25 ; xx. 35). To this were added special revelations (Gal. i. 12, ii. 2; 1 Thess. iv. 15) and ecstatic visions (2 Cor. xii. 1 sqq.). Baptized by Ananias (Acts ix. 17), Paul went from Damascus to Arabia (Gal. i. 17) for the pui-pose of avoiding the influence of the older apostles, and devoting himself to meditation. Three years later he returned to Damascus, where he was rescued from a plot (Acts ix. 25; 2 Cor. xi. 32). Thence he went for the first time to Jerusalem to become acquainted with the apostles (Acts ix. 26; Gal. i. 17). Thence he went tx> his old home at Tarsus, where he remained until Barnabas sought him out, and took him to Anti- och in Syria (Acts xi. 26), where he labored suc- cessfully, making the local church the mother of PAUL THE APOSTLE. 1770 PAUL THE APOSTLE. th? Gentile chnrches. In company with Barna- lias, he went up to Jerusalem with the collection of the Antiochean Christians (xi. 30). Retiring to Antioch, and under the impulse of the Holy Spirit, and with the consecration of the church, he started out with Barnabas and John Mark on his Jirst missionary journey, the account of which is preserved in Acts xiii., xiv. The route was to the Island of Cyprus (where the sorcerer Bar- jesus was humbled, and the proconsul Sergius Paulas converted), to Perga in Pamphylia (whence Mark returned to Jerusalem), Antioch in Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe. At these places, Paul preached, first to the Jews, and then to the Gentiles; and, although he received harsh treat- ment, his preaching won converts. The journey was brought to a close by the return of the two missiouavies to Antioch in Syria after an absence of probably two years (46-48?). After Paul had been for some time (Acts xiv. 28) in Antioch, extreme Jewish Christians from Jerusalem ("the Ultramontanes of that age," Ililgenfeld) came, insisting that Gentile converts should submit to circumcision (Acts xv. 1). The trouble which resulted in the Antiochean Church was the occasion for Paul and Barnabas to go up to Jerusalem, and discuss the question of liberty with the local church. An account of this coun- cil is given in Acts xv. 1 sqq. and Gal. ii. 1 sqq. The differences, real or apparent, cannot be en- tered into here. According to Zimmer (^Galater- hrief u. Apostelgeschickte, Hildburghausen, 1881), " all the differences may be explained from the different aims of the two accounts." After Paul's return, Peter met him at Antioch. Paul rebuked Peter for demanding, in spite of his own exam- ple, the Gentile Christians to live as the Jews. Barnabas was likewise carried away into the same error ; and perhaps it was differences growing out of this difficulty that led Paul to refuse the proposition of Barnabas (Acts xv. 36-39) to take Mark with them on a second missionary journey. Paul chose Silas as liis companion. The account of the second missionary journey is given in Acts xv. 40-xviii. 22. After visit- ing some of the churches in Syria, Cilioia, and Lycaonia, accompanied by Timothy, a disciple of Lystra (Acts xvi. 1-3), he went in a north- westerly direction to Phvygia and Galatia (a province settled by Celtic tribes about 250 B.C.), where he met with a warm reception (Gal. iv. 14 sq.). Travelling thence through Mysia, he came to Troas, where he i-eceived a vision of a man of Macedonia calling him to Em-ope (Acts xvi. 8 sqq.). Joined by Luke, the little company of four crossed over the sea, and preached at Philippi, where Lydia, Paul's fii'st European con- vert, was admitted to the church, and Paul and Silas, thrown into prison on account of the heal- ing of a sorceress, were miraculously delivered, and the jailer converted. From Philippi, Paul went to Thessalonica (Acts xvii. 1), where he formed his first Christian church in Greece from Jewish and Gentile converts (Acts xvii. 4), and, forced by the violence of tlie Jews to leave, went to Beroea, which he was likewise compelled to leave by the violence of Jews from Thessalonica. Leaving Silas and Timothy behind, the apostle went to Athens, probably taking the sea-route. At Athens (Schlosser : Annot. ad gesta Pauli in urhe Atlten., Gis., 1726) he disputed in the syna gogue with the Jews, and on the market-place wit! the Stoics and Epicureans, and delivered on the Areopagus (not before the court) an impressive address (whose genuineness Baur, Zeller, Schweg ler, Overbeck, and Hausrath deny). He came in contact for the first time with the centre of Greek popular life at Corinth (Acts xviii. 1-18), the home of trade, art, and the sciences, and also the seal of Hellenic conceit, luxury, and immorality (Strabo : Allien.). In this city he gathered a large congregation, which included persons oi note (Acts xviii. 8-10). It was at Coi'inth thai Paul met and was entertained by Aquila and Priscilla; and here- he wrote the First, and, a few months later, the Second, Epistles to the Thessa- lonians. From Corinth, he returned, by way of Ephesus, to Jerusalem, for the passover, and thence to Antioch (Acts xviii. 22). After a brief sojourn in Antioch, Paul started on his third missionary journey (Acts xviii. 23- xxi. 15), this time without a companion, and, after preaching in Galatia and Phrygia, arrived in Ephesus, where he remained nearly three years. His labors were abundantly blessed, and a wide door was opened into Asia (1 Cor. xvi. 9). Here he wi-ote the Epistle to the Galatians, which bears witness that enemies had crossed his path in Galatia, — Judaizing teachers preaching another gospel than he had preached (Gal. i. 8 sq.). To this sojourn in Ephesus is also to be attributed his Fh'st Epistle to the Corinthians, whom he had already visited a second time when he wrote 2 Cor. ii. 1, xii. 21, xiii. 1 sq. The letter was designed to counteract certain abuses of which he had received reports. Since his first visit, dif- ferent parties had arisen in the church, acknowl- edging Paul, Peter, and Apollos as leaders- Paul turns their attention to Christ. About the time of writing this Epistle, Paul left Ephesus, and went, by way of Troas (2 Cor. ii. 12), to Mace- donia, where he met Timothy (2 Cor i. 1) and Titus (2 Cor. vii. 6 sqq.), botii of whom came from Corinth. No doubt influenced by them, the apostle wrote from Macedonia (perhaps Philippi, as in the Pesliito) the Second Epistle to the Co- rinthians (2 Cor. i. 16). After a tour in Illyria (Rom. XV. 19), Paul went in person to Achaia, probably spending most of his time in Corinth (Acts XX. 2). To this period, without doubt, belongs the composition of the Epistle to the Romans, which mentions Phcebe, a deaconess in Cepchrea, the eastern seaport of Corinth (Rom. xvi. 1), and Gains (xvi. 23), who can be no other than the Gains of 1 Cor. i. 14. The collection for the Jerusalem Christians, mentioned in Rom. XV. 25 sqq., is the same which Paul urged in 2 Cor. viii., ix. Paul's Epistle to the Romans was designed to prepare for his own visit to the city by contributing to the progress of the gospel (Rom. XV. 4 sqq.). Influenced by Jewish plots to give up his original plan to return to Syria by sea (Acts xx.), he went by way of Philippi and Troas (xx. 3-0) to Miletus, where he bade good- by to the elders of Ephesus (xx. 17 sqq.), and from there, by way of Cfesarea, in spite of the warn- ings of Agabus (xxi. 10 sqq.), to Jerusalem. Arrived in Jerusalem, Paul soon discovered a bitter hostility against himself, as an enemy of the law, on the part of legalistic Jewish Christ PAUL THE APOSTLE. 1771 PAUL THE APOSTLE. tians. In order to preserve peace, he gave a pi-oof of his regard for the law by submitting as a substitute to the Nazarite's vow (Acts xxi. 18- 26). But his efforts were in vain. Fanatic Jews from Asia Minor excited a mob against him, which, but for the protection of Claudius Lysias, would have killed him (xxii. 1-21). His defence before the people, and subsequently before the Sanhedrin, was without effect. In order to elude a Jewish conspiracy, Claudius conveyed him by night to Caesarea, where he came under the jui-is- diction of the procurator Felix, and remained his prisoner for two years, till the arrival of his suc- cessor, M. Porcius Festus. Another hearing was granted him (xxvi. 1-23) ; and he might have been released, but for the fact, that, earnestly de- siring to see Rome (Acts xix. 21, xxiii. 11 ; Rom. XV. 24, 2S), he had used his right as a Roman citizen to appeal to the emperor (Acts xxvi. 32). Under the guard of Julius, he sailed from Cssarea, changed vessels at Myra, but, after a stormy pas- sage, was shipwrecked off the coast of Malta (Boysen : Eclogce arch, ad difficile Pauli iter, Hal., 1713; Eskuche: De naufragio Pauli, Bern, 1730; AValch: Aiitrj. mantissre ad ilin. Pauli rom., Jena,, 1767, Anliqq. navfragii in itin. Pauli, Jena, 1767; Lassen : Tentam. in iter Pauli, etc., Aarhus., 1821 ; J. Smith : The Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul, 4th ed., London, iSSO). Paul reached Rome by way of Syracuse and Rhegium. His arrival oc- curred in the spring of 61, Festus having become procurator in the summer of 60. Paul's conver- sion is set by Wieseler in the year 40 ; Anger and Ewald, 38;"Schott, Godet, [Alford, Schaff], etc., 37; [Howson, 36]; Meyer, [Ussher], 35; [Bengel, 31. For a tabular view of the chronology of Paul's life, as fixed by various chronologists, see Lange's Com. on Acts, and Farrar, Life and Work of St. Paid, ii. 623]. 3. The Period beginning with the Roman Impris- onment. — Paul was cordially received by the Christians of Rome. He had been familiar with the condition of the local church, as the Epistle to the Romans proves (i. 8, ii. 17 sqq., iv. 1, xvi. 3, 5, 7,-9, etc.). It had probably been founded at an early date, perhaps by some of the converts of the first Pentecost (Acts ii. 10). Paul remained two yeai's in Rome, guarded by a Praetorian sol- dier, yet dwelling in his own hired house (Acts, xxviii. 16, 30 sq.). Four of his Epistles were written during this captivity. The Epistle to Philemon commends the slave Onesimus to the generous treatment of his master Philemon, from whom he had fled. The Epistle to the Ephesians is encyclical in its character, as is clear from the inscription (i. 1), the general statement of the truth, and the absence of greetings. Ephesus is mentioned, because it was a metropolitan city. This Epistle is probably the same as the Epistle to tlie Laodiceans (Col. iv. 16 ; see Anger ; Ueher d. Laodicenerbrief, Leipzig, 1843). The Epistles to the Colossians and Philippiaus likewise belong to this period. There are no reliable records of the length of Paul's life. Only of this are we sure, that the apostle suffered martyrdom under Nero. Clement of Rome {Ad Corinth. V.) indicates this. Accord- ing to Dionysius of Corinth (Euseb., II. 25), and Irenseus (Ado. Haer., III. 1), Peter and Paul were put to death at the same time ; and Caius, Roman presbyter (Euseb , II. 25), states that their graves were sacredly kept. Others speak of the time of Paul's martyrdom and the place of his grave (Euseb., II. 25). A difference of ojdnion exists as to whether Paul suffered martyrdom at tlie close of the Roman imprisonment, with which the Acts closes, or whether that event occurred after a period of freedom, during vihich he preaclied the gospel in Spain. The theory of a second imprisonment is advocated by Michaelis, Bertholdt, Hug Credner, Neander, Bleek, von Hofmann, Lange, Godet, [Ussher, Howson, Farrar, Lightfoot, Schaff, PlumjitreJ, and denied by De \Vette, Baur, Hilgenfeld, Reuss, Hausrath, Wiese- ler, Otto, Thiersch. The theory is not excluded by any thing in the Acts. Paul was not kept a prisoner by the procurator because he was a Chris- tian, but because he had appealed to C'sesar He himself hoped to be liberated (Philem. 22; Phil, i. 25 sq., ii. 24). . It likewise has in its favor some ancient testimonies, as the statement of Clement of Rome, who speaks of Paul's going to the extremity of the west (fm~ rd Tfp^a ttk diciu^), re- ferring, no doubt, to Spain. The Muratorian Fragment says definitely that Paul journeyed from Rome {ah urbe) to Spain. The authenticity of the three Pastoral Epistles depends upon this assumption of a second imprisonment. They are addressed to two of Paul's companions in work (Timothy and Titus), are directed against the same heresy, and have the same peculiarities of style. Attempts have been made to find a place for the composition of these Epistles before the close of Paul's first imprisonment. 'I'itus has been put before 1 Corinthians (Reuss, Otto), or between 1 and 2 Corinthians (Wieseler) , 1 Timo- thy, between Galatians and 1 Corinthians (Planck, Schrader, Wieseler, Reuss) ; and 2 Timothy has been referred to the Csesarean imprisonment (Bott- ger, Thiersch), or the beginning (Otto, Reuss), or close of the Roman imprisonment (Wieseler). The contents of the letters preclude these dates ; and, in our view, the genuineness of the three stands or falls with the theory of a second Roman imprisonment. Paul was released before July, 64, the date of the great Roman conflagration. He then went by way of Crete (Tit i 5), Miletus (2 Tim. iv. 20), and Ephesus (1 Tim. i. 3), to Mace- donia (1 Tim. i. 3), where he wi'ote 1 Timothy. Then returning byway of Troas (2 Tim. iv 13), Corinth (2 Tim. iv. 20), and Nicopolis (Tit. iii 12), he went to Spain, and was again imprisoned at Rome. Scope and Contents of the Epistles. — The Epistles of Paul were, in the best sense of the word, tracts for the times {GelegenJieiisfchrif- ten), intimately connected with the writer's cir- cumstances at the time of composition, and the needs of the correspondents. The investigations of Mangold, Weizsacker, and others, have shown this to be true of the Epistle to the Romans. Side by side with letters full of messages of friend- ship (Philemon, Philippians) are letters with a decided polemical purpose, with strong words of rebuke (Galatians, Colossians), and others pre- vailingly didactic in aim, and dialectic in method (Romans and Ephesians). Of the lost letters of Paul — if there he any such — no fragments remain ; the Latin letter to the Laodiceans (Fabri- cius) not being found in the Muratorian Frag- PAUL THE APOSTLE. 1772 PAUL THE APOSTLE. ment, but mentioned by Jerome (Cat., 5). The Latin correspondence, in six letters, between Paul and the philosopher Seneca, mentioned by Je- rome (Cat., 22), is also spurious. Paul wrote in Greek, and not in Aramaic (Bolten, Bertholdt). His training and personality are plainly reflpcted in his Epistles. With the exception of the letter to the Galatians (vi. 11), and perhaps Philemon (19), Paul did not write his Epistles with his own hand (Rom. xvi. 22 ; 1 Cor. xvi. 21 ; Col. iv. IS; 2 Thess. iii. 17). [It is held by Farrar and others that this was due to his weak eyes.] The traces of rabbinic culture are everywhere patent. Pie employs Hebrew and Chaldee terms (abba, Rom. viii. 15, etc. ; amen, Rom. xv. 3-3, etc. ; maranatha, 1 Cor. xvi. 22 ; pa.icha, 1 Cor. v. 7, etc.), Hebraistic combinations (respeci of persons, npo(7, and possesses the fulness of the Deity (Col. ii. 9), but emptied him.self, and humbled himself even to the death of the cross. The true Christian is a new man (Col. iii. 10), belongs to heaven (Phil. iii. 21), lives in the w'orld, but is not of it (Col. iii. 3), and will be led by Christ to absolute purity (Eph. v. 27) ; so that, through Christ, all separation from God is over- come. The church is an ethical organization. The contents of the Pastoral Epistles are deter- mined largely by the obstacles to the growth of the church to which the apostle directs himself. They emphasize that a sound faith depends upon sound doctrine, which is found in the word of God (1 Tim. vi. 3 sq , etc) ; such doctrine should be cordially received (1 Tim. i. 15, iii. 1, etc.) ; the church, which is the organization of God's chosen people, should be well organized, its affairs prop- erly managed by chosen and godly oflScers (1 Tim. V. 19; 2 Tim. i. 6, etc.), — presbyters, deacons, PAUL THE APOSTLE. 1773 PAUL THE APOSTLE. ■widows, deaconesses. The core of the Christian life is described as piety (tvaijSaa'), godliness of heart, — an idea nowhere else found in the New Testament, except in the Acts and 2 Peter (1 Tim. ii. 2, iv. 7 sq. ; 2 Tim. iii. 5; Tit. i. 1, etc.). Its principal fruit is self-control {mifpoaivij). The expression is a different one, but no new doctrine is urged by Paul in the Pastoral Epfstles. They, too, strongly urge, as the only ground of salva- tion, the grace of God in Christ, who was made manifest in the ilesh (1 Tim. iii. 16), gave him- self up as a ransom (1 Tim. ii. 6 ; Tit. ii. 14), and destroyed death (2 Tim. i. 10). Righteous- ness comes not by works (Tit. iii. 5), but by grace. The Pastoral Epistles do not, as has been asserted (Pfleiderer), represent the transition from Pauliuism to Catholicism. Lit. — Lives of Paul. By Hemsex, Gottin- gen, 1830; Schrader, Leipzig, 1830-36, 5 vols.; B.\UR, Stuttgart, 1845, 2d ed., Leipzig, 1866, 2 vols., [Eng. trans., , London, 1873-75, 2 vols.]; Hausrath, Heidelberg, 1865, 2d ed., 1872; Re- NAX, Paris, 1869, [Eng. trans., New York, 1871]; Krexkel, Leipzig, 1869; Luthardt, Leipzig, 1869 ; Kammlitz, Frankenberg, 1881 ; [Cony- BEARE and HowsoN, London, 1850-52, 2 vols, (many editions and reprints); Lkwin, London, 1851, new revised edition, 1874, 2 vols. ; Farrar, London and Xew York, 1879, 2 vols. ; A^'illiam M. Taylor, Sermons, N.Y., 1882]. More General Works. — ^EAyDER: Hiaioiy of l/ie Planting . . . of the Christian Church; Laxue : D. Apost. Zeil- aller, Ewald : History of the People of Israel, vol. vi. ; Lechler : D. apost. u. nachapost. Zeit- alter ; Thiersch: D. Kirche im npost. Zeitalter, 3d ed., Augsburg, 1879 ; [Schafp : Apostolic Church and History of Christian Church, new edi- tion, 1882, vol. i. ; Sabatier : L'apotre Paul, Paris, 1870, 2d ed., 1882 ; Pressense : The Early Years of Christianity, vol. i., New York, 1870; F. A. Malleson : The Acts and Epistles of St. Paul, London, 1881 ; James Smith : Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul, London, 1848, 4th ed., 1880]. Theology of Paul.— Gottlob W. Meyer: Entwickelung d. paul. Lehrbegriffs, Altona, 1801; Carl Schrader: D. Aposlel Paulus, Leipzig, 1832, vol. iii. ; Usteri : Entwickelung d. paul. Lehrbegriffs, Zurich, 1824, 6th ed., 1851 ; Dahne: Idem, Halle, 1835; [Whately: Essays on St. Paul's Writings, London and Andover, 8th ed., 1865 ; Irons : Christianity as taught by St. Paul, London, 1870, 2d ed., 1876; P. J. Gloag: Intro- duction to the Pauline Epistles, Edinburgh, 1874] ; Menegoz : Le pe'che' et la redemption d'apr'es S. Paul, Paris, 1882; the Theologies of the New Testament of Schmid, Van Oosterzee, Weiss. Representing the Tiibingen School. — Baur : Neutest. TheoL, Leipzig, 1864; Holsten : Zum Euangehum d. Paulus u. Petrus (Rostock, 1868), D. Evang. d. Paulus (Berlin, 1880); J. H. Schol- TEN : D. Paulinische Evangelium, Elberfeld, 1881 ; and to some extent Pfleiderer : D. Paulinismus, Leipzig, 1873. Chronology of Paul. — Anger: De temporum in Actis App. ratione, Leipzig, 1833; WipsELER : Chronol.- d. apost. Zeitalters, Gottin- gen, 1848. [Commentaries. — Among the innumerable Com- mentaries upon St. Paul's' Epistles, those by the following recent writers deserve to be mentioned. On all the Epistles. — Meyer (English trans.), De Wette, Lange (various authors, American edition), Whedon, Ellicott, Cowles ; Bible (Speakei-'s) Commentary (various authors), Elli- COTt's Ketv-Testavient Commentary (various au- thors), Schaff's Popular Commentary (various authors), Cambridge Bible for Schools (various authors). Ou Single Epistles. — Romans: Hodge, Philadeliihia, 1835, new revised edition, 1870 ; J. Brown, Edinburgh, 1857; Vaughan, London, 1874; Beet, London, 1877, 3d ed., 1882; Godet (Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1880-81, 2 vols.). New York, 1883, 1 vol.; McCaul, London, 1882; Valdes (Eng. trans, from the Spanish by J. T. Betts), London, 1883; D. Brown, London, 1883. Corinthians: Stanley, London, 1855, 2 vols., 4th ed., 1876, 1 vol. ; Hodge, Philadelphia, 1857, 1859, 2 vols. ; F. W. Robertson, London, 1872; Beet, London, 1882, 2d ed., 1883. Galatians: J. Brown, Edinburgh, 1853 ; Lightfoot, Lon- don, 1865, 6th ed., 1880; Eadie, Edinburgh, 1869; Schaff, New York, 1880; Dale, London, 1882. Ephesians: Hodge, Phila., 1856 ; Eadie, London, 1861. Philippians: Eadie, Lond., 1859; Vaughan, London, 1864, 4th ed., 1882 ; Light- foot, London, 1873, 4th ed., 1878. Colossians: Eadie, Lond., 1856 ; Lightfoot, Lond., 1875, 2d ed., 1879 ; Klopper, Berl., 1882. Thessalonians : Lillie, N.Y., 1860; Eadie, Lond., 1877. Pasto- ral Epistles: Fairbairn, Edinb., 1874. Philemon : G. CuviER, Geneva, 1876, and in Lightfoot's Colossians.'] WOLDEMAK SCHMIDT. Chronology of the Life and Writings of the Apostle Paul. A. D. Paul'B conversion 37 Sojourn in Arabia 37-40 First journey to Jerusalem after Iiis conversion (Gal. i. 18) ; sojourn at Tarsus, aud afterward at Antioch (Acts xi. 26) 40 Second journey to Jerusalem, in company with Barna- bas, to relieve the famine ' 44 Paul's first great miSBionary journey, with Barnabas and Mark ; Cyprus, Antioch in Fisidia, Iconium, Lystra, Derbe ; return to Antioch in Syria 45-49 Apostolic council at Jerusalem; conflict between Jew- ish and Gentile Christianity ; Paul's third journey to Jerusalem, with Barnabas aud Titus; settlement of the diflficulty ; agreement between the Jewish and G-entile apostles; Paul's return to Antioch: his col- lision with Peter and Baruabas at Antioch, and tem- porary separation from the latter 50 Paul's second missionary journey from Antioch to Asia Minor, Cilicia, Lycaonia, Galatia, Troas, and Greece (Philippi, Thessalonica, Ber(Ea, Athens, and Corinth). From this tour dates the Christianization of Europe . 51 Paul at Corinth (a year and a half) ; First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians 52, 53 Paul's fourth journey to Jerusalem (spring) ; short stay at Antioch; his third missionary tour (autumn) . . 54 Paul at Ephesus (three years) ; Epistle to the Galatians (56 or 57) ; excursion to Macedonia, Corinth, and Crete (not mentioned in the Acts) ; First Epistie to Timothy (V); return to Ephesus; First Epistle to the Corinthians (spring, 57) 54-57 Paul's departure from Ephesus (summer) to Macedonia; Second Epistle to the Corintiiians 57 Paul's third sojourn at Corinth (three months) ; Epistle to the Romans 67, 58 Paul's fifth and last journey to Jerusalem (spring), where he is arrested, and sent to Ceesarea 58 Paul's captivity at Ciesarea; testimony before Felix, Festus, and Agrippa (the Gospel of Lulie and the Acts commenced at Csesarea, and concluded at Home) , 68-60 Paul's voyage to Rome (autumn) ; sUpwrcck at Malta ; arrival at Rome (spring, 61) 60, 61 Paul's first capli^-ity at Rome; Epistles to the Colos- sians, Ephesians, Philippians, Philemon 61-63 Coufiagratlon at Rome (July) ; Neronian persecution of the Christians; martyrdom of Paul (?) 64 Hypothesis of a second Roman captivity, and preceding missionary journeys to the East, and possibly to Spain; First Epistle to Timothy ; Titus (Hebrews?) ; Second Timothy 63-6T PAUL. 1774 PAUL. PAUL is the name of five popes. — Paul I. (757- 767) was raised to the papal throne, April 26, 757, at the death of his brother, Pope Stephen II. He was supported by the Prankish party, and fol- lowed his elevation with a letter to Pippin, the Prankish king, asking him to confirm his elec- tion, and appealing ;'to his help and mighty pro- tection." The hostile attitude of Desiderius, king of the Lombards, soon made this aid necessary. Desiderius laid hands upon the duchies of Spoleto and Beneventum, which had placed themselves under the protection of the P^'ankish king and the Pope, and refused to deliver Bologna and other cities to the papal see. With the aid of I'rance, Paul secured most of his demands, but practised a double-faced policy with Desiderius to do it. Paul lived in constant anxiety lest the Byzantine emperor should form an alliance viith the Lombards or Pippin. He died June 28, 767. See his Life, in Liber pontif. (Muratori, Rer. Ilal. iii., 172 sq.), his Lelterit, in Migxk (vol. Ixxxix.) and Jaffe {BiJd. rer. Germ., pp. 67 sq.) ; Jakfe : Rec). Pontif. ; Bakoxius: Aiinales, the Histories of the city of Rome of Reu.moxt and Gregoro- vius; Hkfkle: Conciliengexck., vol. iii. pp. 420, 431 sqq. (2d ed.). — Paul II. (1464-71), whose civil name was Pietro Barbo, a nephew of Pope Eugenius IV., was b. in Venice, Peb. 26, 1418; d. July 26, 1471. After occupying various posi- tions of ecclesiastical dignity, he was made car- dinal-priest of St. Mark's, Venice, by Nicholas V., and on Aug. 30, 1464, unanimously chosen pope. He was obliged to sign a document, pledging himself to do away with nepotism, continue the ■war against the Turks, call an oecumenical coun- cil, etc., -but understood how to break the stipu- lations. He showed promptitude and courage in putting down plots against ids life. His opposi- tion to the Humanists led him to pass the ridicu- lous measure commanding the Romans to confine the education of their children to reading and ■writing. His tastes were luxurious ; and his in- troduction of public carnivals, horse-races, etc., tended to corrupt the morals of the city. Pronr an ecclesiastical stand-point, Paul's pontificate was not one of the most brilliant. He spent his foi'ces in settling little controversies between the states of Italy, instead of resisting the progress of the Turk. He even pursued George Podiebrad, king of Bohemia, and chief opponent of the Tui-k, as a heretic, because he kept the Compact made with the Utraquists at Basel. (See Hus.) The king was cited to appear at Rome, Aug. 2, 1465 ; and soon afterwards a papal commission directed the Bishop of Lavant to pronounce the king's sub- jects free from their allegiance. A crusade was preached against him, and led by the king of Hungary (1468), but was unsuccessful. Measures looking to a reconciliation of the Pope were ter- minated by the king's death, March 22, 1471. See Canxesius: Vila P. 11., in Muratori, Uer. IlaL, iii. pp. 994 sq. ; Gaspar Vero.nensis : De gestis teytipore pontif Max. Paul! II. (^ibidem, p. 1026) : Palacky : Hixtory of Bohemia , Zaun : Rudolf von RildeAeim, FUrstbischof con Laoanl u. Bresiau, P^ankfurt, 1881. — Paul III. (1534-49), whose civil name was Alexander Farnese, was b. at Carino, Peb. 28, 1468 ; d. at Rome, Nov. 10, 1549. His mother's family had given Boniface VIII. to the papal chair. Alexander was made cardinal- deacon in 1493 by Alexander VI., who sustained a forbidden relation to his sister. At the death of Leo X. (1521) he came within two votes of being made pope ; ■was again unsuccessful at the death of Hadrian VI. (1523), but secured the prize at the death of Clement VII., and at his sug- gestion. Alexander's ability to secure the favor of one pope after another is a sufficient evidence of his diplomatic endowments. His election as pope occurred Oct. 13, 1534, and was in spite of his transgression of the rule of celibacy. He had four children, one of whom, Pier Luigi, became notorious for his debauched habits. Alexander adopted the name of Paul III., and soon after his promotion, Dec. 18, 1534, gave his grandchildren (Alexander Farnese, a boy of fourteen, and Guido Ascanius Sforza, a boy of sixteen) cardinal's hats. The remonstrance of the emperor the Pope an- swered by saying that boys had been appoint- ed cardinals in the cradle. The bad impression created by this act was counteracted by the speedy admission of learned and devoted ecclesiastics to the college of cardinals, such as Contarini, Pole, and Sadolet. The Pope declared in favor of an oecumenical council to correct the abuses of the church, and stem the tide of the Reformation, and, encouraged by the emperoi', issued a bjll (June 2, 1536) for its convention at Mantua. The Duke of Mantua declinhig to receive the council unless all the expenses were paid by the Pope, it was appointed for May 1, 1538, at Vicenza. In June, 1538, he secured the conclusion of a peace between Charles V. and P^iancis I. at Nice. In 1536 Paul appointed a commission to prepare a programme for the council, which brought in thirty proposi- tions for the reformation of the church (consilium de emendam/a ecclesia). These propositions, which were not I'eceived with favor, were translated by Luther into German (1538), with preface and notes, who, ignorant of the good intentions of the commissioners, calls them "distracted fellows, who want to reform the church with the tails of foxes." Paul's deep interest in the proposed council is vouched for by the excommunication of Henry 'VIII. of England, 1538 (projected in 1535), after he had declared against the council in two tracts. The Pope was intensely loyal to his family, and got into wars and controversies in the endeavor to promote the interests of his grandchildren and nephews. The refusal of Perugia to pay a salt tax which he levied, called forth from him in 1540 an interdict, and was pun- ished with the army he sent out under his son. In 1540 he confirmed the order of Ignatius Loyola, wiiich helped him to check the progress of Prot- estantism by violent measures. But he did not give up the idea of settling matters through a council, sent delegates to the disputation at Worms (1540, 1541), and Cardinal Contarini to the Colloquy of Regensburg. In consequence of a meeting between the Pope and the emperor at Lucca, the proposed council was appointed for Nov. 1, 1541, at Trent. This delay afforded time for the consummation of other measures for checking the spread of heresy. Cardinal Caraffa proposed that all heresies should be crushed from Rome as a centre ; and Paul, acting upon the idea, issued the bull Licet ab initio (July 21, 1542), and appointed a tribunal of inquisitors, with head- quarters at Rome, whose office it w as to extii'pate PAUL. 1775 PAUL heresy. It was the aim of Charles V. to gain Paul for his policy. This he failed to do when he refused to pay Paul's price, — the transfer of Milan to his nephew Ottavio Faniese. Paul threw Ms influence on the side of Francis I. Hostilities a.gain broke out, and the Council of Trent was suspended July 6, 1543. In the mean while the Inquisition had done its work well in Italy. Paul's feelings against Charles "V. were intensi- fied by his concluding peace with France (Sept. 18, 1544) without consulting, him, and granting some concessions to the Protestants at Spires (June 10, 1544) ; and he wrote to the emperor, comparing him to the worst persecutors of the church from Nero to Henry IV. The Reformers no sooner heard of the Pope's letter than Luther ( Wider d. Papslthum zii Rom vom 7'eiifel gestiflet) aadCslvm (Admonitiopaterna Pauli llf. . ... ad invectiss. Cms. Carolum V., 1545) wrote tractates full of biting sarcasm at his presumption. A bull was issued, calling the Council of Trent for March 15, 1545. In the mean while Cardinal Alexander Farnese, the Pope's grandson, began new measures to check the Reformation. No other papal legate exerted such a bad influence in imbittering the feelings of the two parties as he. June 15, 1545, Pavil obligated himself to furnish twelve thousand five hundred men, and a hundred thousand crowns, for the war against the Protestants ; the emperor, on his side, confirm- ing the gift of Parma and Piacenza to Paul's son. Pier Luigi. In the Council of Trent, at last con- vened Dec. 15, 1545, Charles V. demanded the passage of reforms ; Paul, the consideration of the doctrinal controversies. This difference, and Paul's fear that the emperor, who by this time had reduced Southern Germany, might interfere too much in the affairs of Italy, led him to iiope for the success of the arms of the Reforaiers. Charles V. was obliged to conclude the compact at the Augsburg diet (1548) on his own responsi- bility. Paul's consent to three of the articles — granting to the Protestants dispensation concern- ing celibacy, the gift of the cup, and fasting — was secured ; but Charles had to agree to refer all future measures of Reformation to. a com- mittee of prelates at Rome. The intrigues went on ; the Pope's policy, looking to the enrichment of his family, finally suffering a severe defeat. Charles refused to give up Piacenza, and deter- mined to lay his hand upon Parma. Paul re- solved to claim the cities which he could not secure for his family for the papal see, but died during the progTess of the intrigues. Venetian, Spanish, and French diplomates represent Paul's prominent traits as cunning, foresight, tenacity in the execution of his plans, but irresokiteness at the critical moment. The Protestant historian will deem it a mark of the Divine Providence over the affairs of the Reformation, that the emperor placed such mighty impediments in the way of the execution of the papal plans for the suppres- sion of Protestantism. Lit. — Paolo Sarpi : History of the Council of Trent [Eng. trans, by Brent, Loudon, 1676] ; QuiRiNi : Imago opt. pontifcis expi-essa in gestis Pauli III., Brescia, 1745; Kiesling : Epist. de gestis Pauli III., Leipzig, 1747 ; Calendar of State Papers, Henry VIII., vol. 7 ; Lanz : Correspondenz Karl v., Leip., 1845, 2 vols. ; Dittrich ; Regesten 6 — III u. Briefe d. Cardinals G. Contarini, Braunsb., 1881 ; Ranke : History of the Popes [Eng. trans., Lond., 1847, 3 vols.] ; Pastor: Die kirctdiclie Reunions- bestrebungenwdhrend d. Regierung Karls V., Freib.- i.-Br., 1879 ; [the Histories of the Reformation of Fisher, D'Aubigne, etc.]. K. zoepffel. Paul IV. (1555-59), an energetic and violent opponent of the Reformation, whose civil name was Giovanni Pietro Caraffa; of a noble A'eapoli- tan family ; was b. June 28, 1476 ; d. at Rome, Aug. 18, 1559. He enjoyed the favor of his uncle, Cardinal Oliviero Caraffa, who opened to him the way to ecclesiastical promotion. Julius II. made him bishop of Chieti (Theate) in 1504, and used him for political missions. Leo X. despatched him as papal legate to England to demand the pay- ment of Peter's pence, and to Spain to induce Ferdinand to form a general alliance of Christian princes against the Turks. The second mission was unsuccessful ; but Caraffa secured the Span- ish king's favor, and received the appointment of vice grand chaplain, which he held for several years. Soon after the king's death he returned to Italy, and after 1520 resided in Rome. He was one of the commission of eight appointed by Leo X. to destroy the hydra of heresy, but was disappointed in its failure to take energetic measures. He was a member of the Oratory of the Divine Love, which developed into the order of the Theatines. Caraffa, true to its profession, set the example in renouncing worldly posses- sions. In 1527 he was in Venice, and began the 7-dle of a violent enemy of the heretics, which he pursued for thirty years. In a letter to the Pope, he said, "Heretics are heretics, and must be treated as such," etc. Paul III. made him cardi- nal ; and he soon took sides in the conclave against the party led by Contarini, which was in favor of mild and conciliatory measures towards the Prot- estants. After Contarini's failure to come to any agreement with the Protestants at the Regensburg Colloquy (1541), the radical party at Rome secured the preponderance of influence. Caraffa was ener- getic in spying out any indications of the Refor- mation in Italy ; and by the bull Licet ab initio, promulged July 21,' 1542, the Holy Office of the Inquisition was established at Rome. Caraft'a threw all his force into it. His elevation to the papal throne, May 23, 1555, enabled him to carry out his plans fully, covering Italy with a network of Inquisition oflices. He extended his efforts in opposition to the Reformation, to Spain, France, and England ; and the order of the Jesuits was favored by him to such an extent, that he was hailed as its second founder (Oi'landini, i. 15). His last dying words to the cardinals assembled at his death-bed were in commendation of the Inquisition. His death was hailed with jubilation by the people, who stormed the house of the In- quisition (freeing the prisoners), broke his statue, and dragged the head through the streets. But the next day all Rome thronged to see the remains of the great Pope, who had impressed the stamp of his mind and will upon the future history of the Papacy. See notices of' the early lives of Paul in Bromato : Sloria di Paolo IV., Ravenna, 1748-53, 2 vols. Very important is the manu- script work. Vita e Gesti di G. P. Caraffa, in the British Museum, etc. Rankk; History of the Popes (an excellent description of his character PAUL. 1776 PAULICIANS. and work). [See also the Histories of the Refor- mation of Fisher, etc.] beneath. Paul V. (1605-21), whose civil name was Camil- lus Borghese, was b. Sept. 17, 1552, at Rome; studied philosophy at Perugia, and law at Padua ; d. Jan. 28, 1621, at Rome. He was made cardi- nal in 1596 by Clement VIII., in recognition of his service as papal legate in Spain, and after- wards inquisitor He was elected pope. May 16, 1605. He endeavored to increase the authority of the papal throne, but, instead, weakened it. In the controversy between the Jesuits and Domi- nicans over the work of the Jesuit Molina (see art.), he decided in favor of the former. He placed Venice under an interdict (April 17, 1606) on account of the State's interference, in eccle- siastical matters (imprisonment of two priests, etc.). Paolo Sarpi, as well as the Senator Quiri- no, opposed the assumptions of Rome in able writings ; and all the orders, with the exception of the Jesuits, Theatines, and Capuchins, refused obedience. Services went on, the communion was dispensed, and the refractory orders banished. The Pope endeavored to excite Spain to a cru- sade against the refractory State. The measure miscarried, and the Pope was obliged to submit. The State refused to acknowledge the justice of the interdict, or to deliver up the prisoners ; but Cardinal Joyeuse, who conducted the proceed- ings, made the sign of the cross secretly, with his hand concealed behind his baretta, in order to give out that the papal censures had been recalled, and dispensation granted in the usual way. This was the last papal interdict. Paul succeeded, too, in getting worsted in his relations with England when he forbade the Catholics to take the oath of allegiance, and with France after the murder of Henry IV. The Jesuit Mariana's work, commending the murder of tyrannical kings, was burned by the public hangman, by order of the French Parliament ; and Bellarmin's work, written in the same spirit, against the king of England, was, by an act of Parliament, forbidden to be sold in the land. The work which Paul commissioned Suarez to write against the English king was publicly burned by order of James I. Paul was more successful in promoting art than the affairs of the church. St. Peter's was finished by Carlo Maderno, by his order, and the great palace of Borghese built by his gifts. The city of Rome owed the repair of its water-works to him, as did also the Vatican Library its enlarge- ment. Exempt from moral stain, he approached close to Pius IX. in his willingness to be apotheo- sized, and allowed himself to be called "Vice- God." See Bzovius : Vita Pauli V., Rome, 1625 ; Platina : Historia Pontif., Cologne, 1626 ; CiAco- Nius : Vilce et res gestm Pontif. Rom., Rome, 1677 ; Gardiner : History of England, 1603-16, Lond., 1863; Ranke: Hist, of the Popes , Schneemann: Weitere Entwickelung d. thomistisch-molinistischen Controverse, Freib.-i.-Br., 1880. R. zobpffel. PAUL, Father (Paolo Sarpi). See Sarpi. PAUL OF SAMOSATA. See Monarchian- ISM, p. 1549. PAUL OF THEBES. See Monastery, p. 1551. PAUL, Vincent de. See Vincent de Paul. PAUL THE DEACON, son of Warnefried, the historian of the Lombards ; was b. about 720 or 725; d. April 13, probably in the year 800. He conducted the education of Adelperga, daughter of the Lombard king Desiderius. He entered the clerical order, and became intimate with Charlemagne, at whose court he remained for some time. In 787 he returned to his former cloister at Blonte Casino, Italy. Paul was versa- tile as a writer. From one of his poems on John the Baptist, Guido of Arezzo got names for the notes : — " Ut queant laxis EE-sonare fibris Mi-ra gestorum FA-muli tiiorum SoL-ve poUutum LA-bii reatum Sancte Joannes." His historical works are a Life of Gregory the Great (a compilation from Beda, and Gregory's own writings), Gesta episcoporum Mettensium (a History of Rome down to the time of Justinian, written for Adelperga), and especially a History of the Lombards to Liudprand's death (744), which preserves many valuable popular traditions. Ger- man translations of the last work by Spkuner (Hamb., 1838) and Abel (Berlin, 1849) ; Dahn: Des Paulus Diaconus Leben und Schriften, 1876 ; Wattenbach : Deutschland' s Geschichtsguellen, 4th ed., Berlin, 1877. JOLIUS weizsacker. PAULA, a Roman lady of the highest rank and of gTeat wealth ; married, and mother to four children ; settled, after the death of her huSband Toxotius, most of her property on her children, and followed Jerome to the Holy Land, where she founded a monastery, nunnery, and hospital at Bethlehem, and spent her life in devotional practices. She died in 404, and is commemorat- ed by the Roman-Catholic Church on Jan. 26. See Act. Sanct. Boll., Jan. 26. PAULICIANS, a dualistic sect of the Orient, whose name was derived from their respect for the apostle Paul, rather than from their third leader, the Armenian Paul, as Photius and Petrus Siculus affirm. History. — The founder of the sect was a cer- tain Constantine, who hailed from Mananalis, a dualistic community near Samosata. He studied the Gospels and Epistles, combined dualistic and Christian doctrines, and, upon the basis of the former, vigorously opposed the formalism of the chm'ch. Regarding himself as called to restore the pure Christianity of Paul, he adopted the name Silvanus, one of Paul's disciples, and about the year 660 founded his first congregation at Kibossa in Armenia. Twenty-seven years after- wards he was stoned to death by order of the em- peror. Simeon, the court official who executed the order, was himself converted, and, adopting the name Titus, became Constantine's successor, but was bui-ned to death in 690 (the punishment pro- nounced upon the Manichjeans). The adherents of the sect fled, with the Armenian Paul at their head, to Episparis. He died in 715, leaving two sons, Gegnsesius (whom he had appointed his successor) and Theodore. The latter, giving out that he had received the Holy Ghost, rose up against Gegnsesius, but was unsuccessful. Geg- nsesius was taken to Constantinople, appeared before Leo the Isaurian, was declared innocent of heresy, returned to Episparis, but, fearing danger, went with his adherents to Mananalis. His death PAULICIANS. 1777 PAUIilNUS OPAQUILEJA. (in 745) was the occasion of a division iu the sect; Zacharias and Joseph being the leaders of the two parties. The latter had the larger follow- ing, and was succeeded by Baanes, 775. The sect grew in spite of persecution, receiving additions from the opponents of image-worship. Baanes, an immoral man, was supplanted by Sergius, 801, who was very active for thirty-four years, and was received into the number of the saints. His activity was the occasion of renewed persecutions on the part of Leo the Armenian. Obliged to flee, Sergius and his followers settled at Argaum, in that part of Armenia which was imder the control of the Saracens. At the death of Sergius, the control of the sect was divided between sev- eral leaders. The empress, Theodora, instituted a new persecution, in which a hundred thousand Paulicians in Grecian Armenia are said to have lost their lives. Under Karbeas, who fled with the residue of the sect, two cities, Amara and Tephrica, were built. His successor, Chrysocheres, devastated many cities ; in 867 advanced as far as Ephesus, and took many priests prisoners. In 868 the emperor, Basil, despatched Petrus Siculus to arrange for their exchange. His sojourn of nine months among the Paulicians gave him an oppor- tunity to collect many facts, which he preserved in his 'iaropia Kept ttk ksv^<: not liaralac aipecrcuf tCiv MavLxoitJv, T(^*v Kal Hav^Kiavuv T^yofj^vuv (" History of the empty and vain heresy of the Manichseans, otherwise called Paulicians "). The proi^ositions of peace were not accepted, the war was renewed, and Chrysocheres killed. The power of the Pauli- cians was broken. In 970 the emperor, John Tzimisces, transferred some of them to Philip- popolis in Thrace, and, as a reward for their promise to keep back the Scythians, granted them religious freedom. This was the beginning of a revival of the sect ; but it was true to the empire. Several thousand went in the army of Alexius Comnenus against the Norman, Kobert Guiscard; but, deserting the emperor, many of them (1085) were thrown into prison. Efforts were again put forth for their conversion ; and for the converts the new city of Alexiopolis was built, opposite Philippopolis. When the Crusaders took Constantinople (1204), they found some Pauli- cians, whom the historian Gottfried of Villehar- douin calls Popelicans. According to a Greek writer, Constantine (eyxeipiiiov mpl t^c inapxiag <^i?u7ri:m)7!d7L£uc, Vienna, 1819, j). 27), adherents of the ancient sect were living in Philippopolis in the early part of this century. Doctrines. — Little is known of the tenets of the Paulicians, as we are confined for information to the reports of opponents and a few fragments of Sergius' letters which they have preserved. Their system was dualistic. There are two principles, two kingdoms. The Eyil Spirit is the author of, and lord of, the present, visible world ; the Good Spirit, of the future world. Of their views about the creation of man, little is known but what is contained in the ambiguous words of Sergius, " ii TzpuTTj nopvsia, fiv in tov 'Adufi irepuceifieda, evepysaia eariv. ri Si devrepa /lei^av liopveia ien ■ntpl VC ^iyc DOBAPTISM, PEDOBAPTISTS. PELAGIUS AND THE PELAGIAN CONTRO- VERSIES. While the Eastern Church engaged all her energies in the elaboration of the doctrines of the Trinity and incarnation, and the demon- stration of the supernatural character of Christi- anity as a fact in the objective world, it fell to the lot of the Western Church to take up the doc- trines of sin and grace, and demonstrate the super- natural character of Christianity as an agency in the subjective world. Not that those ideas were altogether wanting in the Eastern Church, but they were only partially developed. The problem was then and there to burst the bounds of Pagan naturalism, and rise to the higher level of spiritual morality. Both in the contest between the Greek philosophy and the old mythological spirit, and in the contest between Christianity and Gnosti- cism, the issue at stake was to make a definite distinction between nature and morality ,_ to dis- entangle man from all his improper complications with nature, to make him feel himself an inde- pendent moral centre, to place him as a free, responsible personality in his relation to God. PELAGIUS. 1784 PELAGIUS. Hence the constant and strong emphasis which all the Greek Fathers, from Origen to Chrysostom, lay on human freedom : hence the shyness they evince towards any thing which might make sin appear as a natural power. However grave the consequences of the fall may be, — the over- powering sensuality and death in its track ; the weakness of the will, always open to the tempta- tions of the world, the Devil, and the demons ; the dulness and the errors of the intellect, — nevertheless, actual sin is always man's own deed, issuing from that poiut in him which cannot be obliterated without destroying him as a moral being, — the freedom of his will. The general state of sinfulness is recognized ; but at the same time it is now and then hinted — as, for instance, by Gregory of Nyssa — that there might exist human beings who were sinless. Quite otherwise in the Western Church. Tertullian, and, after him, Hilary and Ambrose, recognized in human nature a vitiositas anhnce, the effect of the fall of Adam, and since that time propagated in the race by generation ; and they consequently define grace, not simply as an objective means of salva- tion, but also as the subjective cause of repentance and conversion. But it was not until the contest broke out between the British monk Pelagius and Augustine (the head of the African Church) that the development of these anthropological doctrines entered its decisive phase. Of the earlier life of Pelagius nothing is known ; but legend acknowledges the close correlation between him and his great antitype Augustine by assuming that they were born on the same day and in the same year. At what time he came to Rome from Britain cannot be ascertained; but his stay there must have been of some duration, since he gave an almost complete literary exposi- tion of those views which soon were to cause such vehement opposition before (in 411) he left for Africa. He was thoroughly conversant with the Greek language and theology, and shows a certain affinity to the doctrinal tendencies of the Eastern Church, which seems to indicate that the original connection between the British monasteries and the Orient was still alive. In Rome he conversed much with Rufinus, the zealous propagator of Greek theology in the Latin Church, and the circle which gathered around Rufinus, Paulinus of Nola, Sulpicius Severus, and others. The odious stories told about him by Jerome and Orosius are completely refuted by the circum- stance, that, even when the controversy was hot- test, Augustine never ceased to pay an unstinted respect to his moral zeal and Christian conduct. The great work he wrote in Rome — -his Commen- tary on the Pauline Epistles — exists only in the orthodox redaction of Cassiodorus; but even in that shape it gives a tolerably clear idea of his pe- culiar views. In speaking of a letter, which, dur- ing his stay in Rome, Pelagius wrote to Paulinus, Augustine complains that it is so completely oc- cupied with the forces and faculties of nature, that it hardly mentions the grace of God ; and, indeed, another letter by Pelagius, written somewhat later (415), and addressed to Demetrius, indicates exactly the same point of view. To Pelagius, re- ligion was not the vital germ of morality, but only an external influence; and, when he sometimes mentions religion as the highest moral motive, he means the fear of God as it is found under the dispensation of the law. Nowhere in the above letter does he speak of grace as an inner agency creating a new life. He acknowledges that in the course of history sin has increased so fear- fully as to become almost an element of nature ; but he nevertheless maintains that at any moment the will is able to burst the meshes of sinful habits, and vindicate its own independence. In the Commentary all the principal propositions which afterwards called forth the controversy are found, — the rejection of the doctrines of heredi- tary sin (Iradux peccati), of the connection between sin and death, of grace as the sole cause of con- version, etc. His very object in his Commen- tary on the Epistle to the Romans was to deprive those propositions of their scriptural basis because he considered them subversive of all morality. It was, however, not Pelagius, but Coelestius, who opened the campaign. He belonged to a distinguished family, and practised as a lawyer in Rome, when he became a monk, and joined Pelagius. In 411 they went together to Africa ; but after a short stay there, during which he met with Augustine, Pelagius continued the journey to Palestine, while Coelestius remained at Carthage, where he hoped to obtain the office of presbyter. In 412, however, he was accused of heresy by Deacon Paulinus of Milan, before a synod at Carthage, over which Bishop Aurelius presided. The accusation referred to six different points of heresy, of which the most prominent seems to have been that concerning infant baptism. Adam, Coelestius was said to maintain, would have died, even if he had not sinned. Children are born in the same state as Adam was in before the fall, and consequently they have eternal life, even though they die unbaptized. Both before and after the Lord's appearance in the flesh, there have existed people who were without sin, etc. Coelestius tried to show that the question whether or not there existed a true tradux peccati was a theological problem, without any direct bearing on the gen- eral creed of the church. From the few fragments of the debate which have come down to us, it seems that in general his policy was to temporize ; but the synod was not satisfied with his vague prevarications. He was excommunicated, and repaired to Ephesus. Between this, the first act of the controversy, and the second, in which the scene changes to the East, Augustine wrote his De peccatorum merilis, etc. In Palestine, Pelagius was very well received by Bishop Johannes of Jerusalem ; but he could not avoid coming into conflict with Jerome, who considered his views a revival of those old here- sies of Origen which Rufinus had defended. Jerome stood at that very moment in close com- munication with Augustine, who in 415 sent the Spanish presbyter Orosius to him with letters of recommendation. Orosius also brought a report of what had recently taken place in Africa; and Jerome consequently lost no time in writing his Dialogi conlra Pelacjianos. The book is full of invectives, but without any deep understanding of the subject. Jerome confined himself to the question, whether, as asserted by Pelagius, a hu- man being could be without sin ; and that ques- tion became, indeed, the principal subject of debate at the synod of Jerusalem, Which Bishop PELAGIUS. 1785 PELAGIUS. Johannes convened for the purpose of settling the controversy between Jerome and Pelagius. Orosius was invited to give an account of what had taken place in Africa, and laid great stress upon the circumstance that the views of Pelagius had been rejected by such a man as Augustine. But as Pelagius simply declared that the authority of Augustine had nothing to do with the subject in question, and as Johannes took the side of Pelagius, Orosius had to content himself with' claiming that the final decision should be referred to the Bishop of Rome, since Pelagius was a member of the Latin Church. Johannes con- sented ; but it soon appeared that the adversaries of Pelagius could not abide with patience the re- sult of so slow a process. Before the year (415) came to an end, two deposed Western bishops who happened to be in Palestine (Heros of Aries and Lazarus of Aix) laid a formal accusation of heresy before the synod of Diospolis, convened by Bishop Eulogius of Caesarea. To the great chagrin, how- ever, of Jerome, Pelagius succeeded also this time in satisfying his Oriental judges, and was recog- nized as an orthodox member of the orthodox church. But Coelestius was condemned ; and, since Pelagius acquiesced in that condemnation, Augustine was certainly right when he afterwards, in his De geslis Pelagii, protested that Pelagius could not give his assent to that condemnation without condemning himself. In the West these decisions caused considerable uneasiness, and it was generally determined to employ more effective measures against the new heresy. At a provincial synod of Carthage, con- vened in 416 by Bishop Aurelius, Orosius read a report of what had taken place in Palestine, writ- ten by the two Galilean bishops ; and the synod decided to anathematize Pelagius and Coelestius, unless they retracted. A letter was also sent to Pope Linocent I., asking him to anathematize any one who should teach that man is able by himself to overcome sin, and fulfil the commandments of God, or who should deny that by baptism children are raised from a state of perdition, and made heirs to eternal life. The Numidian bishops assembled at MUeve in the same year, and ad- dressed the Pope in a similar strain ; and so did five other African bishops, among whom was Augustine, in a private letter. The Pope was much flattered by these appeals, as he called them, to the authority of the Roman see, and declared himself in perfect accord with the African bishops. Pelagius now also presented a confession to the Pope, in which he expatiated at gTeat length upon Christology, the Trinity, and other doctrines, but touched only vaguely the point in question, arguing against those, who, like the Manicheans, asserted that man cannot escape sinning, and against those, who, like Jovinian, asserted that man, when regenerated, can sin no more. This confession did not reach Innocent before his death ; but his successor, Zosimus, received it very kindly, and seemed to be more in favor of Pelagius. Coelestius, who had become a presbyter in Ephe- sus, and afterwards had staid for some time in Constantinople, came also to Rome about this time ; and in the confession he submitted to Zosi- mus he tried to vindicate his old point of view, — that the whole question was, properly speaking, prmter Jidem. The result of these movements was, that Zosimus, in two letters, openly blamed the African bishops because they had listened to the accusations of the Galilean bishops, two men of ill repute, and opened a controversy without properly investigating the matter. The African bishops, however, would not brook the rebuke. A synod of Carthage immediately determined to adhere to the decision of Innocent as the only valid one; and, while Zosimus was trying to effect a decent retreat, the African bish- ops assembled in a general council (418), at which also delegates from Spain were present, and for- mally condemned the views of Pelagius. The propositions condemned were, that man was cre- ated mortal, and would have died, even though he had not sinned ; that children were born with- out sin, and needed not baptism as an atonement; that grace works only forgiveness for sins com- mitted, but does not help to avoid committing sins ; that grace helps only by revealing the will of God, but not by connnunicating power to withstand sin, etc. The African bishops further succeeded in gaining the Emperor Honorius over to their side ; and an edict of April 30, 418, ban- ished all adherents of Pelagius, laymen or clergy, from the country. Zosimus now saw fit to break openly with Pelagianism, and by his Epislola Tractoria he solemnly confirmed the canons of the African council. All Western bishops were commanded to subscribe to the letter. A few Ital- ian bishops refused. Among them was Julian of Eclaniun in Apulia, the third great representative of Pelagianism, and a man both of talents and learning. He sacrificed his bishopric for his opinions, and in the literary contest which ensued he gave Pelagianism a broader and more consist- ent development. Meanwhile the Pelagians were everywhere hunted down. New and harder de- crees were issued against them by Constantius. Pelagius himself disappears altogether after 420; Coelestius is still seen wandering about for some years fi-om place to place. In 424 he was in Rome, demanding a new investigation of the subject from Pope Coelestius ; in 428 he was in Constan- tinople, trying to make an alliance with Nesto- rius, etc. See Ccelestius, Nestorianism, and Semi-Pelagianism. Lit. — The sources are the works of Pelagius, — Expositiones in epist. Pauli, Epistola ad Demetr., and Libellus Jidei ad Innocentium (preserved among the works of Jerome, ed. Mart. V. : the Libellus Jidei was for a long time considered an orthodox work, and is quoted as such in the Libri Carolini, iii. 1) ; the pertinent works of Jerome, Augustine, Orosius, Julian, and Marius Mercator ; the acts of the various councils (see in Mansi, IV.). Among modern treatments of the subject, F. Wiggers : Praq. Darstellung des Auguslinismus und Pelag., Berlin, 1831-32, 2 vols. (vol. i. translated by R. Emerson, Augustinianism and Pelagianism, An- dover, 1840) ; J. L. Jacobi : Die Lehre d. Pelagius, Leip.,1842; Worter: Der Pelagiaiiisinus, Freih., 1866 ; Klasen : Die innere Entwickelung des Pela- gianismus, Freiburg, 1882. Av. JiOller. PELAGIUS, the name of two Popes. — Pelagius I. (555-560), b. in Rome, and d. there March 3, 560. Under Pope Silverius he held the position of apocrisiarius at the court of Justinian I., and combined with the Empress Theodora, a secret advocate of Monophysitism, for the overthrow of PELAGIUS. 1786 PELT. Silverius, a foe of Moiiophysitism, and the eleva- tion of Vigilius. He stood in favor "vvitli Vigilius, and in 553 signed the Conslilulum in favor of the Three Chapters (see Three-Chapter Contro- versy) whiclr Vigilius had drawn up. Vigilius and Pelagiiis were both banished by the Byzantine emperor, but the latter pardoned, and commended by the emperor for Pope, in the place of Vigilius. Two bishops and one presbyter assisted at his consecration. He was accused of heresy, on ac- count of his connection with the Three-Chapter Controversy, and took great pains to rid himself of the charge. He had much opposition in Italy. It was an act humiliating to the Papacy, when, in 557, he decided, at the wish of Childebert, to fur- nish a confession of .faith as a proof of his ortho- doxy. But that he understood how to vigorously defend the Church against the claims of the State is seen in his demand upon Childebert to make good his invasions into the rights of the papal vicar Sapandus. See Vila Pelagii I., in Murato- ]!i : Rerum Ital., iii. ; JaffA: Reg. Pontif. Rom., 2d ed., Leipzig, 1881. Pelagius' Letters are given in Migne: Patrol. Latino, vol. Ixix. — Pelagius II. (578-590), of Gothic extraction, the sou of Winigild ; was b. at Rome ; elevated to the papal throne, July 30, 578 ; d. in Rome in Janu- ary, 590. Pressed by the king of the Lombards, he sought aid from the Byzantine emperor, who, not being in a position to send an army, advised the Pope to free Rome from the army of besiegers by the payment of a sum of money. Pelagius, following the advice, secured temporary relief by the payment of three thousand pounds of gold to the LoTnbards. In order to secure permanent relief, he also solicited the aid of Childebert II., king of the Franks, who wrote to Laurentius, Archbishop of Milan, promising an army which should " destroy the cursed people that had armed its cruel hands with violence against the saints and for the murder of the faithful." The alliance between the Greeks and the Franks, for the pur- pose of breaking the power of the Lombards, was suddenly interrupted by the latter, who entered into a treaty of neutrality with the Lombards. The Greeks, in 584, concluded a three-years' treaty of peace with the enemy. This period was utilized by Pelagius in an effort to heal the schism which the Three-Chapter Controversy had created in the Western Church. He communicated with the archbisho|), Elias of Aquileja-Grado, and the other bishops of Istria, using the words of 2 Tim. ii. 23, and trying to prove that the decree con- demning the Three Chapters was not at variance with the first four oecumenical councils. They refused, however, to return to the Church till the condemnation was revoked, or to accept a propo- sition to meet papal commissioners. Pelagius also got into controversy with John the Faster, Patriarch of Constantinople, and protested against his assumption of the title of oecumenical bishop. The papal document rebuking the patriarch for his presumption has not come down to us, the Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals which profess to con- tain it being spurious. See Vita Pelagii II., in Lilier Pontif. (Muratori : Rer. Ital. Scr., III.); his Letters, in Migne : Patrol., vol. Ixxii. ; Jaffe : Reg. Pontif. Rom., 2d ed., Leipzig, 1881, p. 137 sqq. ; Hinschius: Decretales Pseudo-Isidor.fLei'p- zig, 1863, p. 721. R. ZOEPEFBL. PELAGIUS, Alvarus, Spanish Franciscan, pupil of Duns Scotus, and bishop of Silves in Algarve [Portugal], d. 1352; is famous for his immod- erate defence of the Papacy, in his work Be planctu ecclesio! (UhUjUTi; Venice, 1560; Lyons, 1570) : " The Pope is above every thing, even oecu- meilical councils. From him councils get their authority and the privilege of convention. The Pope may pronounce judgment upon all creatures, but be judged by none. As the Spirit was given to Christ without measure (John iii. 34), so au- thority upon earth is given to the Pope without measure." He also wrote a Colloquium adv. hcere- ses, which has never been printed. See Bellar- MiNEi De script, eccles,; Riezler: D. liter. Wider- sacher d. Papste, 1874, pp. 283 sqq. HERZOG. PELLIKAN, Konrad, a distinguished Hebraist; b. Jan. 8, 1478, at Ruflach in Alsace; d. April 6, 1556, at Ziirich. His German hame, Kiirsner, was altered to Pellicanus by his uncle, who pro- vided for his education at Heidelberg and Tiibin- gen. In 1499 he began the study of Hebrew, which he pursued with intense avidity. His only help was the Stern meschiah of Peter Negri (Ess- lingen, 1477). In 1501 he prejaared the De moda legendi et intdligendi Hebrmmn, which was the first Hebrew text-book ever written by a Christian. It was published in the Margarita pliilosopliica, Strassburg, 1504. In 1501 Pellikan was conse- crated priest in Ruffach, and, after filling various other academical positions, was, with OEcolampa- dius, made professor of theology at Basel, and in 1525 was, on Zwingli's invitation, induced to go to Ziirich. His first lecture in Zurich, on Exod. XV., he began with the words, " Thanks be to my God, who, having snatched me from Egypt and from the Egyptian and papal captivity, has caused me to pass over the Red Sea." He threw aside the cowl, and married, although already arrived at the age of forty-eight. He died as professor of Greek and Hebrew, and librarian, at Zurich. Pellikan 's text-book of the Hebrew was the first, but was soon , displaced by Reuch- lin's Rudimenta. He was also the first in the Reformation period to write a complete com- mentary of all the books of the Bible (Comment, biblisclier, Zurich, 1532-39). See D. Chronikon d. Konrad Pellikan, ed. by Riggenbach, Basel, 1877. Riggenbach's excellent introduction to Pellikan's autobiography treats of his literary activity, and of his relation to the Reformation. Pellikan's Hebrew text-book was reprinted by Nestle, Tii- bingen, 1877. HERMANN L. strack. PELT, Anton Friedrich Ludwig, a theologian of comprehensive culture in the departments of philosophy, history, and exegesis, and a master in the department of theological encyclopaedia; was b. at Regensburg, June 28, 1799 ; d, at Kem- nitz, Jan, 22, 1861. Educated at Jena and Kiel, he became in 1826 docent at Berlin ; 1829, professor at Greifswald; and, 1835, professor at Kiel, as Twesten's successor. His Latin commentary on the Thessalonian Epistles appeared at Greifswald, 1829. Pelt took a high position as a theological teacher; and, while he was originally in closer sym- pathy with the school of Hegel, he wrote D. Kampf aus d. Glauhen (1887) in answer to Strauss's Life of Christ. He took part in the practical ecclesi- astical movements of the day When Schleswig- Holstein was finally made subject to the Danish PENANCE. 1787 PENITENTIALS. crown, in 1852, he lost his position at Kiel, and was nominated by the university of Greifswald to the pastorate of Kemnitz, which was in its patronage. In 1857 he was promoted to be super- intendent of the diocese. Pelt's greatest work is the Theol. Encyktopadie als System, im Zusam- menhange mit d. Gesch. d. theol. Wissenschaft u. ihrer einzelnen Zweige, Hamburg and Gotha, 1843. This work, which divides theology into historical, systematic, and practical, is brilliant in conception, and instructive in execution. I. A. DORNBR. PENANCE, the fourth of the seven sacraments of the Roman-Catholic Church, is a means of repairing a sin committed, and obtaining pardon for it, and consists, partly in the performance of expiatory rites, partly in voluntary submission to a punishment corresponding to the transgression. It is found in all religions. In the Old Testa- ment it occurs under the form of purification, expiatory sacrifices, fasts, etc.; but this merely juridical form of expiation was afterwards, by the prophets, elevated to the more spu-itual forms of repentance of the heart, and complete change of life. Adopting this more spiritual view of the prophets, the ancient Christian Church early developed a very severe practice. At the instance of Paul (1 Cor. v.), excommunication, that is, exclusion from community with the con- gregation, was employed. But such an excom- munication was not final and absolute. The excommunicated could be re-admitted to the church (2 Cor. ii.) on condition of public confes- sion and full expiation. See Iren.«;us : Adv. Hares., 1, 13; Tertullian: De poenil., 2, 4, 9, 10; Cyprian: Ep. x., 13, 31; LactantiuS: Instit. divin., iv., 30, etc. As public confession, how- ever, carried with it not only great inconveniences, but even dangers, it was afterwards, especially by the efforts of Leo the Great, changed into private confession. On the whole, concerning confession, the views were for a long time uncertain. The thirty-third canon of the Council of Chalons, 813, says (Mansi : Coll. Council. XIV.), " Some think it sufficient to confess to God alone, while others think it necessary also to confess to a priest : both ways have their advantages." In the twelfth cen- tury, however, the treatise De vera et falsa poeniten- tia, generally but without good reason ascribed to Augustine, contributed much to the establish- ment of the idea that the priest had the power of pardoning or retaining sin ; and though this doc- trine was not accepted without certain restric- tions (comp. Petrus Lombardus : Sentent., lib. iv. dist. 18 ; Richard of Saint- Victor : Tract, de potest, ligandi et solvendi, 12 ; Thomas Aquinas : Summa, p. iii. qu. 84, art. 31), it served to spread the custom of confessing to a priest. Finally, the fourth Council of the Lateran (1215), presided over by Innocent III., and treating the heresies of the Cathari and Waldenses, made confession to a priest an indispensable part of penance, and consequently compulsory. With respect to the expiatory part of penance, or penance proper, the views were originally very severt,. It lasted long, often the whole life through, and the penalties Were very heavy. But, as time went on, the views became milder, the penalties were confined to prayers, fasts, and alms. At first the penalties were simply considered as evidences of the sincer- ity of the repentance ; but in course of time they became a real opus operalum. In the middle ages it was generally agreed that the penance imposed upon one person could be paid by another, at least in part ; and in a collection of penitence- rules found in Mansi (^Coll. Council., XVIII. p. 525) it is stated, that, by means of a sufficient number of co-fasters, a fast of seven years may be accomplished in six days. Penance was con- ceived of as a satisfaction ; and consequently, as Thomas Aquinas has it, so long as the debt is paid, it does not matter who pays it. All these various features have been retained by the Council of Trent {Sess. XIV., c. 2 and 8) in its definition of the sacrament, though in a somewhat refined form. The conception of the Greek Church dif- fers in no essential point from that of the Roman- Catholic. Penance is there considered a second baptism, the " baptism of tears " (Boissard : L'Eglise de Russie, i. p. 334). For further details and pertinent literature, see Confession, Peni- tentials, and Repentance. PENITENTIALS (Libri Pcenitentiales) were col- lections of rules for the guidance of the confessor, prescribing the penalty he ought to impose ; that is, the satisfaction he ought to demand before granting absolution. In the ancient church the Councils of Ancyra (314), of Nicsea (325), and others, gave such rules. Of great influence on the reigning practice were also the two epistles on the subject by Basil of Csesarea (d. 379). In his Syn- tagma, Joannes Scholasticus (d. 578) gave sixty- eight canons, which were confirmed by the TruUan synod of 692 ; but the farther development of this literature in the Greek Church is of comparer tively small interest. In the Latin Church the Letters of Basil formed the starting-point ; though a work of similar kind, but of native growth, is mentioned in the middle of the third century. (Comp. Cyprian : Epist. 2, and De lapsis, 31, 52.) The monastic discipline exercised a special influ- ence ; and from it there grew up in the old British or Irish Chiu'ch a number of penitentials, which, exactly in the fashion of a criminal code, pre- scribed certain penalties for certain transgres- sions. Fragments of the Canones Patricii (about 456), the Liber Davidis (about 544), a penitential by Vennianus, or Finnianus, another by Gildas (d. 583), are still extant. By Theodore, Arch- bishop of Canterbury (d. 690), those works were collected and arranged for the Anglican Church. He was a Greek by birth ; and his book, which from the eighth to the twelfth century was consid- ered the highest authority on questions of pen- ance, contains many Greek and Roman traditions. It is doubtful, however, whether he ever wrote down his rules himseK, or whether they were put in writing later on by others. The Pcenitentiale Theodori, such as it is published in Ancient Laws and Institutes of England, 1840, cannot belong to him. The same is the case with the penitentials of Beda VenerabUes (d. 735) and Egbert, Arch- bishop of York (d. 767). The Anglo-Saxon penitentials were brought by Columban into Gaul, and obtained gi-eat authority throughout the Frankish Empu-e. But works of the same kind poured into the country also from other sides ; and a great confusion ensued, which a number of Frankish synods from the first half of the ninth century in vain tried to remedy. At the instance of Bishop Ebo of Rheims, Bishop PENITENTIAL PSALMS. 1788 PBNN. Halitgarius of Cambray wrote, about 829, his celebrated Liber Poenilenlialis, in six books. The sixth book (published in Canisius : Lectiones a/iti- quce, torn. ii. part ii. p. 121) is designated as Pcenitentialis Momanus, quern cle scrinio Romance ecclesicE adsumpsimus, though it is certainly of Prankish origin. It must not be confounded with another Pcenitenliale Romanum which is often men- tioned, but which had no papal authority either. There exists, indeed, no penitential specially au- thorized by the Roman curia, though it often happened that a penitential writer ascribed his work to a pope in order to make it more au- thoritative. Thus there is a Poenitenliale Gre- riest Moses (Exod. xxiv. 6 sqq. ; Deut. xxxiii. 10; Ps. xcix. C) established a ritual. There are not wanting testimonies to the early date of a priestly law (Deut. xxxiii. 10 ; Mic. iii. 11 ; Jer. xviii. 18 ; Ezek. vii. 26; Zeph. iii. 4; Hos. viii. 12). Espe- cially is Deuteronomy, which was certainly in existence at least in the eighteenth year of Josiah, rich in proofs of this assertion. Compare Deut. xviii. 2 with Num. xviii. 20, 20 sq., and Deut. xxiv. 8, where a priestly law concerning leprosy is referred to, such as is found in Lev. xiii. 14. The new theory leaves the basal periods of Israel's history without a literature. Moses wrote no laws nor history ; David, no p)salms ; Solomon, no proverbs. The reason for the larger number of, and more exact references in, the post-exilic books, to the Pentateuch, is that Ezra began an entirely new period, — that of the scribes. The new theory not only excludes the divine factor from the history of Israel, but is obliged to resort, not infrequently, to the very precarious assumption of fictions, — a word which Wellhau- sen does not hesitate to use. One of the principal arguments of the new school is, that the non-observance of a law proves its non-existence. This conclusion, however, is by no means convincing. Compare, for example, Jer. xvi. 6 with Deut. xiv. 1. When we remem- ber the corruption of the priests, over which the prophets lament (Isa. xxviii. 7 sqq. ; Mic. iii. 11 ; Zeph. iii. 4, etc.), it is easy to understand how the laws were lying neglected among the archives of the temple. The writings of the Old Testament are vio- lently treated, both from a critical and an exegeti- cal point of view, in order to serve the new theory of Hebrew history. The following may serve as examples. (1) The Pentateuch. — The Book of the Covenant (Exod xx. 24, 25), according to Wellhausen (p. 30), " sanctions " sacrifices at any locality. He explains the words, " in all places where I record my name," thus ■. " This means nothing more than that they did not want the place of communion between heaven and earth to be looked upon as having been chosen arbitra- rily ; but that they regarded it as chosen in some way (!) by God himself-'' In truth, the matter stands thus : the jjassage forbids an arbitrary choice of the place of sacrifice, and, while it does not exclude a plurality of such places, neither presupposes nor demands them. The command which the Book of Covenant also lays down, to appear three times a year before the Lord (Exod. xxiii. 17), decidedly points to a centralization of the worship. (2) The Historical Books. — According to Wellhausen, these were subjected to many emendations and revisions, "so that the old tradition is covered up as with a Judaistic mould." The Chronicles are criticised with par- ticular sharpness. Leaving the refutation of such assertions, let me say that the pictiu-e of Ezra as given in the Books of Ezra and Nehemiah, and by tradition, does not accord at all with the pictui'e which the new theory draws. In order to overthrow a proof of the law of inheritance which prevailed among the priests of the line of Aaron, the false conclusion is drawn by Well- hausen from 1 Sam. ii. 27 sqq., that Zadok was the "first of an absolutely new line," and was neither a Levite, nor of the line of Aaron. The divine threat, however, is made only against Eli's house, and not against the entire house of his father. (3) The Prophets. — The treatment which this school gives to the prophets is, to say the least, of questionable value. Wellhausen says the word n13 ("create") was uot originally in Amos iv. 13, Isa. iv. 5. Joel is put after the exile. More violence, however, is done in the exegesis. The difference in the aim of the law and the prophets is ignored, as is the moral char- acter of the ritual law. The prophets wei-e not opposed to the observance of the sacrificial ritual, but only to practices of the people. Breden- kanip very justly insists upon the distiuction of the prophets of the northern kingdom, who prophe- sy more against the introduction of heathen rites, and the southern kingdom, who prophesy more against an external service. (4) The Poetical Books. — Job is put after Jeremiah (Wellhausen, Bleek, W. R. Smith, etc.). Job i. 5, however, does not fit in with the new theory of the hisloiy of offerings. Of the Psalms, .Wellhausen says the question is, " not whether any of the Psalms were composed after the exile, biit whether any M'ere written before the exile.'' If the words "burnt offering and sin offering hast thou not required," in Ps. xl. 6, were written before the exile, then the mention of sin offerings occurs before Ezekiel. If they were written after the exile, a view I do not hold, then the analogous utterances of Amos v. and Jer. vii.do not exclude the existence of the law of ^fferings at an earlier period (Comp. Bredenkai%) and W. H. Green, in the Presbyte- rian Revieio for January, 1882, pp. 142 sq ) "P" contains a number of laws which were PENTATEUCH. 1795 PENTATEUCH. without a motive, and could not be carried out after the exile, e.g., the Urim and Thummim (Exod. xxviii. 30; Lev- viii. 8; Num. xxvii. 21; the jubilee year, Lev. xxv. 8 sqq, ; the Levitio cities, Num. xxxv, 1 sqq. ; the law concerning spoils, Num. xxxi. 25 sqq.). It gives only the services to be performed by the Levites in the wilderness, and no special legislation is made for the time of rest in Canaan. Such a fiction would be in the highest degree astounding. The rela- tion of "P," especially as regards the law of holi- ness to Ezekiel, is now a subject of animated discussion. A careful comparison of the lan- guage shows that Ezekiel is dependent upon " P." Ezekiel (xlv. 18 sqq.) differs from "P" in the number of daily oft'erings and the method of making them. A prophet has liberty to change ; but it is inconceivable, that, at a period when so much emphasis was put upon the written word, a document like " P," laying claim to divine au- thority, could be composed with changes in this regard. Ezekiel was not the first to make the distinction of priests and Levites, but presupposes that distinction (xl. 45 sq., xlii. 13, xliii. 19). It can be clearly shown of many laws of the Priests' Code, that they are older than Deuteron- omy. To date the connnand to kill the sacrifices only at the tabernacle (Lev. xvii. 1 sqq.) after Deuteronomy, or after the exile, according to Dillraann, is "simple nonsense." It must have come into existence during the wanderings in the wilderness. A comparison of Deut. xiv. 3-20 and Lev. xi 2-23 shows that Deuteronomy either draws directly from Leviticus, — the better opin- ion (Ewald, Knobel, Eiehm), — or from the docu- ment which was used for the account in Leviticus (Dillmaun). The language of " P " also deserves attention as an evidence for its antiquity. Ryssel, in his careful treatise on the language of P (De Elohistce Pentatcucliici • sermone, Leipzig, 1878), reaches results inconsistent with the supposition of post-exilic origin. According to Graf and many other critics, Deuteronomy was written a short time before Josiah's reforms. There are serious objections to this theory. The account of the discovery — "I have found ilie book of the law in the house of the Lord" (2 Kings xxii. 8) — indicates that its contents were known, not only to Hilkiah, but to others; and it was found in the temple, its proper place (Deut. xxxi. 26). Tliis book con- tained, at any rate, the body of Deuteronomy; for the words of chap, xxviii. explain Huldah's utterances, and the contents of the book as a whole explain Josiah's reforms. And how does it occur that the book received such rapid and universal recognition ? There must have been some external attestation. Did Hilkiah attest it ? But, according to the new theory of Hebrew history, the injunction of Deut. xviii. 6-8 must have been very unwelcome to the priests at Jeru- salem ; yet they and Hilkiah co-operate to spread the authority of the book. This fact is a convin- cing proof that it already enjoyed irresistible authority at the time of its discovery. Dr. Green aptly says {Preahijterian Reciew for January, 1882, p. 114), "If Mr. Gladstone could but find some law-book in Dublin which had never been heard of before, how easily and amicably the whole Irish question might be settled!" From the words of Isa. xix. 19, — " In that day shall there be an altar to the Lord in the midst of the land of Egypt, and a pillar (jnazzebah) at the border thereof," — W. Robertson Smith {Old Testament, etc., p. 354) draws the conclusion that Deuter- onomy could not have been written before Isaiah. But Deut. xvi. 21, 22, only condemns idolatrous mazzehoth ("pillars"), and herein agrees with acknowledged old passages (Exod. xxiii. 24, xxxiv. 13). Moses himself erected twelve mazzehoth at the side qf the altar (Exod. xxiv. 4) ! Here we find grounds again to justify us in holding that Hezekiah (2 Kings xviii. 4) recognized the bind- ing character of the injunction of a central altar, and hence recognized" the authority of Deuter- onomy. Further : much of the contents ox Deu- tei'ouomy is inconsistent with the theory of its origin just before the reforms of Josiah. The book speaks in a friendly way of Egypt (xxiii. 8). How different is the tone of Isaiah (xxx, 1 sqq., etc.) and Jeremiah (ii. 18, 36) ! It speaks in a similar way of Edom (xxiii. 8), and condemns Moab and Amnion (xxiii. 4, 5) ; while the case is just reversed in Jere. xlix. 17, 18, xlviii. 47, xlix. 6. What was the appropriateness, in Josiah's time, of the injunctions against the extermination of the Canaanites (Deut. xx. 16-18) and the Amalek- ites (xxv. 17-19), and in favor of conquests and war (XX. 10-20) ! and how could the legislation for the throne (xvii.) have originated so latel Lit. — Commentaries on the whole Pentateuch. Vater, Halle, 1802-05, 3 vols. ; Rosenmuller, 3d ed,, 1821-24 (a collection, of the older expla- nations, of much industry) ; Dii.lmanx (a revis- ion of Knobel's Exeget. Handbucli) : Genesis, 4th ed., Leipzig, 1882 ; Exodus and Leviticus, 2d ed., 1880; Numbers, Deuteronomy, and Joshua, 1861 (by Knobel, Dillmann's revision not having j-et appeared) ; Keil: Genesis and Exodus, 3d ed., Leipzig, 1878 ; Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, 2d ed., 1870, [Eng. trans., Edinb., 1869, 3 vols.]; Lange : Genesis (by Lange), 2d ed., Bielef., 1877; Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers (by Lange), 1874 ; Deuteronomy (by Schroder), 1866 ; [Eng. trans., Genesis, (with additions) by Professor Tayler Lewis and Dr. Gosman, New York, 1868 ; Ex- odus, by C. M. Mead, and Leviticus by F. Gardi- ner, New York, 1876, 1 vol.; Numbers, by S. T. Lowrie and Dr. Gosman ; and Deuteronomy by Dr. Gosman, New York, 1879; Wordsworth, 3d ed., London, 1869, 1 vol.] ; Speaker's Commen- tary, London and New York, 1871, 1 vol.; Genesis, by Dr. Browne, Bishop of Winchester; Exodus, by Canon Cook; Leviticus, by S. Clark; Num- bers, by EspiN and Tiirupp; Deuteronomy, by EspiN ; Kalisch (only completed as far as Num- bers), London, 1858-72, 4 vols. ; Reuss : L'hktoire sainte et la lot (Pentateuch and Joshua), Paris, 1879, 2 vols. ; [Ellicott: Commentary for English Readers, London, 1833 (1 vol., by Pi.umptre, Dean Smith, Ginsburg, Elliott)]. — Commen- taries on Genesis by Luther ; Calvin (ed. by Hengstenberg), Berlin, 18-38, 2 vols.; J. Ger- hard, Jena, 1037, etc. ; Terser, Upsala, 1657 ; TucH, Halle, 1838, 2d ed. by Arnold and Merx, 1871 ; Delitzsch, 4th ed., Leipzig, 1872 ; C. H. H. Wright : The Bool of Genesis in Hebrew, with . . . Various Reddinr/s and . . . Notes, London, 1859, [Murphy, Andover, 1866] ; Thiersch: D. Gen. nach ikrer moral, u. prophet. Bedeutung, Basel, PENTATEUCH. 1796 PENTATEUCH. 1870, 2d ed. under the title D- Aiifdnrje d. Iteil. Gesch., etc., 1877 (valuable for houiiletical pur- poses). — Commentaries on other books: [Mur- phy : Exodus, Andover, 1867; Leviticus, Andover, 1872]; J. Gerhard: Deuteronomy, .Jena, 1657; SciiULTZ ; Deuteronomy, Berlin, 1859. — On spe- cial sections : Diestel : D. Ser/en Jakob's in Gen. a;?/j;., Braunsch, 1853; IIexgstexberg: D. Gesc/t. Bileams u. s. Weissarjungen, Berlin, 1842; Oort : De Pericnpe Num. xxli.-xxU-., Leiden, 1860 ; Volck: Mosis ccinlicum qjgneum, Nordl., 1861; Kamphausen: D. Lied Mode's Deut. xx'xii., Leip- zig, 1862 (3:31 pp.) ; Graf : D. Serjen Mose's, Leip- zig, 1857 ; A'orxK : Der Ser/en Mnse.i Deut. xxxiii., Erlangen, 1873 (194 pp.)-. — Historical works: Kohler : Lelirhuch d. Bill. Gescli. A. Test's, Er- langen, 1875; Hexgstexberg : Gesch. d. Reiches Gottes, etc., Berlin, 1869-70, 2 vols. ; Efpjpt and the Books of Moses, Berlin, 1841, [Eng. trans, by R. D. C. Robbins, Andover, 1843] ; Ebers : JErjijplen u. d- Backer Mose's, Leipzig, 1868; Schrader: D. Keilinschriften u. d. A. T., Giessen, 1868, 2d ed., 1882; MiCHAELis: 71/osnisc/ies /tcc/i/, 2d ed., Frank- fort, 1775 sqq., 6 vols. ; Saaf.schutz : D. Mos. Recht, 2d ed., Berlin, 1853; Bahr : Si/mbolik d. Mos. Cultus, Heidelberg, 18-37-39, 2 vols., 2d ed. of vol. i., 1874; Bachm.\xn : D. Festgesetze d. Penlateucks, Berlin, 1858. — Works devoted to the critical questions. Besides the authors already mentioned, the Mosaic authorship is defended by Hexgstexberg: D. Aulhentie d. Pentateuchs,'Be.Y- lin, 1836-39, 2 vols. ; F. H. Raxke : Untersuchun- gen ii. d. Penlat., Erlangen, 1834-40, 2 vols.; Keil: Introduction to the Old. Testament, [Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1869, 2 vols.]. The historical and critical theory has been defended by Rieh.vi : Die Gesetzgebung Mosis im Lande Moab, Gotha, 1854; Schrader: Studien zur Kritiku. Erkliirung d. bibl. Urgeschichte Gen. i.-xi., Zurich, 1863; EwALD : History of Israel, [Eng. trans., London, 1871-76, 5 vols.]; Klbixer: D. Deuleronomium, etc., Bielef. and Leipzig, 1872 ; Bishop Colexso : The Pentateuch and Book of Joshua crilicalbj ex- amined, London, 1862-79, 7 i>arts. — Advocates of the Graf-Wellhausen theory. Graf : D. geschiclit. Backer d. A. Test., Leipzig, 1866; Kuexen: De Godsdlenst van Israel, etc., Harlem, 1869, 1870, 2 vols., [Eng. trans.. Religion of Israel, London, 1874, 1875, 3 vols.] ; De vijf Boeken van Mazes, Leiden, 1872; Wellhausen: Composition d. Ilex- aleuchs; in Jahrlmcherf. Deutsche TlieoL, 1870, 1877; Gesch. Israels, Berlin, 1878, art. " Israel," in En- cyclopedia Brltannica ; Kayser : D. vorexil. Buck d. Urgescli. Israels u. s. Erweiterungen, Strassburg, 1874; Reuss: Gc.ich.d.hed. lichrif ten, Braanachw., 1881; W. R. S.-mitii: The Old Testament in the Jewish Church, Edinburgh, 1881. — Opponents of the Graf-Wellhausen theory : D. Hoffmaxx : D. neueste Ili/potliese ii. d. pentateuch. Priestercodex, in the Mayazin f d. Wissensch. d. Judenthums (vi., 1880, vii., 1881), Ort d. Coltesdiensles (vi. 7- IS), Gpfir (90-99), Feste (99-114), Priester u. Leciten (209-237), 'Ausstattung d. Klcri:?, (yii, 137- 156), Deut. u. der "PC" (237-254) ; Delitzsch : Pent.-kritiscke Studien, a series of twelve essays, in Luthardt's Zeilschr. f. kirchl. Wissenschoft, etc., 1880; Bredenkamp : Gesetz u. Prophelen, Erlangen, 1881 (204 pp.); Sime : Deuteronomy . . . a Defence (against W. R. Smith), London, 1877 ; Bixxie : The Proposed Reconstruction of the Old-Testament History, 3d ed., Edinburgh, 1880, pp. 44 (some telling observations) ; AVatts : The Newer Criticiim and the Analor/ij of Faith, 3d ed., Edinburgh, 1882; W. H. Greex : Professor W. R. Smith on the Pentateuch, in Presbyterian Review for January, 1882 (this valuable — lesenswerthe — arti- cle has been bound in a volume with some other essays against Professor Smith and Kuenen, under the title Moses and the Prophets, New York, 1882); Stebbixs : A Stuily of the Pentateuch for Popular Reading, Boston, 188i ; F. Gardiner, in Journal of the Society of Biblical Liteixiture and Exegesis, 1881 ; the arts, in The Preabyterian Reciew, by Hexry p. Smith {Critical Theories of Well/iausen, April, 1882), Curtiss (Delitzsch on the Origin and Composition of the Pentateuch, .July, 1882), Willis F. Beecher (The Logiccd Methods of Professor Kuenen, October, 1882), [Ciiarle.s A. Briggs {A Critical Study of the Hi.ftory of the Higher Criticism, with Special Reference to the Pentateuch, January, 1883), Francis L. Pattox (Th^ Dogmatic Aspect of Pentaleuchal Criticism, April, 1883); E. BciiiL: Zitm Gesetz u. zum Zeugniss; Eine Abwehr wider d. neu-kritischen Schriflforschungen im A.T., Wien, 1883.] HERMANN L. STRACK. Was Moses the Author of the Pentateuch? — The survey given by Professor Strack, in the pre- ceding article, of the bewildering maze of-critical opinions respecting the origin of the Pentateuch, sufficiently shows that no certain conclusion as to its date and authorship is to be reached by that process. Can any thing more I'eliable be ascertained by appealing to hi.storical testimony? Let us inquire what account the Pentateuch gives of itself, what account succeeding ages give of it, and whether there are sufficient reasons for setting this testimony aside. We read (Deut. xxxi. 9), "Moses wrote this law," and (ver. 24), " When Moses had made an end of writing the words of this law in a book until they were finished." This has very generally been understood to affirm that the entire volume of the Pentateuch, known in later times as " the law of Moses," was now completed by the addi- tion of Deuteronomjr. That this is what these words really meant in the intention of the writer may be inferred (1) Fi'om the interpretation put upon them in the Book of Joshua, which stands in so obvious and intimate a relation to Deuter- onomy, that it cannot misrepresent its meaning in this particular. " This Book of the Law " (Josh. i. 8) contained (ver. 7) "all the law which Moses commanded ; "' and the connnands of Moses by which Joshua was guided were not limited to Deuteronomy; thus, i. 13 ff., i v. 1 2, xxii. 2 ff ., drawn from Num. xxxii.; v. 2, from Gen. xvii. 10 ; v. 10, from Exod. xii. 0, Lev. xxiii. 5; xiv. 1, 2, from Num. xxvi. 52-56, xxxiii. 54, xxxiv. 13-18; xiv. 6ff., from Num. xiii., xiv. ; xvii. 4, from Num. xxvii.; xviii. 1, from Exod. xxix. 42, etc.; xx., from Num. xxxv. 9 ff. combined with Deut. xix. ; xxi. 2-8, from Num. xxxv. zS.; xxii. 29, from Lev. xvii. Iff. It is not improbable, from viii. 31-34, that " The Book of the Law of Moses " was more comprehensive than " the law of iVIoses," and that it was the same as "the book " referred to in Exod. xvii. 14, and contained whatever else Moses wrote in connection with the Jaw; which is further confirmed by the fact, that a record made by Joshua himself was written in " The PENTATEUCH. 1797 PENTATEUCH. Book of the Law " (Josh. xxiv. 26). (2) The volume written by Moses was to be read to the people at the feast of tabernacles (Neh. viii., where vers. 14 ff. show that Ezra understood Lev. xxiii. 40-42 to be included), and to be laid up beside the ark, and preserved in the sanctuary (2 Kings xxii. 8) ; and this has commonly been understood to be the entire Pentateuch. Accordingly, not a few of those who deny that Moses wrote the Penta- teuch, nevertheless admit that the words in ques- tion were intended to assert that he did. But, if we give these words the most restricted sense that can possibly be put upon them, they cannot mean less than that Closes wrote the laws contained in Deut. xii.-xxvi. Exod. xxiv. 4, in like manner, affirms that JNIoses wrote chaps, xx.-xxiii., which is styled (ver 7) " The Book of the Cove- nant." In FIxod. xxxiv. 27 he is commanded to write vers. 10-26. All the laws scattered through Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers, are expressly declared in detail to have been given by God to Moses, and by him delivered to the people. The occasion upon which these statutes were severally enacted, the circumstances which called them fqrth, and facts connected with their actual ob- servance in the time of ISIoses, are in many cases recorded in dfetail. JNIoreover, these laws bear the impress of the age and the region to which they are referred. The law of the passover (Exod. xii.) was given when each father of a family was priest in his own house ; and atone- ment could be made by sprinkling the doorposts and lintels. The minute details respecting the construction of the tabernacle and its vessels (Exod. xxv.-xxxi.), and respecting their transpor- tation thi'ough the wilderness (Num. iv. ), suffi- ciently vouch for their authenticity. The laws respecting offerings (Lev. i.-vii.) contemplate Aaron and his sous as the officiating priests. The law of leprosy (Lev. xiii., xiv.) has to do with a camp and with tents. The law of the day of atonement (Lev. xvi.) was given after the death of Nadab and Abihu, and contemplates Aaron as the celebrant, and the wilderness as the place of observance. The law (Lev. xvii.) that no animal except wild game should be slain for food, whether "in the camp " or " out of the camp," unless it was offered at the door of the tabernacle, would have been preposterous, and impossible of execution, in Canaan. The law of the red heifer (Num. xix.) is directed to Eleazar the priest, and respects the camp of Israel, and dwellers in tents. Tlie terms in which the laws are drawn up make it evident that they were not oniy enacted in the wilderness, and so might liave been written by Moses, but that they must have been connnitted to writing at that time. Had they been pi-eserved orally, changes would insensibly have been made in their lan- guage, to adapt them to the altered situation of the people in a later age, when settled in Canaan, and occupying fixed abodes, and when Aaron and Eleazar were no longer the i^riests. The laws of the Pentateuch thus claim to have been all given by Moses ; those of Exod. xx.- xxiii., xxxiv. 10-26, Deut. xii.-xxvi. (at tlie very least) are expressly stated to have been recorded by him ; and a large proportion of the remainder evidence by their veiy structure that their present written form dates from the abode of Israel in the wilderness. To this general line of reasoning the following two principal objections have been advanced : — 1. Alleged diversities in the laws themselves. 2. Alleged counter-testimony from post-Mosaic history and writings. The pentateuchal legislation, it is urged, is not digested unto one self-consistent code, as might be expected if it all belonged to one period, and sprang from a common source, but consists of several distinct bodies of law, whicli both differ in the matters to which they severally relate, and contain divergent regulations concerning the same matter. But this finds its adequate explanation in the different occasions upon which they were prepared, and the ends which they were respec- tively designed to answer. "The Book of the Covenant" (Exod. xx.-xxiii.) was the basis of the relation about to be establislied between Jehovah and Israel. After the sin of the golden calf, Exod. xxxiv. 10-26 repeats these same ordi- nances, so far as related to the service of God and the promise of Canaan. The other laws in Exo- dus, Leviticus, and Numbers, mostly concern the cultus, and give detailed directions from time to time, as occasion demanded, respecting the sanc- tuary, the priesthood, and the ritual. Deuterono- my is a solemn inculcation of the law upon the people by Moses, in public addresses at the close of his life, immediately prior to their entrance into Canaan. The contents of these several bodies of law are determined by their respective purpose. That detailed regulations are given in Leviticus re- specting matters not alluded to at all in Deuter- onomy, or only summarily referred to there, is not because the former is a subsequent develop- ment from the latter, or because it belongs to a period when a new class of subjects engaged public attention. It belonged to the priests to conduct the ceremonial. While it was important for the people to be instructed how to distinguish clean and unclean meats (Deut. xiv. 3ff.,comp. Lev. xi.), since this entered into their daily life, it was sufficient, in respect to leprosy, for instance, to admonish them, in the general (Deut. xxiv. 8), to heed the injunctions already given to the priests (Lev. xiii., xiv.) It was enough for them to be told where to bring their various offerings (Deut. xii. 6), and that the animal must be with- out blemish (xvii. 1). The specifications respect- ing them (Lev. xxii. 19-25), and the ritual to be observed (Lev. i.-vii.), were intrusted to the priests. It was quite natural that some modifications of pre-existing laws .should be made in Deuteronomy after the lapse of nearly forty years, whetlier with the view of rendering them more explicit (Exod. xxi. 2 ft'., comp. Deut. xv. 12, 17 ; Exod. xxii. 25, comp. Deut. xxiii. 19, 20; Exod. xxii. 26, comp. Deut. xxiv. 10-13 ; Exod. xxii. 31, comp. Deut. xiv. 21), or for the sake of a further extension of the same principle (Exod. xxiii. lOff., comp. Deut. XV. 1 ff .), or because rendered neces.sary by the transition from the wilderness to Canaan (Lev. xvii. 3, 4, comp. Deut. xii. 15 ; Exod. xxii. 30, comp. Deut. xv. 19, 20 ; the omission of Lev. xi. 21, 22 from Deut. xiv.). No objection of any moment can be drawn from the fact that many of the laws are framed with refei-ence to the con- dition of the people after they should be settled PENTATEUCH. 1798 PENTATEUCH. in Canaan (Exod. xxii. 5, 29, xxiii. 10 ff); for in most cases their very terms imply that this was prospective (Lev- xiv. 34, xxv. 1 ; Beut. xii. 1, xix. 1-1). Some laws have been represented as mutually inconsistent, which really relate to dis- tinct matters, and supplement, instead of contra- dicting, each other. Thus the tithes of Deut. xii. 17 ff., xiv. 22 ff., are additional to those of Num xviii. 24; Deut. xviii. 3 is distinct from Lev. vii. 34 ; Num. iv. 3 belongs to the transportation of the tabernacle; viii. 24, to its ordinary ministra- tions. And in general it may be said, that all alleged discrepancies admit of satisfactory ex- planation. There is no divergence in the laws of the Pen- tateuch in respect to the altar. Exod. xx, 24, as Professor Strack correctly observes in the pre- ceding article, gives no sanction to a simultaneous plurality of altars. In Leviticus, priestly duties are assigned by name to Aaron and his sons as the officiating persons. Deuteronomy, which mainly respects the future, describes the priests by the tribe to which they belonged, as Levitical priests ; but it neither asserts nor implies, as has sometimes been maintained, that every Levite was entitled to discharge priestly functions. Leviticus has, of course, fuller details in respect to the feasts and the ritual than Deuteronomy ; but there is no disagreement between them. There is, accordingly, no such diversity in the laws as conflicts with their having been given by Moses, and recorded by him. And the objection from the post-Mosaic history and writings is equally unfounded. It is said that the history aiiords no evidence of a law restricting sacrifice to one altar, or priestly functions to the family of Aaron, until long after the time of Moses, and that the contrary practice of good men makes the existence of such a law insupposable and impos- sible. It should be observed here, that history cannot be expected to record the I'egular observance of establislied institutions. This is taken for grant- ed, and rarely referred to, except incidentally, or for the sake of mentioning infractions of tbem. That, however, the Book of Joshua implies the existence and observance of the entire Mosaic law, is universally confessed. Judges speaks of but one house of Jehovah (xix. 18), and this located at Shiloh (xviii. 31) ; of the annual feast there (xxi. 19); of Phinehas, the son of Eleazar, the son of Aaron, as priest (xx. 28). Though the idolater Micah co7isecrated one of his own sons as priest (xvii. 5), he was overjoyed to have a Levite instead (vers. 12, 13), who deserted his service to become priest of a tribe (xviii. 19, 20). Plainly it woidd have been more tempting still to have been a priest of all Israel in Shiloh, if that had been permissible. In Samuel's child- hood the i\losaic " tabernacle of the congregation " (1 Sam. ii. 22), called indifferently "the house of the Lord " (i. 24) and " the temple of the Lord '' (ver. 9) was still in Shiloh, and was the one commanded place of sacrifice lor Israel (ii. 29). Eli and his sons officiated there (i. 3) as descend- ants of Aaron, whom God had chosen out of all the tribes to be his priest (ii. 28). There was the ark and the lamp of God (iii. 3) ; and annual pilgrimages were made thither for worship (i. 3, 7, 21, ii. 14, 19). While thus the regular course of the history establishes the existence of the Mosaic law of sacrifice and of the priesthood, all apparent anomalies are readily explicable. Sacrifices in the presence of the ark (Judg. xx. 2G, 27, xxi. 4 ; 1 Sam. vi. 15) were not irregular. 'The phrase "before God" (Josh. xxiv. 1), or "before the Lord " (Judg. xi 11, xx. 1), contains no implica- tion of a place of stated worship. " The sanctu- ary of the Lord" at Shechem (Josh. xxiv. 26) was not a building erected for sacrifice, — for the oak was " in it," not " by it " (as the Authorized Version has it), — but a spot hallowed by its associations (Gen. xii. 6, 7, xxxiii. 18, 20, xxxv. 4). The sacrifices at Bochim (Judg. ii.' 1-5), by Gideon (vi. 20-26) and by Manoah (xiii. 19, 20), were occasioned by ^le appearances of the angel of Jehovah. These extraordinary manifestations occurred elsewhere than at tlie tabernacle, since they were called forth by emergencies not ade- quately met by the ordinary means of divine communication. From the capture of the ai'k by the Philistines, until its transportation to Zionby David, there was no longer a sanctuary, which was the habitation of him who dwelt between the cherubim (1 Sam. ii. 32-36 ; Ps. Ixxviii. 60, 6S ; Jer. vii. 12, 14, xxvi. 6, 9). The law of the sanctuary was, therefore, necessarily in abeyance; and Samuel, as God's immediate representative, both assumed the functions of the degenerate priesthood, and offered sacrifice in various parts of the land. Until this provisional period was finally terminated by the erection of the temple, the people worshipped in high places (1 Kings iii. 2). The high places in Judah, after the tem- ple was built, are censured by the sacred historian, and rebuked by the prophets, though even pious kings did not always succeed in suppressing them. Elijah's sacrifice on Carmel (1 Kings xviii. 23 ff.) was offered by divine command (ver. 36) ; and the unrebuked altars in the northern kingdom (1 Kings xviii. 30, xix. 10, 14) were erected by those who were debarred from going up to the temple at Jerusalem. To the psalmists, from David onward, God's sole dwelling-place is Zion ; and they make fre- quent mention of the law, which David speaks of as " written in the volume of the book " (Ps. xl. 7). The older prophets make frequent allu- sions to the ceremonial and other laws, and de- nounce the sanctuaries of the northern king- dom. Hos. viii. 12 refers to an extensive written law. There are, accordingly, abundant traces of the Mosaic legislation, from the days of Moses down- ward ; and there is no reason to discredit its claim to have been delivered and written by ISIoses himself. If the laws are from the pen of Moses, so is the entire Pentateuch. For — 1. These laws now constitute an integral por- tion of the Pentateuch, and have done so ever since the time of Ezra, when it is confessed that " The Book of the Law of Moses " (Neh. viii. 1) was the name given to the Pentateuch in its pres- ent form, \\hich was thus attributed to Moses as its author. A book bearing this same name is spoken of on the first retm'n of the exiles (Ez. iii. 2), as existing in tlie reign of Josiah (2 Kings xxii. 8, xxiii. 24, 25), of Amaziah (xiv. 6), of David and Solomon (xxi. 8 ; 1 Kings ii. 8), in the PENTATEUCH, 1799 PENTATEUCH. time of the judges (Judg. iii. 4) and of Joshua (i. 7, 8). Unless decisive reasons can be adduced to the contrary, this must be held to be the same book 2. There is no historical evidence or intima- tion that the pentateuchal laws ever existed sepa- rate from the rest of the Pentateuch, with which they are closely interwoven ; the whole forming a unit in plan, purpose, and theme. If Moses wrote the laws, the entire Pentateuch, as traditionally ascribed to him, must likewise be conceded to be his, unless there are valid reasons to the contrary. The Book of Deuteronomy consists of three ad- dresses by Moses to the people (i.-iv. 40, v.-xxvi., xxvii.-xxx.) and an historical appendix (xxxi.- xxxiv.). These addresses are intimately related to one another and to the laws which are included in the second address ; the aim of the whole being to urge Israel to obey these laws. The style and language are identical ; one spirit reigns through- out; and like recurring phrases frequently re- appear. The objections to the unity of the main body of the book (i.-xxx.), and to Moses as its author, are of the most trivial description. In the appendix, Moses is expressly said to have written the song (xxxii.), and to have spoken the blessing (xxsiii.). That he did not write chap. xxxiv. is plain from its contents. Whether he wrote any portion of chap, xxxi., and if so, at what precise point he laid down the pen, and it was taken up by his successor, it might be diffi- cult to determine ; and fortunately this is wholly immaterial. The laws in Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers, are so intimately blended with the history as to be inseparable. Whoever wrote the one must of necessity have written the other likewise. And Genesis is plainly conceived and written as intro- ductory to the JNIosaic history and legislation. In fact, one consistent topic and method of treatment is pursued throughout the Pentateuch ; the gene- alogies are continuous, and mutually supplemen- tary; aconsistent chronology is maintained; there are implications and allusions in one portion to what is found in other portions by way of antici- pation or reminiscence, which bind all together. And even the alleged gaps in the history during the sojourn in Egypt, and the greater portion of the wanderings in the wilderness, only make more manifest how rigorously the plan of the entire work is adhered to. 3. Moses is expressly said, hot only to have written laws, but, in two instances at least, his- torical incidents as well (Exod. xvii. 14; Num. xxxiii. 2) ; which shows both that matters de- signed for permanent preservation were commit- ted to writing, and that Moses was the proper person to do it. The statement respecting Ama- lek was to be written for "a memorial in the book," which suggests a continuous work that Moses was preparing, or had in contemplation, and which would better insure its preservation than a separate fugitive record. That the explicit mention of writing in these instances does not justify the inference that he wrote nothing further, is plain from the analogy of Isa. xxs. 8; Jer. XXX. 2; Ezek. xliii. 11; Hab. ii. 2. 4. The alleged inconsistencies and statements, implying a later date than that of JMoses, are capa- ble of a ready solution. There are only a very few isolated passages, which it is necessary to assume have been added or modified at a subsequent time ; e.g.. Gen. xxxvi. 31 ff. 5. There are frequent allusions to the penta- teuchal history in post-Mosaic writings, which not only confirm its truth, but by their evident verbal allusions, in some instances at least, imply its existence in written form. Joshua is throughout based on the entire antecedent narrative (Judg. i. 10, 20, comp. Num. xiii. 22, xiv. 24; Judg. xi. 15-26, comp. Num. xx. 14 fC., xxi. 2 fE.). See also Judg. ii. 1-3, 7, iv. 11 (Num. x. 29), v. 4, 5, vi. 8-10, IS; Ruth iv. 11, 12, 18 ff. ; 1 Sam. ii. 27, 28, xii. 6, 8, xv. 2, 6, 29 (Num. xxiii. 19) ; 2 Sam. vii. 6, 22-24; in the Davidic Psalms, such allusions as Ps. viii. to Gen. i. ; xi. 6 to Gen. xix. 24; xxix. 10, ex. 4. In the prophets it will be sufficient to refer to the following passages in Hosea: i. 10 (comp. Gen. xxii. 17, xxxii. 12), xi. 8 (comp. Deut. xxix. 23; Gen. xiv. 2), xii. 3, 4, 12, xi. 1, xii. 9, xiii. 4-6 (Deut. viii. 12-14), viii. 13, ix. 3 (comp. Deut. xxviii. 68), ix. 10, xii. 5 (comp. Exod. iii. 15), i. 2 (comp. Exod. xxxiv. 15, 16 (iv. 10 (comp. xxvi. 26). 6. The language of the Pentateuch is through- out the Hebrew of the purest period, with no ti'ace of later words, or forms, or constructions, or of the Chaldaisms of the exile. The archaisms Ninfor X'n ("she"), liM for n-Ji^J.C'girl "), are peculiar to the Pentateuch. It always uses pns ("laugh"), never priK?; WW ('^&ne linen "), never p3; W^^ nJi' ("afflict the soul"), never D?S (" fast "), nor the later derivative n'Ji!/Jl; D'J3 DP'? (" shewbread "), never nj-iXBH DT}h; noSpp ("kingdom'"), never noSpp, niD^D, or HJi'td, etc. 7. The familiarity with Egj'ptian objects and institutions shown by the writer, and presupposed in the people, as this has been exhibited in detail, particularly by Hengstenberg and by Ebers, is most readily explicable in the Mosaic period. 8. The doctrinal contents of the Pentateuch show that it belongs to the earliest period of the Old Testament. Its teachings respecting the Messiah, divine retribution, angels, the evil spirit, and the future state, are of the most elementary nature. In respect to all these points, a great ad- vance is made in the Psalms and other poetical books, and in the prophets. Its account of the creation, the fall, and the deluge, while uncontami- nated by any Pagan or polytheistic conceptions, has, nevertheless, such points of contact with old Assyrian myths as establish its vei-y high antiqui- ty. Some of the Mosaic laws had already been expanded by usage at an early period of the his- tory ; as that of levirate marriage in Ruth, the Nazarite in Samson, and the consecration of the first-born in Samuel. The service of the sanctu- ary was enlarged by music and by courses of priests under David, and its vessels multiplied under Solomon ; and the projjhetic order, of which the Pentateuch speaks as still future, superseded the priestly responses, for which it made provision. The Pentateuch ordains rites, but suggests no ex- planation : this was a matter of subsequent reflec- tion, as respecting sacrifice (Ps. xl. ; Isa. liii.), purifications (Ps. xxvi. 6, Ii. 7), incense (Ps. cxli. 2), the privileges of God's house (Ps. xxvii. 4), PENTATEUCH. 1800 PENTATEUCH. the comparative value of ritual and spiritual worsliip (Ps. 1. 8 ff., li. 16, 17, Isa. i. 11 &.). 9. An argument has sometimes been drawn from the Samaritan Pentateuch, under the impression that it must ha^'e been derived from copies exist- ing in Israel prior to the schism of Jeroboam ; since the Samaritans would not have adopted it from the Jews, on account of the bitter feud be- tween them. Nor woidd the northern kingdom, from which the Samaritans must have obtained it, have accepted from the hostile kingdom of Judah a volume of laws which was in open con- tradiction with both the worship and the civil polity existing among themselves. But, inasmuch as the grievance of the Samaritans lay in the re- fusal of the Jews to recognize them as their breth- ren (Ez. iv. 1-3), the former coveted whatever would lend support to their claim. Plence their temple, modelled after that at Jerusalem. Hence their doctrines and traditions, borrowed from the Jews. And tlieir Pentateuch was drawn from the same source and in the same spirit. But the existence and authority of the Penta- teuch in the kingdom of Israel, from the time of the schism, can be established by a different line of argument. The prophets of the ten tribes, Hosea and Amos, make frequent appeals to " the law," which was a written law of ten thousand precepts (Hos. viii. 12), and a covenant (viii. 1) formed when Israel came out of Egypt (xii. 9, xiii. 4) ; and the people are charged with gross criminality for disobeying it. The ceremonial which they describe, the statutes to which they refer, and the events to which they allude, are precisely those which are found in the Penta- teuch. And no valid reason can be given for sup- posing the volume of which they speak to be any other than the Pentateuch itself, which is thus shown to have been possessed of incontrovertible divine authority among those who had the strong- est reasons for denying its binding obligation if they could. 10. The testimony of our Lord, and of the in- spired writers of the New Testament, is in vari- ous passages vmequivocally given to the Mosaic origin and authority of the law that bears his name, and which is indifferently denominated " The Law of Moses," " The Book of Moses," and " Moses." It thus peremptorily waives aside any theory which makes the statutes of the Penta- teuch, in whole or in part, the product of a later age. The Pentateuch is further, by fair in;plica- tion, attributed to the pen of Moses. Jesus says to the Jews, concerning Moses (John v. 4G, 47), " He wrote of me," and, without further explana- tion, refers them to "his writhigs," as something well known, and in their possession, and which they should liave believed. We read in the same Gospel (i. 45), " jNIoses in the law," as well as the prophets, wrote concerning Jesus. The contrast witli the prophets shows that it is the entire Pen- tateuch, and not its legal sections merely, which is here referred to. The same is the case in Luke xxlv. 27, where our Lord, "beginning at Moses and all the prophets, expounded unto them in all the scriptures the things concerning himself " (comp. Acts xxviii. 23). There is New-Testament authority for understanding in a Messianic sense the protevangelium (Rom. xvi. 20), the promises to the patriarchs (John viii. SO; Gal. iii. 16), the blessing of Judah (Heb. vii. 14), the account of Melchisedec (Heb. vii.), the ladder of Jacob (John i. 01), the paschal lamb (John xix. 36), the daily sacrifice (John i. 29), the sin-offering (Heb. xiii. 11, 12), the day of atonement (Heb. ix. 7), the whole system of sacrifices and lustra- tions (Heb. ix. 13, x.), the high priest (Heb. viii. 1), the water from the rock (1 Cor. x. 4), the prophet like unto Moses (Acts iii. 22). These, and other things of like nature, are written " in the law," or " in Moses," concerning Christ, and are designated by our Lord as written by JMoses himself. It is not to be supposed that he makes here the special revelation of a fact known by his omniscience, — that Moses wrote the Messianic passages, and nothing more. But Christ affirms that Moses wrote them, because he was the well- known author of the Pentateuch, which contained them. This explicit assertion of Mosaic author- ship gives the key to the proper understanding of other passages, which, taken singly, might have been susceptible of a different interpretation, but, viewed in this light, afford it abundant corrobora- tion. There is, accordingly, nothing to contradict, but much to confirm, the idea, which has come down from the earliest times, that Moses is the author of the Pentateuch ; unless a fatal objection is to be found in the modern critical hypothesis, that it is composed of a diversity of documents. There is no space here for an examination of that hy- pothesis, or of the grounds on which it rests. Some things are plausibly said in its favor, but there are serious objections to it which have never yet been removed. I cannot regard it as certainly established, even in the Book of Genesis, much less in the remainder of the Pentateuch, where even Bleek confessed he could no longer sunder the Eloliist from the Jehovist : the second Elohist he could not find anywhere. Thus much, at least, may be safely said : the criteria of this pro- posed analysis are so subtle, not to say mechani- cal, in their nature, so many purely conjectural assumptions are involved, and there is such an entire absence of external corroborative testi- mony, that no reliance can be placed in its con- clusions, where these conflict with statements of the history itself. Genesis may be made up of various documents, and yet have been compiled by Moses. And the same thing is possible, even in the later books of the Pentateuch. If these could be successfully partitioned among different writers, on the score of variety in the literary exe- cution, why may not these have been engaged, jointly with Moses himself, in preparing, each his appointed portion, and the whole have been final- ly reduced by Moses to its present form, and issued with his sanction and authority? Even the alle- gation that the pentateuchal documents can still be traced in the Book of Joshua creates no seri- ous difficulty. If Joshua and Eleazar, or any of their contemporaries, had a hand in the prepa- ration of the jMosaic history and legislation, ^^•hy might they not continue their work, and record what occurred after Moses was taken awav ? The real fact, however, is, tliat the continuity of the Pentateuch and Joshua lies in the subject, and not in identity of authorship. The couqnost and settlement of Canaan is the end contemplat- ed in the promises made to the patriarchs and in PENTECOST. 1801 PERCY. the whole course of the subsequent history; but it no more follows that the same pen recorded the whole than that one leader both conducted Israel out of Egypt, and brought them into the posses- sion of Canaan. The coincidences in thought and expression between Joshua and the Penta- teuch arise simply from the circumstance that the former records the execution of commands and the fulfilment of promises given in the latter, and these are naturally repeated in exact language. It simply shows that the actors in these events, and the writer of the book, had the Pentateuch before them, and carefully followed it. As the ark of the covenant is the voucher for the unity of the sanctuary, and for the genuine- ness of the Mosaic legislation respecting it, so the contents of that ark form no insignificant bulwark for the unity of the Pentateuch. If monumental evidence is to be trusted, the Deca- logue is Mosaic, and is preserved in Exod. xx. in its genuine authentic form. The critics assign it to the Jehovist, and claim for it the charac- teristics of Jehovistic style. But it has also the peculiar phrases of Deuteronomy ; and the reason annexed to the Fourth Commandment is based on the Elohistic account of the creation (Gen. i. 1-ii. 3). This unquestionably Mosaic document includes Elohist, Jehovist, and Deuteronomist all in one. w. henry green. PENTECOST, (a) The Jewish {■acvrriKOBTii, rab- binical or D'»Dn Jn, cf. Joseph., Bell. Jud., 2, 3, 1). — Among the ancient Israelites it was the second of their three pilgrimage festivals, and marked the conclusion of the harvest commenced with the passover, fifty days before. For reasons assigned in Lev. xxiii. 15 sq., it is usually called the " Feast of Weeks." Cf . Deut. xvi. 10. The fullest description is found in Lev. xxiii. 15-21, and Num. xxviii. 26-31, according to wliich, the chief offering made by the whole people shall consist in "two wave loaves" salted, brought "out of your habitations." Concerning prepara- tion of these, cf.Exod. xxxiv. 22; Joseph., Atiliqq., III. 10, 6. According to Mishna, Menacholh, 11, 4, the length of this bread was to be seven hand- brea,dths ; its breadth, four ; and its " horns " (^^lJ^p), the breadth of seven fingers. An anal- ogy is found in the apTo^ eaAvmog of the Greek sac- rifice. In addition to this bread. Lev. xxiii. 1« sqq. prescribes further offerings. Cf. also Num. xxviii. 27 sqq., and, on the later practice, Joseph., Antiqq. 3, 10, 6. In addition to the public offerings, there were also some of a private character. Cf. Kum. xxviii. 26; Deut. xvi. 10-12. The manner of bringing these to Jerusalem is described in Mishna, Bikkurim, 3, 2 sqq. The law restricted the Pentecost festival to one day, to be kept holy (Lev. xxiii. 21, xxviii. 26). Joseph., Antiqq., III. 10, 6, says it was called Aaapea (snTij,'), in He- brew, and it is really called thus in the Mishna ; the Pentateuch, however, preferring other desig- Kations. Cf. Lev. xxiii. 36, and Deut. xvi. 8. The word niS;;, used in this last passage, does not signify the "close of the Eastercyclus," and thus has nothing to do with the iibdiov of the LXX., nor with the nOiJ hw ms;' of rabbinical literature. This festival, mentioned but once iii the historical books (2 Chron. viii. 13j, was purely of an agrarian nature, — thanksgiving forthe gTaiu harvest, as the Feast of Tabernacles is for the fruit harvest. Only in post-biblical times did it receive an historical basis and connection. Philo, Josephus, and the older portions of the Talmud, know nothing of it. Since Maimonides {Mm-e Nebochim, 3, 43), Pentecost is regarded as the memorial festival of the giving of the law on Sinai. This is based in Exod. xix. 1. Cf. Ham- burger: Real-Encykl. des .Tuilenthunn,\. 1057 sq.; ScHKODEu: Salzungen !(. Gebruuche d. tcdmiidisch- ndMniscUen Judenlhums, pp. 216 sqq., and, for the literatiu-e, the art. Passovei:. VON OKELU. {I)) The Christian. — Among the Christians, Pen- tecost is the third of the chief festivals, closing the cyclus of the festivals referring to the Lord, and thus separating the Semeslre Domini and the Semestre Ecclcsice. It is connected with its Jewish predecessor, not only historically, through the events recorded in Acts vii., but also internally, being early regarded as a festival of thanksgiving for the first-fruits of the Spirit (Rom. viii. 23 ; cf. Augustine, Ep. 54 ad Januar.). Originally the term " Pentecost " designated the whole period of fifty days, from Easter to the outpouring of the H0I3' Spirit. It is thus used by Tertullian, De Idolalr., c. 12; by Origen, Contra Ccls., viii. 22; by the Antiochan Synod of 341, in canon 20; by Basil the Great, De Sp. Sancto, c. 27, Const. App. V. 20, and the Ordo Romanus. In contrast to Lent, there was no fasting during this season, and prayers wei'e sjpoken while in a standing posture. In addition, this joyful period was marked by a cessation of theatre and circus exhi- bitions, and by increased ceremonials and liturgy in the church services. In a narrower sense, as designating the last day of this quinquagesimal period, the word " Pen- tecost " is first found in a canon of the Council of Elvira, 305 ; cf. Labbei, Concill. I. 975. On the importance of this iityiarri iopTi/ cf. Euseb., De Vita Const., IV. 64. Gregory of Kaz., Orat. XLIV. de Pentec., honors it as ijjdpa tov TrvEv/iaToi ; and Chrysostom, Ham. II. de Pentec., as nvrpoTtohi tov iopruv. Cf. also Augustine, Ep. 54 ad .lanuar. c. Faust, 1. xxxii. ; Leo the Great, Serm. 75-77 de Pentec. ; Concil. Arjath. a. 506 can. 18, 31 sqq. At an early period already the days around Pen- tecost were also regarded with especial honor; but, from the eighth century down, these festivals began to be curtailed, and the Protestant Church of to-day celebrates only two Pentecost days. Because it was customary to wear white gar- ments on Pentecost, this day' is called 'Whit- sunday, and the whole period Whitsuntide. The older literature is found in Augusti: Denkivilr- digkeiten, ii. 384 sq; Guekike : Lehrlmrh der Christ. -kirchl. Archiiolor/Ie, pp. 190-196. For later, cf. NiLLES (S. J.): Katendariv.-::i manunie ulriusque Ecclcsice, etc. (1879), tom. ii. pp. 279 sqq., 431 sqq. ZdCKLER. (G. H. SCIIODDE.) PERATit. See Gnosticism, p. 881. PERCY, Thomas, D.D., Bishop of Dromore, County Down, Ireland ; b. at Bridgnorth, Shrop- shire, England, April 13, 1728; d. at Dromore, Sept. 30, 1811. His fame rest upon his Rellqucs of Ancient English Poetry (1765) ; which work was edited by him from an old manuscript. He was, in consequence of this publication, advanced in the church, being made chaplain-in-ordinaiy to the king, 1769, Dean of Carlisle, 1778, and Bishop PERBA. 1802 PBRICOPBS. of Dromore, 1782. His religious publications em- brace The Song of Solomon (uewly translated from the original Hebrew) ivitli a Commentary and An- notations, which came out anonymously in 1764; and Keij to the New Testament, itOa, 3d ed., 1779. PEREA, the lower part of Eastern Palestine. PEREIRA, Antonio de Figueiredo, b. at Maqao, Feb. U, 172o ; d. in Lisbon, Aug. 14, 1797. He was educated by the Jesuits at Villa- Vi(;osa, but refused to become a member of the order; en- tered the society of the Fathers of the Oratory ; devoted himself to art and literature, and attract- ed much attention by his Exercios da lingua latina e portugueza (1751) and his Noco Melhodo da gram- matica latina (1752). In the contest between Don Joze I. and the Ultramontanist party, he threw himself with violence on the royal side ; wrote Doc- trina ceteris ecclesice, etc. (1765), Tenlatica Iheolo- gica (1763), both translated' into French ; obtained a high position in the government ; and became a membei-, afterwards president, of the Academy of Sciences. The list of his works numbers a hundred and sixty-nine. It is his translation of the Bible into Portuguese, originally published in Lisbon (1778-90, 23 vols.), which the British and Foreign Bible Society circulates. PERFECTIONISM. Calvinists and Lutherans deny any perfection in this life; but there are three theories in the other branches of the Chris- tian Church upon this subject, advocated by Ro- man and Greek Catholics, Wesleyan Arminians, and Friends respectively. There is also tlie theory of the Oberlin school of theology. (1) Roman Catholics teach that the observance of God"s commands is possible for one who is justified. His sins are venial, not mortal. He may even offer an obedience beyond the demands of the law. Yet his venial sins compel him to use the petition, " Forgive us our debts.." In some cases, by a special privilege of God, he may avoid all sins. Cf. Canons and Decrees of the Council of Trent, sess. vi. chap. xi. aad can. 23, 25 ; Schaif, Creeds, ii. pp. 100-102, 115. (2) Wesleyan Ar- minians teach a perfection which is not angelic, Adamic, nor absolute, but one that is relative ; i.e., " according to the special economy introduced by the atonement, in which the heart, being sanc- tified, fulfils the law by love." " The highest per- fection," says Wesley, " which man can attain while the soul dwells in the body does not exclude ignorance and error and a thousand infirmities." This is what is .styled Christian perfection. Its source is the grace of God ; its fruit, freedom " from all unholy tempers, self-will, pride, anger, sinful thoughts." (3) The Friends teach, in the case of the justified, " The body of death and sin comes to be crucified and removed, and their hearts united, and subjected unto the truth, so as not to obey any suggestion or temptation of the Evil One, but to be free from actual sinning, and transgressing of the law of God, and in that re- spect perfect. Yet doth this perfection still admit of a growth ; and there remaineth a possibility of sinning where the mind doth not most diligently and watchfully attend unto the Lord." — Eighth prop. Confession of the Society of Friends. Cf. Schaff, Creeds, iii. pp. 974, 975. (4) The Oberlin school of theology teaches, that "as virtue and sin belong only to voluntary action, and are con- tradictory in their nature, they cannot co-exist in the soul. The beginning of the Christian life is entire obedience. Every lapse into sin involves, for the time, the entire interruption of obedience. The promises of God and the provisions of the gospel are such, that, when fully and continuous- ly embraced, they enable the believer to live a life of uninterrupted obedience, — an attaimneut which may be properly encouraged and expected in the present life." Cf. art. K"ew-Exgland Theology, 5, p. 16o7. Lit. — See, for the Calvinistic side, Hodge ; Systematic Theology, iii. (245 pp.) ; Van Ooster- Z.V.E: Christian Dogmatics, ii. p. 661. For the Wesleyan-Arminian side, see Wesley : Plain Account of Christian Perfection; Fletcher: Christian Perfection. For the Oberlin side, see Fixney: Systematic Theology; Faikchild: On the Doctrine of Sanctif cation, in Congregationcd Quar- terly, April, 1876. PER'GAMOS, properly PER'GAWIUIVI (Rev. i. 11, ii. 12-17), the seat of one of the seven chui-ch- es of Asia, a celebi-ated city of Teuthi-ania, Great Mysia, on the north side of the Caicus, about three miles f I'oni the iEgean Sea. The city began as a fortress upon the aci-opolis, and early olstained a sficred character. There Lysimachus, a general of Alexander the Great, stored his stolen treasure, which amounted to nine thousand talents. But Philatserus of Tiuni, a eunuch, whom he implicit- ly ti-usted, faitlilessly appropriated the money, in revenge for ill-treatment by Lysimachus' wife, declared himself independent, and thus laid the foundation for a long-continued prosperity, B.C. 283. Under the house of Attalus, the city was beautified, and its territorj' extended. Pergamum was also a literary centre, and boasted of a libra- ry of two hundred thousand rolls, which was finally moved to Alexandria, as a gift of Antony to Cleopatra, and thus destroyed. The word " parchment " is derived from the Latin chaiia pergamena (" paper of Pergamum "). The city was renowned for its ..S^sculapian worship, as the birthplace of celebrated physicians (chief of whom was Galen), as the seat of a famous medi- cal school, indeed, of a university, as a bathing- place, and also for its idolatry and gladiatorial shows. Here, however, Christianity made one of its first triumphs, and here some of the first blood was shed for Christ. It is probably to this persecution that the allusion " Satan's throne " (Rev. ii. 13, cf. 10) refers. In the second century A.D., Pergamum had a population of a hundred and twenty thousand. To-day it is called Bergama ; and the population is from twenty thousand to thirty thousand, of whom two thousand are Christians, the rest Mo- hammedans. Many ruins attest its former mag- nificence, but none of them antedate the Roman period (130 B.C.). PERICOPES (KFpiKOTrai), or the sections of Holy Scripture appointed to be read in the services of the church, for many reasons deserve the consid- eration which older theology already has bestowed upon them. They belong to the distinguishing characteristics of the cuJtus of the religion of revelation in its testamentary character. Their history forms an interesting chapter in pastoral theology, and they possess an archjeological im- portance. In this discussion they will be consid- ered historically. PERICOPES. 1803 PERICOPES. 1. The employment of pericopes in the church originated in the forms of worship in the syna- gogue. The Scriptures themselves command that the law shall be publicly read (Deut. xxxi. 10-13) for the instruction of the people. Cf. also Josephus, c. Ap., ii. 17. When synagogues were built, this public reading formed a portion of the regular sabbath services. Cf. Actsxv. 21. With the reading of the law, was already, in Christ's day, associated the reading of the prophets. Cf . Luke iv. 16, 17; Acts xiii. 15. Both have been retained to the present day. The sections of the law to be read on the sabbath at the present time can be seen by a reference to the Hebrew text. They are called Parashas (niyi3, from v^s, separa- v'lt). Genesis contains twelve, Exodus eleven, Levi- ticus and Numbers each ten, Deuteronomy eleven, — fifty-four in all. This number is arranged for the Jewish leap-year, which contains fifty-four sabbaths. In ordinary years, several of the shoi-ter sections are sometimes read on the same day ; so that each year the whole law is completed. With the above are connected the sections in the pro- phetical books, the so-called Haphtaras (mosn, from ^a^, ilimisil, i.e., dimissio, or missa, because, after reading these, the people were dismissed), a list of which is found appended to the Hebrew Bible. Eabbinical tradition assigns a high anti- quity, not only to the public reading of the pro- phetic books in genei'al, but also to the present selection of sections, and a still earlier date to the Parashas. Eiias Levita (cf. Bodenschatz : Die kircJil. Verfassung d. lieutigen Juden, ii. p. 24) re- late.s, that, when Antiochus forbade the reading of the law, the people began to I'ead sections of the prophets corresponding in contents to the legal ParasJias. Thus, e.g., if on the first sabbath an account of creation was to be read, a prophetic section would be chosen, such as Isa. xlii. 5-xliii. 10, in which God was praised as Creator of heaven and earth. This tradition, however, is improba- ble. • Cf. Joseph., Antig., XIL 5, 4. Vitringa's idea (ArcJtispiagogus, pp. Ill sqq.), that the Jews were chiefly induced by their antipathy to their enemies, the Samaritans, who read only the law, to introduce the reading of the prophets, is more probable. Besides, the cessation of prophecy un- doubtedly had much to do with it. Lately Zunz (in his Gottesdienstl. Vorlrdge der Juden, Berlin, 1832) has proved from Talnuidic and other sources, that at a very early date the Pentateuch in Palestine was arranged for a cyclus of three years or three years and a half, so that it was read twice every seven years in accordance with the one hundred and seventy-five sections found in the Jerusalem Talmud ; which division antedates that into fifty- four Pajm/ms made in Babylon. According to the same authority, the Haphtaras were not yet fixed in the third Christian century. Cf . 1. c, pp. 3, 193. 2. What is the relation of the Parashas and Haphtaras to the sections of Scripture read in the Christian Church, and to our Gospels and Epistles? A general connection, but no closer relationship, exists, as the Christian cultus is a child of that in the synagogue. Justin Martyr {ApoL, i. 67) relates, that, at the regular meet- ings of the Christians, " the memoii-s of the apos- tles, called the Gospels, and the writings of the prophetSj" were read. Tei-tullian {De prescript., 36) lauds the church for " mixing " {miscet) the writings of both Testaments. The author of the Commentary on Job found in Origen (tom. ii. 851) mentions that Job was regularly read in the churches during the Passion Week ; and Origen himself testifies to the use of the Old Testament in the worship of the church. Cf. also Apost. Conslit., ii. 39, 57. This is corroborated by later testimony. 3. In many different ways the public reading of the Scriptures was developed in the different sections of the chiu'ch. Little of this process has been recorded : it belongs to what Basil calls the U-) pa(l>a rjjQ eKK^jjaiac; fivcri/pia. 4. The method of reading the Scriptures in the Greek Church is, in this connection, of the highest importance. Concerning her we possess the oldest documents: she is the mother of all the Oriental churches, and thus the source, not only of their liturgies, but also of their lectiona- ries. The sources at the disposal of the modern student have lately been greatly multiplied by the productions of the Greek Phoenix press in Venice, especially established to spread the books of the Greek Church in the western portions of the teri'i- tory of the Constantinopolitan patriarch. An ex- amination of these shows the remarkable wealth of the Greek Church in this respect ; for not only do the Sundays, the prominent days of Christ's history, and the many saints' days, have their regular gospel and epistolary lessons, but such are also assigned to eveiy day in the week. In these lessons, aside from those for the_ regular festival days, a lectio continua, which is generally supposed to exist there, is not so apparent. Some system, however, has been followed out. Thus, for the period between Easter and Pentecost, as Chi-ysostom already states, the Acts and the Gos- pel of John were read continuously. For the rest of the church year, three separate and independ- ent series of lessons are employed, - — one sei'ies for the Sundays, beginning with the second after Pentecost ; one series for the sabbaths, beginning in the Pentecost Week; and one series for the five week days between the Sunday and sabbath. All three series select both from Gospels a"ud Epis- tles, following the order of the books and chapters in the New Testament. History explains this strange phenomenon. It is very evident that the Greek Church at first introduced lessons for the Sundays, later for the sabbaths, and still later for the week-days. Docu- mentary evidences to this effect are at hand, espe- cially for the lectionaries for the week-days, which are found only in later and x^oorer manuscripts. The Sunday and sabbath lessons are already re- ferred to by Chrysostom. The Old Testament was read chiefly during the season of Lent. The peculiar character of the Greek Cliurch, however, makes it probable that the present sy.stem of lessons known as the Antiochian-Byzantine was not the only t)ne used in early days. And in reality we already possess documents pointing in this direction in some very old manuscripts. 5. Next in importance is the Armenian system. Professor Petermann of Berlin first translated it from the Armenian Church Almanac, published in Venice, 1782; which translation appeared in Dr. Alt's instructive work on the church year. (Kirchenjahr, ed. ii., pp. 136, 225.) Scripture- reading is a most important part of Armenian PERICOPBS. 1804 PBRICOPBS. church service, • — more so than in the Greek. Churcli. During the time from Easter to Pente- cost the Armenian Church does not only have senrices daily, but has them thrice every day, and for every service has prescribed lessons from the Old and New Testaments. Dm'ing the rest of the year, tliis church not only celebrates every Sunday and saint's day, but also regularly every Wednes- day and Saturday. In this way it is made possi- ble that between Easter and Pentecost, during the principal services, the whole Psalter, the Acts entire, the Catholic Epistles entire, and the Gos- pel of St. John to chap, xiv., are read ; in the matins, the first half of the Gospel of Luke, and, in the vespers, the Gospel of jNlatthew to xvi. 1, and Mark to xiii. 37, are read. From Pentecost on, both the Pauline Epistles and the Gospels are read; for ten weeks, Matthew; for eleven weeks, Mark ; for thirteen weeks, Luke; and from Epiph- any, John i.-vii., these latter chapters thus being read twice every year. In addition to these, selections from the Old Testament are also read. The Armenian system in its kernel is very ancient. It shows enough of connection with the Greek system to prove that the latter is its source, and is thus older than the separation of these churches, in 595 A.D. But even a higher antiquity can be shown ; since this system exhibits the two chief peculiarities of the Cappadocian plan, which, as early as the sixth century, presented lessons for Wednesdays and Saturdays, and also from the Old Testament for the whole year. Basil (Ep. 289, Ad CcEsarem) saj'S, "Four times do we assemble every week, — on Sunday, Wednesday, Friday, and the sabbath, and also on the days commemorating the martyrs." Cf. also Horn. 8, De bapt. Accordingly we can see in the kernel of the Armenian system the outflow of the Cappa- docian, or rather see in it a reflex of the old form of the Grffico-Cappadocian system. 6. The once grand Church of Syria, owing both to the dogmatic contentions of the fifth and sixth centuries and to the conquests of Islam, is represented at present only in such sects as the Nestorfans, the Jacobites, the Maronites, and the Melchites. The latter, called "the royal party," have re- tained the cultns of the Greek Church in gen- eral, as also the Greek reading-system. Very ancient documents written in Syriac testify to this point. AVe have an almost complete record of the Melehite leotionary of the first half of the eleventh century. Of about the same age are the documentary evidences concerning the Nestorian system of Bible lessons. The Missale Clialdaicum of the United Nestorians, published in Rome repeatedly, does, indeed, give no account of the age of the manuscript upon which the edition, which con- tains both the Gospel and the Epistolary lessons, is based; but this can be supplied from other sources. For the fii'st time we find here a series of lectiones selectee that are of such a character as to deserve in some respects to be placed at the side of the Romisli pericope-system. For certain portions of the church-year, certain New-Testa- ment books are used. Thus, for the first half of the Epiphany period, the Gospel of St. John, and the Epistle to the Hebrews, are chiefly em- ployed. In place of the latter, the Epistle to the Romans is vised from the Monday of the first week in Lent to Palm Sunday; and, side by side with this, sections of the Sermon on the Mount are read. From the middle of Lent, sections of St. John's Gospel are again employed, however, with some interruptions. From Pentecost on, selections from jNIatthew, then from Luke, follow, accompanied by portions of Corinthians, Thessa- lonians, Philippians, and Galatians. It is possi- ble that the Nestorians adopted this arrangement to mark their contrast with the Greek Church, either originating it themselves, or taking it from existing practices* The date would then be the fifth century. The system is certainly very pecul- iar, and in marked contrast with the Byzantine, as is especially seen by the Old-Testament selec- tions. But the Nestorians had more than one system : at least there is a second series of epis- tolary lessons recorded in a Vatican manuscript of 1301. The " Nestorian " lessons recorded by Dr. Alt (Dei- Clirisll. Culius, ii. p. 485), as found prescribed in the New Testament for the Christians of Mala- bar, have some marked peculiarities, but are of doubtful authenticity. The documents with reference to the reading- system of the Jacobite Christians are quite ample, but have not yet been satisfactorily examined. The very first edition of the Syriac New Testa- ment, published by Widmanstadius, Vienna, 1855, contains a list of the New-Testament pericopes of the Jacobites ; and, besides, a Jacobite Liturgy, found in the second volume of Kenaudot's collec- tion, contains relevant matter. This latter volume prescribes a twofold liturgi- cal arrangement,- — the first called Ordo communis secundum ritiim Si/roriim Jacohitarum (pp. 1 sqq.) j and the second, Alius Ordo generalis litwgice (pp. 12 sqq.). And, according to the investigations of Bickell, only the latter is a Jacobite, while the former is a Maronite, plan ; which explains the discrepancies between them. The Alius Ordo also agrees with Widmanstadius' list. That the latter is that of the Jacobite Church is plain from the fact that Moses of Marden, from whose hand this Syriac text was derived, was a Jacobite. But this list itself lacks inner harmony, the epis- tolary lessons not according with those of the Gospel. The British Bible Society, in retaining the liturgical headings of the Widmanstadius' edi- tion, seems to have published its edition only for the Jacobite Christians. A\'idnianstadius' list is thus not satisfactory. But other evidences, chiefly ample and good manuscript authorities, as to the Jacobite system, are at our command. Their common peculiarity, like that of the Nestorian system, consists in the selection of particular por- tions of Scripture for certain prominent days. Thus Christmas is marked by selections that treat of the incarnation of Christ historically ; the Epiphany period by extracts from the early work of Christ. There is, however, no systematic plan carried out in the selection of passages. For the extra-gospel lessons the AYidmanstadius' list is, strange to say, the only available source ; and this list shows a predilection for a lectio con- tiuua. It appoints the Acts for Lent, First Coi'in- thians after Pentecost, James and First Peter after Epiphany. The plan of Scripture reading pursued by the PBBICOPES. 1805 PBRICOPBS. Maronites, the youngest of the Syrian churches, is virtually the same as that of the Jacobites. 7. While the lectiouary plan adopted by the Alexandrian churches was only a branch of the Greek, that of the Coptic churches was entirely distinct, and is a portion of the Coptic Liturgy of St. Basilius. A Latin translation is found in Renaudot's collection (i. pp. 137 sqq.), from which it is evident, that, in every chief service, the Copts read from four different parts of the New Testa- ment. Upon this they laid much stress. The constitutions of the Patriarch Cyrillus Lablaki enjoins upon the bishops to watch ut non omitlanl leclionem lilirorum quinque in quads litiirqia, nempe Paiili, Calholici, Aclorum, Psalmorum, et Ecangdii. Cf. 1. c. i., 203. The particular features of this system are not known. 8. The Ethiopic system is virtually identical with the Coptic, as is its whole Liturgy. Cf. Re- naiidot, i. 499, 507 sqq. 9. The proper transition from the eastern to the western systems would be the North- African lectionaries, if we were in possession of such. With the exception of the Mozarabic, prevalent among the African and Spanish Christians in the thirteenth century, no list has been preserved. An examination of Augustine's authentic works seems to indicate that a lectio continua was fol- lowed out; the chief festival days, of coui'se, having their fixed lessons. 10. In the Occidental Church we have, in refer- ence to the public reading of Scriptures, a phe- nomenon similar to that observed in the Church of the East. As here the Byzantine system was the one most extensively spread, thus, in the West, the Roman system gradually supplanted all the rest. A difference between the two consists in this, that the non-Byzantine systems of the East were mostly followed by bodies that stood op- posed to the Byzantine Church, while the non- Roman systems found a home in bodies on doc- trinal and fraternal footing with the Roman Church. 11. Of the existence of a south-Italian system employed at Capua, we have ample proof in the Cod. Fuldensis, corrected in the year 545 by Bishop Victor himself of Capua. 12. That the Christians of Gaul pursued a peculiar plan in the public reading of Scriptures is already manifest from a letter of the missionary Angustinus to Gregory the Great. Besides, there are other scattered evidences from Hilary (354), Sidonius (472), Salvianus (440). Cf. Mabill., De lilurg. Gallic, pp. 29 sqq. Then we have a Capitular of Charlemagne, abolishing the Gallic Liturgy in favor of the Romish. 13. The very ancient Liturgy and reading-sys- tem of the Milan Church has been more fortu- nate. It is still presei-ved under the title Missa Ambrosiana. Its original form cannot be defi- nitely determined, as the different printed texts do not agTee among themselves. 14. On the very peculiar Mozarabic system, con- sult the special article. It seems to be older than the Gallic system, or they form two branches from one stem. Of the old British and Irish systems, not a single trace remains, the Roman having entirely supplanted them. 15. The Roman system of scriptural reading, like the whole Roman Liturgy, has passed through three stages, — that of its origin and development down to the time of the Carlovinians, that of supremacy in the middle ages, and that of fixed and formal codification by the Council of Trent. The oldest traces of it are found in the fifth century, about the time of Jerome, to whom Berno and later writers ascribe its origin. It consists of a double list, — one of Epistle, and the other of Gospel selections, — partly chosen freely, and partly with partiality for certain books. In the second period, this sj'stem made its greatest conquests; in France supplanting the Gallic, in Germany entering with Christianity. It also experienced some internal changes during this time, especially on account of the many saints' days and the introduction of the Corpus Christi Festival in 1264. Finally the Council at Trent declared the papal system the only legitimate one for the Roman Church, only allowing those churches the use of any other which could prove that the latter had been in constant use there for the past two hun- dred years. 16. With the Reformation effected by Luther and his German Bible, the traditional character of church services necessarily had to change also. The Bible was read, studied, and explained. The most complete system of Bible lessons was intro- duced in England, to some extent, also, in Ger- many and Switzerland. This whole subject is treated in exlenso by Ranke : Forlhestand des her- kiimmlichcn Perihopenkreises, Gotha, 1859. 17. The old pericope .system has a peculiar his- tory within the section of the Protestant Church that has retained it. In England, Cranmer, in writing the Prayer-Book, simjily took the Epis- tles and Gospels as found in the Missale of the English bishoprics, omitting only those intended for days not celebrated bj' the Protestants. This latter was also done in Germany ; but some other changes were made here, especially at the close of the Epiphany and Trinity Sundays. In the pre-reforniatory system there were no lessons for the sixth Sunday after Epiphany, nor for the twenty-sixth and twenty-seventh Sundays after Trinity. This defect was remedied successfully during the sixteenth century by an iniknown mas- ter in liturgies ; and the present arrangement is the result. IS. The subordinate services, .such as the matins, vespers, as also services during the week, prayer- meetings, and the like, found great favor in the eyes of the Reformers. Luther in 1526, the Zurich order of worship for 1535, and the Geneva Liturgy, gave directions for the use of lessons in such services. The Church of England piu'sued its own plan in arranging the daily lessons. Not content, as the Continental Reformers were, with selecting only certain sections of Scripture to be read, Cranmer arranged for morning and evening ser- vices such a course of lessons, that in every yeai- the entire Old Testament, with the exception of the Psalter and the purely ritual sections of the Pentateuch, was read through once, the New Tes- tament three times, and the Psalter twelve times, i.e., was to be chanted through once a month. In Germany the services during the week in the course of time became almost extinct. PERIKAU. 1806 PBRRONE. 19. The public scriptural reading-, thus reduced to the regular Gospel and Epistohuy lessons for the different Sundays, could not long satisfy the church. Already Spener advocated an enlarged pericope system ; and since 1769, when the move- ment was started by the Elector George of Han- over, the evangelical authorities in the various provinces of Germany have sought to remedy this defect, especially by the adoption of new series of pericopes. Cf. Ranke in the original of this art. (Herzog, II. vol. xi. 460-492), and Xebe on the Pericopes. ERNST ll.iNKE. (G. ll. schodde.) PERIKAU, Synods of. — I. (1551). The con.soli- dation of the Kouian-Catholic party in Poland, and the dra\ving-up of 'the Confessio calholiccE fidei by Stanislaus Hosius, Bishop of Culm and Ermelaud, as a counter-balance to the Confessio Aiirjuslana. — II. (1555). The consolidation of the Protestant party in Poland, and the sending of a royal em- bassy to Paul IV., demanding- the celebration of mass in the vernacular tongue, the administration of the Lord's Supper in both forms, the abolition of annats, the abrogation of ecclesiastical celibacj', etc. — III. (1562). The wild outburst of dissen- sion with the Protestant camp, between Luther- ans, Calvinists, and Antitrinitarians. — IV. (1564). Religious disputation (Aug. 6-14) between the Antitrinitarians, Grigor Pauli and Georg Scho- mauu, and the Reformed, Stanislaus Saruizki, Discorda, and others. The Lutherans took no part in the discussion. The Antitrinitarians were excluded from any community with the Reformed Church. See Poland. PER'IZZITES. See Canaan, p. 380. PERKINS, Justin, D.D. American missionary in Persia; b. at ^^'est Springfield, Mass., March 12,1805; d. at Chicopee, Mass., Dec. 31, 1869. He was graduated at Amherst, 1829 ; studied at Andover Theological Seminary, and in 1833 was sent by the Amei-ican Board to the Nestorians in Persia. He established himself at Oroomiah (November, 1831), and for thirty-six years con- ducted the mission. lie translated the Bible into the Nestoi-ian dialect, and also other books. In 1842 he made a tour through the United States, accompanied by Mar Yohanan, an early convert, who had been a Nestorian bishop. In 1843, at Teheran, the capital of Persia, he successfully- defended the Protestants against misrepresenta- tion and persecution. He wrote, A Residence of Eight Years in Persia among the Neslorian Chris- tians (Andover, 1843), Missionary Life in Persia (Boston, 1S61). PERKINS, William, b. at Marston Jabet in Warwickshire, Eng., in 1558 ; entered Christ's College, Cambridge, 1577 ; was chosen fellow of the same in 1582; entered the ministry, and -was appointed lecturer at Great St. Andre-ws, Cam- bridge. He married in 1590. He was called before the High Commission for inquii-y as to his participation with Cartwright in the Puritan movement. He seems, however, to have taken little interest in ecclesiastical affairs, but was a High Calvinist and scholastic. He was a power- ful preacher. Fuller says, " He -would pronounce the word ' damn ' with such an emphasis as left a doleful echo in his auditors' ears a good while after." He was an extreme Calvinist in doctrine. His Armilla aurea, published in 1590 at Cam- bridge, stirred up Arminius to reply in 1602, ind had a great deal to do in bringing on the Armin- ian controversy, OJi the Continent as well as in England. His Catechism, entitled The Founda- tion of Christian Religion into Six Principles (1592, London, 12mo), made its influence felt in number- less Puritan catechisms in the sixteenth and seven- teenth centuries. He wrote a large number of books and tracts, the most of which were collect- ed, and published in three volumes folio, Cam- bridge, 1603, London, 1606. He died 1602. For further information, see Brook : Lives of Puri- tans, ii. p. 129 ; and Cooper : Athenm Cantahri- gensis, ii. p. 360. 0. A. BRIGGS. PERPETUA, S-te., a native of Carthage, who, together with her brother Saturus, and a female slave, Felicitas, suffered rriartyrdom under Sep- timius Severus. The Acts were first discovered by Lucas Holstenius, and edited, together with his notes, by Valesius, Paris, 1664. They are also found in Ruixart; Acta primor. martyr. (1716) and A. S. Boll. (March, vol. i.). Their genuineness is above doubt ; but there is no reason to suppose that they were written by TertuUian, though the author certainly was a Montanist, and prepared Acts for the use of a Montanist congre- gation. II.\UCK. PERRONE, Giovanni, D.D., Roman-Catholic theologian ; b. at Chieri, Piedmont, 1704 ; d. in Rome, Aug. 29, 1876. He received his doctorate at Turin (1815) ; -n'ent to Rome, and entered the Society of Jesus; was sent the next year (1816) to Orvieto as professor of dogmatic and moral theology. Recalled to Rome (1823), he became professor of theology in the Roman college, and held, the position until 1873, except when rector of the colleges at Ferrara (1830-33) and Rome (1853-56). He took refuge for t-wo years -with some pupils at Stonyhurst, Eng. (1848-50). In 1854 he played a prominent part on the affirma- tive side iu the discussions preceding the bull Ineffabilis Deus, -which proclaimed the Immacu- late Conception dogma. In 1869 he figured simi- larly upon the Ultramontane side in the Vatican Council. He was a member, and chosen council- lor, of nearly all the papal congregations on doc- trine, discipline, and liturgjr, and thus wielded great influence. It is, however, as emphatically the theological teacher of the present Roman Church that he deserves most attention. His system of dogmatics is now that most widely used in his church, and comes up most fully 'to its standard of orthodoxy. His method is scholas- tic and traditional, but divested of the wearisome and repulsive features of old scholasticism, and adapted to the modern state of controversy. His .system appears iu two forms, — unabridged and abridged, — under the titlea Prcelectiones theologi- cm quas in Collegia Romano Societatis Jesu dahebat, Rome, 1835 sqq., 9 vols. Svo, republished and re- printed in many editions at Turin (31st ed., 1865 sqq. 9 vols.), Paris (1870, 4 vols.), Brussels, Ratis- bon, and elsewhere, translated into French and German ; and Prcelectiones Iheologicce in Compendi- um rednclce (abridged), Rome, 1845, 4 vols., 36th ed., 1881, 2 vols., translated into several lan- guages. Besides this great work, ho wrote II Iler- mesianismo, Rome, 1838; Tractatus de matrimonio, Rome and Lyons, 1840 ; Synopsis historite theologioi cum pliilosophia comparalce, Rome, 1S45 ; De im- maculato B. V. Marice conceplu: an dogmatico decreto PERRONBT. 1807 PERSECUTION OP CHRISTIANS. definiri possit (" Can the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary be defined by a doar- matic decree ? "), 1847, German, French, and Dutch trans. ; II pruteslantismo e la regola di fede, 1S53, 3 vols., French trans., Paris, 1S.34; Memoriale prce- dicatorum, 1864, 2 vols. ; Be i-irliUihus Jidei spei et caritatis, Turin, 1867, 2 vols. ; De divinitate D.N. Jesu Christi, Turin, 1870. PERRONET, Edward (d. 1792), the son of an eminent evangelical clergyman at Shoreham, Kent ; was a preacher in jNlr.' Wesley's connection, then in that of the Countess of Huntingdon, and finally as an Independent Dissenter. He pub- lished in 1785 Occasional Verses, Moral and Sa- cred. This volume, now very rare, contains the famous hymn, " All haU the power of Jesus' name ! " It had previously appeai-ed in the Gospel Magazine, 1780. F. M. BIRD. PERSECUTION OF THE CHRISTIANS IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE. It was formerly usual to distinguish between ten general persecutions ; but the distinction was very arbitrary, and gave an entirely wrong idea of the real state of affairs. The fact is, that persecution, when once started, never ceased until stopped by law. Frightful at some periods, and insignificant at others, it was always permitted, and by the edict of Trajan it became legal. Thus the history of persecution naturally falls into three great periods. The first, from the beginning of Christianity to the reign of Trajan. Persecution is permitted, but not legal. The second, from the reign of Trajan to the acces- sion of Decius. Persecution is legal, and increases both in extension and intensity, but remains local, and depending on the individual view of the gov- ernor. The third, from the accession of Decius to the promulgation of the first edict of toleration in 311. Persecution is legal and general. Its reason is political. To the empire the speedy suppression of Christianity has become a question of Ufe and death. I. — The first persecutor was Nero. But his reason was merely incidental. Two-thirds of Rome had been consumed by a huge conflagration. The populace was on the very verge of revolt, furious to find out the incendiary. Some one whispered the name of the emperor. It became absolutely necessary to bring forward the guilty ; and Nero fastened the charge on the Christians. But the circumstance that he could do so is char- acteristic of their position in Roman society. Their religion was not illegal. No edict had as yet been issued against them, nor did Nero issue any. Nevertheless, their social position began to become ci-itical. Though religious, more especial- ly doctrinal, intolerance was something .so entirely unknown to antiquity that the strangest forms of worship were tolerated in Rome beside the official one, from the jnoment a religion mixed itself up with politics it was prohibited. The Druids were not tolerated in Gaul. Now, it cannot be main- tained for one moment that the Christians mixed up politics with their religion ; but it is neverthe- less easy to understand how they could rouse such a suspicion. They could not partake in the pub- lic festival ; nimierous acts and ceremonies of po- litical and military life they could not perform ; their religion separated them from their co-citi- zens, and threw a veil of secrecy over their life. More was not necessary to stir up the Roman 8— ni imagination, so easily touched by the idea of plots, conspiracies, attentates, etc. The persecution, however, was only short and local ; though in the provinces some official may have seen fit to imitate his master, and may have been aided by the base passions of an ignorant mob. And in the main this state of afiairs continued during the reigns of Vespasian, Titus, Domitian, and Nerva. A great general persecution is spoken of under Domitian ; but see that article. II. — At the beginning of the second century the number of Christians throughout the- empire had increased so much, that they could not be over- looked any more, nor he identified with the Jews. But, the more the Christians came to the front, the more striking the difference became between the spirit which ruled them and the spirit incul- cated by the official religion. Serious men could not fail to see that Christianity acted as a power- ful element of dissolution in the Roman state ; and it was consequently the good emperors of the peiiod — Trajan, Hadrian, Marcus Aurelius — who persecuted the Christians; while tlie fools — Commodus, Caracalla, Heliogabalus — saw fit to take no notice of them. Of paramount interest and importance are the letter from Pliny the Younger, governor of Bithynia, to Trajan, and Trajan's answer. This last document has been completely misunderstood by Melito of Sardis, Tertullian, and other Christian writers, who con- sidered it an edict of toleration, while in reality it is the legalization of pei'secution. True, he orders that no action shall be taken against the Christians, unless upon denunciation ; but he adds, that, " when they are formally accused and con- victed, thej' shall be punished." And what the effect of such a decree must have been is easily imagined in a time when it became common for the crowds in the amphitheatre to cry out, " To the lions with the Christians ! " The edict of Hadrian (which art. see) has also been misunder- stood. It is simply a confirmation of the edict of Trajan. But these tw'o edicts formed, up to the accession of Decius, the legal foundation of the social position of the Christians ; that is, the ca- price of a governor, or the fury of a mob, might at any moment institute persecution against them without any interference of the law in their be- half. III. — Hitherto the worst enemy of the Chris- tians had been the mob. Stirred up by accusa- tions of monstrous stupidity, and prompted by inborn envy and hatred, it was the mob which instituted the persecutions. But now the situa- tion was changed. The government itself became persecutor, and from principle. What in Marcus Aurelius had been a mere instinct became in Decius conscious action. He considered the Chris- tians in the cities as worse enemies of the empire than the barbarians on the frontiers. To sup- press Christianity seemed to him a political neces- sity, a duty of patriotism ; and persecution was carried out as a regular government measure. The same policy was renewed by Diocletian, and failed. (See the arts. Decius and Dioclf.tiax.) Constantine, however, soon realized that the undertaking was impossible. He consequently changed policy, and- became a Christian himself. See Aube: Histoire des persecutions de I'Eglise, Paris, 1875 ; Wieseler : Die Christenverfolgungen PERSEVERANCE OP SAINTS. 1808 PERSIA. der Ccesaren, 1878 ; and Edm. Stapfek, in Encij- clope'die des Sciences JReligieuses, vol. x. 487-495, art. " Persecutions. " PERSEVERANCE OF THE SAINTS. This doctrine, the fifth of the so-called " Five Points of Calvinism," is thus clearly set forth in the Canons of Dort, Fifth Head of Doctrine : — " Whom God calls, according to his purpose, to the communion o( his Son our Lord Jesus Christ, and regenerates by the Holy Spirit, he delivers also from the dominion and slavery of sin in this life, though not altogether from the body of sin and from the in- firmities of the flesh, so long as they continue in this world." (Art. I.) " By reason of these remains of indwelling sin, and the temptations of sin and of the world, those who are converted could not persevere in a state of grace it left to their own strength. But God is faithful, who, having conferred grace, mercifully confirms, and powerfully preserves them therein, even to the end." {Art. III.) " Of this preservation of the elect to salvation, and and of their perseverance in the faith, true believers for themselves may and do obtain assurance accord- ing to the measure of their faith, whereby they arrive at the certain persuasion that they ever will continue true and living members of the Church; and that they experience forgiveness of sins, and will at last inherit eternal life." (Art. IX.) " This certainty of perseverance, however, is so far from exciting in believers a spirit of pride, or of ren- dering them carnally secure, that, on the contrary, it is the real source of humility, filial reverence, true piety, patience in every tribulation, fervent prayers, constancy in suffering and in confessing the truth, and of .solid rejoicing in God; so that the considerar tion of this benefit should serve as an incentive to the serious and constant practice of gratitude and good works, as appears from the testimonies of Scripture and the examples of saints." (Art. XII.) "The carnal mind is unable to comprehend this doctrine of the perseverance of saints and the cer- tainty thereof, which God hath most abundantly re- vealed in his Word, for the glory of his name and the consolation of pious souls, and which he impresses upon the hearts of the faithful. Satan abhors it; the world ridicules it; the ignorant and hypocrite abuse, and heretics oppose it. But the spouse of Christ hath always most tenderly loved and constantly defended it as an inestimable treasure." (Art. XV.) This dpctrine was first clearly set forth by Augustine in the Pelagian controversy (Z)e Dono Per.ieveranlice), renewed by the Reformers, and is held by all Calvinistic churches, as a logical con- sequent of the . doctrine of election. See West- minster Confession, chap. xvii. Arminius at first hesitated about it, and then left it an open question. The later Arminians took strong ground against it, and affirmed the possibility of a total and final fall from grace. This is the position of the AVesleyan Arminians to-day in Europe and America. The Lutheran Confessions hold a middle position. The Church of England leaves room for both theories See Ahminianism, Five Articles or ; Akminian- ISM, Wesleyan. PERSIA. A country which in the past has played not only one, but several important parts on the stage of the world's history. Going back to remote antiquity, we find, according to Sir William Jones, that " Iran, or Pei'sia, in its lar- gest sense, was the true centre of population, of knowledge, of languages, and of arts ; which, in- stead of travelling westward only, as it has been fancifully supposed, or eastward, as might with equal reason have been asserted, were expanded in all directions, to all the regions of the world." Persia was one of the great world-powers of Dan- iel, the rival of Rome in its palmy days, the rival of the Ottoman Empire when Europe trem- bled before it, and, even in the last century, a conquering power, the extent of whose dominions was by no means inconsiderable. In extent of dominion, and continuance of power, it is worthy of comparison with Rome, and as a civilizing, fertilizing power, as well. Iran and Turan repre- sent civilization and barbarism. It was a nation of philosophers and poets, as was recognized by Mohammed, in the saying, that, " if science were suspended from the height of heaven, there are among the Persians those who would possess them- selves of it." Mohammedanism, on its intellectu- al side, was largely Persian. Arabian philosophy was Arabian only in name and language. The brilliancy of the Bagdad caliphate, the Augus- tan age of Mohammedanism, was largely due to Persian influence. Language and literature are rich and copious, and characterized by a union of profound thought with brilliancy of expression, — true "apples of gold in pictures of silver." This brilliancy is not that of high art, but of life. Persian, like other Oriental literature, pre- serves the characteristics of spoken language, which give it a perennial freshness, and make it independent of the changing fashions of time and place. It is nearer to practical life than Hin- du thought, — not thought merely, but thought in action. This brings out the most characteris- tic feature of the Persian mind, which is not so much its absolute originality as its giving cur- rency and influence to the thoughts and institu- tions of other Oriental lands. It maintained this supremacy under all circumstances. Conquering or conquered, it makes a deep impression upon all the Oriental peoples with whom it comes in con- tact. Hindu, Arab, Tartar, and Turk, all feel its influence. In this respect it bears a striking resemblance to Greece. In religion it occupied a still higher position. Of all non-Christian reli- gions, it was the one most free from idolatry, most pure from moral taint, and characterized by moral earnestness, and depth of sense of sin. Life a warfare ; man, soldier of the Prince of light, in conflict with the Power of darkness. The Per- sians were the people most in sympathy with the people of God under the old dispensation, sustain- ing to them a peculiar relation, delivering them from Babylon, and aiding and assisting them after their return Turning now to the Persia of to-day, we find that it still occupies an important central position with reference to Russia on the north, India on the east, Arabia on the south and south-west, and Turkey on the west. In political power, influ- ence, and glory, it is but the mere shadow of what it once was. Its territory, it is true, extending nine hundred miles from east to west, and seven hundred from north to south, and embracing an area of about six hundred and forty-eight thou- sand square miles, is still large. But of this ter- ritory three-quarters is desert ; and much of the remainder — even of those parts, which, like the country along the .shore of the Caspian and on the western boixler, is exceedingly fertile — is but sparsely inhabited. In the more thickly settled districts even, signs of decay meet one, in uncul- tivated fields, deserted villages, and cities whose PERSIA. 1809 PERSIA. population, in some cases, is but a tithe of what it has been. ^Mailing due allowance for exagger- ated estimates, the probability is, that the popula- tion of Persia to-day is not more than a fourth of what it was two centuries ago, and that its wealth has decreased in a much larger proportion. The same causes which have brought about the pres- ent state of things are at work to-day. The ex- tortion of the government, dissension among rival pi'inces, and the jealousy of the two leading na- tions, — the Tartars and Persians, between whom the land is divided, — are rapidly paving the way for the dismemberment of the empire, The Kurd, in his mountain fastnesses, watches for the oppor- tunity to swoop down, and take possession of the fertile lowlands ; and Russia, who already within the present century has twice enriched herself at the expense of Persia, waits the time when the whole of Northern Persia shall become part of her possession. True, losses on the north may in part be compensated by extension on the south- west ; Bagdad and the region roimd, rich in his- torical and religious memories to Persia, falling to her as her share of the possessions of " the sick man." But it is not likely that Persia will ever again be a great political power. As regards lit- erature, it was the opinion of Lord Beaconsfield, that the time is at hand when Oriental literature shall take the place occupied by that of Greece and Kome. Within the last few months Max Miiller has borne very emphatic testimony to the impor- tance of this literature ; and it is a noticeable fact that this conviction is a growing one among those who have given attention to the subject. The question, however, of Oriental literature, is but part of a larger question. Tlie distinctive char- acteristic of that literature is the religious element which pervades and dominates it ; and it is just here, that, at the present time, the position of Per- sia is of special significance. Persia is a distinc- tively Mohammedan country. In a population of five or six millions there are only about forty thousand Armenians, thirty thousand Nestorians, fifteen to twenty thousand Jews, and eight thou- sand Fire-worshippers, or about a hundred thou- sand in all. But the Mohammedanism of Persia is a peculiar Mohammedanism: In the ordinary sense of the term, the Persians are, and always have been, bad Mohammedans. They are the Broad Churchmen of that religion, and IMoham- medanism in it^ Arabian dress has always been too narrow for them. Hence has arisen a type of Mohammedanism which may be called the Persian mystical, dervish, or monkish, Mohammedanism, the leading representative of which is Jelalu-d- Din, author of ilesnevi, not so well known in the West as Saadi and Hafiz, but of immensely great- er significance from the religious stand-point. The work is an old one. Mevlana Jelalu-d-Din (" Our Lord, the Majesty of the Religion of Islam "), son of an eminent mystic, was born at Balkh, Sept. 29, 1207 A.D. The time of his birth is significant ; as it is the period richest in Persian history in its record of the birth of distinguished poets and philosophers, thus preparing the way for the com- ing of him who was to bring together and unite all the separate streams of thought in one mighty river. About 1227 we find him settled at Conya, the ancient Iconium, where in 1246 he institut- ed the order of Mevlevi, — dancing or whirling dervishes; and here, in 1273, he died. A truly extraordinary man, of marvellous insight and sus- ceptibility for spiritual truth, not only a profound thinker, but a man of affairs as well, a combina- tion of philosopher and statesman. For our judg- ment of him we are not dependent upon the statements of credulous disciples ; the six books of Jlesnevi being an imperishable monument of his genius, fully entitling him to the name of " Prince of Persian Mystics." But what is mysticism ? We may sum it up in one pregnant sentence from the Gospel of John (iv. 24), read in the order of the Greek text, — " Spirit the God ; " not merely higher than matter, but that f]-om which matter derives all its significance. God is Sph-it, God is truth, Elohim, fulness of might, the unlimited, inex- hau,stible source of life and light ; matter, the opposite pole, without form, without substance, without even a shadow ; that which is, but has not ; existence without attributes ; a purely nega- tive conception, characterized by emptiness and necessity, as spirit is by fulness and liberty. Re- lation of God and matter, that of giver and re- ceiver ; of the two to the world, that of cause and condition. Matter having naught of its own to manifest, the world, as distinguished from chaos, is the manifestation of God, dependent for its existence upon the presence of God. All things, every thing therein, is the expression or symbol of a divine idea. The higher the creature, the higher its receptivity, until in man, born in the image of his Maker, we have a mirror which reveals not only the attributes of God, but God himself. Hence the necessity for purity of heart. The mirror must be, clean, that the image may be reflected therein. The continuance of the world is dependent upon the continuance of God's pres- ence ; its perfection, upon rising from the world of matter to that of spirit, in some way exchan- ging the things seen and temporal for the things unseen and eternal. Hence the necessity both for something which shall be a constant pledge of God's presence, and for a new birth by which the soul enters into the spiritual world of realities. Last of all, and higher than all else, — God being the truth, of which the creature is but the mani- festation, — God not only was God m eternity, when besides him there was nothing, but is God to-day (creation neither adding to nor taking away from him), yea, and will be God through all eter- nity, not only the Lord of all, but the All in all ; the mightiest archangel before the throne as dependent upon his grace as the weakest and feeblest of the children of men. These propositions are not only presented, but powerfully presented, in Mesnevi, as we can find them nowhere else outside of Revelation. "Well does Vaughan say (Hours with the Mystics, vol. ii. p. 20), that, " if the principle be true at all, its most lofty and unqualified utterance must be the best; and what seems to common sense the thorough-going madness of the fiery Persian is preferable to the colder and less consistent lan- guage of the modern Teutonic mysticism." Jf the Oriental John be the prince of all mystics, it is still the Oriental mind which is best fitted to understand and set forth this side of Revelation. There are several points in this connection worthy of our attention. One is the richness of PERSIA. 1810 PERSIA. ideas in this work, as it were, a very seed-bed, where there is ofttimes more of meaning in a single sentence than in learned tomes; compre- hensive as well as rich, the truth of Mohamme- danism supplemented by the truths of all other religions; a doctrine of incaj'nation, of atonement, of regeneration ; practice of morality based en- tirely on love; claims to be the absolute religion, — the ocean, of which all forms of religion are but the streams : hence the reconciling character of the system. Not only does it furnish a centre for the multitudinous sects of Islam, but it pre- sents a platform on which theistic Hindu and Mo- hammedan meet, and on which the followers of Darwin, Carlyle, and all non-Christian philosophies and sects, may unite. Another important charac- teristic is, that we find Jelal addressing all classes of men, unfolding the highest themes to the low'est as well as to the highest intelligence. No man so low or so ignorant for whom he has not something fit and appropriate. To make a learned man a philosopher were nothing. The soldier, the mu- leteer, the lowest ranks of men, them would he teach the lessons of divine wisdom. A still more important practical feature of this system is, that it is not a mere philosophy : it is an institution whose disciples and propagators are the thirty-six dervish sects, scattered over all the Mohammedan world, forming centres of spiritual influence in op- position to the secular element which has thus far had the upper hand. The history of these monks of Islam is full of significance in its bearing on the history of to-day. Originating in Arabia, at the very beginning of Mohannnedanism, the dervish movement did not become prominent till it was taken up in Persia. From that country it received a twofold impulse. The Hindu doctrine of successive incarnations, or, as it is termed in dervish phrase, of the con- stant presence of the living God upon earth in the person of the Imam, was made its foundation. Two ideas of tremendous power were thus brought together, — that of absolute subjection to the will of God, and that of a direct commission proceed- ing from the very mouth of God ; and the result was seen in a series of revolutionary movements which, from the eighth to the thirteenth centuries, convulsed the Mohammedan world, finally culmi- nating in that sect of the Assassins, who, for nearly two centuries, kept up a reign of terror, compared with whom, as Von Hammer says, " All earlier and later secret combinations and predar tory states are crude attempts, or unsuccessful imitations." Persia, however, did something more than provide dynamite for the ascetic tendencies of the age. It was at the very time when that movement seemed to have exhausted itself, that Jelalu-d-Din appeared, and stamped upon it a universal character, thus giving it a new lease of life. From Persia the movement goes into all sur- rounding lands, and, in spite of opposition, every- where prospers. In Persia itself it takes posses- sion of the throne, placing upon it a dynasty which wields the sceptre for nearly two hundred and twenty-five years, — from 1499 to 1722. Its history in the Ottoman Empire is still more mar- vellous. Distrusted and hated because of its Per- sian origin, it wins its way despite all obstacles; and to-day its power is greater than ever. Not only are many of the principal men of the nation Mevlevis, not only has the order stood high in the favor of sovereig-iis, the Sultan is never regarded as fully invested with imperial power till girded with the sword of Osman by the successor of Jelalu-d-Din. There remains but one position to be attained, — the caliphate itself ; and that, at the present time, seems to be within its grasp. The whole trend of the Mohammedan world, nay, we may say, of the Oriental world, is in the direction of this pantheistic dervish system. The pressure of the European powers, of Christianity, and the re-action against the secularization of the official heads of Mohammedanism, all contribute greatly to strengthen dervish Mohammedanism. New orders have sprung up: old orders have been strengthened. The present Sultan might almost be called a dervish, surrounded by dervish coun- sellors, having, as his aim, to propagate dervish principles. The doctrine of the Mahdi, or guide, is a dervish doctrine. The impending change in the seat of the caliphate cannot fail to help the movement ; and.if, as seems not unlikely, Bagdad be the new centre, that is the very centre of the dervish world, its "City of Saints." Already there have been, within the present century, three marked manifestations of this religious system, — Muridism or Shamylism in the Caucasus, the Brahmo Somaj in India, and Babism in Persia. The first has been put down, but only after a war of thirty-five years, which tasked the i-esources of the Russian Empire. The other two have but begun to manifest themselves ; and it is a signifi- cant fact, that they are not merely defensive, but offensive, movements. Chunder Sen has lately given out that he is about to visit Europe as the bearer of a divine command to it to abandon its sectarianism, and receive the universal I'eligion. If we are inclined to laugh at the idea, we should do well to remember that many of the leading minds in Europe and America are more in sym- pathy with this Oriental Pantheism than with Christianity; that Emerson was but a Persian Sufi in a Yankee dress ; and that at the very time these lines are being penned (May, 1883), five thousand American citizens, members of the or- der of Bektashi dervishes, are commemorating with Oriental rites the death of Abd-el-Kader. We should do well also to remember, that, what- ever decay of faith there may be in Europe and America, there is none in Asia. There it is but latent, and is already beginning to manifest itself with the same power as in the days of old. Mo- hammedanism is not passing away in any other sense than that it is being perfected in a imiver- sal religion, which sustains the same relation to Mohammedanism that Christianity does to Juda- ism ; and this bastard Christianity, this false logos, as we may call it in view of the fact that it holds the cardinal truths of Christianity while at the same time it makes them void by its tradi- tion, is a far more dangerous foe than Mohamme- danism pure and simple ever was or could be. Now, if ever, Christianity is called upon to justify its claims to be the universal religion. Persia is an old mission-field. In the New Testament (Acts ii. 9; 1 Pet. v. 13) there are indications, that, even iu apostolic times, the gos- pel message was not unknown. Vie may divide the work into four periods, — early Christian mi.s- PERSIA. 1811 PERU. sions down to the fifth century, from the fifth cen- tury onward, Nestorian missions, Roman-Catholic missions, commencing with the thirteenth, and evangelical missions with the nineteenth century. For the first two, see Nestorians. John de Monte Corvino, the first Roman mis- sionary, began his work at Tabreez, near the end of the thirteenth century ; and since that time Rome has made a number of efforts to gain a permanent foothold in that country. In the seventeenth century, in Chardin's time, she occu- pied a number of important centres. Neither the Nestorian nor the Roman mission has exer- cised any permanent influence upon the nation. The Nestorians to-day are a small body in one corner of the country, speaking a different lan- guage from that of the surrounding peoples ; and the Romanists are mainly those who have been gained during the present century. About the middle of the last century the Mora- vians made an attempt to establish a mission in Persia, which was unsuccessful. Martyn's stay, 1811-12 (see Martyn), was brief, but memora- ble for the boldness with which he giappled with the Mohammedan problem. For three years and a half (1829-33) Gi-oves labored at Bagdad ; Basel missionaries (1833-37), at Tabreez ; and James L. Merrick (1835-45), at various points in Persia, principally at Tabreez. These different attempts liad to do largely with work for Mohammedans. Dr. Perkins commenced the Nestorian mission in 1834 (Nestoriaxs, Grant, Perkins) ; in 1870 it became the mission to Persia, or, more properly, Northern Persia. In 1872 Teheran was occupied by James Bassett; Tabreez, by P. Z. Easton, in 1873; and Hamadan, by James Hawkes, in 1881. In 1869 Ispahan was occupied by Robert Brace of the English Church Missionary Society; and in 1883 Bagdad, by missionaries of the same body. Connected with the five stations above referred to (Bagdad not included) there are 17 male mission- aries (14 connected with the Presbyterian Board, 2 with the English Church Missionary Society, and 1 independent), and, inclusive of wives of missionaries, 26 female missionaries, between 80 and 90 native helpers, about 1,850 native com- municants, one college, several high schools, and a large number of village schools. Summing up the work of the evangelical missionaries, we may say, that, thus far, much has been done for the Nestorians, something for the Armenians, and something also for the Mohammedans, but that, taking a broad view of the field, we have made but a commencement ; and, while we have no reason to doubt the final victory, we have no reason to expect an easy triumph. Lit. — Sir John Malcolm : History of Persia, London, 1815, 2 vols.; R. G. Watson: History of Persia under the Kajar Dynasty, 1866 ; Sir Henry Rawlinson : England and Bussia in the East, London, 1875 ; Von Hammer : History of tJte Assassins, 1818; Sir John Chardin: Travels into Persia and the East Indies, London, 1686, best edition, Paris, 1811 ; Stack : Six Months in Persia, London, 1882, 2 vols. ; O'Donovan : Merv Oasis, London, 1883, 2 vols. ; C. J. Wills : In the Land of the Lion and the Sun, 1883, 2 vols. — Persian toetry. Sir Gore Ouseley : Persian Poets, 1846 ; Eastwick: The Gulistan, liertiord, 18-50; Boden- STEDT : Hafiz, Berlin, 1877 ; Redhouse : 3'Ae Mesneci of Jeldlu-d-Din, London, 1881 sq. ; Helen ZiMMERN : Epic of Kinys: Stories re-told from Fir- dusi, London, 1882; Robinson: Persian Poetry, n. pi., 1883 ; ^\'. A. Clouston : Balhtyar Nama, n. pi., 1883; Ralph Waldo Emerson: Persian Poetry {Letters and Social Aims'). See Literature under Cyrus, Dervish, Grant, Magi, Manich^eism, Martyn, Missions, Mo- hammed, Nestorians, Parseeism, and Per- kins. P. Z. EASTON (Missionary, Tabreez, Persia). PERSONS, Robert (or PARSONS), Jesuit emissary and agitator; b. at Nether Stowey, Somersetshire, June 24, 1546 ; d. at Rome, April 15, 1610. He was gTaduated M.A. at Oxford, 1572 ; but, having been converted to Romanism, he quitted England, 1574, and entered the Society of Jesus at Rome, July 4, 1575. Five years later he and Campian (see art.) were sent to England. They were the first Jesuits to visit that country. The arrest of Campian caused his return to Rome, 1583 ; whence, however, he continued to manage the English mission, of which he became prefect in 1592. In 1587 he was the fii-st rector of the English seminary in Rome, and in 1588 was sent to Spain to look after Jesuit interests in England, in case the Armada should make its ex- pected successful attack upon that country. He founded schools for the training of English priests at Valladolid (1589), Lucar (1591), Seville and Lis- bon (1592), and St. Omer (1593), besides lending his efficient aid to the colleges of the secular clergy at Douay. He was an indefatigable, wily, and learned man. Of his numerous writings may be mentioned, A brief discorrs contaynincj cerlaine rea- sons why catholiques refuse to goe to Church, Doway, 1580 ; A Christian directorie guiding men to their saluation, Lond., 1583-91, 2 parts, reprinted, mod- ernized, and Protestantized by Dean Stanhope, 1700, 8th ed., 1782 ; A conference about the next succession to the crowne of Ingland, 1594 (the printer of it was hanged for sedition : it support- ed the claim of the Infanta) ; Treatise of the three conversions of England from paganisme to Chris- tian religion, 1603-04, 3 parts (an answer to Fox's Acts and Monuments'). For his biography, see E. Gee : The Jesuit's memorial for the intended reformation of England under their first Popish prince, London, 1690; Hallam: Lit. Jiist. Eng. , Green ; Hist. Eng. People. PERU, a republic of South America, estab- lished in 1821 ; numbered 2,699,945 inhabitants in 1876, besides some tribes of wild Indians, esti- mated at 350,000 souls. Most of the inhabitants are of Indian descent, and the overwhelming ma- jority of the people belong to the Roman-Catholic Church. In 1876 there were 5,087 Protestants, 498 Jews, and 27,073 persons belonging to other denominations ; but, according to the constitu- tion of Aug. 31, 1867, only Roman Catholics have the i-ight of public worship. The ecclesiastical division of the country comprises the archbishop- ric of Lima, founded in 1539, and the bishoprics of Arequipa (1609), Chachapoyas (1805), Cuzco (1538), Guamanga (1609), Huanuco (1865), Puiio (1862), and Truxillo (1577). lu 1868 there were only 634 parishes, but 1,800 secular priests, and 720 regular clergy. During the Spanish rule the Church of Peru was exceedingly rich; and in spite of repeated confiscations of estates, and seizures of revenues which have come over her PESHITO. 1812 PETAVIUS. since the establishment of the republic, she is still very wealthy. But her bishops are appointed by the secular government, and treated as govern- ment officers. SeeD'tlESEL: L'Amerique du sud, Paris, 1879. hauck. PESHITO. See Bible Versions, p. 282. PESSIMISIVI, See Optimism, ScHOPENHArER. PESTALOZZl, Johann Heinrich, b. at Ziirich, Jan. 12, 1746; d. at Yverdon, Feb. 17, 1827. He studied theology, but soon felt that the min- istry would not give him the opportunities he wanted. He then tried j uiisprudence, but felt still more disappointed. Finally, in 1769, he bought at Xeuhaf a tract of waste land, and became a farmer, not from any business specu- lation, but from sheer philanthropy, hoping to do something to better the conditions of the human race by making unproductive soil pro- ductive. But his capital proved insufficient; and in 1775 he turned his farm into a kind of poor- school, in which the children maintained them- selves by manual labor between the hours of instruction. In one respect, so far as education was concerned, the experiment turned out a great success. But, as the school could not financially support itself, Pestalozzi was compelled to dis- solve it ; and from 1780 to 1798 he devoted him- self to literature. Some of his books — Lienhard und Gerlrud (1781) and Nachforschungen iiber den Gang der Natur in der Entwickelung des Mensclien- geschlechtes (1798) — attracted much attention, and made a great name for him ; and in 1798 he once more found an opportunity of employing his great educational powers. He obtained the use of an old, dilapidated nunnery at Stanz, opened an orphan-asylum, and gathered together eighty children, who, after the lapse of a few months, looked, physically, intellectually, and morally, as if they had gone through a transformation-mill. But the following year the French took the nun- nery for a hospital, and Pestalozzi's work was destroyed. He had determined, however, to be- come a schoolmaster, and in 1799 he accepted such a position at Burgdorf . The novelty of his method surprised people, and an investigation was made ; but it served only to prove the magnitude of his achievements. In the following year he was able to found an independent educational in- stitution at Burgdorf, which in 1803 was removed to Yverdon ; and hardly ten years elapsed before he stood forth as the schoolmaster of Europe. Education was the enthusiasm of the world, and Pestalozzi seemed to realize even the greatest expectations. Pupils flocked to his school from Russia, Germany, France, and An ,'rica. The emperor, Alexander I., embraced him with tears; and the Spanish king made him a grandee of Spain. His lack, however, of economical talent, dissensions among the teachers, the passing-away of the educational enthusiasm, and other causes, brought on hard times ; and in 1825 it was neces- sary to close the school on account of debt. The last years of Pestalozzi's life were full of hard- ships and bitterness, as may be seen from his Meine LebensschicJcsale and Schicanengesang, 1826. But, though his own school failed, his method continued active, woi'king its way through all the schools of the civilized world. It may generally be defined as a practical application of the prin- ciples of Rousseau. It was realism in opposition to scholasticism. To bring forth the. clear and precise idea was, of course, his final aim, as it must be the final aim of all instruction ; but, in- stead of abstract logical definitions, he used, as far as possible, exhibition of the object in question, and simple induction. Many details of his meth- od, such as mutual instruction, common recital, etc., are not, perhaps, strictly speaking, his inven- tions; but they were by him brought into system- atic form, and into general use. With respect to religion, he stopped short at natural religion, though without any antagonism to Christianity. Lit. — Blochmann : Heinrich Pestalozzi, Leip- zig, 1846; Ramsauer: Peslatozzische Blditer,'El'ber- feld, 1846 ; ChristoffEl : Pestalozzis Lehen und ylnsic7i(e)?, Zurich, 1846; Seyffarth: J. H. Pesta- lozzi, Leipzig, 1872; R. de Guimps: Histoire de Pestalozzi,.1873. In English there are biographies by BiBEK (London, 1831) and Krusi (Cincinnati, 1870). PETAVIUS, Dionysius (Denys Petau),b. at Or- leans, Aug. 21, 1583; d. in Paris, Dec. 11, 1652; one of the most celebrated Roman-Catholic theo- logians of the post-Tridentine age, — the Aquila Jesuitarum. He studied philology and philoso- phy at Orleans and Paris, in which latter place he acquired the friendship of Isaac Casaubon : indeed, he at various epochs of his life received some of his most powerful impulses from Prot- estant .scholars, — Scaliger, Gerhard, Grotius, etc. In 1602 he was appointed teacher in the univer- sity of Bourges, but in 1605 he resigned that position in order to enter the order of the Jesuits. He made his novitiate at Nancy, studied theology at Pont-k-Mousson, and was in 1621 appointed professor of theologia posiiiva in the university of Paris ; which position he held for twenty-two years. In 1644 he retired into private life, and devoted himself exclusively to literature. His works, numbering forty-nine (of which ten are in folio), comprise philology, chronology, and theolo- gy. Among his philological works are editions of .Synesius (1611, with translation ; 2d ed., 1631 ; 3d ed., 1633, with valuable notes), Themistius (1613), Julian (1614), Nicephorus (^Breviarium historicum, 1016), and Epiphanius (Opera omnia, 1622, with translation and notes). Of his chronological works, the Opus de doctrina temporum (Paris, 1627, 2 vols. fol. ; new edition by Hardouin, Antwei-p, 1703, Verona, 1734-36, Venice, 1757) contains a new system of chronology, which was further developed in his Uranologion (1630), defended against the attacks of La Peyre in La pierre de louche chronologique (1636), and practically applied in his TahulcE chronoloyica: (\(i28) and iiationari- um temporum in XIII Ubris (Paris, 1633-34), an outline of the world's history, which became very famous, and continued down to our time (last edi- tion, A^enioe, 1849) ; not to speak of the eight thou- sand mistakes he corrected in Baronius'^nr!a?es. Of his theological works, some are polemical, of a rather harsh description, against Salmasius, Maturiu Simon, Grotius, etc. ; but his principal work is his De thcologicis dogmatibus, Paris, 1644- 50, 5 vols, fob, but unfinished. It is a "history of doctrines," planned under the infiuenceof that aversion to scholasticism which was the universal result of the Reformation, and executed with enormous learning and great literary skill. It defends the doctrine of development. At first it PETER. 1813 PETER. made no great impression; but, -when the Re- formed theologians began to praise the book, it at once flew into unparalleled celebrity, and edition followed edition, the last by J. B. Thomas, Bar le Due, 1864 sqq., 8 vols. See his biography by Fkanz Stanoxik, Graz, 1876. WAGENmann. PETER, The Apostle. — I. His Life. 1. Frmi his Call to Chi-ist's Ascension. — His original name was Simon, or Symeon. His father's name was John (John i. 42), or Jonah (Matt. xvi. 17). He was bom in Bethsaida, but after his marriage lived at Capernaum, and, with his younger brother An- drew, carried on the trade of fisherman. He was an adherent of John the Baptist, and by Andrew introduced to Jesus (John i. 41 , 42). The latter at once described him as Cephas ("rock"); and the appellation in its Greek translation, Peter, super- seded entirely his original name. Our Lord always called him Simon. James speaks of him as Sym- eon. In the Gospels and Acts he is called " Simon who also was named Peter," or Simon Peter, or simply Peter ; while Paul usually calls him Cephas (1 Cor. i. 12, ix. 5, xv. 5 ; Gal. i. 18, ii. 9, 11), and only rarely Peter (Gal. ii. 7, 8). After meet- ing Jesus, he became a disciple, but resumed his occupation uutil, some time after this, Jesus gave him that final call (Matt. iv. 19) which made him henceforth an inseparable companion and apostle. His house was a kind of rendezvous for the dis- ciples ; and he was one of the three who saw our Lord's most private experiences and miracles, and heard his most private speeches (Matt. xvii. 1, xxvi. 37; Mark v. 37). Peter comes before us as a sharply defined type of the Galileans, well-intentioned, trustworthy, independent, and courageous, but also suscepti- ble to new impressions, fond of innovations, and by nature disposed to changes according to fancy. Yet he deserved his appellation of "rock," be- cause down in the depths of his being he was unalterable in his fidelity to his Master. Our Lord looked below the surface, and knew, that, when once the decisive impulse had been given to that life, nothing could stop or deflect the outflow of the energy of the warm-hearted disci- ple. He would be entirely his. Peter's history proved the correctness of our Lord's intuition. He identified himself with his Master. He was the leader and spokesman of the band. From his lips came the emphatic an.swer, " Thou art the Christ, the Son of the living God." And to him the declaration, "Blessed art thou, Simon Bar- Jonah : for flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my Father which is in heaven. And I also say unto thee, that thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church ; and the gates of Hades shall not prevail against it. I will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven : and whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth shall be bound in heaven : and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven " (Matt. xvi. 17-19). By "rock" Jesus meant the person of the apostle addressed, as is proved by the fact that in the Aramaic, which he spoke, "rock" and , " man of rock " would be both expressed by the same word, — Kepha. The words reminded Peter of those used by our Lord when they first met (John i. 45). They were a pledge for the future. It was Peter who subsequently led the way in inducing the Jews to accept Jesus as the Christ, and in building up strongly and lastingly the infant church. It was by his preaching that the line was drawn between those in the kingdom and those not ; and this is what is meant by binding and loosing, or the " keys," in our Lord's speech just quoted. But that no superior authority was thus given to Peter by the " keys " is manifest, because precisely the same authority was given to the entire church (Matt, xviii. IS). It affords, therefore, no warrant for the assertions and as- sumptions of the Roman Church. Peter was by force of character the leader of the apostles ; but he was not primate, nor was it possible for him to transmit this position to any other, any more than he could transmit his apostleship, or his eye- witness of Jesus, — one of the necessary condi- tions of apostleship. But it cannot be supposed that no earthly hopes mingled with Peter's faith m the Messiahship of Jesus, nor that he at once understood how the sufferings of Jesus could lead to the glory that should follow. Indeed, when he first heard of sufferings, he exclaimed, " Be it far from thee, Lord : this shall never be unto thee." For which speech he was very sharply rebuked (Matt. xvi. 22, 23). As the hour came on, the play of lights and shadows upon his moral life was more rapid. He declares how joyfully he had left all, and fol- lowed Jesus (Matt. xix. 27). But the question " "What, then, shall we have ? " showed that the thought of reward was a little too prominent. He vehemently refused to have his feet washed by Jesus, and, on receiving a warning, as vehe- mently desired it, but in the affair showed, along with humility and devotion, not a little wilful- ness, and a certain dulness of apprehension re- specting the meaning of Jesus' deed. When the supper was ended, Jesus said, " All ye shall be offended in me this night." To which Peter replied characteristically, " If all shall be offended in thee, I will never be offended." Om- Lord knew better (Matt. xxvi. 31-35). Peter was honest in his intention, but he lacked strength of purpose. He gave one blow in his Lord's behalf, saw how vain was any attempt at resistance, and fled, like the I'est. Then waxing bolder, he went to the palace of the high priest, and crowded around the fire. But there, abruptly presented with questions respecting his relationship to Jesus, he denied thrice, and at last with an oath, that he ever knew him. It needed but a look from Jesus to recall his boasting assertion, — " Even if I must die with thee, yet will I not deny thee," — and turn the flood of repentance upon his soul. His heart was humbled, but it was not crushed ; for on the morning of the resurrection he was the first to enter the empty sepulchre. Nor was there any break in his Lord's confidence. To him, fii-st of the apostles, did the risen Christ appear (1 Cor. XV. 5) ; and when, by the lakeside of Galilee, the thrice-repeated question, "Lovest thou me?" brought out the three answers full of humility and love, the tender commands, " Feed my sheep," " Feed my lambs," proved that his restitution was complete. To the erring hut repentant apostle was given the leaderehip of the entire church and the honor of mart3Tdom. 2. From the Ascension of Christ to his own Death. — The Gospels constitute our only historical source for the life of Peter up to the ascension of PETER. 1814 PETER. Jesus. After this event we have the Acts of the Apostles, a few notices in the Pauline Epistles and in the Apostolic Fathers. In the Act.s, Paul receives greatest attention ; but in their earlier portion Peter is the principal figure. Luke de- rived his account from Mark (Col. iv. 10, 14; cf. Acts xii. 12), Pliilip the evangelist (Acts xxi. S), and other members of the primitive church, and from certain documents; e.g., in the speeches of Peter. The result is a reliable and full history. From it we learn that Peter, undisturbed by the threatenings and persecutions of the Sanliedrin, prosecuted with great energy his apostolic calling; that he went down into Samaria (Acts viii. 14 sqq.), and, after PaiU's conversion, to the Syro-Phoeni- cian coast, and visited Lydda, Joppa, and Cfesarea (ix. 32-x. 48). On his return to Jerusalem, he was arrested by Herod Agrippa, released miracu- lously, and left the city (xii. 1-17), nor again appears in the history until the Council of Jeru- salem, in which he played a prominent part (xv.). In the latter part of his life he is spoken of by Paul as making great missionary journeys, accom- panied by his wife (1 Cor. ix. 5 ; Gal. ii. 11). His po.sition among the primitive disciples is in thor- ough accord with the declaration of Jesus (Matt. xvi. 18, 19). He was their leader. On his advice an apostle is chosen (Acts i. 22) ; by his preach- ing the first great increase in the church was occasioned (ii. 14), by him the disciples were de- fended against the Jewish hierarchy (iv. 8, 19, V. 29), the chiu'ch cleansed of unworthy members (v. 3 sqq.), the union of the outside communities with it guarded (viii. 14, ix. 32), and the fir.st hea- thens received into the church (x.). But Peter's position was so far from giving him exclusive jurisdiction, that the ordination — the first eccle- siastical officers, the seven deacons — was shared by all the apostles (vi. 6) ; the Samaritan tour of inspection was made with John, on terms of entire equality, and on the commission of the apostolate (viii. 14) ; his conduct in Cjesarea was .sharply criticised by the strict party, and elabo- rately defended (xi. 1-18); and finally, in the Council of Jerusalem, the presiding officer w'as not Peter, but James (xv. 13). Paul confirms this statement ; because he shows, that, while at first Peter's authority was paramount (Gal. i. 18), later he was one of the three pillar-apostles, along with James and John, and next to James (Gal. ii. 9). Peter's 2'heolugy. — The speeches of Peter pre- sent the go.spel in its original doctrinal statement. They assume, as we should expect, an apologetic and practical form. Their central theme is the death of Jesus. But this is shown not to be a hinderance to the acceptance of Jesus as the Mes- siah, because it was not the result of any fault of his: rather, it was an iniquitous deed of the Jews by means of the heathen authority (Acts ii. 23, iii. 13 sqq., iv. 10, 11, v. 30, x. 39). Jesus had E roved himself by deed and sign and miracle to e holy and righteous, to be anointed with the Holy Spirit, to be, in short, the very Messiah whom the prophets had foretold (ii. 22, iii. 14, 20-23, X. 38). jNIoreover, this death was the ful- filment of prophecy and of God's decree (ii. 23, iii. 18, iv. 28), and had, as its designed j'esult, that first blessing of the Messianic kingdom,. — the forgiveness of sins. It was a further proof of Jesus' Messiahship, that God raised him from the dead on the third day (ii. 32, iii. 15, 26, iv. 10, X. 40), showed him unto chosen witnesses (x. 41),- and raised him to his own right hand (ii. 30 sqq.). By this resurrection God set Jesus forth as the Messianic King (ii. 36, v. 31), made him the corner-stone of the kingdom (iv. 11), and Lord over all (x. 36, cf. ii. 36). This kingdom is that long ago foretold (iii. 13, 24), and is attended by the graces of forgiveness (ii. 28, iii. 18, 19, V. 31, X. 43), peace (x. 36), the gift of the Holy Spirit (ii. 38, xi. 17), deliverance from ungodly men (ii. 40), bodily healing (iii. 16), salvation (iv. 12), and the b'les.sing of God (iii. 26). In order to share in these blessings it was necessary sincerely to repent, and honestly to believe in Jesus as the Christ (ii. 38, iii. 19, v. 32, viii. 21, 22). In expression of this repentance and belief, and as pledge of the ble.s.sings jpromised, baptism into the name of Jesus followed. Kot yet, however, was the IMessianic kingdom fully set up. This would not be true until all Israel had turned unto the Lord, according to the pro- phetic announcement. But that this was near was evident; for Joel connects it •\^■ith the out- pouring of the Spirit, which had taken place at Pentecost. Then would God send Jesus to be the judge of quick and dead, and believers would be finally free from persecution (ii. 20, x. 42). Peter's Pelalion to the Geiili/es. — Peter believed that the Gentiles would ultimately receive the gospel (iii. 25 sqq.), but he and the other apostles believed that the conversion of the Jews as a nation would come first. Hence he did not feel him.self called to preach the gospel to the Gentiles, and it was only after special prepiaration and direction that he went. But what he then wit- nes.sed in the house of Cornelius convinced him that God put Gentiles on the same footing with Jews in the matter of salvation (x. 34, 44-48). Yet, as far as he personally was concerned, he felt no call to become an apostle to the micircum- cision. He .shared, however, in the interest the mother-church took in the spread of Christianity among the Gentiles, very cordially received Paul, and defended the latter's position, that the yoke of the law must not be laid upon the necks of the Gentile converts (xv. 10). Peter showed the sincerity of his convictions, and also his independ- ence by mingling freely for a time with such con- verts at Antioch. But when certain came down there " from James," he gave up his association with the Gentiles at table. For this lie was pub- licly rebuked by Paul (Gal. ii. 11 sqq.), who told him plainly that his objectionable conduct was not due to any change in his opinions, but to dis- simulation. At heart Peter and Paul were ex- actly agreed, and all attempts to make out conflict between them are futile. For so far was Paul's bold speech from causing dissension between them, that Paul subsequently alludes to Peter in the friendliest way (1 Cor. ix. 5, xv. 5). Peter's Death at Pome. — Of the last days of Peter, nothing is known from the New Testament. The few scattered allusions in the Fathers and early church writers, joined to an invariable tra- dition, however, make it in the highest degree probable that Peter died in Home as a martyr, under Nero. The proof of this statement may be thus presented. John xxi. IS prophesied the martyrdom of Peter. Clement of Rome, in his PETER. 1815 PETER. first letter to the Corinthians (c. v.), says, " Let us set before our eyes the good apostles, Peter, who through unjust envy endured not one or two, but numerous, labors, and, after he had at length suffered martyrdom, went to (he place of glory appointed to him." Inasmuch as tradition inva- riably makes Rome the place of Peter's martyr- dom, and Clement speaks of Paul's martyrdom immediately after the allusion, it is at least most probable that he means Rome was the scene of Peter's death. Papias would seem also to be a witness to the Roman residence of Peter. He relates, on the testimony of a presbyter, that the Gospel of Mark, whom 'he calls " the interpreter of Peter," was composed in Rome. More unmis- takable is the testimony to this residence of the apocryphal Acts of Peter and Paul, (second cen- tury?) of Dionysius of Corinth (Euseb., Ch. Hist., II. 25), of Irenreus (Adc. Hccr., III. 1), of Ter- tullian (De prcKsc, 36; cf. Adv. Marc, IV. 5), of Clement of Alexandria (Euseb., Ch. Hisl., IV. 14), and of the Roman presbyter Caius (Euseb., II. 25), who speaks of Peter's grave in the Vatican, and Paul's on the Via Ostia. To break the force of this concurrent testimony, recourse is had to the theory that the tradition is merely an exten- sion to Rome of the Ebionite story of a running fight between Peter and Simon Magus. But this theory will not do ; for, let alone the fact that it presupposes an unproved diffusion of Ebionitism, the story itself is found only in the pseudo-Clemen- tine literature, which sprang from small heretical circles, and originally had no connection with Home. The Roman residence of Peter is men- tioned in the first chapter of the letter of Clement to James, which belongs to the later parts of the litei'ature: The Homilies and Recognitions close their account at Antioch. It is far more reason- able to trace the Ebionite story to tradition than I'ice versa. Besides, the Catholic tradition brings Simon Magus to Rome, without any mention of Peter. Thus Justin Martyr relates, that, under Claudius, a statue was erected to Simon upon the Island of the Tiber, with the inscription Simoni Deo Sanclo.^ But he says nothing of the supposed fight between Simon and Peter. Similarly, Papias, Ada Petri el Paul, and Dionysius of Corinth, speak of Peter's being in Rome, but say nothing about Simon. Irenfeus and TertuUian speak of both, but do not bring them in connection. The expla- nations offered of these facts by the theory men- tioned above, that Simon Magiis was a ma.sk for Paul, that the Ebionite tradition was modified in the interest of Catholicism, etc., are without foun- dation in fact or likelihood. Of the remaining patristic notices, the only one which is reliable is, that John Mark accompanied Peter to Rome, and there, after the latter's death, composed his Gospel on the basis of Peter's recollections. Peter's Supposed Roman Bishopric. — For the Roman-Catholic fiction of a twenty-five years' Koman bishopric of Peter, there is no foundation. The New Testament is surely against it. Peter had not been in Rome in the year 50, for he then appeared in the Council of Jerusalem as a resi- « In 1574 on the spot there was discovcicd a broken statue,' upon which was Semovi S<(nii> Den Fidio, proving it was dedicated to Semo Sancus, the Sabian sod. .Tustiii is sujjposcd to have been misled by this iusciiption with the statement made above. dent of the latter city; nor later on, at the time of his visit to Antioch (Gal. ii. 11 sqq.) ; nor in 58, when Paul wiote his Epistle to the Ronian.s, else would he have sent greetings to him ; nor in GI-63, when Paul in Rome wrote the Epistles of his captivity, for he makes no mention of Peter. The Catholic tradition does, however, bring Peter to Rome, and there seems to be no good reason for doubting that he died there. But upon this latter point there are two stories : one makes him a martyr of the Xeronian persecution ; the other puts his martyrdom in the last year of Nero. The first is pure supposition. The second seems to deserve more consideration than it has received. In order to make out that Peter was for twenty- five years the first Roman bishop, he is made to go to Rome in the beginning of the reigii of Clau- dius, and to die at the end of Nero's. These dates are apparently given in the chronicle of Hippolytus, which was composed in 234. But there is no agreement between the witnesses cited in behalf of the Roman Church's theory. The chronicler of 354 puts the entrance of Peter into Rome in the year 30, and his death in 55 ; while in the De mart, persecutormn of Lactantius (?) his entrance is set in the reign of Nero. As another element in the residtant confusion is the attempt- ed parallelization between Peter anfl Paul . They are made, contrary to history, to found together the church at Corinth, to labor together in Rome, and finally to die there upon tlie same day, • — June 29, 04. Peter, it is related, was crucified head downwards, out of lumiilit}', because a crucifixion like his Lord's would have been too great an honor, and buried in the "N'alican. The story suits more the post-apostolic than the apostolic taste. II. His Epistles. 1. First Peter. — It is ad- dressed to the elect who are sojourners of the Dispersion in Pontus, Galatia (including Pam- phylia, Pisidia, and a part of Lycaonia), Cappa- docia, Asia (including Caria, Lydia, Mysia, and perhaps Phrygia), and Bithynia. These "elect" were heathen Christians, "for the most part, belong- ing to the mixed congregations which residted from Paul's missionary efforts. Any other inter- pretation leads to forced exegesis; since these readei-s had formerly lived in the lusts of the flesh in their ignorance (i. 14), and had been brought through Christ to faith in God (i. 21), in times past w'ere no people, but now as Chris- tians were the people of God (ii. 10). These expressions could not be applied to Jews, any more than the declaration that they had formerly wrought the desires of the Gentiles (iv. 3). The use of the word " disper.sion " (i. 1) is to be ex- plained by Paul's idea of the essential unity of all Gentile Christians with the believing Jews as the true Israel. Nor does the expression, "Ye have become daughters of Sarah " (iii. 6) mili- tate against the Gentile origin of the addressed ; because, if they had been Jews, they woidd have been, not have become, daughters of Sarah. Nor does the Epistle presuppose any more acquaint- ance with the Old Testament than would have been expected among Gentile converts. The Epistle refers to the sufferings of these Christians, and the false charges bi-ought against them, and warns them against giving any just offence (iv. 4, 12, 14, 15). It counsels them how PETER. 1816 PETER. to act in theiv respective relations (ii.-v.), and how to avoid that impending danger of pur- chasing the friendship of the world by compli- ance with its desires (ii. 11, iv. 2). The allusions in the Epistle to the condition of the Christians do not point to any persecution solely on the ground that they bore the name of Christ, since Peter expresses the hope that their good manner of life will silence their traducers (iii. 13, 16), but rather on the ground of the vague reports which were circulated among and believed by the heathen concerning the Christians' hatred of the human race and shameful secret practices. It was the object of the Epistle to cheer these Christians in their trying circumstances, and to prevent their return to heathenism by showing that they stood in the true grace of God (v. 12). Peter exhorts them to bear patiently their ills, conscious of their rectitude and possession of the truth. He points them to the near future when their sufferings shall cease, and shows them how those very sufferings were divinely appointed for their salvation. There is no hint that his readers had any doubts. His object is practical and con- solatory. This is proved by an analysis of the Epistle, which is not, however, systematically ar- ranged. After alluding, by way of preface (i. 1-12), to the glorious end of their faith, even the salva- tion of their souls, as a source of comfort under their sufferings, Peter passes on to give general exhortations to a holy walk (i. 13-21), to brotherly love (i. 22-25), and the upbuilding of a spiritual house in the Lord (ii. 1-10). He then exhorts them respecting those special dangers incident to the pilgrim condition of the Christian (ii. 11, 12), further respecting their several i-elations, as sub- jects, husbands, wives (ii. 13-iii. 7), telling them not to render evil for evil (iii. 8-12), not to de- serve the strokes they may receive (iii. 13-17), to imitate Christ in their sufferings (iii. 18-22), not turning back to the lieathen vices and sins, but maintaining at all hazards their Christian char- actei- (iv. 1-19). Peter then exliorts the eldei-s to a faithful performance of their duties (v. 1-4), the younger to be subjeot unto the elder, and all to be on the watch (v. 5-9). He closes with a benediction and salutations (v. 10-14). The Epistle, in some respects, occupies a unique position in the New Testament. Although it bears evidence of the author's acquaintance with the Epistles of James, Romans (especially with xii. and xiJi.), and Ephesians, the treatment of the existing material is by no means slavish. It has originality in point of style. It is not so highly dialectic as Romans, not so orderly as Ephesians, not, like James, full of gnomic Sentences : it is rather loose and free, yet not confused. The style is fresh : thought follows thought with a general connection between them. Grammatical peculiar- ities are such as insertions between article and noun, the use of the participle with the impera- tive, and of the particle ijf. In i-egai-d to its cloc- irinal position, it shows the influence of Paul (cf. Rom. vi. 7, 1 Pet. iv. 1, 2; Rom. vi. 18, 1 Pet. ii. 24 ; Rom. xiii. 34, 1 Pet. iii. 22), yet in gen- eral presents the same theology which character- izes the speeches of Peter. So in the Epistle we have the primitive teaching concei'ning Christian- ity as the realization of the Old-Testament king- dom of God, the connection between the Old and New Testament revelation (which is emphasized, as it is not by Paul), and very clearly and striking- ly the risen Christ as the source of present spirit- ual blessings, and pledge of complete salvation. Faith is set forth as a trust upon God, which grounds itself upon Jesus as the glorified Messiah, instead of, as with Paul, the reception of the for- giveness which has been wrought for us by the death of Jesus. The time of composition of First Peter must have been the latter part of Nero's reign ; and, since the writer uses the Epistles of Paul and James, it may be more definitely stated as 65-66. Addi- tional evidence for this date is, that Peter would scarcely address Paul's congregations before the latter's demise, which took place 64. The place of composition is given as "Babylon" (v. 13). There is good reason for taking this as the sym- bolical name for Rome, as at a somewhat later date (69 or 70) it is used in Revelation. The his- toric Babylon, when Peter wrote, was almost en- tirely a heap of ruins. There was, to be sure, a colony of Jews there ; but there is no tradition in the first five centuries connecting Peter with the ruined city. Moreover, it is somewhat difficult to understand how Mark, who a little while before was with Paul in Rome (Col. iv. 10 ; Philem. 24), and a little after was again in Rome, could have been between times in Babj'lon. Again : figura- tive expressions occur in the Epistle ; such as "strangers," "dispersion," the "elect," "my son ;" and this lessens the strangeness of a symbolical name for Rome. Moreover, if there had been any difficulty in understanding the name " Baby- lon," it would have been removed by Silvanus, who bore the Epistle (v. 12). In regard to the genuineness of the Epistle there is no question. It is quoted in the Second Epistle, by Hermas, Papias (Euseb., Ch. Hist., III. 39), Polycarp (Euseb., IV. 14), Basilides (Clem. Alex., Strom. IV. 12), Ire- uKus, Tertullian, Clemens Alex., Origen ; reck- oned by Eusebius among the Homologoumena, and translated in the Peshito (second century). Its genuineness was first questioned by Cludius {Uransichten d. Chr., 1808), but upon insufiicient grounds. There was call for such an epistle. It in every respect is wortliy of, and agrees with, the character of Peter ; and that he could write Greek is every way probable. The only ground for rejecting it which the Baur school can give is the baseless assumption of an antagonism between Peter and Paul. 2. Second Peter. — The objections to its genuine- ness are solid. Its occasion is the entrance of false teachers of two classes, — the libertines, practical and theoretical, and the mockers of Christ's second coming. After an introduction, which reminds the readers of their possession in Christ, and exhorts them to fidelity (i. 1-10), the Epistle divides itself into three parts : 1st, The certainty of the second coming (i. 11-21) ; 2d, The character of libertin- ism and its future punishment, with biblical illus- trations (ii. 22) ; 3d, The coming destruction of the world by fire asserted against the mockers, the delay explained by God's long-suffering, with ex- hortations to constancy (iii. 1-13). The Epistle ends with a reference to Paul's Epistles, with warning, exhortation, and praise to God (iii. 14-18). The similarity between Second Peter (in chap. PETER. 1817 PETER. ii. and also, in part, in i. and iii.) and Jude is most striking; and that the latter was the basis is ap- parently proven by the greater simplicity, natural- ness, and spontaneity of those expressions in Jude which are also found in Second Peter. Again : if Jude borrowed from Second Peter, it is hard to see why he copied the description of libertinism, and not also the refutation of the mockers, in chap. iii. How comes it, also, that the marked linguis- tic peculiarities in Second Peter are limited to that portion to whirfi Jude presents a parallel ? Com- paring Second and First Peter, the Second is in point of style less Hebraic, less varied, more peri- odic, contains less allusion to the Old Testament and to the sayings of Christ, brings out promi- nently new ideas concerning "knowledge" (eiri- yvuoig), " godliness " (eiaeiJua), and the destruction of the world, and says nothing about the "hope" which characterizes the First Epistle. It describes Christ as the Saviour (^aurvp), which the First never does, but does not mention his death and resur- rection. These facts tell strongly against the genuineness of the Epistle, and cannot be removed by any theory of a ten-years' interval between the Epis- tles, or of their diiferent audiences, — the First, Jewish ; the Second, Gentile Christians. Nor, in support of the genuineness, is there early tradi- tion. First in the third century, by Firmilian of Csesarea (d. 269), was it unmistakably quoted. According to Origen, only the First was recognized as canonical ; and Eiisebius puts the Second among the Antilegomena. Jerome, however, defended it, and principally effected its recognition. In the Keformation era it was doubted by Erasmus and Calvin, and is now pretty generally rejected. [Yet the moral earnestness of the Epistle ; the difficulty of assigning it to a place in the post-Petrine peri- od, or to any other author ; the declaration that the writer was Hymeon Peter (i. 1), and had been with Jesus in the holy mount (i. 18) ; and the com- mendation of Paul's Epistles (iii. 15, 16), — all point to its Petrine origin. Quite recently, Dr. E. A. Abbott (in the Expositor, 2d series, vol. iii.), followed by Farrar {Early Days of Christianity, vol. i. pp. 190 sqq.), has maintained that the author of Second Peter must have read Josephus. For a satisfactory criticism of such a theory, see Professor B. B. \Varlield: Dr. Edwin A. Abbott on the Genu- ineness of Second Peter, in the Southern Presbyterian Reciew, April, 1883. The Epistle was declared canonical by the Council of Laodicea, A.D. 366; and, as the writers who we know had previously used it are spread over a wide territory, it may well be that the council had more evidence of its genuineness than we now possess. And the fact that it ventured to give canonical authoi'ity to an Epistle previously doubted may be cited in proof that such was the case]. Lit. — Besides the Bible Dictionaries of Wi- ner, ScHENKEL, BiEHM, [KiTTO and Smith], the New- Testament Introductions of Eichhorn (1804), Crednek (1836), Hug (1847), De Wette (3d ed., 1860), Reuss (4th ed., 1S64), Bi.eek- Mangold (1875), and the Kew-Testainent Bibli- cal Tiieologies of Schmid (1853), Van Oosterzee (1867), Immer (1877), Weiss (1880), .see the Com- mentaries, especially Bruckner, in De ^^'ette (3d ed., 1S65), WiEsiNGER, in .Olshausen (1856), Hu- thek, in Meyer (4th ed., 1877, [Eng. trans., Edin- burgh, ISSl]), FronmOller, in Lange (Eng. trans, by Mombert, New York, 1867), Hundhau- SEN (1873-78) ; on Second Peter, Dietlein(1851), Th. Schott (1862) ; on First Peter, C. A. Witz (1881) ; [in English, the Bible, Popular, and Netc- J'estament Commentaries, and the Cambridge Bible fur Schools. The best English Commentaries upon First Peter separately are by Leighton (very famous, first published Yorlv and London, 1693- 94, 2 vols., repeatedly since : it has been styled a " truly heavenly work — a favorite with all spir- itual men ") and Brown (Edinburgh, 1866, 3 vols.) ; upon Second Peter separately, T. Adams (London, 1633, new ed , 1862), T. Smith (Lon- don, 1881) ; upon both together, Lilue (New York, 1869)]. For the question whether Peter ever was in Rome, and on his asserted bishopric, see especially Lipsius : Chronologic der romischcn Bischofe (Brunswick, 1869), Quellen der romisch. Petrussage (1872) ; Johann Schmid : Petrus in Rom, Luzern, 1879 (literature very fully given). [See also F. Leon: De I'aulhenticite de la seconde epitre de Saint Pierre, Lausanne, 1877 ; Martin : Saints Pierre et Paul dans I'e'glise syrienne mo- nophysite. Arras, 1878 ; Howson : Horce Petrince, London, 1883.] F. sieffert. PETER, Festivals of St. — I. Depositio Petri in catacumbas et Pauli in via Ostiensi. The Catalogus Liberianus (354) first mentions the entombment of the bones of Peter and Paul as having taken place in the year of the consuls Tuscus and Bas- sus (258), and gives the date as III. Cal. Julii. ; that is, June 29. A festival in commemoration of that day is first mentioned in the Latin Church by Prudentius in the fourth century; by Augus- tine (Senn., 295-299), Maxiraus of Turin (Serm., 66-69), and Leo the Great (Serm., 82-84) in the fifth : after the sixth, it is mentioned in all martyr chronicles. In the Greek Church neither the Apostolical Constitutions, nor the two Cappado- cian Gregories, nor Chrj-sostom, know any thing of it. It is first mentioned by Theodorus Lector in his church history (ii. 16) as having been cele- brated in Constantinople towards the close of the reign of Anastasius I. (518) : after the seventh cen- tury it is mentioned in all calendars, also those of Copts, Ethiopians, and Armenians. In 1743 Benedict XIV. decreed a celebration of eight days for the city of Rome ; and in 1867, the eighteenth centenary, it was renewed with great magnifi- cence by Pius IX. — II. Festum cathedrae Petri Antiochence. The Calendarium Liberianum men- tions that a festival was celebrated on Feb. 22 in commemoration of the accession of the apostle Peter to the episcopal chair. But it uses the words VIH. Kat. Mart. . Natale Petri de Cathedra, and tlius leaves the locality of the chair in uncer- tainty. The same is the case with the Calenda- rium of Poleniius Silvius (448). In the Ambrosian Liturgy and in the Sacrumentarium of Gelasius I. the festival is omitted altogether ; but it is found again in the Sacramentarium of Gregory, and after his time always. — III. Festum cathedra; Petri Ro- mance, Jan. 18, was generally confounded with the preceding, up to the eighth century, but became independently established, and formally fixed dur- ing the Carolingi-an age, to which time, also, be- longs the final recognition of the tradition of the double episcopacy of St. Peter. — I^'. Festum Saint Petri ad vincula or in vinculis is not men- PETER OF ALCANTARA. 1818 PETER MARTYR VERMIGLI. tioned until the ninth centm-y in AVandalbert's Martyroloyium and Pseudo-Beda's Homil. de vin- culis Saint Petri. It is celebrated by the Church of Kome on Aug. 1 ; by the Greek Church, on Jan. 16 ; and by the Armenian Church, on Feb. 22. The Armenian Church has also a festival of " the finger of the Apostle Peter ; " but nobody knows any thing of the origin or signification of that festival. zocki.er. PETER OF ALCANTARA, b. in 1499; d. Oct. IS, 1562. He entered the Franciscan order in 1515 ; became guardian of a newly erected monas- tery at Badasor in 1519 ; was appointed superior- general of the pi'ovince of Estramadura in 1538; and indflced the chapter of his order to sanction his reforms at a meeting in Placentia, 1540. He also aided Ste. Theresa in her reforms of the Car- melites. Not content, however, with the role of a reformer, he founded, with the consent of John III., a new congregation, the severity of whose rules far surpassed that of the Franciscans. He was canonized by Clement IX. in 1GG9. See Acta Sanctorum, Oct. VIII. Two works are ascribed to him, of which the De oratione et meditatione is genuine, while the De animi pace hardly belongs to him. HERZOG. PETER OF ALEXANDRIA became bishop of that city in 300, and was decapitated, on the order of Maximinus, without any preceding trial, in 311. In his time fall the schism of iVleletius and the persecution of Diocletian : according to legend, he was himself the last victim of that per- secution in Alexandria. He left a AoyoQ ir^pt jiera- voia;, — a treatise on the subject of the lapsi, the degree of their crime, and of the penance de- manded for reconciliation. See Gallandi : Bibl., iv. pp. 108 and 112 ; and Routh : lieliquice sacrce, iv. p. 21. GASS. PETER D'AILLY. See D'Ailly. PETER OF BLOIS {Pelruii Blesensis), d. about 1200. He studied canon law at Bologna, and theology in Paris, aud became chancellor to the archbishop of Canterbury, in whose service he made several voyages to Rome. Of his works — treatises on theology, philosophy, canon law, medicine, and mathematics, more or less influ- enced by John of Salisbury — the most interest- ing are his hundred and eighty-three letters to Henry II., various popes, and higher ecclesiastics. They are full of characteristic traits of political and ecelesiastical life in his time, and give also some positive information of importance. The best edition of his works is that by Pierre de Goussainville, Paris, 1667. PETER OF BRUYS AND THE PETROBRU- SIANS. Peter of Bruys is known to us only through the book of Peter the Venei'able {Adrer- sus Petrobrusianos luereticos), and from a passage in Abelard's Introductio ad theologium. What later writers tell of him is only guess-work. He was a pupil of Abelard, and his general aim may be described as a restoration of Christianity to its original purity and simplicity. But his criti- cism was as ill judged as his reforms were vio- lent. He accepted the Gospels ; but he ascribed only a derivative authority to the Epistles, and the tradition he rejected altogether. For the Gos- pels, he considered a literal intei-pretation and application as necessary. Thus he rejected infant baptism, referring to Matt, xxviii. 19 and Mark xvi. 16, and, with respect to the Lord's Supper, he not only rejected the doctrine of transubstan- tiation, but he also denied the sacramental cliar- acter of the act, considering it a mere historical incident in the life of Christ. Church-buildings were an abomination to him; for the church is the community of the faithful, and the place where they gather, whether a stable or a palace, is of no consequence. Church officials, bishops, aud priests, he represented as mere frauds ; and generally he demanded the abrogation of all ex- ternal forms and ceremonies. In Southern France, whei-e the Cathari were numerous, he found many adherents ; and in the dioceses of Aries, Embruu, Hie, and Gap, he caused much disturbance. Churches were destroyed, images and crucifixes burned, priests and monks maltreated, etc. At last the bishops were able, by the aid of the secu- lar power, to put down the movement, and expel the leaders. But soon after, Peter of Bruys ap- peared in the dioceses of Narbonne and Toulouse, where he preached for nearly twenty years, and with still greater success. In 1126 he was seized, however, and burnt at St. Gilles ; but his party, the Petrobrusians, did not immediately disappear. Peter Venerabilis visited them, preached to them, and wrote the above-]nentioned book against them, but without any result. They joined Henry of Lausanne, and finally disappeared among the Henrioians. C. SCHMIDT. PETER OF CELLE (Petms Cellensis), abbot of Moutier-La-Celle, near Troyes, in 1150 ; abbot of St. Remi, near Rheims, in 1162 ; bishop of Chartres in 1181; d. in 1183. Of his works, ed- ited by Janvier, Paris, 1671, and consisting of mystical expositions of scriptural passages, trea- tises on conscience, discipline, etc., the most im- portant are his letters to Alexander HI., various princes, bishops, abbots, etc. They are not only of historical, but sometimes also of theological in- terest. They were edited by Sirmond, Paris,. 1613. PETER LOMBARD. See Lombard. PETER MARTYR, or Peter of Verona, a Dominican monk, who in the middle of the thir- teenth century was appointed inquisitor in Lom- bardy. The severity with which he exercised his power produced much hatred against him, and in 1252 he was assassinated. In the very next year he was canonized by Innocent IV. See Act. Sand. Boll. Apr. III. C. SCHMIDT. PETER MARTYR VERMIGLI, b. in Florence, Sept. 8, 1500; d. at Zurich, Nov. 12, 1562. In 1516 he entered, against his father's wish, the order of the regular canons of St. Augustine, at Fiesole ; studied Greek, Hebrew, and theology at Padua, and was made abbot of Spoleta, and after- wards prior of St. Petri ad aram, near Naples. He there came in contact with the circle of Juan Valdes, and was, especially by the influence of Ochino, completely won for the Reformation. Though suspected of heresj', he was in 1541 ap- pointed visitor-general of his order; but his severity in enforcing the rules made him hated by the monks, and he was sent to Lucca as prior of San Frediano. But soon the Inquisition be- came aware of a decidedly evangelical movement set on foot by him among the clergy of Lucca, and he had to flee for his life. In 1542 he reached Zurich, and went thence to Strassbnrg, where he was most kindly received by Bucer, and finally PETER THE HERMIT. 1819 PETER-PENCE. appointed professor of the Old Testament. In 1547 he came to England, on the invitation of Crannier, and began to lecture at Oxford, on the First Epistle to the Corinthians, in 1548; on the Epistle to the Romans, in 1549, etc. He took, also,_ a prominent part in the disputations con- cerning the Lord's Supper, in the neootiations concerning the new Liturgy, etc. Afterlhe acce.s- sion of Mary, he iied to the Continent, and went back to Strassburg. There, however, the state of affairs had changed, a strict Lutheranism prevail- ing; and he was appointed only after subscribing to the Confessio Aucjustana. But two years later on (1555), when the controversy of the Lord's Supper broke out, he left Strassburg, and accepted a call to Zurich, where he spent the rest of his life in very lively communication with the Re- formed party in England (De/ejis/o doctrime cele- ris et apostoUcce de Eucharisiice sacramenla, 1559, against Gardiner, and Defensio ad R. Smijlhcei duos libellos de coelihatu sacerdotum el volis monas- ticis), in Poland (two letters concerning the Holy Trinity and the two natures in Christ), in Italy, and in France. He was present at the disputa- tion at Poissy, September, 1561 ; but the formula (concerning the Lord's Supper) which the assembly ■finally agreed upon was rejected by the Sorbonne. His Commentaries were published after his death ; also his Loci commune.i, edited by Robert Masson, London, 1575, and one of the principal sources for the study of the Reformed theology of the sixteenth century. See Simler : Oralio de vita et obilu P. M., Ziirich, 1562 ; Schlosser : Leben des Theodor Beza und P. M. Vermigli, Heidelberg, 1807; C. Schmidt: P. M. Vermigli, Elberfeld, 1858. C. SCHMIDT. PETER THE HERMIT, b. at Amiens, in the middle of the eleventh century ; d. in the monas- tery of jSTeu Montier, in the diocese of Liege, July 7, 1115. During a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, which he made in 1093, he is said to have conceived the idea of a crusade ; and he was, at aU events, very active in preaching the first cru- sade. He even placed himself at the head of an undisciplined swarm of enthusiasts, who could not await the slow formation of the regular army; but the whole undertaking miscairied. See Hagenmeyer : Peter der Eremite, Leipzig, 1879. PETER THE VENERABLE. Pierre Maurice de Montboisier, called "the Venerable," was b. in Auvergne, France, 1092 [94], and d. Christ- mas Day, 1156 [58], at Cluny. He was the seventh son of Maurice, Lord of Montboisier, and of Ringarde his wife. Four of his brothers be- came ecclesiastics also; and one, Armannus, was prior of Cluny. At seventeen years of age Peter became a monk of Cluny, and at thirty (1122) he was elected abbot. He reformed the abbey, and established good management in all its distracted affairs. His rules are extant, and speak abun- dantly for his judgment, which was sorely tried by the return of Pontius, the previous abbot, who had been forced to go on a pilgrimage to Pales- tine, and resign his office. After a sharp struggle, Peter was sustained in his rule. His name of " the Venerable " was derived from his largeness of body and mind, his benevolent face, and his Christian charity. Bernard of Cluny was proba- bly his prior. Peter was the first to acknowledge Innocent II. as pope, against Anacletus, his rival claimant, who had in fact been a Cluniac monk. This just and generous attitude is in strong con- trast to that of Innocent and of St. Bernard, who seem equally to have disregarded Peter and his motives. To meet their insinuations against laxity of discipline, he called a general chapter of his order (Benedictines), at which " two hundred priors and a thousand ecclesiastics " were present, who supported him in a more stringent rule Peter's writings embrace Epistles (lib. 6. 22, to Heloise, being notably fine), and Tracts against the Petrobrusians, Jews, and Mohammedans, to- gether with a few Hymns and Sequences. His principal claims to modern honor lie (1) in his having secured a Latin translation of the Koran through his own labors and those of some of his monks; (2) in his kind treatment of Abelard, whom he received after his defeat by Bernard, and tenderly cai-ed for mitil he died, and whose body he delivered to Heloise; and (3) in his hymn " Mortis, portis,fractis, fortin," on the resuriection. This is the conjectured original of Bishop Heber's " God is gone up with a merry noise." Peter was decidedly bioader and more genial than his age and surroundings, but his writings are of slight value. Fl. Illyricus quotes him, however, as one of his " witnesses." He was but a poor Latinist ; yet, in his sermon on the transfiguration, he dis- plays real rhetorical power. His burial was be- side his comrade, Henry of Blois, Bishop of ^Vin- chester, within the church at Cluny. Lit. — His works were published Paris, 1614, and several times afterwards : Migxe {Palro- logia, vol. 189, pp. 9 sqq.) contains them all. His life can be found in Hisloire Litteraire de la France, xiii. p. 241, and in Migxe, as above. For the best view of his character, see Morison : Life and Times of St. Bernard, London, 1863, 2d ed., 1877. SAMUEL W. DUFFIELD. PETERBOROUGH, a city in Northampton- shire, Eng., situated on the left bank of the Kene, seventy-six miles, north by west, from London. It is the seat of the bishopric of the same name. The episcopal stipend is forty-five hundred pounds. The see was founded by Henry VIII., in 1541. Peterborough Cathedral is a beautiful specimen of Norman and Early English archi- tecture. It was commenced by abbot John de Seez, 1117, and completed 1528. It is cruciform, 476 feet long, with transepts 203 feet broad, ceil- ing 78 feet, and tower 150 feet high. See G. A. Poole : Peterborough, London, 1881. PETER-PENCE {Denarius S. Petri, Census B. Petri, Romfeot, Romescol') denotes a money-tribute which several of the northern kingdoms of Europe annually paid to the see of St. Peter. It seems to have originated in England, and was, accord- ing to the report of later chroniclers, paid there for the first time by King Ina of A\'essex (725), though not in the form of a tribute to the Pope, but as a support of the Schola Saxonum, — an edu- cational institution in Rome for English clergy. The whole report, however, is somewhat doubt- ful, as Beda knows nothing of the affair. The fii-st certain notice of it is found in a letter from Leo III. to Cenulph of Mercia (Mansi : Coll. Cone, XIII.; Jaffe : Regesl., No. 1915), in which the Pope states that Offa (d. 796), the predecessor of Cenulph, had promised for himself PETERS. 1820 PEUCER. and his successor to pay annually thi'ee hundred and sixty-five mancusce to the apostle Peter for the maintenance of the poor and the illumina- tion of the churches in Rome. From the middle of the tenth century it seems to have been paid regularly, first as a charity, but afterwards as a duty. Gregory VII. even tried to use it as a means of bringing England into a relation of vassalage to the papal see ; but ^\'illiam the Con- queror, though he declared himself willing to pay the duty, refused to take the oath. The money was collected thi-ough the bishops, though not without some difficulties, partly because people refused to pay, partly because the bishops were unwilling to give the .sums collected. Under Henry VIII. it was abrogated, by Act of Parlia- ment, July 9, 1533. In Poland the peter-pence was introduced in the eleventh century, as later chroni- clers tell us, from gratitude, because Benedict IX. absolved Casimir, on his accession to the throne in 1034, from the monastic vows. From Poland it was introduced into Prussia, at that time a fief of the Polish crown ; but there it met with re- peated protests, and was never paid regularly. In the Scandinavian countries it was proposed by papal legates in the eleventh and twelfth centu- ries, but never paid in the form of a regular duty. In 1081 Gregory VII. endeavored to introduce it in France, arguing that Charlemagne had present- ed offerings of the kind to the papal see (Grego- KY : Epist. 23) ; but he failed completely there as well as in Spain. Fi'om the middle of the six- teenth century it disappeared altogether. See the Liber censuuin Romance eccleslce, in Muratoki : Aniiqiulates Ilal., v.; and Spittlek : Von der ehe- maligen Zinsharkeil der nord. Reiche, Hanover, 1797. The peter-pence, which has been paid to the Pope since 1880, and which enabled him to decline the pension offered him by the Italian Government in 1871, is a pure charity. H. F. jacobson. PETERS (or PETER), Hugh, Puritan, b. at Fowey, Cornwall, Eng., 1599 ; hanged at Char- ing Cross, London, Oct. 16, 1660. He was gradu- ated JI.A. at Trinity College, Cambridge, 1622; took holy orders, and preaclied for a time in Lon- don. But, having been imprisoned for noncon- formity, he removed to Rotterdam, preached to an independent congregation there ; emigrated to America; and on Dec. 21, 1636, succeeded Roger ■Williams as pastor in Salem. He retui'ned to England in 1641, and, from that time on, entered into politics, and threw in his fortunes with the Puritan party. On the Restoration he was ar- rested, sentenced, and hanged as a regicide. He was a busy man in his day, and is still remem- bered, liis character has been the subject of protracted discussion. See Alliboue, s. v. He wrote in prison A Dying Father's last Legacy to an only Child, published 1717. PETERSEN, Johann Wilhelm, b. at Osna- briick, June 1, 1649 ; d. at Thymer, an estate near Zerbst, Jan. 23, 1727. He studied theology at Giessen and Rostock; visited also other German universities; made in 1675 the acquaintance of Spener at Francfort ; and was in 1677 appointed superintendent of LUbeck. In 1688 he removed to Liineburg as superintendent, but was in 1692 discharged, partly because he brought his chilias- tic ideas into the pulpit, partly on account of his relations to Juliane von Asseburg; which article see. After that time, he retired into private life, and devoted himself to a literary propaganda for his mystical and chiliastic ideas. Of his works, which are very numerous, the principal are, Wai-- heit des herriichen Reiches Jesu Christi, Magdeburg, 1692-93, 2 vols., and Geheimniss der Widerbringung alter Dinge, Francfort, 1700-10, 3 vols. fol. He also wrote exegetical works, Latin and German poems (the former edited by Leibnitz), -and an autobiography, 1718. See Corradi : Geschichte des Chiliasmus, Francfort, 1781, 2d ed., Zurich, 1794, 4 vols. PETIT, Samuel, b. at Nlmes, Dec. 25, 1594; d. there Dec. 12, 1643. He studied theology at Geneva, and was in 1618 appointed professor of Oriental languages, and pastor in his native city. Among his numerous works are Miscellaneorum Libri IX. (Paris, 1630),, Eclogm Chronologicw (Paris, 1632), Leges Attica: (Paris, 1635, dedicated to De Thou), Observationum Libri III. in varia velerum scriptorum loca (Paris, 1641), etc. His biography was written in Latin by Pierre For- MY, Paris, 1673. PETRA, See Selah. PETRI is the name of two brothers — Olaus (b. at Oerebro, 1497 ; d. in Stockholm, 1552) and Laurentius (b. at Oerebro, 1499 ; d. at Upsala,' 1573), who were chiefly instrumental in the estab- lishment of the Reformation in Sweden. They studied theology at AVittenberg, and began, soon after their return home, to preach the Reforma- tion, protected by Gustavus Vasa. Olaus was in 1523 made rector of the seminary of Strengnas, and in 1539 preacher in Stockholm; Laurentius, professor in Upsala in 1523, and in 1531 arch- bishop. Together with Lars Anderson, they trans- lated the Bible into Swedish. Olaus also wrote a Manuale Suelicum, an Ordo Missce Sueticai, and a number of polemical treatises in Swedish. Lau- rentius wrote a Diaciplina Suetica, which became part of the Swedish constitution. See Sweden. PETROBRUSIANS. See Peter of Bruys. PEUCER, Caspar, b. at Bautzen, Jan. 6, 1525; d. at Dessau, Sept. 25, 1602. He studied in the university of Wittenberg, and was appointed pro- fessor of mathematics there in 1554, and of medi- cine in 1560, superintendent-general of the Latin schools of Saxony in 1563, and body-physician to the elector. From his arrival at Wittenberg he was an inmate of Melanchthon's house. In 1550 he married his youngest daughter, and after his death he became one of the most active repre- . sentatives of the so-called Philippists; which ar- ticle see. As he enjoyed the favor and confidence of the elector in an uncommon degree, it was easy for him to prevent anybody but Philippists from being appointed at the university. He was also very active in the publication, and introduc- tion into the school, of the Wittenberg Catechism of 1571, which, on account of its antagonism to the doctrine of ubiquity, was an abomination in the eyes of the Lutherans. But through the electress, who was a strict Lutheran, his enemies finally succeeded in estranging the elector from him. In 1574 he -was suddenly arrested, and kept in prison till shortly before the death of the elec- tor, in 1586. After his release he returned to his old occupations, but resided at Dessau. He pub- lished an edition of Melanchthon's works (Wit- tenberg, 1562-64, 4 vols. foL), and a collection of PEW. 1821 PHARISEES. his letters (Wittenberg, 1565) ; wrote Traclatus histoncus de P. M. (1596), a report of his impris- onment (published at Zurich in 1604), besides a great number of medical, theological, and mathe- matical treatises. See Henkk : Caspar Peucer and Nicholas Krell, ^Marburg, 1865. MALLET. PEW. The word comes from the old French pui, an elevated space, puye, an gpen gallery with rails (hence applied to an enclosed space, or to a raised desk to kneel at), which is the Latin podion, a balcony, especially near the arena, where distinguished persons sat. So pews were originally places for distinguished persons in church. See Skeat : Etymological Dictionary. In the Roman-Catholic churches on the Continent there are generally no pews, but in Protestant churches they are universal. In England they are said to date from the Reformation, and not to have been in general use until the middle of the seventeenth century. The renting of them is a common source of revenue in support of the minister in unestablished churches. They are also bought and sold, and as property can be disposed of by will. Originally there was only one pew, in which the patron and his family sat. It was forbidden other persons to enter it. In England it is quite common to have pews locked. Formerly there were square pews, and pews with very high backs; but now they are built with backs no higher than a chair's, and very com- monly without doors. PEZEL (PEZOLT, PE20LD), Christof, b. at Plauen, March 5, 1539 ; d. in Bremen, Feb. 25, 1604. He studied theology at Jena and Witten- berg, and was in 1567 appointed professor of the- ology in the latter place. As a representative of Philippism, he was discharged in 1574, and ban- ished from the country in 1576. In 1580 he was appointed pastor in Bremen, and in 1584 superin- tendent, and professor of theology. He edited Melanchthon's correspondence with Hardenberg, 1598, and his Consilia Latina, 1602, and wrote the Bremer Calechisrnus, the Bremen Consensus, a sur- vey of the controversies about the Lord's Supper and the doctrine of ubiquity, Argumenta et Objec- tiones, etc. (1580-89), Aufrichtige Rechenschaft von Lelire u. Ceremonien in der reform. Kirche (1592), etc., which show that he gradually approached neai-er and nearer to strict Calvinism. See Iken : Die Wirksamkeit des Christof Pezel in Bremen, in Brem. Jahrbiicher ix., 1877. MALLET. PFAFF, Christof Matthaus, b. in Stuttgart, Dec. 25, 1686 ; d. at Giessen, Nov. 9, 1760. He studied at Tubingen; travelled extensively; was appointed professor of theology at Tubingen in 1714, and chancellor of the university in 1720 ; and removed in 1756 to Giessen, where he occu- pied the same position. He was a man of great accomplishments, a consummate scholar, a bril- liant lecturer, wielding a great authority. He defended the coUegial system against the reign- ing territorialism {De originibus Juris ecclesiastici, 1719), and was very active in promoting a union between the Reformed and Lutheran churches {Die nolhige Glaubenseinigkeit der protestanlischen Kirche, 1719, and AUoquium irenicum ad Protes- tantes, 1720). His doctrinal stand-point was more liberal than the prevailing orthodoxy (Institutiones Theologies, 1719 ; Abriss vom wahren Christenthum, 1720). It contained an element of Pietism, and was very antagonistic to the rising school of Wolff. His biograi^hy was written by Leporinus, Leipzig, 1726. klupfel. PFLUG, Julius, Canon of Naumburg and Mis- nia, afterwards Bishop of Naumburg-Zeitz ; d. 1564 ; enjoyed the confidence of Charles V., and was by him employed in the various negotiations caused by the Reformation. He presided at the religious disputations of Ratisbou and A^'orms, and drew up, together with Agricola, the Augs- burg Interim. See Jansen: De Julio Pflugio, 1858. HERZOG. PHAR'AOH (n;?73, ^apau). The Egyptian word for king was per-aa, of which the Hebrew par'o was a transliteration : it means the " great house," and finds its modern parallel in the Turk- ish ruler's epithet, the " Sublime Porte." It was customary to call the monarch by this epithet, without adding his proper name, like "King," " Csesar," " Czar." So in the Bible the name is added only in the cases of Necho (2 Kings xxiii. 29, 33 sqq. ; Jer. xlvi. 2) and Hophra (Jer. xliv. 30). The epithet is followed upon the monuments by numerous laudatory titles, which ascribe to the man the attributes of the gods. Indeed, he was believed to be an eai'thly manifestation of Ra, the sun-god, and after death was apotheosized. His life was really a bondage. The wily and power- ful priesthood watched him closely, and superin- tended his daily life, prescribing his duties, civil and especially religious, from hour to hour. By his side stood his wife, the queen, who might even succeed him, and by whose marriage to a usurper, in the event of the true Pharaoh's death, the legitimacy of the new dynasty was secured, if to the new king she boi'e a son. Unlike other Oriental sovereigns, the Pharaohs showed them- selves to the people, and that accompanied by their wives and sons. There does not appear to have been any regulation-dress for the Pharaoh ; but upon his neck and arms sparkled jewels, and from the magnificent 'girdle hung his sword. Upon his shaved head he wore a wig, and upon that his diadem, crown of either Upper or Lower Egypt, or a combination of the two ; but, which- ever it was, it bore the urseus, which symbolized his authority over life and death. The corona- tion of the new Pharaoh took place on the day following the decease of his predecessor. The palaces of Egypt were surrounded by beautiful and extensive gardens ; but unfortunately they were built out of brick and wood, and have per- ished without leaving a trace. The Pharaoh em- ployed, in travelling through the country, either a sedan-chair, or, after the incursion of the Hyksos, a two-horse carriage. There is mention made in the Bible of seven Pharaohs, to whom no proper name is given. Several of these have been iden- tified : thus the Pharaoh of Joseph was Sethos I. ; of the oppression, Rameses II. ; of the exodus, Menephthah I. See art. Egypt, pp. 706, 710. Cf . art. " Pharao," by Ebers, in Riehm's Handb. d. bibl. Altert. PHARISEES, The (Heb., perushim, Aramaic, perishin, perishayya, the "separatists"), formed a party among the Jewish people. The name they bore was not of their choice, but given them by their opponents, who looked upon them as separating themselves from the rest of the people on account of their superior piety. They called PHARISEES. 1822 PHILADELPHIA. themselves Hkaherim (the "companions"); i.e., the members of a brotherhood designed to further the strict observance of tlie law 'J'hey were not, strictly speaking, a society, for they had no recog- nized cliief or leaders ; for by " one of the rulers of the Pharisees" (Luke xiv. 1) no official was meant, only a prominent member of the party. But their notorious contempt for the uneducated people (Von ha'ures), and their complacent regard ifor themselves as the true Israel, richly earned for them the opprobrious epithet " Pharisees." In Acts XV. 5, xxvi. 5 they are spoken of as a " sect ; " by which term, not any departure in doctrine from the beaten track of Judaism, but only in customs, is alluded to. The Pharisees were the descendants of the Chassidim (see art.), and first emerge as a party, under the name Pharisee, in the reign of John Hyrcanus I., 135-105 B.C. (see art.), whose political measures they opposed ; and so, while at the beginning of his reign he sided with the Pharisees, ere the close he went over to the Sadducees. Hyrcanus' son, Alexander Jan- Uccus, 104-78 B.C. (see art.), for six years vainly strove to annihilate the Pharisees, who had be- come numerous. But his widow Alexandra, 78- 69 B.C., gave them control in the government : and from that time on they wei'e the leaders of the people, at least in spiritual things ; and, although the Sadducees were the nominal chiefs in the San- hedrin, they succeeded in carrying out their will (Joseph., Anliq., XVIII. 1, 4). In 63 B.C. Pal- estine passed under the Roman power. The pres- ence of the foreign power was a constant irritation to the Jews, who maintained that God was their only rightful ruler. The Pharisees were in a sense responsible for the terrible war which de- stroyed their nation ; because they strengthened the people in the notion that it was not lawful to give tribute to Csesar (Matt. xxii. 17 sqq.), be- cause it was an acknowledgment of a temporal superiority which a theocratic people should not make. Indeed, some of. the Pharisees became Zealots. But, inasmuch as their principal busi- ness was the conversion of the people to the strict observance of the law (and in this work the Komans offered no sort of opposition), they had no immediate occasion to set themselves against their conquerors. The teachings of the Pharisees come out plainly in the New Testament. In brief, they held that the written law was supplemented by the oral law, which, likewise, was derived from God through Moses ; and, further, that the great end of their existence was to raise all the people to their level of strict observance of the oral law. It was because they quibbled about trifles while violating, through their traditions, weighty commands, tliat our Lord was so severe upon them (Matt, xxiii. 23) ; and, because they were conscious of the discrepancy between their pro- fessions and their practices, he called them hypo- crites. As over against the Sadducees, they were orthodox, holding to the existence of angels and spirits (Acts xxiii. 8), the resurrection of the body, and the future judgment (Matt. xxii. 23; Markxii. 18; Luke xx. 27; Acts xxiii. S). They also were strict predestinarians (Joseph., Aniiq., XVIII. 1, 3, B. J., ii. 8, 14). In all these respects they are the predecessors of the modern Jewish theologians. It is also a mistake to represent them as generally luxurious in life. On the con- trary, the great esteem in which they were held by the people seems to prove just the opposite, as Josephus asserts (Antiq., XVIII. 1, 3). Tliey rep- resent a religious sj'stem carried to a burdensome and blameworthy minuteness. Yet there were doubtless among them men, like Nicodemus and Joseph of ArimathEca, who were truly pious, and, if bigoted, were not hypocritical. The Pharisees were proselytizers. Tlie spiread of Judaism thus accomplished led to the wider spread of Christi- anity. It is to Paul, a Pharisee of Pharisee.s, that the church is indebted for the first extensive mi.s- sionarjf operations, and from his Epistles Chris- tian theology has been largely derived. Lit. — See list in Schijkki! : NeuieslmnentUclic Zeilrjeschichtc, Leipzig, 1874, p. 423 ; also M'ell- HAUSEN : Die Pharisaer und die Sadducuei, Greifs- wald, 1874. Comp. art. "Pharisaer," in Herzog, 1st ed. (Reuss), and in Riehm (Schiirer); art. " Pharisees," in Kitto (Ginsburg) and in Smith (Twisleton). PHILADELPHA ("brotherly love"), the seat of one of the seven churches of Asia (Rev. i. 11, iii. 7-13), a city on the borders of Lydia and Phrygia, about twenty-five miles south-east from Sardis. It was built by Attains II. (Fhiladel- phus), king of Pergamum (d. 138 B.C.), but in 133 passed into the hands of the Romans. It w'as the mart of the immense wine-traffic of the district. As the district is volcanic, the city has been once nearly destroyed (A.D. 17), and sev- eral times severely injured. It was captured by the Osmanli Turks in 1390. It is now called Allah-shehr ("city of God"). It contains some ten thousand inhabitants, mostly Turks. Accord- ing to tradition, Peter ordained Demetrius the first bishop of the city (.^^Jos. Constt., vii. § iv. 46). One of the Ignatian Epistles was addressed to that church. PHILADELPHIA, the largest city in Pennsyl- vania, and the second in the United States, is situated in lat. 39° 57' N., and long. W., 75° 10'. It extends north and south, along the west bank of the Delaware River, for twenty-three miles, and west an average distance of five miles and a half, beyond the River Schuylkill, which flows through the city, and is spanned by thirteen bridges. It contains 130 square miles, or 82,600 acres, and has 750 miles of paved streets. It was founded in 1682 by William Penn, a Quaker from England, and was incorporated in 1701, when it had its first mayor. The first Con- tinental Congress met in Carpenter's Hall, Sept. 4, 1774. The Declaration of Independence was adopted here July 4, 1776. (Independence Hall still stands, a noted building. The convention that framed the Federal Constitution met in an adjoining building. May, 1787.) It was the seat of the Federal Goveniment from 1790 to 1800. Up to 1854 it consisted of the "city proper" and " districts ; " but in that year they were consoli- dated under one municipal government. The population in 1683 was 500; 1684,2,500; 1700, 4,500; 1800, 81,009; 1850, 408,762; 1860, 508,034; 1870,074,022; 1880,846,980. Philadelphia is the "city of homes." In 1880 it had 146,412 dwelling-houses for its 165,044 families and 846,980 people, — an average to a house of only 5.79 persons. PHILADELPHIA. 1823 PHILADBLPHIAN SOCIETY. Its annual death-rate is only 19.06 per thou- sand. It has forty-five cemeteries. The first American paper, The Weekly Mercury, was established here in 1719. The prominent educational and scientific insti- tutions of the city are the Central High School, Girls' Xormal School, University of Pennsylvania, the American Philosophical So'ciety (founded by Franklin in 1769), Academy of Fine Arts, Acade- my of Natural Science, " Polytechnic College, Franklin Institute, "Wagner Institute, School of Design for AVomen, Lutheran, Episcopal Roman- Catholic, and Reformed Piesbyterian theological seminaries, and nine medical and dental colleges. Its schools and seminaries, public and private, are numerous and of a high order The largest libraries are the Philadelphia (and Ridgeway), Mercantile, Apprentices', Friends', Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Presbyterian Historical Society, and of the University of Penn- sylvania. Fairmount Park, lying on both sides of the Schuylkill, contains 2,740 acres. The Zoological Garden is in it. The National Centennial Expo- sition of 1S76 was held in it. The principal and oldest United-States Mint is located in the city. The American Sunday- School Union, organized in 1824, and also several of the missionary boards of the gi'eat religious denominations, have their head ofiices here. "The First Day or Sunday School Society of Phila- delphia," which was the first Sunday-school or- ganization in America for missionary work, was formed here in 1791. The places licensed for the sale of liquor num- ber about 5,500. The chief religious denominations began in the city as follows : forty years before Penn came, a Lutheran minister was preaching to the Swedes at Tinicum Island, and a' chuich was built at Wicaco in 1669 ; Episcopal services began in 1646 (the oldest church edifice still standing is the Gloria Dei, or Old Swedes, dedicated in 1700 ; it was originally Lutheran) ; Roman Catholic, 1686 ; Presbyterian, 1697; Baptist, 1698; German Re- formed, 1727; Methodist-Episcopal, 1769; Jewish, 1782 ; Universalist, 1783 ; African JNIethodist, 1787; Unitarian, 1796 ; Zion African, 1820; Swe- denborgian, 1815; Bible Christians, 1817; Inde- pendent Christian, 1825: CongTegationalist, 1831 ; Advent Christian, 18-13; Free Methodist, 1860; Church of God, 1860; Reformed Episcopal, 1873; Independent Jlethodist, 1879 ; Mormon, 1881. There are 611 places of worship in the city. This number includes churches, mission preach- ing-stations, and the. other denominational insti- tutions in which public religious services are regularly held. They are classed as follows : Advent Christian, 2; Baptist, 78; Free Baptist, 7 ; Bible Christian, 1 ; Children of Zion, 1 ; Christa- delphiang, 1 ; Christian (Independent), 2 ; Church of the Brethren (Dunkards), 2 ; Church of God, 2; Congregational, 2 ; Congregational (Independent), 1; Disciples of Christ, 4; Evangelical Associa- tion, 8; Friends, 17 (Orthodox, 7; Hicksite, 9; piofessing original principles, 1); Hebrews, 10; Latter-Day Saints, 2 (Mormon Anti-Polygamous, 1 ; Polygamous, 1); Lutheran, 31 (English, General Council, 11; German, General Council, 12; Inde-. pendent, 1 ; Swedish, Augustan Synod, 1 ; Ger- 9 — III man. Mission Synod, 1 ; Euglish, General Synod, 5); Mennonite, 2; Methodist, 122 (Methodist- Episcopal, 101; African, 10; Zion African, 2; Free, 3; Independent, 0); Moravian, 5; New Jerusalem, 3 ; Presbyterian and Reformed, 135 (Northern Presbyterian, 92 ; Reformed Presbyte- rian, Original Covenanter, 1 ; Reformed Presby- terian, General Synod, 8 ; Reformed Presbyterian, Synod, 3 ; United Presbyterian, 11 ; Reformed [Dutch] 5; Reformed [German] English, 7; German, 8) ; Protestant-Episcopal, 96 ; Reformed Episcopal, 10 ; Roman Catholic, 47 ; Spiritual Association, 3 ; undenominational missions, 7 ; Unitarian, 3; United Brethren in Christ, 3; Universalist, 4. Of the total number, 500 are organized churches. The 611 places for worship for 816,980 of a population give one to 1,386 persons of all ages : in 1776 there were 37 for a population of 60,000 or 70,000, or not more than one to eveiy 1,600 persons. The strongest Protestant denominations are the Presbyterian (Northern General Assembly), which had, in 1882, 26,953 communicants ; Methodist- Episcopal, 22,747; Protestant-Episcopal, 22,679; Baptist, 18,564 ; making a total of 90,943. The other Protestant denominations with thege will number at least 120,000 communicant members. The Philadelphia Sundaj'-school Association, rep- resenting all these denominations, reports 552 Sunday schools, with 148,885 scholars. The popa- lation in connection with the Protestant churches and sabbath schools, and under their influence, may be set down as not less than 500,000. The Jewish population is 12,000. The Roman- Catholic population of the diocese, which includes the city and several of the counties of Eastern Pennsylvania, is estimated as 300,000. The exact Roman-Catholic population of the city cannot be had, — not much, if any, over 100,000. The Young Men's Christian Association was organized in 1854. Present membership about 3,000. It has a magnificent building on Fifteenth and Chestnut, covering 230 by 72 feet, five stories high, built in 1875. There is also a verj- efficient Women's Christian Association, and a Young ]\Ien's Christian Association in Germantown. The city contains 275 organized charities. There are 93 relief societies, 94 " homes " and orphanages, 43 hospitals, 29 dispensaries, 11 re- formatories, 31 beneficial societies, 15 working- men's clubs. The Girard College for orphan boys, founded by a wealthy Frenchman, 1832, is also located here, and now provides for the educa^ tion of a thousand boys. R. m. Patterson. PHILADELPHIAN SOCIETY. As early as 1652, Dr. and Mrs. Pordage and Bromley estab- lished a gathering of mystics of the Jakob Bdhme pattern. To their meeting-s Mrs. Leade, after the death of her husband, was admitted; and in 1670 .she, with those already named, founded the Phila- delphian Society. To it she soon gave what were called "the laws of Paradise," which contained the ground ideas of the society. The new enter- prise was designed to advance the kingdom of God by improving the life, teaching the loftiest morality, enforcing the duty of universal broth- erhood, peace, and love. At the same time, no disturbance in the political world was contem- plated, unless, indeed, any government acted PHILASTBR. 1824 PHILIP THE FAIR. against the light of nature and the gospel. The Philadelphians also believed firmly in what they called the " divine secrets," — the wonders of God and nature, the profound spiritual experiences of regeneration and soul-resurrection, — in the speedy establishment of Messiah's kingdom, and in the blessings of the future world. These ideas found such ready acceptance, that oral and epistolary intercourse with many persons of Holland and Germany was soon begun. Among. those inter- ested were Horche, May, Petersen, and Spener. Since the time for the ingathering of the Phila- delphian Church had come, the living word must be spoken by a living man. Accordingly, Jo- hannes Dittmar of Salzungen was appointed " in- spector," and, armed. with credentials, was sent to Germany for the purpose. One important part of his mission was to unite the Philadelphians with the Pietists, especially those with Professor Franke at Halle. But, although kindly received, his mission was well-nigh fruitless. At the end of 1703 the Philadelphians drew up their Confes- sion; but, instead of advancing, they declined. In England they were forbidden to meet. The Hol- land branch withdrew, — a particularly serious embarrassment, since it had been the medium of communication with Germany. Still, the visions of Mrs: Leade were to many irrefragable proofs of divinity, and implicitly accepted. Her death end- ed her repute ; but, if the torrent has sunk in the sand, she has the credit of first giving practical expression to the idea of universal brotherhood. See Lit. under Leade. h. hochhuth. PHILASTER, or PHILASTRIUS, b. in the first quai'ter of the fourth century, probably in Italy ; d. as Bishop of Brescia, July 18, 387, a noted heretic-hunter of his time. From his youth to his death he travelled from one end of the Roman Empire to the other, to track heretics, and convert them. Especially noticeable are his attacks on the Arian bishop, Auxentius, the predecessor of Ambrose, and his appearance at the council of Aquileia (381), where the two Arian bishops, Pal- ladius and Seoundianus, were condemned. About the same time he wrote his Liher de hceresibus, an enumeration and description of one hundred and fifty-six different heresies, of which twenty-eight fall before Christ, and one hundred and twenty- eight after. A few years earlier (374-377), Epi- phanius wrote his \lavixpiov^ and as, up to a certain point (Epiphanius, 57, and Philaster, 53), the two books agree with each other, not only with respect to materials, and arrangement in general, but often, also, with respect to the minor details of the representation, — phrases and words, — it has been inferred that Philaster plagiarized Epiphar nius. The inference is hardly correct, however ; and R. A. Lipsius, in his Zur Quellenkridk cles Eptplianius (Vienna, 1865), has made it very pro- bable that they both borrowed from the lost 2w- Tuyiia of Hippolytus. What Philaster has added of his own is completely worthless. He discov- ered, or rather invented, the Puteoritce, who are heretics because they misunderstand Jer. ii. 13; the Troylodijies, who are heretics because they misunderstand Ezek. viii. 7-12. The book was first edited by Sichardus, Basel, 1528; which edition is incorporated in the Bibl. Patr. Max. , later editions by Fabricius, Hamburg, 1721 ; Ga- leardus, in CoU Vel. Pair. Eccl Brixiensis, 1738 ; and Oehler, in his Corjms hcereseologicum, Berlin, 1856, i. MANGOLD. PHILE'MON. See Paul. PHIL'IP THE APOSTLE. In the Synoptists and the Acts his name occurs only in the list of apostles (Matt. x. 3; Mark iii. 18; Luke vi. 14; Acts i. 13). In John's Gospel he is sever-al times mentioned. It was he who introduced Nathanael to Jesus (i. 43-51), who gravely calculated the cost of feeding the five thousand men (vi. 5-7), who, in courtection with Andrew, brought the Greeks, at their request, to Jesus (xii. 21-23) ; and, finally, he was the one who asked, on the last night of Christ's earthly life, for a revelation of the Father (xiv. 8, 9). The patristic information about him is' erroneous, resulting from confounding him with Philip the evangelist. F. sieffert. PHILIP THE ARABIAN, Roman emperor (244-249); was b. at Bostra in Arabia, whence his surname, Arabs. His reign was, in political respect, utterly insignificant; but the question whether or not he was a Christian has some in- terest to the church historian. Eusebius is the first who states that Philip was a member of the Christian Church, and subject to its discipline {Hixf. Eccl., vi. 34) ; but the statement is corrobo- rated by notices by Vincentius of Lerinum (^Com- mon., ed. Baluze, p. 343), in the Chronicon paschal, ad Olymp. (257), by Chrysostom [App., H. 470), Jerome (Chron. ad an. 246), and Orosius {Hist., 20). Some, as, for instance, Scaliger, Spanheim, etc., reject these testimonies as dependent upon Euse- bius, who introduces his story with a "People say ;" while others — Mosheim, Uhlhorn, etc. — accept the statement that Philip was the first Christian emperor. See AuBE : Les clireliens dans I' empire Romain, Paris, 1881. PHILIP THE EVANGELIST, one of the seven chosen to attend to the secular concerns of the primitive Jerusalem Church (Acts vi. 5) ; most probably a Hellenist, certainly, like Stephen, a very liberal Jew. He was, indeed, the first to put liberal principles in practice : for, when per- secution in Jerusalem dispersed the disciples, he preached the gospel to the Samaritans (viii. 5-13), who were only half Jews, and then, by divine com- mand, to a proselyte of the gate, — the chamber- lain of Queen Candace, whom he baptized (viii. 26-40). On leaving the eunuch, Philip made a missionary journey along the plain of Sharon to Csesarea, where he apparently made his home , for there he entertained Paul and his travelling com- panions (A.D. 58). Mention is made, in this con- nection of Philip's four virgin daughters who prophesied (xxi. 8, 9). Patristic tradition so sadly confounds Philip the evangelist and Philip the apostle, that it is difficult to unravel the con- fusion. It is probable, however, that tradition correctly reports, that in Csesarea one of the daughters of Philip the evangelist died, that with the other three he removed to Hierapolis, and was subsequently bishop at Tralles. F. sieffert. PHILIP THE FAIR (king of France 1285- 1314), an unscrupulous man, who never hesitated to employ even the basest means in order to reach his goal, but who, in the ends he pursued, was often supported by the hearty sympathy of the people he ruled. In the history of the church he occupies a conspicuous place ; for it was he who, more than any other prince, contributed to break PHILIP THE PAIR, 1825 PHILIP THE MAGNANIMOUS. thespell by which the Pope kept bound all the nations of Western and Jfortheni Europe. In order to defray the expenses of the war with England, he imposed a heavy tax on the French clergy. The clergy complained to the Pope; and, by the bull Clericis lakos (Feb. 25, 1296), Boni- face VIII. forbade in the most vehement expres- sions, and under penalty of excommunication, any layman, king, or lord, to levy tax on the clergy. Philip was compelled to yield, but he took re- venge. He forbade the export from France of pre- cious metal, coined or uncoined, and thereby cut off a considerable portion of the Pope's revenue. Boniface immediately entered upon the retreat. A new bull {Ineffabilis amor, Sept. 25, 1298), and several briefs to the king and the French clergy, tried to explain the bull Clericis laicos into har- mony with the king's wishes. Aug. 11, 1297, he canonized Louis IX. : in June, 1298, he appeared as umpire between France and England, — all on the side of France, etc. The immense success, however, of the jubilee of 1300 again brought forward the papal dreams of a universal mon- archy; and as Pierre Dubois at the same time published his Summaria brevis, advocating the French claims on a universal monarchy, and reducing the papal authority to purely spiritual matters, there came again a dangerous tension in the relation between the two sovereigns. Finally the sending of Bernard de Saisset, Bishop of Pamiers, as papal legate to the French court, brought about the crisis. Saisset was insolent ; and as soon as his legatine mission was finished, and he had returned to his see, he was summoned to Paris, placed before a mixed tribunal, accused of treason, and thrown into prison. Boniface convened the second council of the Lateran, which resulted in the bull Unam sanctam (Nov. 13, 1302), a completely unique piece of papal arro- gance. Philip assembled the states-general for the first time in the history of France; and it was evident that the whole French nation was ready to support. Only the clergy preserved a respectful behavior towards the Pope. The uni- versity, headed by Occam, declared against him. Gilles Romanus wi'ote his De regimine principis , John of Paris, his De potestale regia etpopoU, and Boniface was publicly caricatured in the French mysteries. Philip was, nevertheless, afraid of the effect of an excommunication ; and Sept. 7, 1303, the day before the excommunication was going to take place in the Church of Anagni, JSTogaret penetrated with a number of other conspirators into the papal palace, and took possession of the Pope. See Boniface VIII. The consequences of that audacious stroke were decisive. The suc- cessor of Boniface VIII., Benedict XI., died shortly after his accession ; and his successor, Clement V., was a mere tool in the hands of Philip. Clement was a Frenchman, and Arch- bishop of Bourdeaux ; but he was known as a stanch adversary of Philip. Thus recommended to the Italian cardinals, he gained the votes of the French cardinals through the influence of Philip; and the good-will of Philip he had secretly bought by the condemnation of Boniface VIII. as a heretic, the removal of the papal curia to the territory of France, the surrender of the order of the Templars to the pleasure of the king, and some other points. The Templars he actually delivered up to the avarice of Philip ; his resi- dence he took up at Avignon, thus inaugurating the Babylonian captivity of the popes; but the first point of the bargain he escaped from fulfill- ing. Nevertheless, his reign indicated in the plainest manner possible the decadence of the Papacy, and Philip was by no means anxious to conceal the real state of affairs. See Clement V. BouTAKic: La France sous Plulippe le Bel, Paris, 1861. PHILIP THE MAGNANIMOUS, Landgrave of Hesse; b. at Marburg, Nov. 23, 150-1; d. there March 31, 1567 ; one of the most prominent char- acters in the history of the German Reformation. He was only five years old when his father died, and only fourteen when he was declared of age. He was present at the Diet of Worms in 1521, but had at that time not yet made up his mind with respect to religious matters. He was, how- ever, one of those who insisted that the safe con- duct accorded to Luther should be kept sacred. He visited Luther in his lodgings, and on his re- turn he allowed mass to be celebrated in German at Cassel. In the campaign against Franz von Sickingen, in 1522, he was accompanied by a Prot- estant preacher ; and an incidental meeting with Melanchthon, on the road to Heidelberg, finally decided him. In February, 1525, he opened his country to the Reformation; in May he joined the Torgau Union ; and in June he appeared at the Diet of Spires as one of the leaders of the Protestant party, surprising the Roman-Catholic bishop by his theological learning, the imperial commissioners by his outspokenness, and King Ferdinand himself by the open threat of leaving the diet immediately if the enforcement of the edicts of Worms was insisted upon. The great task he had on hand was to unite the German and Swiss Protestants into one compact party, and at the Diet of Spires (1529) he suc- ceeded in baffling all the attempts of the Roman Catholics of producing an open breach. The Con- ference of Marburg, in the same year, was also his work ; and it had, at all events, the efilect of somewhat mitigating the hostility of the theolo- gians. Nevertheless, at the Diet of Augsburg (1530), the Lutherans appeared to be willing to buy peace by sacrificing the interest of the Zwin- glians. Philip proposed war, open and immedi- ate ; but the Lutherans suspected him of being a Zwinglian at heart, and their suspicion made him powerless. He subscribed the Confessio Augusta- na, but reluctantly, and with an expre.'^s reserva- tion with respect to the doctrine of the Lord's Supper. Finally, when he saw that nothing could be done, while he knew that the emperor could not be trusted, he suddenly left Augsburg. This resoluteness made an impression on the other Protestant princes; and in March, 1531, he was able to form the Smalcaldian League, though he was not able to procure admission to it for the Swiss Reformed. In the same year he opened negotiations \vith the king of Denmark ; in 1532 he compelled the emperor to grant the peace of Nuremberg; in 1534, after the brilliant victory at Laufen, he enforced the restoration of Duke Ulrich of "Wiirtemberg, by which that country was opened to the Reformation ; in 1539 he began negotiations with Francis I. ; and in 1540 he again proposed to wage open war on the emperor. PHILIP II. 1826 PHILIPPI. But at that very moment his authority was greatly impaired, and liis activity much clogged, by his marriage with Margaretlie von der Saal, — a clear case of bigamy She was maid-of-honor to his sister, the Duchess of Rochlitz, and sixteen years old. He fell in love with hei-, and persuad- ed his legitimate wife, a daughter of Duke George of Saxony, to give her consent to double marriage. The theologians, even Luther and Melanchthon, also consented, on the condition that the marriage .should be kept a deep secret. The Duchess of Rochlitz, however, would not keep silent; and the question then arose, what the emperor would do. 'Hie case was so much the worse, as in 1535 Philip had issued a law which made bigamy one' of the greatest crimes in Hesse The emperor, however, simply used the affair to completely undermine the political position of the landgrave; but the profit he drew from it was, nevertheless, no small one. During the difficult times which followed after the peace of Crespy (154-1), the Protestant party had no acknowledged leader; during the Smalcal- dian war (1548-47), no acknowledged head. After the war, the emperor treacherously seized the landgrave, and kept him in prison for five years. After his release, in 1552, Philip was not exactly a. broken man ; but he was much humbled, and was compelled to play the part of the mediator, es- pecially between the Protestants and the Roman Catholics ; thus he was very active in promoting the conferences of Naumburg in 1554, and of Worms in 1557. Lit — Ro.MMEL, Pliilipp der Grossmiithige, Gies- sen, 1830, 3 vols. ; Lenz . Brief icechsel Landgraf Philipps mit Bucer, Leipzig, 1880 sq. ; Wille ; Philipp d. G. und die Restitulion Ulrichs von Wur- temberg, Tubingen, 1882. KLUpfel. PHILIP II., king of Spain (1556-98), b. at Val- ladolid. May 21, 1527 ; d. at the Escurial, Sept. 13, 159S. He was the most powerful and relent- less adversary of the Reformation. From his father, Charles V., he inherited Spain (v/hich at that time furnished the largest, the best drilled, and best equipped army in the world), the Two Sicilies and Milan (the granary of Europe), the Netherlands (the seat of the highest industrial and commercial development), besides vast pos- sessions in the West Indies and America, from which he drew an inexhaustible wealth of gold and silver and the choicest productions of the earth. But he was of a dull and ban-en nature, and knew not what to do with his riches. De- void of sympathy, and capable only of a singular kind of cold fanaticism, egotism was the sole motive-power in his will ; and all his exertions in behalf of the Roman-Catholic creed wei-e due to the circumstance that it was his creed. His dealings with the Pope clearly show, that, even in the direction of ecclesiastical affairs, lie could brook no other will than liis own. He nominated to all the dignities and benefices of the Spanish Church. Appeals to Rome were absolutely for- bidden. No papal bull or brief could be read in his realm without his placet. The statutes and decrees of the Council of Trent were received only with very important restrictions. A royal com- missioner presided over the deliberations of the provincial synods ; and in the conclave he did not content himself with the right of excluding some obnoxious candidate, but claimed also the right of proposing some favorite candidate. Pius IV. complained bitterly, in the presence of the cardi- nals and the Spanish auibagsador, Vargas, of the exorbitant pretensions of the king. Pius V. tried to force him into compliance by withdrawing the subsidies of the clergy, but in vain. Lender Six- tus v., the Spanish ambassador Olivares actually proposed to the king to separate from Rome, and to convoke a national council as the best means of compelling the Pope to adopt another policy with respect to France. To the missionary activity of the school of English Jesuits at Douay, or the schemes of popular risings in Ireland, or the conspiracies of the Roman-Catholic party in England, he paid very little attention, in spite of the enormous religious consequences which might have been evolved from them ; but as soon as he felt his own personal, political plans thwarted by Elizabeth, he seiit the Armada against her, and was defeated ; and the supremacy of the sea passed from Catholic Spain to Protestant England. In the Netherlands he stirred up the political pas- sions as deeply as the religious ; and many of his measures, though introduced under religious pre- tences, were really and chiefly of political import. In France he completely spoiled the game, and actually prepared the way for Henry IV. by claiming the crown for himself. Nevertheless, though principally prompted in all his doings by his egotism, he was the most formidable adver- sary the Reformation had to encounter, and in his own country he completely succeeded In burn- ing it out. See Pkescott : History of the Reign of Philip IL, New York, 1855-58, 3 vols. . Baum- stark: Philip IL, Friburg, 1875. PHILIP THE TETRARCH. See Herod, p. 983. PHILIP'PI, the chief city of the eastern division of Macedonia, eight miles north-west of Neapo- lis, its seaport. Its original name was Crenides ("fountains") from its numerous springs; but Philip, the father of Alexander the Great, who took it (356 B.C.), called it after himself. In 42 B.C. a memorable battle was fought there be- tween Octavius and Antony on the one side, and Brutus and Cassius on the other. The former were victorious; and the city, in consequence, was made a Roman colony by Octavius, who became Augustus 27 B.C. This "bestowed peculiar privi- leges upon it, especiallj' that of Roman citizenship. It was there that in A.D. 51 Paul preached upon his second missionary journey, was imprisoned, and, with Silas, his companion, miraculously de- livered. The Jewish place of prayer on the banks of the Gangas, or Gangites, a tributary of the Stry- mon, now called Bournabachi. was the scene of their first labors in Europe ; and Lydia, the first con- vert (Acts xvi. 12-40). A church was formed in consequence : to it Paul paid a visit subsequently, in 57 (Acts xx. 2), and apparently spent some little time there shortly afterwards (xx. 6). The church at Philippi is distinctively mentioned as contrib- uting to Paul's support (2 Cor. xi. 9; Phil. iv. 16) and that of the Jerusalem Christians (2 Cor. viii, 1-6). It was particularly dear to the apostle's heart; and to it he addressed, in A.D 62, a letter of great tenderness, without those rebukes and criticisms which the other churches called forth. Ignatius of Antioch visited Philippi on his way to Rome {Martyr., c. v.), where he was martyred (A.D. 107). Polycarpof Smyrna wrote them a PHILIPPI. 1827 PHILISTINES. letter, still preserved, at their request, and to them sent all the letters of Ignatius in possession of the Smyrnan church (Polyc, Ad Phil., c. xiii.). But, from that time on, the church is not heard from, save as one of its bishops signs his name to some ecclesiastical document. The place itself is now a mere ruins. See especially Lightfoot : Philippians, London, 4th ed., 1878, pp. 46-64. PHILIPPI, Friedrich Adolf, b. in Berlin, Oct. 15, 1809 ; d. at Rostock, Aug. 29, 1882. He was of -Jewish descent, but early embraced Chris- tianity, studied philology and theology, and was appointed professor of theology at Dorpat in 1841, and at Rostock in 1852. His Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans (Frankfurt, 1848- 50) ran through several editions, and was trans- lated into English, Edinburgh, 1878. His Kirch- liche Glauhenlehre appeared at Giitersloh, 1854-82, in 6 vols., and is a learned and able vindication of strict Lutheran orthodoxy. See his Life by L. ScHULZE, Nordlingen, 188.3. PHILIPP'IANS, Epistle to the. See Paul. PHILIPPISTS, term denoting pupils and ad- herents of Philip Melanchthon. It originated in the middle of the sixteenth century, and proba- bly_ in the Flacian camp. At first it simply designated a theological party, and was, by the Gnesio-Lutherans, applied to the theologians of \yittenberg and Leipzig who had adopted the views of Melanchthon, and were accused of devi- ating from pure Lutheranism, both in the direction of Romanism and in the direction of Calvinism. Afterwards it also assumed an ecclesiastico-politi- cal significance, and was applied to the party, which, under the lead of Peucer, Cracau, Stossel, and others, labored to bring about a union be- tween all the Protestant powers, and to break down the confessional bar between Lutheranism and Calvinism by means of Melanchthonianism. Luther had hardly died before the peace of the Lutheran Church was gone. The difference be- tween him and Melanchthon had long been dis- tinctly felt ; but, as long as he lived, it was not allowed to take positive form. Immediately after his death, however, the Gnesio-Lutherans and the Philippists arranged themselves over against each other in open antagonism. The Gnesio-Luther- ans — Amsdorf, Flacius, Wigand, Morlin, and others — considered themselves the representa- tives of the pure faith, the guardians of ortho- doxy, and looked upon the Philippists as a set of men who had been carried away by a dangerous weakness. The Philippists — Camerarius, Major, Menius, Cruoiger, and others — were conscious of being the party of progress, and suspected the Gnesio-Lutherans of despising science, and bow- ing too submissively to the letter. Other ele- ments — personal, political, and ecclesiastical — were introduced in the divergence, and served to widen the breach, — the rivalry between the two Saxon lines, the Albertine and the Ernestine ; the jealousy between the universities of Wittenberg and Jena, etc. The Leipzig Interim of 1548 gave occasion for the first controversy between the Gnesio-Lutherans and the Philippists : but the synergistic contro- versy broke out only a little later ; and all the differences between the views of Luther and Me- lanchthon — concerning justification, the Lord's Supper, the freedom of the will, etc. — were at once brought into the fire. The Gnesio-Luther- ans were very violent ; and the attacks which the conventions of Weimar, Coswig, and Magdeburg (1556-57), levelled against Melanchthon, were in the highest degree offensive. The Philippists, however, were equal to the situation, as may be seen from their Synodus A vhm, a satire by Johann Major, and the famous Epistola Scholasticorum WUlenbergensium, issued by the two Philippist universities, and pointed directly at Flacius. The culmmating point is indicated by the Weimar Coiifulalio (1559), in which synergism, majorism, adiaphorism, etc., are confuted, and condemned as heresies. As it soon became apparent, however, that the extravagEtnces of the Gnesio-Lutheran professors drove the students away from the uni- versity, they were dismissed (1562-65), and Phi- lippists appointed in their stead. But after the accession of Johann Wilhelm, in 1567, a re-action took place, and the Philippist professors had to give way to the Gnesio-Lutheran. A reconcilia- tion of the two parties was attempted by the col- loquy of Altenburg, Oct. 21, 1568, but failed. In 1569 the Elector of Saxony demanded that all ministers in his country should subscribe to the Corpus Doctrince Pkilippicum, which was a great victory to the Philippists. But. the elector did so, not from any preference for Philippism, but because he believed said instrument to be a representation of pure Luthei-anism, free from all Flacian extravagances. The publication, how- ever, of the Wittenberg Catechism (1571), contain- ing a very outspoken exposition of the doctrines of the Lord's Supper and the personality of Christ, and the outcry which the whole Gnesio-Lutheran camp raised against it, made him uneasy; and when the Exegesis perspicua controversice de sacra caina appeared in 1574, he began to suspect that he had been the victim of some kind of mystifi- cation. The Philippist professors — Widebram, Petzel, Cruciger, and athers — were at once dis- missed, and treated in a rather harsh manner. The blow thus struck at Philippism was fatal. With the introduction of the Formula Concoi-dim, the Philippists lost their hold on the public at- tention ; and, with the exception of a short episode in the history of electoral Saxony, 1586-91 (see the art. Krei.l), it survived only as a local color- ing of the theology of certain universities. See the various representations in the histories of Prot- estant theology, by Planck, Heppe, Frank, Gass, Dorner, and others. WAGKNMANN. PHILISTINES — Q'r\B?'?3 (D"fliff'73 only Amos ix. 7), LXX., ^vXtauEi/x, and also 'AWopD^oi, called by Josephus, Arch., 1, 6, 2, livTitmlvoi, by Herodotus, 2, 104 ; 3, 5, 91 ; 7, 89, Ua'liaianvoi. — were the inhab- itants of a district along the south-western coast of Canaan, which, not counting the Negeb, south of Gaza, was only about twenty-five miles in length. We describe,' — I. The Country. — Egypt, with its district Pelusium, extends as far as the River of Egypt (Gen. XV. 18; Num. xxxiv. 5, etc.), i.e., to the modern el-Arish, which, coming northward out of Arabia, flows into the Mediterranean where the coast turns from the east to the north. Here the Philistine territory commenced, and extended to where the Sorek, which arises near Jerusalem, empties into the Mediterranean. The district south of Gaza already belongs to the Negeb, or PHILISTINES. 1828 PHILISTINES. south country, and is therefore mostly a desert, One of its rare fruitful spots is the Saracen strong- hold el-Arish, the ancient Ehiuocolura, called Laris during the time of the crusades, one of the principal stations between Egypt and Syria. A little north of this is Bir Refa, the Rafia of the Greeks and Romans ; eastward of this, the ruins of Umm Jerar, the ancient Gerar. The coun- try on the coast north of the Wady Sheriah was in olden times highly productive. (Cf. the map of Western Palestine by Conder.) North of Ash- kelon were the most fertile districts. In this territory proper, from Gaza to Jabne we can dis- tinguish between D;n f]in (Deut. i. 7 ; Josh. v. 1), with the corresponding n^SK? (Josh. xi. 16; Jer. xxxii. 44, xxxiii. 13), and the hilly districts ex- tending towards Judrea, rinE/S (Josh. x. 40, xii. 8). Of the five chief cities, three were situated on the coast. The southern and most important, both formerly and now, is Gaza (Syr. and Assyr. Gazatha, Khazita, and probably the KaciOnf of Her. 2, 159 ; 3, 5), nij!, the Powerful, now el-Ghuz- zeh. In olden times it was the chief medium of the Syrio- Egyptian trade, and is at present yet an important market. Situated on the edge of the desert, and twenty stades (two miles and a half) from the coast, it was surrounded by a plain rich in water and vegetation. North-west of the city is an olive-woods, the largest and most beautiful in Palestine. In the south there are immense fruit and palm orchards. The city has now six- teen thousand inhabitants. The streets are nar- row and ugly : there is neither wall nor gate. It lies on a slope looking to the north. The most beautiful building is the chief mosque Jami-el- Kebir, a Mohammedan reconstruction of an an- cient Christian church. The ancient Gaza was probably situated about two miles and a half south of the modern city. In the south-west por- tion of the city, tradition points out the spot whence Samson carried the gates. The Mount Hebron mentioned Judg. xvi. 3 is probably the el-Muntar, one mile south-east of the city. Four geographical miles to the north of this, and almost on the coast, lie the ruins of Ashke- lon. This city was situated on an elevation, and was surrounded by a circle-wall extending to the sea. Facing the sea was a gate, whose locality is still called Babel-Bahr (gate of the sea). In the south-west corner the small and unimportant har- bor was situated. Some remnants of the walls are still found. Within the walls, however, there is nothing but chaotic ruins. The "Bride of Syria," as Ashkelon was called by the crusaders, is entirely deserted ; and much of its best build- ing-material was removed in the early part of the present century by the powerful Jezz§.r Pacha to adorn his residence, Acca. North of this, and separated only by a small valley, lies the village New Ascalan (Ascalan el-,Jadlda), founded as an arsenal by Ibrahim Pacha in 1832. Ashkelon is surrounded by a remarkably rich vegetation. East of Ashkelon is the village J5ra, with about three hundred inhabitants; in a north-easterly direction, Medshdel, with about fifteen hundred inhabitants (probably Migdal-Gad, Josh. xv. 37), and, north of this, Hammame. All these are sur- rounded by fertile lands. About three miles north-east of Ashkelon, and two miles and a half from the sea, lay Ashdodj the Azotus of the Greeks and Romans, in olden times almost as important as Gaza. Its site is occupied by the village Esdud, containing about a hundred and fifty houses in the midst of fruit and palm trees. There are no remnants of the old city left, only the ruins of a mediajval khann. North-west of this are the ruins of the old harbor, city of Ashdod, Mlnet Esdud, called Asdod-on- the-Sea in Christian times. The sites of the other two Philistine cities are more uncertain. The most doubtful is that of Gath, the first one of all these cities to disappear. Some, on the basis of Mic. i. 14, find it near the ruins of Merasoh, a mile south of Bet-Jibrin. But the meaning of this verse is too uncertain. From 1 Sam. v. 1-10 and 1 Sam. xvii. 52 it seems that Gath was situated near Ekron. Al- ready in the Onomasticon (cf. Tie and TeOOu) there is an uncertainty in the matter. On Mic. i. Jerome says that this city " oicina Judmai coiijinio et de Eleutheropoli (Bet-Jibrin) euntihus Gazam, nunc usque vicus vel maximus ;" but on Jer. xxv. " Getli vicina atque conjinio est Azoto." If Gath was really situated in the Wady Samt, which extends to the sea north of Ashdod, then its ter- ritory was comparatively large. No ruins of a former city are found here. Ekron, the Accaron of the Greeks and Latins, was the most northern of the five Philistine cities ; and Robinson (iii., p. 229 sqq.) correctly finds it in the village of Akir, two miles and a half north of the Wady Surar. There are, however, few evidences of a high antiquity found here. Jabne is also called a Philistine city in 2 Chron. xxvi. 6, identical with the border city of Judah, Jabneel (Josh. XV. 11). Later it was called 'lu/j.vi.a or 'lu/xveia (Joseph., B. J., 1, 7, 7 ; Strab. 16, 759 ; Plin. 5, 14). It is, beyond a doubt, the modern Jebna. II. The People. — Although never able per- manently to subdue any important portion of Palestine, yet the inhabitants of Philistia were sufficiently warlike to oppose Israel's supremacy in Canaan, generally to maintain their independ- ency, in later times to take part in the move- ments of the nations, especially of Hellenism against Judaism, and for a long time to resist the introduction of Christianity. Their historical importance, as far as Israel was concerned, con- sisted in their mission of calling forth the better purposes and activity of the latter, and hence adding to its preservation and development. The name O'm'ia is probably connected with the verb falasclia, retained in the Ethiopic, and related to !373. In harmony with this is that LXX., from Judges on, always translates 'AAAo^t;- loi. They bore this name .of "Immigrants," probably because they arrived in Canaan later than the other inhabitants. The poetic form, J^^/S, in the sense of immigration, was originally also the name of the people. (Cf. Ps. Ix. 10, Ixxxiii. 8, Ixxxvii. 4, cviii. 10 ; Jer. xiv. 29, 31, but cf. Exod. XV. 14.) The country is called U^mha l-IN (Gen. xxi. .32, 33; Lev. xiii. 17; 1 Sam. xxvii. 1, 7, xxix. 11 ; 1 Kings xiv. 21 ; 2 Kings viii. 2, 3). The corresponding Greek name was V U.a2.aioTivri, sc. yri. used, as it seems, by Herod- otus (2, 12, 104, 157; 8, 5, 91; 7,89), and certainly PHILISTINES. 1829 PHILISTINES. by Josephus (Arch., 12, 510), for the land of the Philistines exclusively, but afterwards employed for all Canaan. In reference to the origin of the Philistines, Gen. X. 14, and, in connection with it, Deut. ii. 23, Amos vi. 7, Jer. xlvii. 4, come into considera- tion. In the iirst passage they are traced to the Casluhim, in the others to Caphtor. 1 Chron. i. 12, and the older versions, show that the state- ment in Gen. x. 14 is not a lapsus calami. Both statements are undoubtedly correct. The de- scendants of Caphtor probably first went to the Casluhim, and then migrated to Canaan. Thus Baur and Kohler. The passages can be harmon- ized only if Casluhim and Caphtorim are virtu- ally one and the same. Good authorities, on the basis of the view in the Targum Jerush., such as Knobel,,Ebers, and others, connect Casluhim with the Coptic kas = hill, and lokk = sterility, the Arabic el-Rasrun, and fi.nd the locality in the dry district along the northern coast of Egypt, near Pelusium. But how about Caphtor? Many think it is Crete, because in 2 Sam. viii. 18, xv. 18, XX. 7, Creti and Pleti (= Philistines) are joined ; and because in 1 Sam. xxx. 14, the south country of the Philistines is called '-Ol^n (cf. Zeph. ii. 5 ; Ezek. xxv. 1 6), and because Caphtor is in Jer. xlvii. 4 expressly called an 'X ("island"). But these evidences are not convincing. For, if Caphtor is Crete, then all Philistines should be called Cretes as well "as Caphtorim. The juxta- position of Creti and Pleti speaks rather for a distinction. Only Zeph. ii. 5 and Ezek. xxv. 16 use Q'"*"?.-?, in a general sense, of the Philistines, and then only manifestly to have a nomen suitable for the omen. In the other passages there is probably a confusion between the names of Cretes and Cariens, and, besides, "i^ is used.also of a sea- coast. Further: there is nothing in the ancient Philistines to connect them in any way with Crete. The connections found in the Graeco- Eoman literature are a " f abel fabricated by the learned" (Stark, p. 581). The Crete hypothesis is rejected by modern investigators with great unanimity, and they find Caphtor along the northern coast of Eg-ypt. Certainly the Philis- tines had nothing whatever to do with the Pelas- gians, as Hitzig and others imagine; but they, are "nothing else than Semites" (Schrader: Keil- inseh. u. d. A. T., p. 74), i.e., Hamitic, degenerated Semites, — Semites in the wider sense of the word, in the same sense as the other Canaanites were such. In reference to the language, the surest index of the origin of a people, Hitzig has attempted to connect the twelve to fifteen names and titles which we know as Philistine, with the Sansci'it and Greek, in order to support his Pelasgic theory. But everywhere the Semitic etymology proves to be the better, as the names Gaza, Gath, Abimelech, Delilah, Uagon, Jishbi, Jittai, and Saph show. Other names, such as Aohusath (Gen. xxvi. 26), Goliath (1 Sam. xvii. 4), have, as can be easily explained from the emigration of the Philistines from Egypt, the Egyptian ending ath (cf. Gnubath, 1 Kings xi. 20). _ Also the end- ing en in Seren, the name of a Philistine prince, is Egyptian. The name of the Philistine har- bor, Majuma, is entirely Egyptico-Philistinian ; Mai, in Coptic, meaning "place," and yum, "sea." Other names point to the same origin. Above all, the fact comes into consideration, that the Philistines spoke a language which the Hebrews could understand well without an interpreter. In their religion they worshipped Dagon, ac- cording to Judg. xvi. 23 sqq., in Gaza; according to 1 Sam. V. 1 sqq., 1 Mace. x. 83, xi. 4, in Ashdod ; and, according to Jerome, in other cities ; and Baal-zebub in Ekron (2 Kings i. 2, 3, 6, 16). The former was probably identical with the old Babylonian divinity, Dakan : the latter was, be- yond a doubt, a mere modification of the Canaan- ite Baal. The worship of the former, as his name and idol indicate — for [UT points to paxig (EXX.) = form of a fish — is derived from the fact that the people living along the seacoast saw the prin- ciple of life and productiveness in the water, and more especially in the fish. The worship of the other — connected with the Baal who brings and takes away the flies, and with whom Zeus and Hercules as am/iviag can be compai'ed — was sug- gested by the vast number of insects in Lower Egypt and Philistia. Like the other Canaanites, they worshipped also a female pvinciple. They had Astarte temples (1 Sam. xxxi. 10; cf. Diod., 2, 9), in which they worshipped an image the head of which was a woman, and the body a fish. (Cf . the arts. Dagon and Ataegatis.) On the basis of this cultus, diviners enjoyed higher honor among the Philistines than elsewhere. (Cf. 1 Sam. vi. 1 ; Isa. ii. 6 ; 2 Kings i. 2 sqq.). Entirely distinct from this ancient religion are the later divinities — such as Zeus, Belos, and others — in- troduced by the Syrian rulers. For the commerce and culture of the Philis- tines, it was doubtless a matter of importance, that, outside of the five chief cities, also the conn- try was densely populated. As is seen from Josh. XV. 45-47, the larger cities had offshoots as far as the River of Egypt. (Cf . also 1 Sam. xxvii. 5 and 1 Sam. xiii. 5.) The productive agriculture was probably mostly in the hands of the remnants of the original inhabitants. (Cf. Deut. ii. 23.) The herds were kept mostly in the Negeb (2 Chron. xvii. 11) ; the vine and the olive were cultivated (Judg. XV. 5). Hence it is easily understood why tlie Midianites plundered as far as Gaza (Judg. vi. 4), and that Philistia, in times of famine, was a refuge for the suiferers (2 Kings viii. 1). The people also worked in metal (1 Sam. xiii. 19 sqqi, vi. 18 ; 2 Sam. v., 21 ; 1 Chron. xiv. 12 ; 1 Sam. x;xxi. 9; 1 Chron. x. 9), and built temples for Dagon (Judg. xvi. 23-31). The various weapons cai'ried by the soldiers are described (1 Sam. xvii. 4-8, 45, xxi. 9, xxii. 10 ; 2 Sam. xxi. 16). Their wealth indicates that they engaged in commerce. (Cf . Judg. xvi. 5, 18 ; 1 Chron. xviii. 11 ; 2 Chron. xvii. 11.) The position of their country made them the natural middlemen for the Syrian arid Egyptian trade. However, this trade was never very important, and never any thing like that of Phoenicia. The country did not even possess a good harbor. The chief peculiarity of these peo- ple was their energy and endurance in war, as is abundantly shown by their contests with Israel. The political government of the five principal cities was in the hands of five chiefs, called 0^}'}Q (LXX., upxovTa; tuv ^vharedfi- according to Gese- nius, thus, " axles of wagons," after the Arabic ; according to Ewald, " ruler," from the same root PHILISTINES. 1830 PHILISTINES. with tty), sometimes O'lE' (1 Sam. xviii. "0, xxix. 3, 8). They were more than mere leadeis in war (Judg. xvi. 5, 8, 18, 27, 30 ; 1 Sam. v. «, 11, vi. 12, xxix. 2). At the same time there are refer- ences to kings among them. (Cf. Geu. xxvi. 1, 8 ; 1 Sam. xxi. 12, xxvii. 2 sqq. ; 1 Kings ii. 39 ; Amos i. 8; Zeoh. ix. .5; Jer. xxv. 20; 1 Kings V. 1.) These are probably different names for the same office. In all probability there was some union between the different rulers, as they always act in harmony and unison. III. The History-. — Beside the old Enakim, wliose descendants were found in Gath, Gaza, and Ashdod (Josh. xi. 22; 2 Sam. xxi. 19-21; 1 Chron. xxi. 5-8), and to whom Goliath and other giants belonged, the Avim belonged to the origi- nal inhabitants (Deut. ii. 23 ; Josh. xiii. 2), who, since they are not reckoned among the Cauaan- ites in Gen. x. 15-18,' or elsewhere, are to be re- garded as some of the pre-Canaanitic inhabitants of Canaan. When the Philistines proper migrat- ed into this country cannot be accurately ascei-- tained. According to Gen. xxi. 32, 33, and xxvi. 1, 8, 14 sqq., 18, they already occupied the district of Gerar, south of Gaza, in the days of Abraham and Isaac. Hence this migration had no connec- tion whatever with the expulsion of the Hyksos, about a hundred and fifty years before Moses. The statements of Herodotus (2, 128), that Phi- litis, or Philition, led his flocks near Memphis, and the remark of JIanetho, that the Hyksos re- treated to Syria, show, at most, that these were possibly related to the Philistines, and does not exclude the earlier migration of the latter. Th^t they occupied Philistia in the days of Moses is stated very distinctly in Exod. xiii. 17 sqq. They took possession of the cities along the coasts ; and the original inhabitants had to withdraw to the villages and open country, where they were found in the days of Joshua, and later (Deut. ii. 23; Josh. xiii. 3). The country of the Philistines, like that of the other Canaanites, was appointed to be taken pos- session of by the children of Israel (cf. Gen. xv. 19 sqq.); but neither Joshua nor his successors succeeded in subduing it. The subjection of the three Philistine cities, Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ekron, by the tribe of Judah, mentioned in Judg. i. 18, did not prove permanent. The necessary result qf these relations between Israel and the Philis- tines was constant war, which, however, devel- oped into small and irregular combats only. With a commerce of small importance, compared with that of the Phoenicians, the Philistines, owing to the density of their population, were in constant temptation of making freebooting expeditions into the neighboring districts of Judah and Dan. The deed of Shamgar (recorded Judg. iii. 31) is probably but one example of many similar but less important. Samson's adventures are proba- bly of a similar character, but seem to belong to a later period. The great activity in the move- ments of the Philistines in the days of Eli, Sam- uel, and David, are not the results of a renewed immigration of Caphtorim, as Ewald and G. Baur think, but are rather connected with the general uprising of the Eastern nations, especially the Ammonites, in those days. (Cf. Judg. x. 7-9, xiv. 1, XV. 9.) They even exercised a certain su- premacy over Israel's actions (Judg. x. 9), and the tribe of Judah deemed it necessary to deliver Samson into their power (Judg. xv. 11). Ejieour- aged by Samuel's words, the Israelites attempted to drive them back into their own territory ; but the Philistines succeeded in achieving a great vic- tory, and secured the ark of the covenant (1 Sam. iv. 1 sqq.). Only when Israel had been more unit- ed, through Samuel's far-reaching activity, did it succeed in its endeavors against the Philistines. After forty years of oppression (Judg. xiii. 1), Israel was delivered of these enemies by a deci- sive victory in the neighborhood of Mizpah, near Beth Kar, down the AVady Beit Hanina (just west of Jerusalem, where Samuel erected his Eben- ezer, about the site of the present Kulonijeh and the New-Testament Emmaus) ; and 1 Sam. vii. 13 reports that after this they did not again come across the boundaries of Israel. This probably means that the frequent customary freebooting expeditions ceased. Probably fearing the result of Israel's union under their king, Saul, the Philistines made a desperate effort to regain what they had lost. Soon after their defeat (1 Sam. x. 6), they pressed on, even beyond JNIizpah, and took possession of the pass between Gibea of Benjamin and Mich- mash, in order to separate the south country from the northern tribes (1 Sam. x. 5, xiii. 3). And,- in truth, their supremacy, to a greater or less extent, continued for a second forty years, down to the days of David. Saul's efforts did not prove suc- cessful (1 Sara. xiii. 6, 7, x. 8, xiii. 7 ; cf. Joseph., A7-ck., 6, 5-7, 1). One of the episodes during these wars was the death of Goliath by David, in the southern Wady Samt, near Bethlehem (1 Sam. xvii. 1 sqq^ ; and later they were repeatedly de- feated by David (1 Sam. xviii. 25, xix. 8). Yet they again took up arms against Israel with suc- cess (1 Sam. xxiii. 1-5). David's stay with them, and his residence in Ziklag, secured for them the possession of the southern country (1 Sam. xxi. 10-15, xxvii. 3 sqq.). Saul and his sons fell in a battle with them fought in the mountains of Gilboa (1 Sam. xxxi. 1) ; and, through this vic- tory, the northern country also, in all probability, fell into their hands. Only after David had united the various tribes of Israel under his sceptre did he succeed in breaking this yoke by a series of famous victories (2 Sam. xxi. 15 sqq., xxiii. 9 sqq., V. 17 sqq., viii. 1). No attempt of complete de- struction was now any longer made. Gath paid tribute to Solomon, and was fortified by Keho- boam (1 Kings iv. 24, v. 1, 4, x. 5; 2 Chron. xi. 8). After the division of Israel into two kingdoms, the Philistines seem again to have enlarged their boundaries. (Cf. 1 Kingsxv. 27, xvi. 15; 2 Chron. xvii. 11.^ They even conquered Jerusalem in conjunction with the Arabs (2 Chron. xxi. 16 sqq. ; Joel iv. 4). Judsea in its better days records some victories over them (2 Kings xv. 17 ; 2 Chron. xxvi. 6 sqq.; Amos vi. 2 ; 2 Kings xviii. 8; 2 Chron. xxi. 8, xxvi. 6, xxviii. 18). But they kept up their warlike proclivities to the very days of Assyrian and Babylonian conquests. The Assyrian king, Binnirar (about 800 B.C.), men- tions that he conquered Philistia; Tiglath-pileser boasts of having overcome ilanno (Haanunu) of Gaza, and having taken that city; Sargon con- quered and destroyed Gaza and other cities ; his general (Tartan) later took Ashdod; Sanherib add- PHILISTINES. 1831 PHILO. ed to this the conquest of Ashkelou and Ekron ; and Assarhaddon completed the total overthrow of this little country in connection with the con- quest of all Egypt and Asia east of the Mediter- ranean. (Cf. Schrader: KeUinschrift. u. d. A. T., pp. 112, 145, 171 sqq., 212, 257 sqq'.) Psammeti- chus could take xVshdod, which had been strongly fortified by the Assyrians, only after besieging it twenty-nine years (Herod., 2, 157), and took Gaza also. A later Pharaoh conquered Gaza a second time (Jer. xlvii. 1). Yet, notwithstanding all these humiliations, they had not suffered like the Israelites. They were not all led into cap- tivity ; and their cities were soon built up anew, though probably, in part, inhabited by Edomites from Southern Judaea. Ashdod is mentioned in Neh. iv. 7 as an enemy of Judsea ; and the Philis- tine language is called " the speech of Ashdod " (Neh. xiii. 24). Neither the conquest of Gaza by Cambyses, and not even the terrible destruc- tion of the city by Alexander the Great, after a siege of two or more months, could annihilate the community of this city. (Cf . Arrian. Alex., 2, 26, 27; Curtius, 4, 5, 6.) The latter made the place his armarium, and left Macedonian guards there. Immediately the old and revived antipa^ thy of the Jews seems to have sought the destruc- tion of the Philistine nationality. Judas Macca- bseus marched against Ashdod (1 Mace. v. 66 (68)) : Jonathan plundered and burned the city and the Dagon temple (1 ]\Iacc. x. 86, xi. 60). The Syrian king, Alexander Balas, made the latter a present of Ekron: he forced Gaza to sue for peace (1 Mace. xi. 61 sq.). Gaza was not entirely destroyed until under Alexander Jannseus (96 B.C.). Some of these ruined cities again were built lip. Gabinius, one of Pompey's generals, again built up Ashdod (55 A.D.), and founded a new Gaza, south of the old (in 58 A.D.). Pompey placed the cities along the coast under the juris- diction of the Syrian province (Joseph., Arch., 14, 4, 4, 5): only under Herod and Agrippa I. were they to some extent united again with the Jewish kingdom. Herod favored the growth of the Philistine cities ; and, owing to this favor, Ashkelon at that time assumed an importance even greater than that of Gaza, and, on account of its magnificent buildings, was afterwards called the " Bride of Syi'ia." In consequence of their Hellenistic spirit the Philistine cities adhered to Vespasian in the last Jewish war; and the Jews, as a consequence, burned Gaza and Anthedon in 65 A.D. While Judiea was utterly laid waste by this war, and later by the insun-ection of Bar- cocheba, the Philistine cities continued to flour- ish. Jamnia even was selected by the Jews as a place of refuge ; and the Sanhedrin held its meet- ings there for a while after the destruction of Jerusalem, and a Jewish academy was maintained in its midst. (Cf . Mishna, Roch Hashana, 4, 1 ; Sanh. 1, 4.) In the days of Trajan it became the spiritual centre of the Jewish rebellion. Gaza re- ceived a new impetus under Hadrian, and in this city the Jewish captives of the last war were sold as slaves. Ammianus Marcellinus (about 350) mentions Ashkelon and Gaza as egregria cicitates of Palestine. Jerome calls Gaza usque Jiodie in- signis civitas. Business and even literatme flour- ished in Gaza in the days of the Romans. In the mean while Christianity had already found its way into Philistia. Philip was already directed to the way toward Gaza (Acts viii. 26); preached in Ashdod (viii. 40); which city later became the residence of a bishop. Tradition reports Gaza as the place where Philemon, to whom Paul addressed one of his letters, was the first bishop. At any rate. Bishop Sylvanus of that city suffered martyrdom there in 285 A.D., under Diocletian ; and between this date and 536 the names of six other bishops of Gaza are preserved. However, the Hellenistic culture that prevailed here since the days of Alexander the Great seems to have broken the influence of Christianity. Eight heathen temples were still found there at the end of the fourth century.- In 634 A.D. the city was taken by the Caliph Abubekr, and in the period of the crusades the different Philistine cities at times played important roles. Lit. — Reland : Palceslina, pp. 38 sq. ; Ritter : Erdkunde, xvii., Berlin, 1852, pp. 168-192; Gue- RIN : Description de la Palestine, ii. : Badeker (Socin), Palastina und Syrien (11 und 12 Reise- route), 2 Aufl., 1880 ; Calmet : Dissert, de origine et nominibus Philistceorum iji Proleg. el dissert., etc., ed. Mansi, i., pp. 180-189 ; Mo^'ERS : Die Phoni- zier, i., 1841 ; Bertheau : Zur Geschiclite der Israeliten, 1842, pp. 186-200, 280-285, 306-308; Hitzig: Urgeschichte der Mijthologie der Philistder, Leipzig, 1S45 (in connection with this, Journal des Sacants, Paris, 1846, pp. 257-269, 411-424 and Redslob, in Geksdorf's Repertor., 1845, heft. 45); Ed. Roth: Gesch. unserer abendl. Phitosophie, 1846, i., pp. 82-99, 239-277 ; Redslob : Die A. T. Namen der Bevolkerung des wirkl. und idecden Israeliten-staates, Hamburg, 1846 ; A. Arnold : Philister, art. in Ersch and Gruber's Encyclop., sect. iii. part 23, pp. 312-329 ; A. Knobel : VOlkertafel der Genesis, Giessen, 1850, pp. 98, 208 sqq., 215-222; Ewald : Gesch. Isr., 3 Aufl., i. pp. 348 sqq. : Stark : Gaza u. d.philistaische KUste, Jena, 1852 ; G. Baue : Der Prophet Amos, Giessen, 1847, pp. 76-94, and art. "Philister," in Riehm's Handworterbuch : Kohler : Bibl. Gesch., i. pp. 81 sqq. ; De Goeje. in Theol. Tijdschrift, iv. (1870), pp. 257 sq. FR. W. SCUULTZ. (G. H. SCHODDE.) PHILLPOTTS, Henry, D.D., Bishop of Exeter; b. at Gloucester, 1777; d. at Bishopstoke, Sept. 18, 1869. He was graduated B.A. at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, 1795; was successively prebendary of Durham (1809), dean of Chester (1828), and bishop of Exeter (1S30). He was the recognized head of the High-Church party, and, in the House of Lords, was upon the extreme Toiy side, opposing every kind of libei'al meas- ure. He was also involved in several memorable controversies, especially with the Roman-Catholic historians, Lingard (1806) and Charles Butler (1822). But he is best known in the Gorham Case (which see). On the reversal of the lower courts' decision by the Privy Council, he pub- lished A Letter to the Archbishop of Canterbury (London and New York, 1850), in which he ex- communicated the archbishop. PHILO, b. at Alexandria about 20 B.C. ; d. there in the reign of Claudius. Very little is known of his life. The sources of information consist only of scattered notices in his own writ- ings {Legal, ad Caj., 22, 28; Contra Flaccum; De spec, /en.', ii. 1; De provid., 2, 107), and in those of Josephus (Ant., XVIU. 8, 1, XX. 5, 2), Euse- PHILO. 1832 PHILO. bius (Hist. EccL, II. 4), Jerome, Isidorus Pelus., Photius (Bill. Cod., C. v.), and Suidas. He be- longed to a distinguished and wealthy family of priestly descent, and was a brother to Alexander Lysimachus, the alabarclt, or president, of the Jewry of Alexandria. In 39 or 40 A.D. he visited Rome. The imperial governor, Publius Avilius Flaccus, was very hostile to the Jews in Egypt. In order to obtain justice, the Jewry of Alexan- dria sent an emba.s.sy to the emperor, Caligula, and riiilo headed the embassy. An official audi- ence they did not obtain ; and, when they were admitted to the imperial presence, the half-crazy Caligula ran about in the room, taunting them witli their abstiiwnce from pork, and allowing them no opportunity of presenting their griev- ances. Philo also visited Jerusalem and other holy places in Palestine, but at what period in his life cannot be ascertained. The legends of his meeting the apostle Peter in Rome, his con- version to Christianity, and his relapse into Juda- ism, are mere fables. The writings of Philo are exegetical, philo- sophical, and political. His exegetical works are arranged in three groups, — the cosmogonical, rep- resented by De mtindi opificio, an allegorical in- terpretation of the Mosaic account of the creation ; the historical, containing Legis allegoriarum libri Hi. , an elaborate allegorical exposition of the doc- trines of paradise and the fall (De Cherubim ; De sacrijicio Caiiii et Abeli; De posteritate Caini ; De plantatione Noe, etc) ; and the juridical, or, rather, ethical, containing De caritate, De poeniten- iia, De decalofjo, De speciatibus ter/ibus, etc. Among his philosophical works are Quod omnis probus liber nil ; De cila contemplaliva , of doubtful genu- ineness ; De Hobilitate, probably a fragment of an apology for the Jews ; Questiones et soluliones in Genesin et Exodum, originally in five books, but now extant only in some fragments of an Arme- nian translation ; De procidentia, etc. His politi- cal works give historical representations of the position of the Jewish people, of events of the time, etc. ; but of the five books mentioned by Eusebius, only book iii. (Contra Flaccum) and iv. (Lec/atio ad Cajurn) have come down to us. A doubt concerning the genuineness of the Phi- lonio writings was first raised in the seventeenth century by a Socinian theologian whose very name has been forgotten. He maintained that they were written by some Christian towards the close of the second century, and falsely ascribed to Philo. Though his charge was completely re- futed by Petrus Alixius (London, 1699), it has been repeated in our century by Kirschbaum {Der jUdische Alexandrismus eine Erfundung christlicher LeJirer, Leipzig, 1841), and again refuted by Gross- mann (De Philonis operum continua serie, Leipzig, 1841). Of more weight are the objections which modern critics have made to the Philonic author- ship of some of the works, as, for instance, De vita eontemplativa (Jost, Nicolas, Derenbourg, Renan, Kuenen, and especially P. E. Lucius, Die Thera- peulen, |Strassburg, 1880). Certainly spurious are the Orationes de Samsone et de Jona ; and the De mundo seems to be a later condensation of a wo)-k by Philo. Information concerning manu- scripts and earlier editions of the works of Philo is found in Thomas Mangey's excellent edition, London, 1742, 2 vols. Further details are found in Delaunay's Philon d'Alexandrie, Paris, 1867, Tischendorf 's prolegomena to his Pldlonea inedita, Leipzig, 1868, and in the later editions of Philo by A. F. Pfeifier, Erlangen, 1785-92, and C. E. Richter, Leipzig, 1828-50, 8 vols. [There is an English translation, by C. D. Yonge, in Bohn's Ecclesiastical Library, London, 1854-55, 4 vols.] The peculiar blending of Jewish monotheism and Hellenic pantheism which meets us in the works of Philo is not simply an individual fea- ture of the author. An attempt at combination between Greek and Hebrew wisdom, a process of assimilation of those two elements, had gone on for a long time in Alexandria. It may be traced back even to the translators of the Septuagint. But Philo is the legitimate representative of that movement, its result. Already the Fathers were struck by the thoroughness with which his whole mind seemed permeated by Plato. Either Philo platonizes, or Plato philonizes, says Suidas ; and Philo himself always speaks of Plato as the great, the holy. This must not be understood, how- ever, as if Philo had sacrificed any thing sub- stantial of the faith of the Old Testament to the fancy of the Greek philosophy, any thing substan- tial of Judaism to Platonism. By no means ! His faith in the living, personal God never wavered, — the Creator and the Ruler of the world, who, out of the whole human race, had chosen Israel as his own people, and revealed himself to them through Moses. To Philo, Moses was the prophet among the prophets, and the Mosaic law the sum total of all revealed wisdom. The fundamental character of his mind is positive, not negative. Faith and piety are to him the highest virtues.: criticism is nothing. The influence he has re- ceived from Hellas consists chiefly in a certain element of mysticism', which tempers the sternness of the Jewish consciousness of God, and softens the austere morality of the Old Testament. See Wolff : Philo's Philosophie, Gothenburg, 1859 ; Steenberg : Om Pkilos Gudserkjendelse, Copen- hagen, 1870; [Drummond : Philo: Principles of the Jewish-Alexandrian Philosophy, London, 1877]. His allegorical method, always artificial, often extravagant, and sometimes violent, he borrowed exclusively from the Greek philosophers, espe- cially Plato and the Stoics. The Stoics liked to dissolve the Greek myths into abstract ideas, to reduce to simple observations the images and per- sonifications contained in the traditions of the popular religion ; and the method they employed was the allegory. This method Philo adopted, and applied to the Bible. The Bible he taught has a double meaning, — a literal and an allegori- cal ; the latter pervading the former like a fine fluid ; and there are cases in which the literal sense must be altogether excluded, as, for instance, when a passage states .something unworthy of God (God planting trees, questioning Adam, de- scending from heaven, etc.), or something self- contradictory (Ishmael with Hagar, at the same time a suckling infant and a half-grown boy, Cain building a city, the eunuch Potiphar having a wife, etc.). See Plank : Commentat. de principiis et causis interpretationis Philonianas allegoricm, Got- tingen, 1807, and C. Siegfried: Philo als Ausleger d. 4. r., Jena, 1875. By writers of the rationalistic school, Philo is generally represented as having exercised a deci- PHILO CARPATHIUS. 1833 PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION. sive iufluence, not ouly on the ancient Christian theology, but even on Christianity itself. See Ballenstedt: Pliilo U7icl Johannes, 181-2 ■ Gfro- rer: Philo, 1831, and GescMchte lies Urchristen- tums, 1838 ; Grossmaxn : Qucestiones Philonem, 1829 ; and others. But not the least bit of evidence has ever been offered of an historical connection between Philo and the founder of Christianity, or his apostles. The whole basis of the assertion is a merely incidental resemblance between certain theological ideas and expressions in the works of Philo and the books of the New Testament ; and, when the logos-doctrine of John has been repre- sented as directly derived from the logos-doctrine of Philo, the representation rests upon a gToss mis- take. The logos of Philo is a cosmic, naturalistic power, without real personality, borrowed from the Greek philosophy ; while the logos of John is an ethical personality in the highest sense of the word, — the realization of the ^fessianic idea of the Old Testament. See Keferstein : Philo's Lelire con den g'Ottlichen Mittelwesen, Leipzig, 1846 ; Max Heinze : Die Lehre vom Logos in der c/riech- ischen Philosophie, Oldenburg, 1S72 ; Soulier: La doctrine du Logos chez Philon, Torino, 1S75 ; F. Klasen : Der Logos der jiid.-alex. Religions- Philosophie, Freiburg, 1879. But his exegetical method, with its principle of allegorization, was generally adopted and extensively employed by the ancient Fathers, not only by Barnabas, Jus- tin, Clemens Alexandrinus, Origen, and Eusebius, but also by Jerome and Ambrose. See Dahne : Geschic/ittiche Darstellung der Jiid.-alex. Religions- philosophie, Halle, 1834. ZbCKLER. PHILO CARPATHIUS is mentioned in Poly- bius {Vita Epiphanii, c. 49), and by Suidas; but whether he was from the city of Carpasia in the Island of Cyprus, or from the Island of Carpathos, situated between Creta and Rhodus, cannot be ascertained, nor whether he is the author of the Commentary on the Canticles, which was pub- lished in a Latin translation in 1537, by Stephanus Salviatus, in Paris. gass. PHILOPATRIS is the name of a dialogue found among the works of Lucian, and generally quoted as an example of Pagan satire on Chris- tianity. Its literary worth is null, but the his- torical notices it contains have given rise to some investigations concerning the date of its author- ship. Gesner places it in the time of Julian (i)e (etate et auclore dialogi . . ■ qui P. inscribitur, Jena, 1714)-; Ehemann (see Sludien der evang. GeistUchkeit Wiirtembergs, 1839), in the time of Valens ; Niebuhr (Kleine hislorische und philo- logische Schriften, ii.), in the tenth century, under Nicephorus Phocas, 963-969; and Wessig {De cetate et auclore P. dialogi, Coblentz, 1868), under Johannes Tzimisces, 969-976. Uiebuhr's hypoth- • esis seems to be the most available. GASS. PHILOPONUS. See John Philoponus. PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION. Both phi- losophy and religion must first have had some historical development before their relations could appear for investigation. In fact, they may be said to have proceeded apart until the Christian era, when they openly met as strangers whose mu- tual interests were yet to be perceived and adjust- ed. It was not until Christianity had emerged from the symbols of Judaism, that religion stood forth in a mature form, free from philosophic speculation ; and it was not until Grecian wisdom had outgrown the myths of Heathenism, that phi- losophy appeared in a pure state, disengaged from religious superstition. Nor was it strange that the first meeting of the two great powers should have resulted in misunderstanding and conflict. The early Christians, claiming a revealed knowl- edge from Heaven, could only denounce philoso- phy as the foolishness of this world; and the philosophers, in their sceptical pride of intellect, were fain to despise Christianity as a mere vulgar superstition. The struggle had its practical issue in the bitter persecutions which prevailed until the triumph of Christianity under Constantine. Since this first encounter, the relations of phi- losophy and religion have passed through various" phases, marked by the chief epochs of church history. In the patristic age (A.D. 200-500) the previous conflict had become exchanged for an alliance ; and philosophy and religion were blended within the limits of Christian theology. The Greek Fathers — Justin jMartyr, Clement, and Origen — strove to base their apologetics upon the theism and ethics of Plato, and even to couch the mysteries of the trinity, the incarnation, and the atonement, in terms of the Platonic meta- physics. And though some of the Latin Fathers, such as Tertullian and Irenseus, betrayed an anti- philosophical tendency, yet others, such as Lac- tantius and Augustine, did not scruple to employ the rhetoric alid logic of Aristotle. The union had its hybrid fruit in that half -Pagan, half-Chris- tian civilization which perished in the fall of Ihe Roman Empire. In the scholastic age (A.D. 900-1400) the for- mer alliance grew into a bondage ; and religion in a dogmatic form subjugated philosophy to the service of orthodoxy. The great schoolmen, such as Peter Lombard, Thomas Aquinas, and Duns Scotus, simply aimed to systematize the patristic opinions by means of the Aristotelian logic, treat- ing the physics and metaphysics as mere triWtary provinces of revealed theology. There were a few philosophic divines, such as Scotus Erigena, Abe- lard, Roger Bacon, who for their" speculations and researches incurred persecution as heretics. The despotism had its imposing manifestation in that pseudo-Christian civilization which rendered all the art, as well as science, of the middle ages, subservient to the aggrandizement of the papal hierarchy. In the reforming age (A.D. 1500-1800) the bondage bred a rupture, and philosophy and re- ligion once more became independent. On the philosophic side, the revolt of reason appeared successively in Italian naturalism, as led by Pom- ponatius, Cardan, Vanini; in English deism, as led by Herbert, Hobbes, Hume ; in French atheism, as led by Voltaire, Helvetius, Diderot; and, more recently, in German pantheism, as led by Strauss and Feuerbach. On the religious side, the recoil of faith was seen in Roman Catholicism, as re- established by Bellarmin and Loyola on the tradi- tional patristici and scholastic dogmas ; in Prot- estantism, as organized by Luther, Calvin, Knox, and Cranmer, by means of the reformed creeds and confessions; and ultimately in a growing sectarianism, which has filled Christendom with polemic feuds to the present hour. At the same time, the wonderful intellectual activity of the PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION. 1834 PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION. period has been practicallj' expressed in tliat rich, progressive Christian civilization wliich has re- suscitated Europe,, colonized America, and is al- ready advancing' throughout Asia and Africa. At length, in this present critical age (A.D. 18D0-S3), the schism has become a truce ; and philosophy and religion seem poised as for some final adjustment. Never before have they reached a separate development so extreme. Never before have their relations appeared so problematical ; and never before has the need of their reconcilia- tion become so imperative. A few religionists may still talk of dispensing with philosophy, and a few philosophers may dream of superseding re- ligion ; but the intelligent mass of thinkers and divines is confidently awaiting an harmonious settlement. At the threshold of the question, it is neces- sary to discriminate between true and false reli- gion and sound and vain philosophy. All the great philosophers, from Plato to Hegel, instead of assailing religion, have claimed to free it from superstition and error ; and all the great theolo- gians, from Clement to Calvin [and Schleier- macher], have interpreted St. Paul as deprecating, not so much a sound Christian philosophy, as one that was deceitful, and not after Christ. Only by some gross abuse of either or both has the union between them ever bred what Bacon terms an heretical religion and a fantastical philosophy. It may be well also to distinguish their theo- retical from their practical importance. Their relative worth and dignity as pursuits and inter- ests cannot predetermine their abstract truth and knowledge. Let it be assumed, once for all, that religion is the one supreme human concern, to which philosophy itself is but subsidiary, and we may then safely proceed to define their reciprocal relations and prerogatives. The Relation of Philosophy to ReVujion. ■ — The relation of philosophy to religion has become apparent in every province of religious science. (1) In natural theology, philosophy comes as a witness to prove the divine being and attributes, the divine government, the present state of pro- bation, and the future state of rewards and punishments. These are tenets common to all religions, and logically prior, if not fundamental, to revealed religion. The Pagan, the Deist, and the Christian — • Cicero, Herbert, and Butler — have been agreed in accepting them ; and ortho- dox divines, as well as devout philosophers, have ever employed the physical and mental sciences for their confirmation and illustration. (2) In apologetical theology, philosophy appears as a judge to collect the evidences of Christianity, both internal and external, and estimate their logical and ethical value. It was long ago argued by Bishop Butler, that reason, which is our only faculty for j udgiiig any thing, is a proper critic of the evidences, though not of the purport or con- tent, of a supposed revelation, unless the latter be found plainly absurd or immoral ; and all the great apologetes, from the time of Justin Martyr, have been striving to show that the Christian religion is reasonable as well as credible. But, whether its miracles or its doctrines be put fore- most in proof, both evidential schools (Chalmers and JIansel, as well as Clarke and ^^'olf) have claimed to oifer a more or less philosophical vin- dication of its truth and value. The countless works which have accumulated on the miracu- lous, proplietical, historical, scientific, and experi- mental evidences of Christianity, remain as but so many philosophic judgments in its favor. (3) In dogmatic theology, philosophy is ad- mitted no longer as a witness or a judge, but rather as a disciple and handmaid of I'evealed religion, to learn its teachings, and organize them into a logical system. Once inside an accredited revelation, reason herself is ready to accejjt mys- teries and even paradoxes. But the truths of Holy Scripture, however clear to believing minds, are not given in scientific terms, and can only be formulated by the rational faculty as trained in schools of human learning and conseci'ated by the Divine Spirit. Accordingly, the Fathers, the schoolmen, the reformers, and the later divines have all proceeded more or less philosophically in their construction of the Christian dogmas. Not only so, but the most peculiar mysteries of revelation — the trinity, the incarnation, the atonement — have found frequent expression and illustration in philosophical systems of purely human origin ; so that the dogmatic theology still current is full of the ideas and terms of Greek, Roman, and Arabian philosojilry, as well as of the later schools of French, English, and German thought. The names of !Malebranche, Cudworth, Schleiermacher, and Hodge, are enough to suggest how largely theologians have made use of philo- sophical learning and speculation. (4) Even in polemical and practical theology, philosophj' may be of essential service in adapt- ing revealed doctrines to the existing state of Christianity and civilization. The Relation of Religion to Philosophy. — The relation of religion to philosophy, though not so obvious, is quite as important, according to any definition that may be employed. (1) Philoso- phy, as the comprehensive science of tilings divine and human, embraces theology with the other sciences, and would remain forever incomplete without it. Religion is at least a conspicuous phenomenon to be explained, and the philosophy of religion a recognized branch of inquiry- (^uite apart from their practical moment, the articles of natural religion are problems of speculative interest, which have tasked profound thinkers, like Spinoza, Hume, and Kant ; and even the dogmas of revealed religion, as treated by Bacon, Descartes, and Hegel, have formed an integral part of human knowledge. The few philosophers like Comte, who would ignore theology, have sim- ply substituted some grotesque imitation in its place. Instead of being monopolized by profes- sional divuies, it is now pursued by archpeologists and philologists like Burnouf and Max Miiller, who claim to have founded a new science of religion termed comparative theology, as well as by non-Christian writers, like Strauss, Theodore Parker, and Greg, who have been constructing ancient and modern faiths into a new philosophic creed of the future. So that, according to the principles of the latest classificators of knowledge, theology is at least entitled to rank as the last and highest of the empirical sciences. (2) Philosophy, as the science of the absolute, requires religion on the transcendental side of the sciences for their own logical support and consist- PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION. 1835 PHILOSOPHY. eiicy. Separate from theism, the metaphysical ideas of causality, absoluteness, and infinity, can only appear vague and contradictory; but they at once become clear and congruou.s in the con- ception of an Absolute A\'ill or Infinite Reason as the first and final cause of the phenomenal universe. Such a conception is not to be arbi- trarily set aside as a mere anthropomorphic senti- ment or superstition because it happens so largely to coincide with the religious belief of mankind. In the dry light of pure thought it afiiords a con- sistent theory of the world, which has satisfied even atheistic and pantheistic metaphysicians like Schopenhauer and Megel, as well as theistic meta- physicians like Descartes and Berkeley; while in practical research it has been used as a sort of rational postulate by great physicists like Newton and Herschel, who have thus sought to give unity to their sqientific knowledge. The agnostic school of Hamilton, Mansel, and Herbert Spencer, has simply been purging theology from that grosser anthropomorphism which philosophic divines have assailed from the time that St. Paul first reproved it at the Athenian altar to the Unknown God. In like manner the pessimistic school of Hart- raann and Bahnsen is buiiemphasizing the riddles of evil, pain, and chance, which were long since met by revealed religion, and can only be fully solved through its aid, as the younger Fichte and Ulrici have shown. And though the history of Christian Gnosticism, as seen especially in the schools of Schelling and iVlarheinecke, has been full of mystical conceits, yet it serves at least to show to what extent the dogmas of creation, redemption, and judgment, have been philosophi- cally employed in explaining the origin, develop- ment, and destiny of the universe. Theology, therefore, besides being the highest of the empiri- cal sciences, is also their metaphysical foundation and complement, without which they would fall into nescience and absurdity, and the chief prob- lems of philosophy remain forever insoluble. (3) Philosophy, as the supreme science of the sciences, admits revelation as a correlate factor with reason in each of those sciences. .Revelation by its very definition is complemental to reason, making known the otherwise unknowable, and thus meeting our intellectual as well as moral necessities. The Christian revelation in particu- lar is found to be a transcendental communication of divine wisdom, and as such has been largely employed by philosophers, no less than theologi- ans, in supplementing and completing the purely rational portions of our knowledge. It is, in fact, the fitting reward of philosophy for her service to theology in demonstrating the authority of revelation, that she thereby supplies the exigency of reason, and so may connect the infinite mind of God with the finite mind of man throughout the realm of cognition. The few irreligious thinkers, such as Comte, Stuart Mill, and Lewes, who have treated of the logic of the sciences in an otherwise luminous manner, have strangely overlooked, not merely the whole metaphysical domain of those sciences, but the existence there- in of a conspicuous, objective revelation, histor- ically attested by an immense mass of cumulative evidences, as scientific in their nature, if not in their extent, as those which uphold the Newtonian theory of the solar system. And even Christian thinkers, the most learned in divinity, have yet to see more clearly the strictly philosophical value of that revelation in removing intellectual error and ignorance, as well as moral and practical depravity, and thus perfecting science no less than religion. The truth is, that philosophy, in order to accomplish its own highest aim and func- tion as the science and art of knowledge, must begin by assuming revelation and reason to be joint factors of knowledge, and then proceed to ascertain their normal, existing, and prospective relations in the scale of the sciences, and to formulate the logical rules for organizing the existing medley of rational and revealed truths, theories, and doctrines. In other words, the very foundations of a complete philosophical sj'stem must be partly laid in natural theology and the Christian evidences ; and no one can foretell to what extent even dogmatic theology, as we now know it, may yet enter with the physical and mental sciences into the gTowirig superstructm-e of the temple of knowledge. (4) Finally, in the most practical sense, philoso- phy as the pursuit of wisdom, needs the religious graces of reverence, docility, and faith, together with the more purely philosophical virtues of ab- straction, candor, and catholicity, in all efforts after knowledge and truth. The Harmony of Philosophy and Religion. — If the foregoing definitions be correct, the relations of philosophy and religion are neither hostile nor indifferent, but reciprocal and harmonious. In their actual development they have become so connected that neither can do without the other ; and in their mutual completion, whensoever at- tained, would be involved at once the consummar tion of human knowledge and the full vindication of the Christian religion. To such an ultimate philosophy, so based upon the concurrence of reason and revelation, the Christian thinkers of all ages have aspued with more or less intelli- gence ; and a clear presentiment of its inevitable approach may be said to have already arisen in minds of "large discourse, looking before and after." It is an encouraging sign of the times, that these views have begun to pervade our systems of edu- cation, leai'uing, and literature. The appai-ent breach between philosophy and religion is becom- ing practically healed in divinity schools, colleges, and learned societies, by the establishment of pro- fessorships, 1 ctureships, prize-essays, and memoirs, specially devoted to the harmony of science and faith, and the promotion of Christian philosophy. The press is also teeming with works to the same purport, so numerous that it would be impossi- ble to name them. The reader is referred to the writings of the younger Fichte, Ulrici, and Zock- ler of Germany, i\Iuiphy, Calderwood, and Fair- bairn of Great Britain, and Henry B. Smith, McCosh, and Porter, for examples of authors who have more or less directly ti-eated of the subject of this article. ' CHARLES w. shields. PHILOSOPHY, Christian, American Institute of, was founded in ISSl, by Rev. Dr. C. F. Deems of New- York City, for the purpose of investigat- ing fully and impartially the most important questions of science and philosophy, more espe- cially those that bear upon the great truths re- vealed ia Holy Scripture. The institute holds PHILOSTORGIUS. 1836 PHCBNICIA. monthly meetings, at which papers are read and discussed. It has a course of public lectures deliv- ered in Xew Yoi-k in the winter. It has also sum- mer schools, at which lectures are delivered, and discussions had, of questions of current interest. Its lectures and papers are published in a month- ly magazine, Christian Thought, which is sent free to all its subscribing menibei's. PHILOSTORGIUS, the Arian church historian ; b. in Cappadocia in 368 ; studied mathematics, astronomy, medicine, etc., in Constantinople ; and died after 425 : nothing more is known of his life. Of his Ecclesiastical Historj, in twelve books, only excerpts have come down to us, made by Photius {Bibl. Cod., 40), who recommends its ornate and pleasant style, though, of course, he condemns its tendency. It began with the con- troversy between Arius and Alexander, and ended at 423. It represents Arianism as the older, the genuine Christianity, which was overthrown by the violence and intrigues of the so-called ortho- dox party, and sides at every point with the Ari- ans, but contains, nevertheless, many valuable historical notices. The excerpts wei-e first edited by Jac. Gothofredus, Geneva, 1643, then by Vale- sius, Paris, 1673, and at Canterbury, 1720. They were reprinted by Migne. PHILOSTRATUS, Flavius, b. in the second half of the second century of our eVa ; a native of the Island of Lemnos ; studied rhetoric in Athens, and afterwards taught philosophy in Rome, where he became acquainted with Julia Domna, the wife of Alexander Severus. At her instance he wrote a life of ApoUoniusof Tyana, — partly from docu- ments in her possession, — which at various times has played quite a conspicuous part in the attacks on Christianity. It was translated into English by Charles Blount (1680) and by Rev. Edward Berwick (1809), into French by Chatillou (1774), and into German (1882). The latest edition is that by Westermanu, Paris, 1849. He also wrote Lives of the Sophists, Commentaries on the lives of the Heroes of Homer, descriptions of paintings, letters, etc. There is a critical edition of his col- lected works by Kayser, Zurich, 1844. PHILOXENUS, whose true name was Xena- jas; b. at Tahal in Persia; consecrated Bishop of Hierapolis (Mabug),near Antioch, about 500; was one of the leaders of the Monophysite party, and one of the most active adversaries of the Chalce- don Decrees. Of his writings, only the titles have come down \o us (Z*e trinitate et in'carnatione, De una ex trinitate incarnato el passo, Tractalus in Nes- lorianos et Eutychianos, etc.), and a few fragments,' preserved by Barhebrasus and Dionysius Barsa- libi, and collected by Assemani in his Bihl. Orient., II. For the Syriac version of the New Testament, which was made by Rural Bishop Polycarp, and is called the Philoxenian, see Bible Versions, p. 287. - GASS. PHOCAS, a gardener of Sinope in Pontus; suf- fered martyrdom in the most cruel manner under Trajan, or perhaps under Diocletian. He was the Eastern counterpart of the St. Erasmus or St. Elmo of the West, the wonder-working saint of the sailors, who during the storm sung hymns to his praise, left a place vacant for him at the dinner-table, and, when the trip was over, distrib- uted a portion of the profit in his name to the poor. The Emperor Phocas considered him as his patron-saint, and built a magnificent church in his honor at Dihippion, near Constantinople. He is commemorated by the Greek Church on Sept. 22, by the Latin on July 14. See Aslerii Amas. orat. in Phocam, in Migne: Pair. Grrnc., vol. 40. Different from him is the Antiochian martyr of the same name, spoken of by Gregory of Tours, in his De glor. mart., 99. To touch the door of his tomb was a sure cure when bitten by a serp)ent. Act. Sanct., Sxily Til. zockler. PHCENICIA (Greek, ^ow'wn; Latin, Phmnice). The derivation of the name is doubtful, as the Greek phosnix means both a date-palm and a deep- red color : the latter sense, however, referring to the reddish-brown color of the skin of the Phoeni- cians, seems to be preferable. The natives called themselves Kenaani, and their land Kenaan. The Old Testament generally designates the Phosni- cians as Canaanites, though sometime^, also, as Sidonians : in the JSTew Testament the land is spoken of as the coasts of Tyre and Sidon (Matt. XV. 21 ; comp. Mark iii. 8, vii. 24). According to Augustine, the Punic peasants of Northern Africa, descendants of Tyrian settlers, still called themselves Chanaai in the fifth century. The country occupied the narrow plain between the Mediterranean and the western slopes of Li- bauon, from the Eleutherus in the north, to Mount Carmel in the south. It was well watered and very fertile, and produced an enormous amount of wheat, wine, fruit, etc. Iron and cop- per mines were worked. Glass and purple were among its most famous manufactures. The Bible mentions the following cities : Anb, Achzib, Zor (Tyre), Zarpath, Sidon, Berothah, Gebal or Byblos, Tripolis, Orthosias, Sin, Arke, Simyra, Arvad or Aradus. According to Gen. x. 6, 15, the Phoenicians were Hamites, as were all the Canaanites. That statement, however, has been much questioned on account of the close relation between the Phoenician and the Hebrew language. Hebrew is, indeed, in Isa. xix. 18, called the language of Canaan. And how came the Phoenicians to speak a Shemitio language, when they belonged to an entirely different race, — a race which allied them to the Egyptians and Ethiopians? There seems to be no other exjjlanation possible than a change- of tongue ; though it must be left undecided whether that change took place before or after their settlement in Canaan, in the midst of a native Shemitic population. Herodotus tells us, that, according to their own traditions, the Phoe- nicians came from the Erythrasan Sea (the Per- sian Gulf), and penetrated through Syria to the Mediterranean coast, about three thousand years before our era; and Strabo contains the remarka- ble notice, that the inhabitants of Tyrus and Aradus, two islands in the Persian Gulf, had temples similar to those of the Phoenicians, and declared the Phoenician cities of Tyi'e and Aradus to be their colonies. N'evertheless, though the Phoenicians adopted the Shemitic tongue, and lived, at least at times, in very friendly relations with Israel, their national character, their social organization, their commercial and industrial spirit, their talent for navigation and colonization, etc., distinguish them very clearly from the Shem- ites, and corroborate the statement of the Bible, that they were Hamites. PHCBNICIA. 1837 PHOTIUS. Some traces of the oldest history of Phcenicia have been preserved in the monunieiits of Ea-ypt. Shortly after the expulsion of the Hyksos people from the Delta,' the Pharaohs began their cam- paigns into Asia ; and for a long period the Phce- nician cities stood under Egyptian authority, rhey paid an annual tribute, and enjoyed, in re- ward, certain commercial privileges in Egypt. In the first half of the twelfth century the precedence among the Phoenician cities passed from Sidon to Tyre, and very fi-iendly relations were formed between King Hiram and David and Solomon. From the beginning of the ninth century the Tyrians extended their commerce all along, the shores of the western portion of the Mediter- ranean. They penetrated through the Strait of Tharsis (Gibraltar), visited the Canary Islands and Britain ; and in the middle of the century Carthage was founded by a Tvrian princess, Elis- sa, the Dido of Virgil. At "the same time the contest began between the Phoenicians and the Assyrians. In most cases, however, the Phoeni- cians preferred to secure their commercial privi- leges by the payment of a tribute ; though at times some very fierce fighting took place, as, for in- stance, against Nebuchadnezzar, in 592 B.C. The Persian kings, who were very much in ^need of maritime support, were consequently accommo- dating in their policy towards Phoenicia. After the conquest of Tyre by Alexander, the precedence passed to Aradus, and afterwards to Tripolis, the Three-City (thus called because it was founded by colonists from Sidon, Tyre, and Aradus), where the council of three hundred senators assembled under the presidency of the kings of the three mother-cities. Under the Romari rule the Phoe- nician cities retained their nyinicipal organization, with the only change that the royal power was abolished. Their great name in the history of the world the Phoenicians owe to their commercial talent and energy : for centuries they carried on the whole exchange between Asia and Em-ope, the East and the West. Some of their reputed dis- coveries — the art of writing, of glass-making, of purple-dyeing, etc. — may not' be original in the strict sense of the word : but the utilization of those arts, their general introduction, was, at all events, due to the Phoenicians; and they were, without doubt, the most audacious and enterpris- ing navigators of antiquity. It was not without reason that the Greeks called the polar star the Phoenician star. Their literature was probably considerable ; but only a few remnants of it have come down to us through Greek translations, — the so-called Periplus, the history of Sanchunia- thon (fragments in Eusebius), etc. In the second century of our era their language died out in Asia, superseded by the Greek : in Northern Africa it lived on among the peasants until the sixth centu- i-y (Punic). It exists only in a number of inscrip- tions on coins, medals, sarcophagi (EshmanaZar), etc. For their religion, see the articles on As- TARTE, Baal, etc. Lit. — Schroder : Die phonic. Sprache, Halle, 1869 ; Baubissin : Siudien zur semil. Religions- geschichte, Leipzig, 1876 ; J. J. L. Berger : Re- cJierches arclieologiques sur les colonies phe'niciennes etablies sur le littoral de la Celtolique, Paris, 1878 ; and Kautzsch, in Kiehm : Handworterlucli. PHOTINUS, a native of Ancyia, a pupil of Marcellus, and afterwards Bishop of Sirmium in Pannonia; was condemned by the synod of An- tioch (344) as an adherent of the homoousian doctrine, and also by tlie synod of Milan (345), because he developed the homoousian doctrine into open antagonism to the doctrine of hypostasis. He was finally deposed by the synod of Sirmium (351) ; but his party continued on, as the synod of Aquileia (381) asked for its suppression. His writings have perished ; but his opinions are known to us through Athanasius {De Synod. 26-27), Socrates {Hist. EccL, ii. 19, 30), Hilary {De Synod. 37), and the acts of his condemnation in JIansi : Coll. Ampl., ii. and iii. "w. moller. PHOTIUS, b. in the first decade of the ninth century; d. in 891. In 846 the Empress Theo- dora, regent during the minority of her son Michael III., appointed Ignatius, the youngest son of Michael I., and a man of unblemished character, Patriai-ch of Constantinople. Bardas, however, the vicious uncle of Michael III., suc- ceeded in estranging the young emperor from his mother ; and when Ignatius refused to force Theo- dora into a nunnery, and in 857 even dared to exclude Bardas from the Lord's Supper on ac- count of his abominable behavior, the latter had him deposed, and banished to the Island of Tere- bintha. The patriarchal see of Constantino23le thus became vacant, and Bardas was looking about for a fit occupant. His choice fell upon Photius. Photius was rich ; he belonged to a distin- guished family ; he held a prominent position in public life ; and he was already celebrated as one of the most learned men of his time : but he was not a theologian. Of course, as he had studied the science of the age in its widest compass, he was well acquainted with the Christian dogmas, and well versed in ecclesiastical affairs. But his offi- cial position was that of prolospatharios, or cap- tain of the body-guard ; and he had been most active as a diplomate. It was not without pre- cedence, however, that a layman was raised to the patriarchal see ; though it certainly looked a little strange that Gregory of Syracuse, a bitter enemy of Ignatius, in five days hurried him through the five orders of monk, lector, sub- deacon, deacon, and presbyter, and on the sixth consecrated him patriarch. But Ignatius could not be made to submit, though a synod of Con- stantinople (859) confirmed his deposition and con- demnation. He found support in the West, and soon the whole clergy of the Eastern Church was divided into two hostile parties. The emperor addressed a letter to the Pope, asking him to interfere; and Photius also wrote to him, mod- estly, even submissively, and defending himself with great shrewdness and tact. Nicholas I. accepted the invitation ; but, on the basis of the newly introduced pseudo-Isidorian decretals, he accepted it, not as mediator, but as judge. He sent two bishops — Rhadoald of Porto, and Zach- arias of Anagni — as legates to Constantinople, where a numerously attended synod was con- vened in 861. By intrigues, and, as some say, by violence, Ignatius was forced to resign, and Photius was recognized. The latter again wrote to the Pope in order to explain the position, and. if possible, to gain his favor. But Nicholas I. PHOTIUS. 1838 PHYLACTERY. had now become fully informed about the true state of the affairs. lu 863 he convened a synod in Rome, punished the legates for disobedience, and excommunicated Photius. The emperor an- swered in a letter full of furious invectives. The new papal embassy was not allowed to enter Con- stantinople ; and Photius at once changed attitude, turning the controversy between the patriarch of Constantinople and the bishop of Rome into a controversy between the Eastern and the Western Church. In 866 he issued his famous encyclical letter, in which he declared the whole Latin Church heretical on account of its clerical celibacy, its introduction of the ytordjitioque into the creed, and its arrangement of the Quadragesimal Fast, and called upon all bishops, archbishops, and pa- triarchs of the Greek Church to unite firmly and cordially against the common foe. The turn thus given to the course of affairs was of the greatest importance, and for a moment Photius seemed to have secured success. At a synod whicli was convened in Constantinople (867), and which, though it was packed, pretended to be oecumenical, he formally excommunicated the Pope. But in September, same year, Michael III. was assassinated; and the first act of his assassin and successor, Basilius Macedo, was to depose Photius, and recall Ignatius. Political calculations seem to have been the ruling motive for these proceedings. Basilius needed the sup- port of tlie party of Ignatius and of the Pope ; and consequently the papal supremacy was rec- ognized, and the papal legates were again received in Constantinople. A synod was convened in 869 ; and Photius was not only deposed, but con- den}ned as a liar, adulterer, parricide, and heretic, and shut up in the dungeon of a distant monas- tery, where he was even deprived of his books. As time rolled on, however, circumstances changed. Photius was allowed to return to Constantinople : he was even made tutor to the imperial princes. He was also reconciled to Ignatius ; and, when the latter died (in 878), he quietly took possession of the patriarchal see. The Roman legates who were present at the synod of Constantinople (879) — the so-called Pseudosynodus Photiana — made no objection; and the frauds which had taken place at the two preceding synods were put down as the true cause of all the confusion. Even the Pope seemed willing to drop the case. He after- wards changed his mind, however; and in 882 he renewed the ban on Photius, which none of his successors could be induceJ to take away. Shortly after, Photius fell under the suspicion of political intrigues, and embezzlement of public money; and in 886 the emperor, Leo Philosophus, a son of Basilius, banished him to an Armenian mon- astery, where he remained for the rest of his life. Whatever verdict may be given on Photius as a church officer, his literary merits, not only in the field of theology, but also in those of phi- lology, canon law, and history of literature, are beyond cavil. The principal monument which he has left of his erudition is his MvfjidjSqJ^og, or Bii3?jod!iii7i, a work unique in its kind, the product of a stupendous industry, and the most compre- hensive learning, an invaluable source of infor- mation. According to the dedication to Tarasius, it was completed before he was appointed patri- arch. It consists of codices, that is, chapters of unequal length, strung together without any ma- terial or chronological principle of arrangement, and containing excerpts of books accompanied with historical and critical notes on the work and the author. The circumstance, that, of authors (juoted, eighty are known to us only through this work, gives an idea of its value ; and his correct- ness in all points where he can be controlled gives guaranty for his correctness in general. The first edition of the work is that by David Hoschel, Augsburg, 1601 : the latest and best known is that by Im. Bekker, Berlin, 1824-25, 2 vols. Of great importance is also his NofioKtivuv, a collection of the canons of the Eastern Church, containing not only the decrees of the councils, but also the ecclesiastical edicts of the secular government. It is found,, together with Balsamon's commenta- ries, in Voellus and Justellus {Dibl. juris canon., ii., Paris, 1661). His Contra Manichceos, edited by Wolf, in his Anecd. GrcEC, Hamburg, 1722, and also found in Gallandi (Bib!., XIII.), has a curious resemblance to the Hisloria Paulicianorum by Petrus Siculus ; but as Photius wrote his book before 867, and Petrus his after 868, it is the latter who has borrowed from the former. The Liber de spirilus sancti myslagoyia, edited by Hergen- rother, Ratisbon, 1857, shows the dialectical art of the author, presenting numerous reasons why the addition of Jilioque in the Latin creed is un- tenable. His letters, of which there is a nearly complete edition by Montagu, London, 1651, give many interesting traits of his personal life and character. Several minor treatises by him, be- sides his so-called Lexicon, London, 1822, 2 vols., have also been published; a collected edition of his works is found in Migne's Bibliolh. Pair. Grceca. Lit. — The sources of his life, besides his own works and the Vita Ignalii by Nicetas David are found in Mansi : Concil. Coll., XVI. See also Jager: Hisloire de Pholius, Paris, 1845, 2d ed., [1854; TosTi : SloriadeW oriyine delloscismagreco, Florence, 1856, 2 vols. ; liEUGENROTHEn : Photius, Regensburg, 1867-69, 3 vols. GASS. PHRYG'IA denoted a region of rather undefined boundaries occupying the central portion of Asia Minor. At the beginning of our era the name had merely an ethnological and no geographical significance. There was no Roman province of the name Phrygia until the fourth century. The people inhabiting that region were of Indo-Ger- manic descent, and closely allied to the Armeni- ans; but many Jews were settled among them. In the northern part were the cities of Ancyra, Gordician, Doryleum, etc. ; in the southern, Colossie, Hierapolis, Laodicea, etc. PHYLACTERY, the ifv^MHT^pia (Matt, xxiii. 5), [i.e., a receptacle for safe-keeping], is a small square box, made either of parchment or black calf -skin, in which are enclosed slips of parchment or vellum, with Exod. xiii. 2-10, 11-17, Deut. vi. 4-9, 13-22, written on them, and which are worn on the head and left arm by the Jews, [on week- days] mornings during the time of prayer. Jew- ish tradition finds the injunction concerning phylacteries in Exod. xiii. 9, 16 ; Deut. vi. 8, xi. 18; but the Karaite Jews, Jerome, Lyra, Calvin, Grotius, and others, take the passages in question in a figurative sense. At what time phylacteries were fii-st worn is difficult to say ; but the Jewish PHYLACTERY. 1839 PIERCE. canons containing minute regulations concern- ing them seem to be very old. According to the rabbis, God showed to Moses, on Mount Sinai, how to wear the phylacteries. Even God himself is said to wear them ; and, when he swears by his holy arm, he means his phylacteries. The phy- lacteries, or tephillin as they are called, were con- sidered to be even holier than the golden plate on the priest's tiara, since that had the sacred name once engraved ; but in each of the tephillin the tetragrammaton recurred twenty-three times. As to the manner in which they are made, the following will give an illustration. A piece of leather is soaked, stretched on a square block cut for the purpose, sewed together with gut-strings while wet, and left on the block till it is dried and stiffened ; so that when it is taken off it forms a square leather box. As the Mosaic code enjoins one for the hand, and another for the head, two such boxes are requisite for making the phylac- teries. The box of which the phylactery for the hand is made has no inscription outside, and only one cell inside, wherein is deposited a parchment strip with the four following sections, written thereon in four columns; each column having seven lines. [On column i. is written Exod. xiii. 1-10 ; on column ii., Exod. xiii. 11-16 ; on column iii.. Dent. vi. 4-9 ; and on column iv., Deut. xi. 13-21.] The slip is rolled up, and put into the box; a flap connected with the brim is then drawn over the open part, and sewed firmly down to the thick leather brim in such a manner as to form a loop on one side, through which passes a very long leather strap, wherewith the phylactery is fastened to the arm. The box of which the phylactery for the head is made has on the out- side, to the right, the regular three-pronged letter Shin, being an abbreviation for Shaddai ("the Almighty "), and on the left side a four-pronged letter Shin. Every male Jew, from the time that he is thirteen years of age, is obliged to wear the phylacteries. He first puts on one on the left arm through the sling formed by the long strap. Having fastened it just above the elbow on the inner part of the naked arm in such a manner, that, when the arm is bent, the phylactery must touch the flesh, and be near the heart, he twists the long strap three times close to the phylactery, forming a Shin, pronouncing the following bene- diction : " Blessed art thou, O Lord our God, King of the universe, who hast sanctified us with thy commandments, and enjoined us to put on the phylacteries." He then twists the long leather strap seven times around the arm, and puts on the phylactery on the head, placing it exactly in the centre, between the eyes, and pronounces the benediction as above. He then winds the end of the long leather strap three times around his middle finger, and the remainder around the hand, saying, " I will betroth thee unto me forever, yea, I will betroth thee unto me in righteousness, and in judgment, and in loving-kindness, and in mer- cies . . . and thou shalt know the Lord " [Hos. ii. 19]. The phylacteries had to be written with the greatest care ; and no woman, apostate, or Chris- tian, was allowed to write them. Phylacteries also served as amulets against demons. Like the Pharisees of old, there are still Jews in Poland and Russia who wear the phylacteries during the whole day. Compare Ugolini : Thesaurus, ^si..; 10— III Otho : Lex Rabh., pp. 756 sq. ; Wagenseil : Soia, chap. 2, pp. 39 sq. ; Lightfoot : Horce Hebr. ad il'/a«7i.,xxiii. 5; Beck: De Jud.ligam.prec.{Jenie, 1674), and De usuph;/lact. (ibid., 1675); Gropp: De phylact. [Lipsife], 1708 ; Wetstein : Nov. Test.. I. p. 480 ; BoDLASCHATZ : Kirch. Verfassung d. Juden, iv. 14 sq.; Riehji: HandwSrterh. d. bibl. Al- lerthums, s. v. Denkzettel, pp. 270 sq. ; Buxtorf : Synag. Jud., pp. 170 sq. ; Maegolouth : Modern Judaism. Investigated, pp. 1 sq. ; [Basxage : Hist, des Juifs, V. 12, 12 sq. ; Braux : De Vest. Sacerd., pp. 7 sq. ; To\\'XLEy : Reasons for the Laios of Moses, pp. 350 sq.] leyrer. (B. pick.) PIARISTS, or Fathers of the Pious Schools, or Paulinian Congregation, an order of the Roman- Catholic Church, founded in 1600, in Rome, by a Spanish nobleman, Joseph Calasanze, or Josephus a Matre Dei; b. at Calasanze in Aragon, Sept. 11, 1556 ; d. in Rome, Aug. 22, 1648 ; canon- ized by Clement XIII. in 1767. He studied law at Lerida, and theology at Alcala ; was ordained a priest in 1583, and went in 1592 to Rome, where he devoted his life to ascetic practices, nursing the sick, and teaching school among the poor. His re- markable success in the field of teaching induced him to form an association, which in 1612 had over twelve hundred pupils in Rome. In 1617 the association was confirmed as a regular monastic order, and in 1622 it received its constitution. The jealousy of the Jesuits, however, caused many troubles to the order. It prospered, nevertheless, and in the middle of the present century it num- bered about two thousand members. It is espe- cially' numerous in Austro-Hungary, where about twenty thousand pupils are under their care. See Seyffert : Ordensregeln der Piaristen, Halle, 1783, 2 vols. ZOCKLER. PICARDS, a corruption of Beghards, applied to some branches of the Bohemian Brethren. See, Adamites. PICTET, Benedict, b. at Geneva, May 30, 1655; d. thei-e June 10, 1724. He studied theology, travelled much, and was in 1702 appointed pro- fessor of theology in his native city. His contro- versional writmgs (Entretiens de Philandre et d'Eta- riste, 1683 ; Syllabus controversiarum, 1711 ; Lutheri et Calvini consensus, 1701, etc.) belong to the best of those pi-oduced in that period. His works on systematic theology (^Theologia Christiana, 1696, in 11 vols. ; Medulla Theologice, 1711 ; Morale chretienne, 1695, in 12 vols., etc.) and his devotional books {L'art de bien vivre et de Men mourir, etc.) were also much valued. [See his Life by E. de Bud£, Lausanne, 1874.] HERZOG. PICUS OF IVIIRANDULA. See Mirandula. PIERCE, Lovick, D.D., a distinguished minis- ter of the Methodist-Episcopal Church South ; was b. in Halifax County, N.C, March 24, 1785; and d. in Sparta, Ga., Nov. 9, 1879, in the ninety-fifth year of his age. When he was but three years old, his parents moved to Barnwell District, S.C. His early educational advantages were very lim- ited. In December, 1804, he was " admitted on trial " into the South-Carolina conference. In 1809 he was married to ^Miss Ann Foster, daugh- ter of Col. George Foster of Greene County, Ga. In the war of 1812 he served as chaplain in the army. At the conference which met in 1814 he located, but continued to do active service as a local preacher. He studied medicine and gradu- PIERPONT. 1840 PIETISM. ated ill Philadelphia, and became a physician. He continued to practise medicine at Greeusborough, Ga., until 1821 or 1822, when he re-entered the travelling connection of the Georgia conference ; and from that time until his death he devoted himself actively and exclusively to the, work of the ministry. He is the father of Bishop George F. Pierce, an eloquent divine of national denomi- national reputation. Dr. Pierce was pre-emi- nently an extemporaneous preacher. He was abundant in labors, and always ready. He pos- sessed remarkable physical endurance, and was a man of great intellectual force and moral power. His preaching was eminently scriptural, practical, and spiritual, and was directed immediately to the conversion of sinners, or the upbuilding of believers. He was a strong believer in and ad- vocate for the Wesleyan doctrine of sanctification. He was one of the first to encourage, and did much to advance, the cause of higher education in his church. No name is more intimately con- jiected with the history of American Methodism than that of Dr. Lovick Pierce. Born six years before John Wesley died, he lived through, and worked with, three generations of men. He was a member of the first delegated General Confer- ence ever held in Methodism, — that of 1812,^ — and of every General Conference from 1824 till his death. He took an active part in the memo- rable General Conference of 1844, at which the church was divided. After the organization of the Southern Church, he was sent, in 1848, as the first fraternal messenger to the General Confei-- ence of the Methodist-EpiscQpal Church North ; but they declined to receive him in his official capacity. Twenty-eight years later, in 1876, when fraternal relations were instituted between the two branches of Methodism, he was again ap- pointed as fraternal messenger, being chairman of a delegation of three (the late eloquent and lamented Dr. James A. Duncan of Virginia, and the venerable Chancellor Garland of Vanderbilt University, being the other two delegates) ; but he was too feeble to attend, being then in his ninety-second year. He was an active preacher of the gospel for seventy-five years, retaining the use of his intellectual faculties to the last, and is said to have preached during his lifetime not less than eleven thousand times. Ripe in the faith, and.crowned with the honors of a long and useful ministry, he lived to enjoy a peaceful old age, and died universally venerated and beloved by his church. Altogether he was one of the most remarkable men American Methodism has ever produced. . W. F. TILLETT. PIERPONT, John, an eminent reformer ; b. at Litchfield, Conn., April 6, 1785; d. at Medford, Mass., Aug. 27, 1866; graduated at Yale, 1804; taught in Connecticut, and at Charleston, S.C. ; admitted to the bar at Newburyport, 1812 ; aban- doned the law from conscientious scruples (1814), and went into business in Boston and Baltimore, unsuccessfully; graduated at the Cambridge Divinity School, 1818, and became Unitarian pastor in Hollis Street, Boston, 1819. Here his unflinching championship of the temperance and antislavery causes produced trouble with his congregation. See Proceedings of Ecclesiastical Council in his case. 1841. He was pastor at Troy, 1845-49, and at Medford, 1849-59. At the outbreak of the war, in 1861, he accepted, at seventy-six, the chaplaincy of the Twenty-second Massachusetts Regiment, and went with it to Virginia; 1862-64 he held a clerkship in Wash- ington, and indexed the decisions of the Treasury Department. In character and life he was a typical American. His Airs of Palestine ap- peared, 1816, and, with other poems, 1840. These he calls " mostly occasional, the wares of a verse- wright, made ' to order.'" As such they are far better than most of their kind, and bear faithful witness to "the author's feelings and faith, his love of right, freedom, and man." Some of his Ordination and Consecration Hymns, and others, dating from 1820 on, have been, and still are, very widely used. F. M. bird. PIETISM denotes a movement in the Lutheran Church which arose as a re-action of the living, practical faith which demands to express itself in every act of the will, against an orthodoxy which too often contented itself with the dead, theoretical correctness of its creed. At present it is not uncommon to find all the various phe- nomena of asceticism, mysticism, quietism, sepa- ratism, etc., lumped together under the common designation of pietism ; but so vague a definition is detrimental to the precise understanding of history. On the other, hand, the old definition of pietism, as a mere protest against a stiff and barren orthodoxy, is too narrow. Pietism had deep roots in the Lutheran Church : it grew from the very principles of the Lutheran Reformation ; and it would, no doubt, have developed, even though there had been no orthodoxy to re-act upon. The personal development of Spener be- foi-e his public work began in 1670, assimilating, as it did, a great number of various influences, is one evidence. Another is the effect of his work, which was by no means spent with the end of the pietistic controversies at the death of Loscher, in 1747. The movement first took shape in Prancfort, where Spener was appointed pastor in 1666. He met there with some of the worst features of the Lutheran Church, — sacerdotal arrogance, super- ficial confession-practice, neglect of the cure of souls, neglect of the instruction of the youth, etc. ; and in 1670 he invited to a kind of friendly re-iinion in his study, for the purpose of reciprocal edification, the serious-minded in his congrega- tion, and thus constituted the so-called collegia pietatis. Chapters of Lutheran and Reformed books of devotion, or the sermon of the preceding Sunday, first formed the topic of conversation; afterwards, portions of Scripture. The experi- ment proved a great success. Others followed the example ; and, as some eccentricity could not fail to creep in, the members of such collegia pietatis were nicknamed "Pietists." In 1682, however, Spener was able to transform his private re-unions into public gatherings, and transfer them from his study to the church. Meanwhile, he published (in 1675) his Pia Desideria, in which he gave a full account of his ideas and purposes. The principal points he insisted on were the spreading of a more general and more intimate acquaintance with the Bible by means of private gatherings, ecclesioke in ecclesia; the development of a general priesthood by the co-operation of laymen in the spiritual guidance of the congregation, and by PIETISM. 1841 PILATE. domestic worship ; a steady remindiDg of the truth, that knowledge of Christianity must be accompanied by a corresponding Christian prac- tice, in order to be of any vahie; the transforma- tion of the merely doctrinal, and generally more or less inibittered, polemics against heretics and infidels into a propaganda whose only motive- power was love ; a re-organization of the theo-' logical study, so as to make a godly life as important a part of the preparation for ministerial work as reading and learning ; and a new manner of preaching, by which the silly rhetoric which was in fashion should be completely dropped, — six propositions which he ever afterwards clung to, and which he defended against the attacks of Mentzer and Dilfeld, in his Der Klagen iiber das verdorbene Christenlhum Missbrauch und rechter Ge- braiich, 1684. In 1686 the new school of theology succeeded in obtaining a foothold at the University of Leip- zig. J. B. Carpzov, who soon after became one of Spener's most decided enemies, recommended the collegia pietalis in his sermons ; and, partly under his authority, Francke and Anton, at that time young magislri at the university, formed so-called collegia biblica, in analogy with the already existing collegia anlhologica and homiletica. Meanwhile Spener had been appointed court- preacher at Dresden ; and one of his first acts was to induce the Saxon consistory to administer a rebuke to the theological faculty at Leipzig for neglect of the exegetical and catechetical studies. Cai-pzov became furious, and from that moment he never ceased to attack pietism and the pietists at every opportunity. The new school prospered, however, at Leipzig, and achieved a real triumph when Francke, Breithaupt, and Anton were ap- pointed theological professors at the newly found- ed university of Halle. Halle became, indeed, the home of pietism ; and great crowds of students soon thronged its lecture-rooms. But the very attraction which pietism exercised on the young theological students stirred up the jealousy of the Wittenberg theologians, who found the fame and prosperity of their own university endangered. In 1695 J. Deutschmann published his Christ- lutherische Vorstellung, an old-fashioned enumera- tion of two hundred and eighty-three heresies to be found in the doctrinal system of the "new sect." It made no impression: but, ten years later on, it was followed by Lbscher's Timotheus Verinus : and, in the wordy contest which then sprang up, the spokesman of the pietists, Joachim Lange, was far from being a match for Loscher. Loscher accused the pietists of being indifferent to the truths of revelation such as systematized in the symbolical books ; of depreciating the sac- raments and the ministerial office ; of obscuring the doctrine of justification by asserting that good works were necessarily connected with . saving faith, its evidence, indeed ; of favoring novelties by their predilection for enthusiastic eccentrici- ties, and theirneglect of existing customs; and he altogether rejected those chiliastic, terministic, and perfectionistic doctrines which had developed among tWem. Almost at every point there was some reason for the opposition of Loscher ; and, while the pietists often became offensive to other people on account of their extravagances, Loscher was by no means a mere dogmatist : on the con- trary, he advocated the cause of practical piety almost with as much warmth as the pietists themselves. Nevertheless, the fundamental ideas of Spener and his friends were too truly Christian, and too intimately related to the very principles of the Reformation, not to find a wide acceptance. In less than half a century pietism spread its influ- ence through all spheres of life, and through all classes of society; and when, after the accession of Friedrich II., it had to give waj', in Northern Germany, to the rising rationalism, it found a new home in Southern Germany. What Spener, Francke, Anton, Breithaupt, Arnold, and others had been to Prussia and Saxony, Bengel, AA'eis- niann, Oetinger, Hahn, and othei-s were to Wiir- temberg and Baden. Indeed, the older school of Tiibingqn was principally based on pietism. Lit. — The general history of pietism has been written by Schmid (1863), Heppe (1879), and 'R\tsc\i\(l?i80,Gescliichte dex Pietismus). For details, see the literature to the special articles, Spenek, FkANCKE, etc. BERNTLiRD EIGGENBACH. PIGHIUS, Albert, b. at Campen in the Nether- lands, 1490 ; d. at Utrecht, Dec. 26, 1542 ; stud- ied mathematics, philosophy, and theology at LouVain and Cologne ; was appointed preacher of his native city, but was in 1.523 called to Rome by his teacher, Adrian VI., and enjoyed also the favor of Clement VII. and Paul III., the latter of whom made hun provost of the Chm-ch of St. John in Utrecht. His principal work is his Asser- tio ecclesiaslicce kierarckice, Cologne, 1538. He also WTote De libera Jiominis arbitrio, etc., Cologne, 1542, which Calvin answered, in his Defensio sance et orthodoxm doctrincB. HEEZOG. PI'LATE, Pon'tiuSi the fifth Roman procurator (emrpovoc, "governor," Matt, xxvii. 2) of Judeea and Samaria from A.D. 26-36, the successor of Valerius Gratus. His cognomen Pilate wjis de- rived either iroitipilum (" a javelin ") orpileus (" the felt cap given to a manumitted slave in token of his freedom ") : if from the latter, he had either been such a slave, or was the descendant of one, belonging to the gens Pontia. His ofiicial and usual residence in Judsea was in Csesarea; but he came to Jerusalem during the festivals, and lived in Herod's magnificent palace. During his rule occurred the ministry of John the Baptist and of Jesus Christ; and it was by his permission, although he personally was convinced of the inno- cence of the accused, and went through the cere- mony of washing his hands before the people in token of his belief, — a ceremony already known to the Jews (Deut. xxi. 6 ; Ps. xxvi. 6, Ixxiii. 13), — spoke kindly to him, and strove to save him, that Jesus was crucified. In the ten years of his procm-atorship he was guilty of many a cruel and arbitrary deed. When the people I'ose against his attempts to defile their holy places by the pres- ence of the Roman standards bearing the image of the emperor, and against his appropriation of the temple revenues from the redemption of vows for the construction of an aqueduct, he suppressed them by force ; and on the latter occasion had a number massacred. At last the Jewish people could stand his violence no longer; and so, when he causelessly destroyed a number of Samaritans upon Mount Gerizim, the Samaritan senate for- mally complained to the president of Syria, Vitel- PILATE. 1842 PILGRIMAGES. lius, who ordered him to Rome to answer before Csesar (A.D. 36). Just before his arrival there Tiberius had died, and Caligula had succeeded. According to Eusebius {H. E., II. 7), Pilate took his own life. According to others, he was ban- ished to Vienne in Gaul (Vienna AUobrogum, Vienna-on-the-Rhone), or beheaded under Nero. The character of Pilate, as exhibited in the New- Testament record of his treatment of Jesus (Matt, xxvii. 2, 11 sqq. ; Mark xv. 1 sqq. ; Lake xxiii. 1 sqq. ; John xviii. 28 sqq.), is that of a sceptical and scoffing man of the world, not naturally evil- minded or cruel, but entirely without perception of spiritual things, considering all religions equally based on superstition. If it had not been against his own interests, he would have released Jesus (John xix. 10). As it was, he gave him over to crucifixion, although he found no fault in him. Yet Tertullian says he was a Christian in conscience, and in the Ethiopia Church he is a saint. His day is June 25. The Copts also assert that he died as a Christian martyr. Pilate is said to have forwarded to Tiberius an account of the judgment and crucifixion of Jesus in order to forestall unfavorable criticism (Justin Martyr: ApoL, I. 76, 86; cf. Tertullian : AjmL, V. 21 ; Eusebius : II. 2). But the so-called Report, as well as the two letters of Pilate to Tiberius, and the so-called Acts of Pilate, are forgeries. Legends cluster around his name. It is said that he studied in Huesca, Spain ; had Judas Iscariot for his servant ; and that the emperor had his dead body thrown into the Tiber. Then evil spirits possessed it, and caused the river to over- flow. After the flood, his body was put in the Rhone by Vienne; and there again it caused a storm, so that it was transported to the Alpine Mountain, now called Mount Pilatus, near Lu- cerne, and there sunk in the deep pool on its top ; but again it caused strange commotion. Every year, on Good Friday, the Devil takes him out of the pool, and sets him upon a throne, whereupon he washes his hands. — The wife of Pilate — called Procia, or Claudia Procula, whose solemn warning, " Have thou nothing to do with that righteous man, for I have suffered many things this day in a dream because of him " (Matt, xxvii. 19), is introduced so dramatically in Mat- thew's account of the trial of Jesus — appears in the Pilate legend as a proselyte of the gate. Ori- gen, Chrysostom, and Hilary assert that she be- came a Christian. The Greek Church makes her a saint, and observes Oct. 27 as her day. Her di'eam has been considered by Jews as a magical deed of Christ to elfect his deliverance, but by Christians (Pseudo-Ignatius, Ad Philip., 4, Bede, Bernard, Heliand) as a work of Satan to hinder the atoning death of Christ. Lit. — Upon Pilate's conduct, see Philo : Leg. ad Caj. XXXVIII. [Eng. trans., Bohn's ed., Lon- don, 1855, vol. iv. pp. 164 sqq.] ; Josephus : Antiquities, XVIII. 3, 1, 2 ; 4, 1, 2 ; War, 11. 9, 2-4. Upon the Pilate legend see Vilmar : Gesch. d. Nat. Lit., 3d ed., pp. 260 sqq. ; Berlepsch : Reisehndbch. filr d. Schweiz. On Pilate's wife, see Thilo : Codex ApocrypJius, i. 520 sqq. For the spurious Acts, see Fabricius : Codex Apocryphus N.T. [and Eng. trans, in Ante-Nicene Library, Apocryphal Gospels, etc.] and R. A. Lipsius : Die Pilatus-Acten, Kiel, 1871. lbyeer. PILGRIMAGES, from the Latin peregrinus ("foreign"), are journeys to holy places for the sake of devotion and edification. They are com- mon to all religions, — to Hinduism, Judaism, and Mohammedanism, as well as to Christianity. Though Christ, in his conversation with the woman of Samaria (John iv.), warned against ascribing any particular value to any particular place, when the question is of the salvation of our souls, it was not to be wondered at, that, when he found followers among foreign nations in foreign countries, they should feel attracted towards the places where he had wandered when in the flesh. The feeling is poetical in its character, rather than religious, and it becomes superstitious in the same degree as it pretends to be religious; but it is none the less natural. And in the middle of the fourth century, when Constantine and his mother Helena had visited Golgotha, Bethlehem, etc., and built churches there, pilgrimages to the Holy Land became quite frequent. In the eighth century Charlemagne made a treaty with Haroun al Raschid to procure safety to the Christian pil- grims in Jerusalem, and founded a Latin monas- tery in that city for their comfort. In the eleventh century it was the outrages to which the Christian pilgrims were exposed in Palestine, which, more than any thing else, contributed to bring about the crusades. But in the mean time the church had taken the matter in hand ; and, under her care, pilgrimages entirely changed character. They became " good works," penalties by which gross sins could be expiated, sacrifices by which holi- ness, or at least a measure of it, could be con- quered. The pilgrim was placed under the special protection of the church: to maltreat him, or to deny him shelter and alms, was sacrilege. And when he returned victorious, having fulfilled his vow, he became the centre of the religious inter- est of the village, the town, the city, to which he belonged, — an object of holy awe. Thuspilgrim- izing became a life-work, a calling. There were people who actually adopted it as a business, wandering all their life through from one shrine to another ; for at that time the church had come to think that it was not necessary to send all those longing souls so far away as Palestine. Places of pilgi-image, pilgrimage considered as a means of expiating sin, sprang up everywhere, — at the tombs of the saints and martyrs (St. Peter and St. Paul in Rome, St. Thecla in Seleucia, St. Stephen in Hippo in Africa, the Forty Martyrs in Cappa- docia, St. Felix at Nola in Campania, St. Martin at Tours, St. Adelbert at Gnesen, St. Willibrord at Echternach, St. Thomas at Canterbury, St. Olaf at Drontheim, etc.), or at the shrine of some M'on- der-working relic or image (St. James at Compos- tella, the Virgin at Montserrat in Spain, Loretto in Italy, Einsiedlen in Switzerland, Mariazell in Styria, Getting in Bavaria, etc.). With the Ref- ormation, all this gross superstition disappeared from the Protestant world, but was retained by the Roman-Catholic Church. In very recent times two new places of pilgrimage have excited the Roman-Catholic world, — Lourdes in the South of France, near the Pyrenees ; and Krtock, near Dublin, Ireland. In both places the Virgin Mary, it is claimed, revealed herself : in Lourdes in the grotto of Massavielle during 1858 ; in Knock, in the village church during 1880. Miraculous cui-es PILKINGTON. 1843 PISA. •were performed at Lourdes; immense crowds gathered every year ; and in 1876 a large church was built above the grotto. To Knock, also, mul- titudes came for help, bodily and spiritual. But many modern " pilgrims " travel by rail. For the Roman-Catholic position on the subject, see Cone. Trident. Sessio xxv. : Schaff : Creeds, ii. p. 201 ; J. ilARX : Bas Wallfahren in der katholischen Kirche, Treves, 1842. PILKINGTON, James, Bishop of Durham ; b. at Rivington, Lancashire, Eng., 1520 ; d. at Bish- op's Auckland, Jan. 23, 1575-76. He was edu- cated at St. John's College, Cambridge ; was on the Continent during the reign of Mary ; on his return was appointed master of his college (1559), and on March 2, 1560-61, was consecrated bishop of Durham. He was one of the earliest promoters of Greek learning in England. His -m-itings were much admired by the Puritans. They embrace Commentaries upon Haggai (London, 1560), Oba- diah (1560), and upon part of Xehemiah (1585). These and other of his works were reprinted by the Parker Society in 1 vol., Cambridge, 1842. PINKNEY, William, D.D., LL.D., Episcopalian; b. at Annapolis, Md., April 17, 1810 ; d. at Cock- eysville, Baltimore County, Md., July 4, 1883. He was gTaduated at St. John's College, An- napolis. He was successively rector in Somerset County, Md., 1836-38; from 1838 to 1855 at Bladensburg ; from 1855 to 1870 in Washington. On Oct. 6, 1870, he was consecrated assistant bishop of Maryland. On Oct. 17, 1879, he suc- ceeded Bishop Whittingham as bishop. He was a decided Low-Churchman. PIRKE ABOTH (Sayings of the Fathers'), the ninth tractate of the fourth order (" Damages ") of the Mishna. It consists of six chapters of chi-onologically arranged pithy sayings of eminent rabbis, like Hillel, Gamaliel, and Jehuda ha^Nasi, the redactor of the Mishna. It is the oldest un- canonical collection of Jewish g-nomes, and, by its easy Hebrew and interesting contents, forms an admirable introduction to rabbinical literature. Numerous are the reprints and editions of it; the most recent of the latter is by H. L. Strack : Die Sjiruche der Vater, Karlsruhe, 1882 (56 pp.). Twice it has been translated into German (by G. H. Lkhmann, Leipzig, 1684 ; and by Paul EwALD, Erlangen, 1825), and once into English (by Charles Taylor : Sayings of the Jewish Fathers, Cambridge, 1877). PIRMIN, St., flourished in the middle of the eighth centuiy, but was almost entirely forgotten in the middle of the ninth. See the biographies of him in Mone : Quellensammlung , Carlsruhe, 1848, Acta Sanct., and by M. Gorringer, Zwei- briicken, 1841. He founded many monasteries, — Reichenau, on Lake Constance ; Marbach, in Upper Alsace ; Hornbach, near Zweibriicken ; where he died Nov. 3, probably 753. He is be- lieved to be the author of the Dicta ahhatis Pri- minii, written in barbarous Latin, and edited by C. P. Caspari, Christiana, 1883. PISA, Councils of. 1. The first Council of Pisa was held in 1409, and was the result of an attempt to heal the great schism which had distracted the church since 1378. Two popes — one in Rome, and one in Avignon — were a heavy drain upon ecclesiastical revenues ; and then- hostilities ga,ve rise to extortions which were felt to become in- tolerable. The University of Paris took the lead in attempting to heal the schism ; but it was diffi- cult to find any way of dealing with the Papal monarchy, which was regarded as absolute by the canon law. The first proposal, for a voluutaiy abdication on the part of both popes, naturally failed. The university then advocated a with- drawal of obedience from the popes, but this was found to be impracticable. On a vacancy in the Roman Papacy, in 1406, the cardinals elected, not a pope, but a "commissioner for unity," in the person of the aged Gregory XH., who was bound by oath to abdicate, if the French Pope (Benedict XIII.) would abdicate also. Negotiations for this purpose were set on foot, and were warmly sup- ported by the French court. Gregory XII. agxeed to a conference with Benedict XIII. at Savona; but his greedy relatives, and the ambitious Ladis- las. Mug of Naples, dissuaded him from fulfilling his promise. He advanced as far as Lucca in 1408, and there showed signs of pursuing an inde- pendent policy. As the first step in this direction, he announced his intention of creating a new batch of cardinals. As this was contrary to the oath which he had taken on his election, his cardinals resisted the proposal. AVhen Gregory XII. per- sisted, they fied from Lucca to Livorno, and there issued a letter to the princes of Christendom, accusing Gregory of breach of faith. The king of France at the same time withdrew from obe- dience to Benedict XIII. , and exhorted the cardi- nals to restore the peace of the church. The majority of the two colleges of cardinals united at Livorno, and summoned a general council to meet at Pisa in March, 1409. The aid of Flor- ence, and of Cardinal Cossa, the Papal legate at Bologna, secured the council against King Ladis- las, who tried to prevent its meeting. The summons of a general council was felt at the time to be a gxeat iimovation. It was the result of the long schism and of the discussions which it had awakened. There was no constitu- tional means of bringing it to an end: and, in default of any recognized method, recourse was had to the primitive customs of the chm-ch. It was admitted that the assembling of a coimcil had, for the sake of order, been limited by the papal power of summons ; but this limitation did not extend to cases of urgency and necessity. In the present necessity, when the law of the church had failed, the wider equity of a council must interpi'et the law. These opinions had their ori- gin in the theologians of the University of Paris, and were accepted by the cai-dinals as a justifica- tion of their procedure. The council, which was largely attended, opened on March 25, 1409. It first cited the rival popes, who had been duly summoned. When they did not appear, they were declared contumacious. On April 24 charges were brought against them of being obstmate in theii- refusal to heal the schism, and consequently of being themselves schismatics and heretics. Commissioners were appointed to receive testimony on these points. On May 22 they reported that the charges were true and no- torious. On June 5 the council declared Benedict XIII. and Gregory XII. to be deposed as schis- matics and heretics. All the faithful were ab- solved from allegiance to them, and their censm'es were declared to be of no efi'ect. Aftei- this the PISA, 1844 PISGAH. cardinals declared themselves ready to make a new election. On June 15 they went into con- clave, and on June 26 elected Peter Philargi, a native of Crete, who took the title of Alexan- der V. The cardinals, before the election, had agreed that the' council should not dissolve until " a due, reasonable, and sufficient reform of the chui'ch, in head and members, had been brought about." But this work was never undertaken. The Pope's feeble health, and the desire of the members to leave Pisa, were given as excuses. A future coun- cil was promised, in which the question of reform should be taken up ; and the Council of Pisa was dissolved on Aug. 5. The Council of Pisa was not successful in its great object, — the restoration of the unity of the church. Instead of getting rid of the contending popes, it added a third. Gregory XII. and Bene- dict XIII. might have few adherents ; but, so long as they had any, the Council of Pisa was a failure. This was recognized by the Council of Constance, which negotiated afresh for the abdication of Gregory and Benedict. According to the rules of canonists, the Council of Pisa was not a true council, because it was not summoned by a pope. It was regarded, soon after its dissolution, as of doubtful authority. This was greatly due to its want of success. It did not act wisely nor dis- creetly. From the beginning it over-rode the popes, and did not try to conciliate them. It accepted as valid all that the cardinals had done previously, and did not wait to take proceedings of its own. Moreover, it was unduly precipitate in its action, and did not give the popes an oppor- tunity for submission, if they had wished it. Its importance lies in the fact, that it was the expres- sion of the reforming ideas which the schism had brought into prominence. It was the first-fruits of the conciliar movement, which was the chief feature of the ecclesiastical history of the fifteenth century. Lit. — The acts of the Council of Pisa are to be found in AIansi : Concilia, vols, xxvi.-xxvii., Florence, 1757; Martene and Durand: Veterum, Scriptorum Amplissima CoUectio, vol. vii., Paris, 1733 ; D'AcHERY : Spicilegium, vol. i., Paris, 1727. The opinions which prevailed at Pisa are expressed by Gerson (" De Unitate Ecclesise " and " De Au- feribiUtate Papse "), in Gerson: Opera, vol. ii., Antwerp, 1706. The writer of the Chronique de Rellgieux de S. Denys (eA. Bellaguet, Paris, 1839- 43) was at Pisa, and gives the impressions of an eye-witness. Modern works are Lenfant : His- toire du Concile de Pise, 2 vols., Utrecht, 1712 ; Wessenberg: Die Grossen Kirclien versammlungen des XV" und X F/" Jahrhunderts, vol. i., Constance, 1840; Hefele: Conciliengeschichte, vol. vi., 1867. 2. The second Council of Pisa was not of much importance. It was an interlude in the political career of Pope Julius II. Julius II. had joined the League of Cambrai against Venice. When he had obtained what he wanted from Venice, he left the' league, and attacked his former allies. Louis XII. of France sought to alarm the Pope by holding a national synod at Tours in 1510. The Emperor, Maximilian I., stirred up the Ger- man church to present a list of grievances, and threatened a Pragmatic Sanction. When Julius 11. still refused to renew the League of Cambrai, nine cardinals, who for political reasons were opposed to the Pope, summoned a general council, to be held at Pisa in September, 1511. There was no reality about this council, which only held a few sessions at Pisa, and then adjourned to Milan, where in April, 1512, it declared Julius II. to be suspended. Soon after this, it dispersed, through fear of the Swiss. Meanwhile Julius II. held a council in the Lateran, which excomnmni- cated the members of the Pisan council. The whole matter shows only a futile attempt to gal- vanize into activity the conciliar movement of the previous century, and employ it for purely political purposes. Lit. — Richer : Historia Conciliorum Generali- um, lib. iv., part 1 (Cologne, 1683), contains the proceedings of the council and several of the writings to which it gave occasion. The Papal side is given in Rayxaldus : Annales Eccelesias- lici, sub annis 1511-12, last edition, Bois le Due, 1877. MANDELL CREIGHTON. PISCATOR (Fischer), Johannes, b. at Strass- burg, March 27, 1546; d. at Herborn, July 26, 1625. He studied theology at Tiibingen, and was in 1572 appointed professor in Strassburg, but was soon after dismissed because he leaned towards Calvinism. In 1574 he was appointed professor at Heidelberg, but in 1577 he was dismissed again, for the same reason. Finally he was set- tled at the academy of Herborn, founded by the Refoi-med Count Johann of Nassau ; and there he remained for the rest of his life. He translated the Bible (Herborn, 1602-24, 3 vols.), wrote Com- mentaries on several books both of the Old and New Testament, and published a number of doc- trinal and polemical treatises. His doctrine of the insufficiency of the " active obedience " of Christ was rejected by the synod of Gap (1603), — and the synod of Rochelle (1607) even went so far as to denounce him to Count Johann as a heretic, — though it was accepted by many of the most learned Reformed theologians, as for instance, Pareus, Soultetus, Cappel, and others, herzog. PISE, Charles Constantine, D.D., Roman- Catholic divine; b. at Annapolis, Md., 1802; d. in Brooklyn, K.Y., May 26, 1866. He was or- dained priest in 1825, and officiated in the cathe- dral at Baltimore. From 1849 to his death he was pastor in Bi-ooklyn. He was eminent as a pulpit orator and man of letters. He wrote, among other works. History of the Church from its Establishment to the Reformation, Baltimore, 1827- 30; Father Roioland, 1829 (pronounced his best work) ; Acts of the Apostles done into Blank Verse, New York, 1845 ; St. Ignatius and his First Com- panions, 1845. PIS'GAH, the summit from which Moses ob- tained his view of the promised' land immediately before his death (Deut. xxxiv. 1). It was also the place of Balak's sacrifice, and Balaam's proph- ecy (Num. xxiii. 14). It was within Reuben's possessions (Josh. xiii. 20). The exact identifi- cation of Pisgah was long a problem, until the Due de Luynes (1864) and Professor Paine of the American Palestine Exploration Society (1873), independently, for the duke's account was not published until after Paine's, identified it with Jebel Siaghah, the extreme headland of the range Abarini, of which the highest summit is Nebo. See Nebo. PISIDIA. 1845 PIUS. PISID'IA (pitchy), a, district oi Asia Minor north of Pamphylia, and south of Phrygia, It was twice visited by Paul (Acts xiii. 14, xiv. 21-24). Very likely it was while going through this district that Paul was "in perils of robbers" (2 Cor. xi. 26), for the Taurus mountains, -which ran through it, were infested with warlike tribes, which were the terror of the surrounding country. These tribes, under their own leaders, successfully re- sisted even the power of Rome. In Pisidia was a city called Antioch, to be distmguished from the more famous Syrian of the same name (see art.). PISTORIUS, Johannes, b. at Nidda in Hesse, Feb. 4, 1546 ; d. at Freiburg, in September, 1608. He studied medicine ; published De vera curandm peslis ratione (1568), — a curious cabalistic book, which he afterwards followed up with his Artis cabalisticce scriptores (Basel, 1587), and became body-physician to the Margrave of Baden-Dur- lach. He took a great interest, however, in the- ology. Educated a Lutheran, he embraced Cal- vinism in 1575, and was converted to Romanism in 1588, from which moment he became one of the most violent adversaries of the Reformation. He took an active part in the disputations of Baden and Emmendingen; was instrumental in the conversion of the margi-ave to Romanism; later became vicar-general to the Bishop of Constance, provost of Breslau, and wrote a great number of polemical treatises : Theorema de fidei Christ, mensura, Anatomia Lutheri, etc. He also published Scriptores rerum Germ., 3 vols., and Polo- niece histories corpus, 3 vols. See Fkcht : Historia , colloquii Eimnendingensis, Rostock, 1694, 1709. Pl'THOM, one of the treasure-cities built for Rameses II. by the Israelites (Exod. i. 11). It has been identified by Brugsch with Succoth, the first encampment on the route of the exodus, the starting-point being Rameses (Exod. xii. 37, xiii. 20), and by Naville, the archaeologist of the Egypt Exploration Fund, with the present Tell- el-Maskhuta in the Wady et Tumilat on the line of the Sweet- Water Canal, between Ismailia and Tell-el-Kebir. JNI. Naville was put upon the track to his discovery by reading at Ismailia in- scriptions from Tell-el-JMaskhuta, the supposed site of Rameses, which spoke of Turn as the chief god of the place. From this he drew the con- clusion that its sacred name was Pithom, so that it was Pithom-Succoth. This conjecture was confirmed JNIonday, Feb. 12, 1883, by an inscrip- tion upon a fragment of a limestone statue of a priest, one of whose titles was " chief of the store- house of the temple of Turn of Thuku." His excavations revealed that the walls enclosed a small temple and several large storehouses of rectangular chambers, with very thick walls, most carefully constructed of crude bricks, in the style of Rameses II., and with no access but from the top. The oldest name found was Rame- ses II., who was manifestly the builder of the store-city, — a fresh link connecting him with the oppression of the Israelites. It would seem that the Romans destroyed the place in order to con- vert it into a camp, and used the storehouse as a stronghold. The sacred buildings covered only a small space. Pithom, or Pe-tura, means " house (or place) of the god Tum," the setting sun, and was the temple name of Succoth, or " Thuku at the entrance of the East." It was a name com- mon to several towns, such as Ileliopolis. But Pithom-Succoth was called Hero (" storehouse "), or Herodpolis (" store-city ") by the Greeks and Latins ; " Hero " being the Greek transcription of Ar, Ari, or Aru, which means " storehouse." M. Naville prepared a memoir of his Pithom discov- eries, which was printed by the Egypt Explora- tion Fund, London, 1883. PIUS is the name of nine popes. — Pius I. reigned in the middle of the second century ; according to Jaffe, 142-157 (Reg. Pontif. Rom., 2d ed., Leipzig, 1881) ; according to Lipsius, 139- 154, or 141-156 (Chronologic d. rom. Bischofe, Kiel, 1869). Of his reign nothing is known. The decretals ascribed to him are spurious. He is a saint of the Roman-Catholic Chm-ch, and his memory is celebrated on July 11. See Duchesne : jStude sur le Liber Pontijicalis (Paris, 1877), and the treatises by Erbks and Lipsius, in Jalirbiicher fiir protest. Theologie (1878 and 1880). — Pius II. (Aug. 19, 1458-Aug. 15, 1464), Enea Silvio de' Piccolomini; b. at Corsignano, near Siena, Oct. 18, 1405 ; belonged to a noble but poor family. He was enabled, however, to study at Siena and Florence; and in 1432 he accompanied Bishop Capranica of Fermo to the Council of Basel as his secretary. At Basel he joined the opposition party, took an active part in the negotiations which ended with the deposition of Eugenius IV., wrote his Commentary on the Council of Basel, and his Libellus dialogorum, de generalis Concilii aucloritale, in defence of, the superiority of an oecumenical council over the Pope, and be- came secretary to Felix V. In 1442 he entered the service of Friedrich III., who showed him great confidence, and used him in many impor- tant diplomatical missions. He was frivolous and sensuous, the author of a heap of worthless verses, a slippery love-story (Eurialus and Lu- cretia), and a scandalous comedy (Chrisis); but he was an able diplomate, acute and insinuating. It became necessary for him to change front ; and with great adroitness he approached Eugenius IV., and obtained forgiveness. He wrote a new Commentary on the Council of Basel, but from a papal point of view ; and published in 1447 his Epistola retractoria, recanting all his errors of former days. Nicholas V. made him Bishop of Trieste, 1447, and Bishop of Siena, 1450. Calixtus III. made him a cardinal in 1456. As he grew older, his amorous aberrations ceased, but he be- came avaricious and grasping. He was known as the most scheming and shameless benefice-hunter at the papal court, next to Roderigo Borgia, the later Alexander Vl. By the aid of the latter, he was elected Pope after the death of Calixtus III., and assumed the name of Pius II., probably with an allusion to Virgil's Pius .Sneas, from whom he claimed to descend. The accession of the poet- pope was hailed with great enthusiasm ; but he soon disappointed his brethren of the guild, who expected larger pensions and a more flattering attention than he saw fit to bestow upon them. Only the artists, architects, painters, and sculp- tors found liberal support at his court. The leading idea of his whole policy was the new crusade. The conquest of Constantinople by the Turks seems to have made a deep impression upon him; and on June 1, 1459, he opened a PIUS 1846 PIUS. congress of princes at Mantua, for the purpose of uniting the whole force of Christendom against Islam. But the attendance was so small that nothing serious could be carried through ; and the too high-strung tone of the bull Execrabilis (Jan. 16, 1560), declaring the idea of the superiority of an oecumenical synod over the Pope heretical, abominable, and dictated by a spirit of rebellion, was ill suited to awaken sympathy. The papal propositions, that for three years the clergy should pay a tenth, and the laity a thirtieth, of their income, for defraying the expenses of the crusade, met with general opposition. France he entirely estranged from himself by his Neapolitan policy. In order to procure a principality for his nephew, he recognized Ferdinand as king of Naples. But such a recognition was in fact a rejection of the claims of the house of Anjou ; and, though Pius II. succeeded in having the pragmatic sanction of Bourges cancelled in 1461, Louis XI. gave his consent, only on the condition that the Pope should dissolve his alliance with Ferdinand, and espouse the cause of Rene of Anjou. The Pope neither could nor would fulfil that condition ; and the consequence was, that France would hear nothing of his crusading schemes. In Germany- matters proved as difficult. Though Pius II. succeeded in breaking the opposition of Gregory of Ileimburg, and humiliating Diether of Isenburg, the thirty- two thousand men which Germany had promised to equip for the war against the Turks never were at hand. The only people who showed any zeal for the undertaking were the Hungarians, who already felt the pressure of the Turks on their own frontiers, and Venice, who was anxious about her possessions in the Greek peninsula. Nevertheless, on Oct. 22, 1463, he issued the bull inaugurating the crusade ; and on June 19, 1464, he went to Ancona to place himself, like another Moses, at the head of the armament. He had already, for several years, been- lame in his lower limbs ; and in addition he suffered from fevep when he left Rome. He was dying when he reached Ancona. The most interesting among his numerous writings are, his Autobiography, from his birth to his starting for Ancona ; a History of Friedrich III., 1439-56; a History of Bohemia, which has been put on the Index on account of its too favorable mentioning of Hus ; Europa and Asia, curious mixtures of geography, ethnography, and history, etc. A collected edi- tion of his works appeared at Basel, 1551. Col- lections of his letters have several times been published : the best are those by Lauffs (Bonn, 1853) and Geohg Voigt (Vienna, 1856). His bulls are found in Cocquelines : Bullarum am- plissima colleclio, iii. His speeches have been edited by Mansi : Orationes politicce et ecclesiasHccB Pii II., Lucca, 1755-59, 3 vols. See Helwino: De Pii II. rebus gestis, etc., Berlin, 1825; Beets : De^nece S'i/ZiiM, etc., Harlem, 1839; Hagenbach: Erinnerungen an A. S. P., Basel, 1840; Ver- diere: Essai sur A. S. P., Paris, 1843; Heine- maun: A. S., Bernburg, 1855; Gengler: A. S. und die deutsche Rechtsgeschickie, Erlangen, 1860 ; Georg Voigt : En. Sil. de' P., Berlin, 1856-63, 3 vols., the best work on the subject. — Pius III. (Sept. 22-Oct. 18, 1503). He was a nephew of Pius II., and by him made Archbishop of Siena, and cardinal in 1450. His election after the death of Alexander VI. he owed chiefly to the circum- stances of his being very .old and very weak. The approach of the French army and Csesar Borgia made it necessary for the conclave to come to an agreement as swiftly as possible ; and an agreement was, of course, most easily obtained when the candidate gave sure prospect of a new election. R. zopffbl. Pius IV. (Jan. 6, 1560-Dec. 9, 1565). His original name was Giovanni Angelo Medici, but he did not belong to the famous Florentine family of that name. He was born at Milan, in stinted circumstances ; studied law, and became in 1527 prothonotary to the curia. Clement VII. and Paul HI. employed him in several important missions ; and the latter made him a cardinal in 1549. Under Paul IV. , however, he found it advisable to exile himself from Rome, and to live very quietly in his native city. But his exile paved the way for him to the papal throne. The attempt of Paul IV. at ruling in the spirit of the Grego- ries and the Innocents had failed utterly. The relations between the papal see and the foreign powers were very strained, and in the papal do- minions the cruelty and violence of the Inquisition had spread general discontent. It was necessary to change system, and everybody's eyes fell natu- rally on the exiled cardinal in Milan. He was chosen, and the choice proved a success. He understood that the supremacy of the sacerdoiium over the imperium could not be maintained any more, because its weapons — the ban, the interdict, etc. . — had lost their effect ; and he was willing to seek support for the sacerdotium from the im- perium. The most difficult task which awaited him was the re-opening .of the Council of Trent, and the finishing up of its business. The dangers to the papal authority were very great. Spain acted on the maxim, that the episcopacy was it- self a divine institution, and not a mere emana- tion from the papal power ; France maintained that the oecumenical council ' had the highest power in the church, ■ — a power to which even the Pope had to bow ; and the Germans went even into details, and demanded reforms of the curia, the clergy, the monasteries, abolition of the ecclesiastical celibacy, granting of the cup in the Lord's Supper to the laity, etc. The bull of con- vocation was issued on Nov. 20, 1560. The first session, however, did not take place until Jan. 18, 1562. The temper of the council was unmistak- able ; but Pius IV. was able, by adroit manage- ment, and by direct negotiations with the Emperor Philip II. and Cardinal Guise, to avert all danger. Indeed, the close of the Council of Trent (Dec. 3, 1563) must be considered a great triumph for the papacy. The Pope confirmed its decrees, as if they were not valid without such confirmation; and, though they were received with some reserve in all countries, they gTadually forced their way through. With the close of the Council of Trent, a new chapter begins in the history of the Church of Rome. His bulls and decrees are found in Cherubini : Bullar. Magn., ii. See Leonardi : Oratio de laudibus P. IV., Padua, 1565; [R. Jen- kins : Romanism : a Doctrinal and Historical Ex- amination ofilie Creed of Pius IV., London, 1882 ; arts. Trent, and Teidentine Confession op Faith]. — Pius V. (Jan. 8, 1566-May 1, 1572). He was of humble descent; entered the Dominican PIUS. 1847 PIUS. order when he was fourteen years old ; acted for some time as inquisitor in Como, Bergaino, and the Veltlin ; was called to Rome in 1550 as niember of the Board of Inquisition ; and made a cardinal in 1557. As Pope, he inspired the Inquisition in Italy, Spain, and the Netherlands with new vigor. The Duke of Alba he presented with a consecrated sword; Elizabeth of England he put under the ban ; and Charles IX. of France he aided with a corps of auxiliaries, under the lead of the Count of Santafiore, whom he told " to take no Hugue- nots prisoners, but kill them as soon as caught." There were, however, traits in his character which commanded respect. His severity was sincere. The ecclesiastical reforms began to be carried out. The Catechismus Romantts was issued ; the decrees of the Council of Trent were accepted and enforced by the Roman-Catholic princes, etc. The papal squadron also took part in the brilliant but fruitless victory of Don Juan over the Turks at Lepanto, Oct. 8, 1571. The bulls of Pius V. are found in Chekubini: Bullar. Magn., iii.: his Epis- tolce Apostolicce have been edited by F. Gobau, Antwerp, 1640. See Hieron. Catena : Vita del glor. cossessimo papa P. V., which contains his correspondence ; and Falloox : Histoire de S. P. v.. Angers, 1846, 2 vols. mai^GOLD. Pius VI. (Feb. 15, 1775- Aug. 29, 1799). He belonged to a noble but poor family; studied law ; entered the service of the church, and was appointed secretary to Benedict XIV. in 1755, and director of the papal treasury in 1766. In 1773 he was made a cardinal. One of his first acts as a pope was a curious prescript against the vain-shaped, high-colored dresses of the Roman clergy, their powdered perukes, their card-playing in the cafe's, their visits to the theatres, and noc- turnal promenades with ladies, etc. The inten- 1;ion was, no doubt, very good. But, unfortunately, Pius VI. was himself a very handsome man, and by no means' indifferent to his looks ; and rumors had more than once told of his own adventures with the fair sex. There was, indeed, in every thing he did a want of perfect consistency, a hesi- tation with respect to the last consequences of the principles adopted. The most pressing business on hand was the process of the Jesuits. But the Pope would not confirm the bull of his predeces- sor (JDominus ac Redemptor noster), dissolving the order ; nor dared he re-establish the society. He chose a middle way. In Prussia, under Fried- rich H., he allowed the brethren to go on with their work, only under another name and in an- other costume. In Russia, under Catherine II., he even allowed them to elect a vicar-general. Thus the case remained in suspense. In 1780 Joseph II. ascended the throne ; and by an edict of March 24, 1781, he dissolved aU connection between the monastic orders established within his dominions, and their generals living outside of the empire, in Rome. The Pope contented himself with some very mild remonstrances ; and when the emperor went on with that whole series of ecclesiastical reforms which is generally com- prised under the name of Josephinism, the Pope could think of no more effective means of self- defence than a visit to Vienna. On Feb. 27, 1782, he set out for the imperial residence. He was received with great reverence and enthusiasm by the people, and with much cordiality and polite- ness by the emperor; but the secretary of state, Kaunitz, indulged in the grossest breach of eti- quette ; and the general outcome of the visit was, that the Poj)e had to give in on aU the principal points of difference. Nor was a better modus Vivendi established. In September, 1783, the em- peror appointed a new archbishop of Milan ; and, when the Pope hesitated to confirm him, Kaunitz remarked, that, in case of a papal refusal, the confirmation would be performed by a Lombard synod. Pius VI. threatened to put the emperor under the ban ; but Joseph II. simply returned the letter, with the demand to have the writer of it properly punished. Once more a personal intercourse between the emperor and the Pope was resorted to. Joseph II. arrived at Rome on Dec. 23, 1783, and staid there till Jan. 21, 1784. But nothing was accomplished. By a decree of April 28, 1784, he interfered with the worship of relics ; by another, of March 21, 1784, he levied tax on pilgrimages ; by a third, of Jan. 17, 1785, he ordered all side-altars removed from the churches ; by a foui-th, of Feb. 21, 1786, the vernacular tongue was introduced in divine service. The whole Roman fabric seemed to be tumbling down. The Belgian revolution, which compelled Joseph n. to cancel his ecclesiastical reforms so far as that part of his dominion was concerned, gave the Pope some relief ; and when Joseph died (Feb. 20, 1790), matters were allowed gradually to drift back mto the old track. But shortly after he had to encounter a still more formidable enemy in the French Revolution. jThe Civil Con- stitution of the Clergy of France, as drawn up by the National Assembly in 1790, satisfied, of course, neither Pius VI. nor Louis XVI. But the Pope wanted the king to make the first attack ; and, when the king signed the bill, the Pope kept quiet and perfectly inactive, until he heard that more than fifty thousand French priests, and no less than a hundred and thirty French bishops, had refused to take the oath on the constitution. He then decided on a bold stroke. By a bull of April 13, 1791, he condemned the constitution, and threatened with excommunication any and every clergyman who submitted to it. But the National Assembly simply answered by incorpo- rating Avignon and Venaissin with France ; and the protest of the Pope vanished, unnoticed, in space. In 1795 Pius VI. joined the coalition against France, and raised an army of twelve thousand men; but Gen. Bonaparte compelled hun by the armistice of Bologna (June 23, 1796) to cede the legations of Bologna and Ferrai'a, and the citadel of Bologna, and to pay twenty-one mil- lion francs for his I'ashness ; and, when he tried to evade the stipulations of the armistice, the conditions of the final peace of Tolentino (Feb. 19, 1797) were made still harder. Meanwhile republican sympathies began to show themselves in Rome. Riots occurred ; and, when the papal soldiers fired on the French ambassador. Gen. Berthier appeared before the gates of Rome, Feb. 10, 1798. The city was captured, the republic was proclaimed; and the Pope was sent a pris- oner to France, where he died at Dijon. His life was written by Ade (anonvmously), Ulm, 1781-96, 6 vols. ; P. P. Wolf, Zurich, 1793-1802, 7 vols. ; Ferrari, Padua, 1802 ; Beccatini, Venice, 1801- 02, 4 vols. ; Tkavanti, Florence, 1804, 3 vols. PIUS. 1848 PIUS. See also Sonnenfels : Ueher die Anhunft Pius VI. in Wien, Vienna, 1782, . besides a number of anonymous pamphlets on the same subject. Bal- DASSARi : Histoire de I'enlevement el de la captioite de Pie VI., Paris, 1839 ; [J. Bektkand, Sauret ET Clerc Jacqdier : Le pontijicat de Pie VI. el athe'isme revolulionnaire, Paris, 1878, 2 vols.], and also the arts. Joseph II., and Ems, Congress OF, with the literature there given. — Pius VII. (March 14, 1800-Aug. 21, 1823). He belonged to the noble family of Chiaromonti, and was born at Cesena, Aug. 14, 1740. When sixteen years old he entered the Benedictine order, and for several j'ears he taught theology and philosophy in its schools. Pius VI., who was related to the family of Chiaromonti, appointed him bishop, first of Tivoli, afterwards of Imola, and in 1785 he made him a cardinal. Immediately after his accession, he appointed Cardinal Consalvi ; and in spite of the intrigues of Napoleon, Pacca, the Zelanti, and the Sanfedists, he kept him as his friend and adviser for the rest of his life. The French concordat of July 15, 1801, and the Italian of Sept. 16, 1803, were chiefly due to his skill; but he was coinpletely ignorant of the so-called "organic articles" with which Napoleon accom- panied them, and which gave them a very limited bearing. In spite of the concordat, however, and though Pius VII. consented to go to Paris to crown Napoleon, the relation between the curia and the French emperor was always more or less strained. Napoleon was very arbitrary and per- emptory in his demands ; and a sincere recon- ciliation became an impossibility when Pius VII. refused to dissolve the marriage of Jerome and Miss Patterson. In October, 1805, Ancona was suddenly seized by French soldiers ; and a letter of about the same date, from Napoleon to Cardi- nal Fesch, shows, that, even at that time, he had decided upon the secularization of the States of the Church. Finally, on May 17, 1809, he signed at Schonbrunn the decree which incorporated the Papal States with France, declared Rome an im- perial city, fixed the annual revenue of the Pope at two million francs, to be paid him by the State, etc. The decree was made known in Rome on June 10, 1809 ; and, when the Pope protested, he was arrested in the Vatican by the French police, and carried a prisoner to the fortress of Savona in the Gulf of Genoa. His captivity was at first very mild, but became more and more severe as he showed himself firm and resolute in upholding his dignity; and in May, 1812, while on the way to Russia, Napoleon ordered him to be brought to Fontainebleau. There he was half forced and half persuaded to sign the concordat of Jan. 25, 1813, renouncing his temporal power, promising to take up his residence at Avignon, etc. But on March 24 he retracted, Consalvi having joined him in the mean time ; and circum- stances finally compelled Napoleon to yield. The Pope was released on March 10, 1814, and allowed to return to Rome, where he was received with gTcat enthusiasm. The great success which the papal see achieved at the Congress of Vienna was again due to the diplomatic skill of Consalvi ; but the peculiar character of the restored papal gov- ernment was too plainly indicated by the decree of Aug. 7, 1814, re-establishing the Society of Jesus, and the bull of June 26, 1816, condemning Bible Societies as " a fiendish instrument for the undermining of the foundation of religion." The life of Pius VII. was written by Henry Simon, Paris, 1823, 2 vols. ; Jageb, Frankfort, 1824 ; GuADET, Paris, 1824 ; Pistolesi, Rome, 1824, 2 vols. ; Artaud de Montor, Paris, 3d ed., 1839, 3 vols. ; Giucci, Rome, 2d ed., 1864, 2 vols. See also Pacca : Memorie storiche, Rome, 5th ed., 1831, and the arts. Concordat, Dalberg, and Fesch, and the literature there given. — Pius VIII. (March 31, 1829-Dec. 1, 1830). He was educated by the Jesuits at Osimo and Bo- logna ; studied canon law ; entered the service of the church, and was made Bishop of Ascoli in 1800, and cardinal in 1816. It is very significant for the character of the man, that one of his first acts as a pope was to forbid his relatives to come to Rome. His life was written by Nodari, Padua, 1840, and Artaud de Montor, Paris, 1844. See also Wiseman : Recollections of the last Four Popes, London, 1858 ; Gavazzi : Recollections of the last Four Popes, London, 1859. ZOPFFEL. Pius IX, (June 16, 1846-Feb. 7, 1878). His original name was Giovanni Maria Mastai Fer- retti ; and he was born of a noble but poor family at Sinigaglia, May 18, 1792. Of his earlier life not much is known, nor does it seem to contain any thing of particular interest. When he was eighteen years old he made an application for a place in the pajpal guard ; but, as he was subject to epileptic fits, he was not admitted. The mili- tary career thus being closed to him, he entered the ecclesiastical career, and was ordained a priest in 1819. In 1823 he went to Chili as the secretary of the papal legate. In 1829 he was made Arch- bishop of Spoleto, in 1832 Bishop of Imola, and in 1840 a cardinal. As a bishop he won the esteem and love of his flocks by the gentleness and liberality of his character ; and, in the con- clave after the death of Gregory XVI., he was, indeed, the candidate of Young Italy. Nor did he in the first years of his reign disappoint the expectations of his party. More than six thou- sand political prisoners and exiles were pardoned ; the most harassing restrictions of the press were removed; great reforms were introduced in the administration and the courts ; a Consulla — a transition to a constitutional form of government — was established under the presidency of Gizzi. The Ultramontanes stood aghast ; the Jesuits denounced the Pope as a Robespierre with the tiara ; and the Liberals joined him with such an enthusiasm, that he could probably have given an entirely different character to the papacy if he had been resolute enough to place himself at the head of that movement which finally resulted in the union of Italy. But he shrank from a war with Austria, one of the pillars of the Church of Rome ; and hardly had he taken the first retrograde step before a rising in Rome compelled him to flee (in 1848). He took up his residence at Gaeta as the guest of the king of Naples ; and when he returned to Rome, two years later, under the protection of a French army of occupation, he had completely changed his views, and given up himself entirely to the Jesuits. The result was the loss of the Romagna in 1859, of Umbria and the Marches in 1860, of Rome itself in 1870; that is, the complete de- struction of the temporal power of the Pope. See PIUS SOCIETIES. 1849 PLATINA. art. Church, States of the. The character of the spiritual reign of Pius IX. is strikingly represented by his establishment of the dogma of the immaculate conception, by his encyclical letter and the syllabus accompanying it, and by his establishment of the dogma of the infallibility of the Pope ; by which three acts he threw, or at least endeavored to throw, the Church of Rome six centuries back, and to prevent her from ever advancing. See the arts. Immaculate Concep- tion, Syllabcs, and Vatican Council. The life of Pius IX. was written by Legge, London, 1875; ViLLEFRANCHE, Lyons, 1876; Trollope, Loudon, 1877, 2 vols. ; Tesi-Passerixi, Florence, 1877; J. G. Shea, New York, 1877; Gillet, Paris, 1877; De B ussy, Paris, 1878; Pfleider- ER, 1878 ; and Zeller, 1879. His speeches were published in Rome, 1872-73, 2 vols. See Glad- stone : Speeches of Pope Pius IX., in Rome and the Newest Fashions in Religion, London and New York, 1875. PIUS SOCIETIES are associations formed in Germany for the defence of the freedom and in- dependence of the Roman-Catholic Church. The first society of the kind was formed kt Mayence in March, 1848, consisting of five hundred mem- bers, and naming itself after the Pope. But the idea met with so much sympathy, that at a general assembly at Cologne, in August, same year, no less than eighty-three such societies were represented. To make the Church entirely independent of the State, and absolutely authoritative in the school, was adopted by the assembly as the principal proposition of its programme. For more special purposes, branch societies with special names have been formed, — the Vincent Societies, for the inner mission ; the Francis Xavier Societies, for missions among the heathen ; the Canisius Societies, for pure and true education (in the Roman sense of the words) ; and others. General assemblies, developing the programme, and per- fecting the organization, of the societies, meet almost every year ; and their influence is strongly felt in the political world. zocklbr. PLACET (^placelum regium, regium exequatur, UltercB pareatis) denotes a kind of confirmation, or recognition, involving practical enforcement, which the edicts of the Church receive from the authorities of the State. It presupposes that Church and State move along pretty independ- ently of each other ; for in the territorial Church, from the period of the Reformation, ruled by the State, a placet would be as much out of place as in the Roman Church from the time of Gregory VII., and according to his ideas. Considering herself as the terrestrial plenipotentiary of God, the Roman-Catholic Church has never admitted that her edicts needed any recognition or confirma- tion from the State in order to become obligatory upon her members. On the contrary, the bull In Ccena Domini, of 1568, excommunicates any one who in any way should try to prevent the publi- cation and enforcement of a papal bull or brief. And, in his encyclical letter of 1861, Pius IX. denounces the placet as one of the great errors of the age. Nevertheless, it is of old date. The first traces of it are found in Spain, under the reign of Charles V. ; and Philip II. maintained it with great vigor, and employed very severe measures when the buU In Ccena Domini was published in Spain without his consent. In France it developed in connection with the par- liaments and their right of registering laws. See PiTHOU : Liberies de Vllglise gaUicane, 1594. The declaration, however, of March 8, 1772, and the imperial decree of Feb. 28, 1810, exempt such edicts from the placet as refer exclusively to con- science. For the transplantation of the Hispano- Gallican theory and practice, see Van Espen: Tractalus de promulgalione legum ecclesiasticarum (Louvain, 1712); and Besier : Spec, de Juris placed historia in Belgio (Utrecht, 1848). In Germany, — though in the period from the diet of Spires (1526) till the Westphalian peace (1648) the Empire took its stand very independently over against the Church, — the placet remained a relation between the Church and the separate states, — Bavaria, Austria, Prussia, etc. See Friedberg : Die Grenzen zwiscJien Staat mid Kirche, Tiibingen, 1872. MEJEE. PLACEUS (Josua Laplace), b. in Bretagne, 1606 ; was in 1625 appointed preacher to the Reformed congregation in Nantes, and in 1632 (together with Amyraut and Capellus, who, like himself, were pupils of Cameyo), professor of theology at Saumur, where he' d. Aug. 17, 1655. His Opera omnia appeared at Franeker in 1699, and at Aubencit in 1702, in 2 vols, quarto. His views of a mediate, not immediate, imputation of the sin of Adam, first developed in his De statu hominis lapsi ante gratiain (1640), caused consid- erable uneasiness in the Reformed Qhurch. But when, in 1645, the synod of Clarendon condemned those who denied the imputation of the sin of Adam, he defended himself as being not at all included under that verdict. After his death; however, the Formula consensus of 1675 presented a formal rejection of the views of Laplace and Amyraut, and, in general, of all the novelties of Saumur. ' A. SCHWEIZEE. PLAGUES OF EOYpT. See Egypt, p. 710. PLANCK is the name of two noticeable Ger- man theologians, father and son. — Gottlieb Jakob Planck, b. at Niirtingen in Wurtemberg, Nov. 15, 1751 ; d. at Gottingen, Aug. 31, 1833. He studied theology at Tiibingen, 1769-74, and was appointed preacher at Stuttgart jn 1780, and professor of theology at Gottingen in 1784. His studies were chiefly historical. His stand-point was that of rational supranaturalism, and his method that of pragmatic representation. His principal works are, GescMchte des protestantischen Lehrbegriffs, Leipzig, 1781-1800, 6 vols. ; GescMchte der christ- lich-kirchlichen Gesellschaftsverfassung, Hanover, 1803-09, 5 vols. His life was written by Schlager (Hameln, 1833) and Liicke (Gottingen, 1835). — Heinrich Ludwig Planck, b. at Gottingen, July 19, 1785 ; d. there Sept. 23, 1831. He studied theology in his native city, and was appointed professor there in 1810. His studies were chiefly exegetical. He published Bemerkungen iiber den ersien Brilef an den Timotheus (Gottingen, 1808), De vera natura aique indole orationis gracm N. T. (Gottingen, 1810), Abriss d. philos. Religionslehre (Gottingen, 1821). wagenmann. PLATINA, BartholomEeus, b. at Piadena (Latin, Platina), in the diocese of Cremona, 1421 ; d. in Rome, 1481. His true name was Sacchi. He first entered the army, but afterwards devoted himself to literature, and was appointed apostoli- PLATONISM. 1850 PLATONISM. cal abbreviator by Pius II., and assistant librarian at the Vatican by Sixtus IV. At the instance of the latter, he wrote his Opus in vitas summorum pontificum. (Venice, 1479), which, for the period from the accession of Eugenius IV. to the death of Paul II., is a source. He also wrote a history of the city of Jlantua, and other works. See D. G. MoLLEB : Dissertatio de B. Ptatina, Altdorf , 1694. PLATONISM AND CHRISTIANITY. "The peculiarity of the Platonic philosophy," says Hegel, in his History of Philosophy (vol. ii.), "is precisely this direction to'syards the supersensuous world, — it seeks the elevation of consciousness into the realm of spirit. The Christian religion also has set up this high principle, that the inter- nal spiritual essence of man is his true essence, and has made it the universal principle." Some of the early Fathers recognized, as they well might, a Christian element in Plato, and ascribed to him a kind of propcedeutic office and relation toward Christianity. Clement of Alex- andria calls philosophy " a sort of preliminary discipline {Trpovaiida tiq) for those who lived be- fore the coming of Christ," and adds, " Perhaps we may say it was given to the Greeks with this special object ; for philosophy was to the Greeks what the law was to the Jews, — a schoolmaster to bi'ing them to Christ {Slrom., 1, 104 A ; cf . 7, 505, 526). "The Platonic dogmas," says Justin Martyr, " are not foreign to Christianity. If we Christians say that all things were created and ordered by God, we seem to enounce a doctrine of Plato ; and, between our view of the being of God ^nd his, the article appears to make the only difference " {Apol., 2, 96 D, etc.). " Justin " (says Ackermann, in the first chapter of his Das Christ- liehe des Plalonismus, which is the leading modern work on this subject), — "Justin was, as he himself relates, an enthusiastic admirer of Plato before he found in the gospel that full satisfaction which he had sought earnestly, but in vain, in philoso- phy. And, though the gospel stood infinitely higher in his view than the Platonic philosophy, yet he regarded the latter as a preliminary stage to the former. In the same way did the other apologetic writers express themselves concerning Plato and his philosophy, especially Athenagoras, the most spirited, and philosophically most impor- tant, of them all, whose Apology is one of the most admirable works of Christian antiquity." The Fathers of the early chm'ch sought to explain the striking resemblance between the doctrines of Plato and those of Christianity, principally by the acquaintance, which, as they supposed, that philosopher made with learned Jews and with the Jewish Scriptures during his sojourn in Egypt, but partly, also, by the rmiversal light of a divine revelation through the " Logos," which, in and through human reason, " lighteth every man that cometh into the world," and which illumined especially such sincere and hum- ble seekers after truth as Socrates and Plato before the incarnation of the Eternal Word in the person of Jesus Christ. Passages which bear a striking resemblance to the Christian Scriptures in their picturesque, para- bolic, and axiomatic style, and still more in the lofty moral, religious, and almost Christian senti- ments which they express, are scattered thickly all through the Dialogues, even those that treat of physical, political, and philosophical subjects ; and they are as characteristic of Plato, as is the inimitably graceful dialogue in which they are clothed. A good selection of such passages may be seen in the introductory chapters of Acker- mann's work on the Platonic Element in Plato. A still more copious and striking collection might be made. But we do not wish to rest our thesis upon single passages, which, of course, may be exceptional, or, if taken out of their connection, might be misunderstood. To preclude mistake, we must examine the Platonic philosophy itself in its principles and spirit. 1. Perhaps the most obvious and striking fea- ture of it is, that it is pre-eminently a spiritual philosophy. Hegel, as we have seen, speaks of " this direction toward the supersensuous world," this " elevation of consciousness into the realm of spirit," as "the peculiarity of the Platonic philosophy." There is no doctrine on which Plato more frequently or more strenuously insists than this, — that soul is not only superior to body, but prior to it in order of time, and that not merely as it exists in the being of God, but in every order of existence. The soul of the world existed first, and then it was clothed with a mate- rial body. The souls which animate the sun, moon, and stars, existed befoi'e the bodies which they inhabit {Timceus, passim). The pre-exist- ence of human souls is one of the arguments on which he relies to prove their immortality {Pha:d., 73-76). Among the other arguments by which he demonstrates at once the immortality of the soul and its exalted dignity are these : that the soul leads and rules the body, and therein resembles the immortal gods (Phced. 80) ; that the soul is capable of apprehending eternal and immutable ideas, and communing with things unseen and eternal, and so must partake of their nature {Ibid., 79) ; that, as consciousness is single and simple, so the soul itself is uncompounded, and hence incapable of dissolution (78) ; that soul being everywhere the cause and source of life, and every way diametrically opposite to death, we cannot conceive of it as dying, any more than we can conceive of fire as becoming cold (102- 107); that soul, being self-moved, and the source of all life and motion, can never cease to live and move (Phcedrus, 245) ; that diseases of the body do not reach to the soul ; and vice, which is a disease of the soul, corrupts its moral quality, but has no power or tendency to destroy its essence (Repub., 610), etc. Spiritual entities are the only real existences : material things are perpetually changing, and flowing into and out of existence. God is : the world becomes, and passes away. The soul is : the body is ever changing, as a garment. Souls or ideas, which are spiritual entities, are the only true causes; God being the first cause why every thing is, and ideas being the second- ary causes why things are such as they are {Phmd., 100 sq.). Mind and will are the real cause of all motion and action in the world, just as truly as of all human motion and action. According to the striking illustration in the Phmdo (98, 99), the cause of Socrates awaiting death in the prison, instead of making his escape as his friends urged him to do, was that he chose to do so from a sense of duty ; and, if he had chosen to run away, his PLATONISM. 1851 PLATONISM. bones and muscles would have been only the means or instruments of the flight of which his mind and will would have been the cause. And just so it is in all the phenomena of nature, in all the motions and changes of the material cosmos. And life in the highest sense, what we call spir- itual and eternal life, all that deserves the name of life, is in and of and from the soul, which matter only contaminates and clouds, and the body only clogs and entombs {Gorg., 492, 493). Platonism, as well as Christianity, says, Look not at the things which are seen, but at the things which are not seen ; for the things which are seen are temporary (-irpdaKaipa), only for a season ; but the things which are not seen are eternal. 2. The philosophy of Plato is eminently a the- istic philosophy. " God," he says, in his Repub- lic (716 A), " is (literally, holds) the beginning, middle, and end of all things. He is the Supreme Mind or Reason, the efficient Cause of all things, eternal, unchangeable, all-knowing, all-powerful, all-pervading, and all-controlling, just, holy, wise, and good, the absolutely perfect, the beginning of all truth, the fountain of all law and justice, the source of all order and beauty, and especially the cause of all good " (see Philebus, Phcedo, Tima- us. Republic, and Laws, passim). God represents, he impersonates, he is the True, the Beautiful, but, above all, the Good. Just how Plato con- ceived these " Ideas " to be related to the divine mind is a much disputed point. In discussing the good, sometimes we can hardly tell whether he means by it an idea, an attribute, a principle, a power, or a personal God. But he leaves us in no doubt as to his actual belief in the divine per- sonality. God is the Reason (the Intelligence, o NoSf, Phced., 97 C) and the Good (to 'kyaBov, Repub., 508 C) ; but he is also the Artificer, the Maker, the Father, the Supreme Ruler, who be- gets, disposes, and orders all (cf. Timceus, passim, with places just cited). He is 6eof and 6 Geof, Phced., 106 D, and often elsewhere). Plato often speaks also of ol dcoi in the plural; but to him, as to all the best minds of antiquity, the inferior deities are the children, the servants, the minis- ters, the anyels, of the Supreme God (Tim., 41). Unity is an essential element of perfection. There is but one highest and best, — the Most High, the Supreme Good : God in the true and proper sense is one. The Supreme God only is eternal, he only hath immortality in himself. The immortality of the inferior deities is derived, imparted to them by their Father and the Father of all, and is dependent on his will (Tim., 41). God made the world by inti'oducing order and beauty into cha- otic matter, and putting into it a living, moving, intelligent soul ; then the inferior deities made man under his direction, and in substantially the same way. God made the world because he is good, and because, free from all envy or jealousy, he wished every thing to be as much like him- self as the creature can be like the creator (Tim., 30 A). Therefore he made the world good ; and when he saw it he was delighted (Tim., 37 C ; cf. Gen. i. 31). God is the author of all good, and of good only, not of evil. " Every good gilt cometh down from the Father of the celestial lumina- ries;" "for it is not permitted (oii Be/iu:, it is morally impossible) for the best being to do any thing else than the best" (Tim., 30 A; cf. Jas, i. 17). God exercises a providential care over the world as a whole, and over every part (chiefly, however, thi-ough the inferior deities who thus fulfil the office of angels — Laws, 905 B-906), and makes all things, the least as well as the greatest, work for good to the righteous and those who love God, and are loved by him (Phced., 62; Repuh., 613). Atheism is a disease, and a corruption of the soul ; and no man ever did an unrighteous act, or uttered an impious word, unless he was a theoretical or practical atheist [Laws, 885 B), that is, in the language of the indictment at common law, he did it, " not having the fear of God before his eyes." 3. The Platonic philosophy is teleological. Fi- nal causes, together with rational and spiritual agencies, are the only causes that are worthy of the study of the philosopher: indeed, no others deserve the name (Phced., 98 sqq.). If mind (voif) is the cause of all things, mind must dispose all things for the best; and when we know how it is best for any thing to be made or disposed, then, and then only, do we know how it is and the cause of its being so {Phced., 97). Material causes are no causes ; and inquiry into them is imperti- nent, unphilosophical, not to say impious and absurd. Thus did Plato build up a system of rational psychology, cosmology, and theology, all of which are largely teleological, on the twofold basis of a priori reasoning and mythology, in other words, of reason and tradition, including the idea of a primitive revelation The esohatol- ogy of the Phcedo, the Gorgias, and the Republic, is professedly a fivSog, though he insists that it is also a /lo/of (Repub., 523) or a ■naXaiog TMyoi; (709). His cosmology he professes to have heard from some one (Phced., 108 D) ; and his theology in the Timceus purports to have been derived by tradi- tion from the ancients, who were the offspring of the gods, and who must, of course, have known the truth about their own ancestors (40 C). Yet the whole structure is manifestly the work of his own reason and creative imagination ; and the central doctrine of the whole is, that God made and governs the world with constant reference to the highest possible good ; and " Ideas " are the powers, or, in the phraseology of modern science, the " forces," by which the end was to be accom- plished. 4. The philosophy of Plato is pre-eminently ethical, and his ethics are remarkably Christian. Only one of his Dialogues was classified by the ancients as "physical," and that (the Timceus) is largely theological. The political Dialogues treat politics as a part of ethics, — ethics as applied to the State. Besides the four virtues as usually classified by Greek moralists, — viz., temperance, courage, justice, and wisdom, — Plato recognized as virtues humility and meekness, which the Greeks generally despised, and holiness, which they ignored (Euthyphron, passim) ; and he insists on the duty of non-retaliation and non-resistance as strenuously, not to say paradoxically, as it is taught in the Sermon on the Mount (Crit., 49). That it is better to suffer wrong than to do wrong is a prominent doctrine of the Gorgias (479 E, 508 C). But as the highest " idea " is that of the Good, so the highest excellence of which man is capable is likeness to God, the Supreme and Ab- solute Good. A philosopher, who is Plato's ideal PLATONISM. 1852 PLATONISM. of a man, and, so to speak, of a Christian, is a lover of wisdom, of truth, of justice, of goodness (Repuh., bk. vi., passim), of God, and, by the con- templation and imitation of his virtues, becomes like him as far as it is possible for man to resem- ble God {Rep., 613 A,B). 5. Plato is pre-eminently a religious philoso- pher. His ethics, his politics, and his physics are all based on his theology and his religion. Natui'al and moral obligations, social and civil duties, duties to parents and elders, to kindred and strangers, to neighbors and friends, are all religious duties {Laws, bk. ix., 881 A, xi., 931 A). Not only is God the Lawgiver and Ruler of the universe, but his law is the source and ground of all human law and justice. " That the gods not only exist, but that they are good, and honor and reward justice far more than men do, is the most beautiful and the best preamble to all laws " {Laws, X. 887). Accordingly, in the Republic and the Laws, the author often prefaces the most im- portant sections of his legislation with some such preamble, exhortation, or, as Jowett calls it, ser- mon, setting forth the divine authority by which it is sanctioned and enforced. 6. Plato gives prominence to the doctrine of a future state of rewards and punishments. At death, by an inevitable law of its own beirg, as well as by the appointment of God, every sjul goes to its own place ; the evil gravitating to the evil, and the good rising to the Supreme Good. When they come before their Judge, perhaps after a long series of transmigrations, each of which is the reward or punishment of the preced- ing, those who have lived virtuous and holy lives, and those who have not, are separated from each other. The wicked whose sins are curable are subjected to sufferings in the lower world, which are more or less severe, and more or less pro- tracted, according to their deserts. The incurably wicked are hurled down to Tartarus, whence they never go out, where they are punished for- ever {tov uEi ;t;p6vov) as a spectacle and warning to others {Gore/., 528 sqq. ; Phced. 118 D sq.). Those, on the other hand, who have lived virtu- ously and piously, especially those who have purified their hearts and lives by philosophy, will live without bodies {Pkced., 114 C), with the gods, and in places that are bright and beautiful be- yond description. More solemn and impressive sermons were never preached in Christian pulpits than those with which Plato concludes such Dia- logues as the Gorgias, the Phcedo, the Republic, and the Laws. We have space only to allude to other charac- teristic features of Plato's philosophy, such, for example, as his doctrine of " Ideas," — the True, the Beautiful, the Good, the Holy, and the like, — which, looking at them now only on the ethi- cal and practical side, are eternal and immuta- ble, and not dependent even on the will of God (the holy, for instance, is not holy because it is the will of God, but it is the will of God because it is holy, just, and good — Euthyph., 10 D) ; the indispensable necessity of a better than any exist- ing, not to say better than human, society and government (like the ideal republic, which is not so much a state, as a church or a school, a great family, or a Man " writ large "), in order to the salvation of the individual or the perfection of the race ; the degenerate, diseased, carnal, and corrupt state into which mankind in general have fallen since the reign of Kroiios in the golden age {Laws, 713 C;>olil., 271 1): Cril., 108 D), and from which God only can save any individual or nation {Repub., bk. vi., 492, 493); and the need of a divine teacher, revealer, healer, charmer, to charm away the fear of death, and bring life and inunortality to light {Phmd., 78 A, 859). And we can only advert to the radical defects and imperfections of Plato's best teachings, — his inadequate conception of the nature of sin as involuntary, the result of ignorance, a misfortune, and a disease in the soul, rather than a transgres- sion of the divine law ; his consequent erroneous ideas of its cure by successive transmigrations on earth, and protracted pains in purgatory, and hy philosophy (an aristoci'atic remedj', in its nature applicable only to the favored few) ; his phi- losophy of the origin of evil, viz., in the refrac- tory nature of matter, which must therefore be gotten rid of by bodily mortification, and by the death of the body without a resurrection, before the soul can arrive at its perfection ; his utter inability to conceive of such a thing as an atone- ment, free forgiveness, regenerating grace, and salvation for the masses, a fortiori for the chief of sinners ; the doubt and uncertainty of his best religious teachings ; his ifs and whethers, espe- cially about the future life {Apol., 40 E, 42; Phced., 107 C) ; and the utter want in his system of the grace, even more than of the truth, that have come to us by Jesus Christ, for, after all, Platonism is not so deficient in the wisdom of God as it is in the power of God unto salvation. The Republic, for example, proposes to overcome the selfishness of human nature by constitutions and laws and education, instead of a new heart and a new spii-it, by community of goods and of wives, instead of loyalty and love to a divine- human person like Jesus Christ. Baur {Socr. and Christ) does indeed find in the idealized Socrates of Plato an analogy (speculatively inter- esting, perhaps, but practically how unlike I) to the personal Christ, and in his " Ideas " a basis, not only for the doctrine of the "Logos" as it was developed by Philo and other Neo-Platonists, but also for the Incarnate Logos of the Gospel of John, with which it may, indeed, have some philosophical relation, but probably no historical connection, still less any corresponding influence on the history of the Morld. The history of Platonism, and its several schools or sub-schools of thought and opinion, does not come within the scope of this article. It may be remarked, in general, that, in the Middle and the New Academy, there was always more or less tendency to scepticism, growing out of the Platonic doctrine of the uncertainty of all human knowl- edge except that of " ideas." The Neo-Platonists, on the other hand, inclined towards dogmatism, mysticism, asceticism, theosophy, and even thau- maturgy, thus developing seeds of error that lay in the teaching of their master. After the Chris- tian era, among those who were more or less the followers of Plato, we find, at one extreme, the devout and believing Plutarch, the author of that almost inspired treatise on the Belay of the Deity in the Punishment of the Wicked, and the practical and sagacious Galen, whose work on the Uses of PLATONISM. 1853 PLATONISTS. the Paris of the Human Body is an anticipation of the Bridgewaler Treatises, both of whom, like Socrates, we can hardly help feeling, would have accepted Christianity if they had come "within the scope of its influence ; and, at the other ex- treme, Porphyry, and Julian the apostate, who wielded the weapons of philosophy in direct hos- tility to the religion of Christ; while intermediate between them the major part of the philosophers of the Neo-Platonic and eclectic schools who came in contact with Christianity went on their way in proud indifference, neglect, or contempt of the religion of the crucified Xazarene. But not a few of the followers of Plato discovered a kindred and congenial element in the eminent spmtuality of the Christian doctrines and the lofty ethics of the Christian life, and, coming in through the ves- tibule of the Academy, became some of the most illustrious of the fathers and doctors of the early church. And many of the early Christians, in turn, found peculiar attractions in tlie doctrines of Plato, and employed them as weapons for the defence and extension of Christianity, or, per- chance, cast the truths of Christianity in a Pla- tonic mould. The doctrines of the Logos and the Trinity received their shape from Greek Fathers, who, if not trained in the schools, were much in- fluenced, directly or indirectly, by the Platonic philosophy, pai'ticularly in its Jewish-Alexandrian form. That errors and corruptions crept into the chm'ch from this source cannot be denied. But from the same source it derived no small additions, both to its numbers and its strength. Among the most illustrious of the Fathers who were more or less Platonic, we may name Justin Martyr, Athenagoras, Theophilus, Irenseus, Hippolytus, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Jlinutius Felix, Eusebius, Methodius, Basil the Great, Gregory of Nyssa, and St. Augustine. Plato was the divine philosopher of the earlier Christian centuries : in the middle ages Aristotle succeeded to his place. But in every period of the history of the church, some of the brightest ornaments of literature, philosophy, and religion, — such men as Anselm, Erasmus, Melanchthon, Jeremy Taylor, Ralph Cudworth, Henry More, Xeander, and Tayler Lewis, — have been " Platonizing " Christians. Lit. — The Works of Plato, in the original Greek, edited, with prolegomena and commentary, by Gottfried Stallbaum, Leipzig, 1821-25, 10 vols., 2d ed., 1833-42; Translations of the Dia- logues (in German) by F. Schleiermacher, Berlin, 1804r-10, 2 vols., 2d ed., 1833-^2, his In- troductions were translated by W. Dobsox, Cam- bridge and London, 1836, (in English) by B. JowETT, London and Xew York, 1871, 1 vols., and (partial translation) by W. Whewell, Cam- bridge, 1860. — Works upon Plato and Platonism in Different Relations. G. C. B. Ackerjiaxx : Das Christliche im Plato u. in der Plalonischen Philosophie, Hamburg, 1835, Eng. trans., Christian Element in Plato and the Platonic Philosophy, with Introductory Note by Professor Shedd, Edin- burgh, 1861; F. C. Baur: Das Christliche d. PlatonismubS, 1837, in Drei Abhandlungen, ed. Zel- ler, Leipzig, 1876 ; Tayler Lewis : Plato against the Atheists ; or. The Tenth Book of the Dialogues on Laws (Greek), with Critical Notes, New York, 1845 ; R. D. Hampden : The Fathers of the Greek Philosophy, ^Ainhnrgh, 1862; H. v. Stein: Gesch. d. Plalonismus, Gdttingen, 1862-75; G. Grote : Plato and Oilier Companions of Socrates, Loudon, 1865; Cocker: Christianity and Greek Philosophy, New York, 1870. Cf . Ritter : Hist. Anc. Phil., Eng. trans., Oxford, 1846, vol. ii. ; Niedxer: Einleitung fjriech. Philos. u. TheoL, 1846 ; Neax- der: Ch. Hist., Eng. trans., Boston, 1848, vol. i.; Ueberweg : Hist. Philos., Eng. trans., London and New York, 1872, vol. i. (where, besides an excellent summary, see copious references to the literature). w. S. tyler. PLATONISTS, The Cambridge. This name was given to a number of distinguished scholars, thinkers, and authors, who were graduates, fel- lows, tutors, and masters (provosts) of colleges in Cambridge University, JSngland, and who re- vived the study and the philosophy of Plato in the latter part of the seventeenth century. The leading men of the school were Benjamin Which- cote, John Smith, Ralph Cudworth, and Heni-y More. Nathaniel Culverwell, John Worthing-ton, George Rust, Simon Patrick, and Edward Fowler also are mentioned as minor members. Joseph Glanvil, John Norris, and John AVilkins, though they were educated at Oxford, were so intimately associated with them, that they are sometimes reckoned as belonging to the school. All the leaders, with the exception of jNlore, and several of the minor membei-s were educated at the famous Puritan College, Emmanuel. They were also, for the most part, of Puritan origin and sympathies, and owed their position, in the first instance, to the Parliament and the Protector. One of them (Wilkins) married Oliver Crom- well's sister. But they belonged to the Estab- lished Church, and retained their influence after the Restoration. Several of them became bishops. About the same time, though, for the most pai't, a little earlier in the century, there was at Ox- ford a somewhat similar school, or rather suc- cession of scholars, authors, and divines, — John Hales, William Chillingworth, Jeremy Taylor, and others, — who represented moderation, compre- hension, peace, and progress, not to say reform, in the church. But they came out from the Roy- alist and High-Church side in the great struggle of the centmy; and they directed their efforts chiefly to questions of church order and govern- ment, and to the cherishing in the church of a broad, catholic, charitable, and truly Christian spirit and life. In the latter part of the seven- teenth century, Cambridge, rather tlian Oxford, became the centre of the liberal theological move- ment ; and the Cambridge school took a wider range, and discussed questions which were not only vital to Christianity, but which lay at the foundation of all religion. They proved the ex- istence of God, and illustrated his being, nature, character, and government of the world. They discussed the relation of spirit to matter, God to the world, the Creator to the creation. They carried their researches still farther, and inquired into the nature of matter and spirit, the laws of mind and of thought, the grounds of knowledge and belief. They combated modern materialism, agnosticism, and evolution, as they then existed in the germ. They explained and enforced the proper office of reason in religion, and insisted on the essential identity of a rational and a Christian theology and philosophy. They main- PLATONISTS. 1854 PLATONISTS. tained stoutly the doctrine of immutable morality, and inculcated earnestly the necessity of a right- eousness that is not only legal, but ethical, im- puted indeed, but also imparted, the gift of God, but living and reigning in the hearts and lives of true Christians. They argued the immortality of the soul, and the resurrection of the body, from the light of nature and the teachings of philosophy; and they looked at all these ques- tions from the Platonic stand-point. They had "unsphered the spirit of Plato." They trans- lated his doctrines and arguments into the forms of modern thought. Cudworth's "plastic na- ture " is Plato's " soul of the world " transmi- gTated into the seventeenth century: his treatise on Eternal and Immutable Morality is a metempsy- chosis of Plato's Eternal and Immutable Ideas; and he maintains, that, in their three hypostases, — Monad or God, mind, and soul, — Plato and some of the Platonists made a very near approach to the Christiaii doctrine of the Trinity. Henry More went so far as to hold the Platonic doctrine of the pre-existence of human souls. But Neo- Platonism was studied and admired by some of the Cambridge Platonists, pei-haps by all of them, even more than the unadulterated teachings of Plato himself ; they Plotinized even more than they Platonized in their religious philosophy. More and Glanvil were carried away by a belief in ghosts and witches, which was a cross between Neo-Platonic demonology and modern spiritual- ism, but whose chief interest, to their minds, lay in the confirmation it lent to their faith in spiritual existences. They were all men of vast learning. They cumbered their pages with quotations, es- pecially from Plotinus, Jamblichus, Proclus, and other Neo-Platonists ; and so they were generally sadly deficient in the grace and beauty that shed such a charm over the writings of Plato. At the same time they were genuine disciples of Christ. They called no man master, but sat at the feet of Jesus for instruction, receiving the truth from his lips in a humble, teachable, believing, and obedient spirit, and using reason and philosophy only to interpret that truth, and commend it to the understanding, love, and obedience of others. Even such an exercise of reason in religion awakened jealousy and suspicion in the extre- mists, both on the Anglican and the Puritan side. They were known at the time as the " New Sect of the Latitude-men ; " and their teaching was stigmatized as the "New Philosophy." It was a re-action from the long prevalent and then gener- ally accepted philosophy of Aristotle and the schoolmen. It was also a re-action against the High-Churchism of Archbishop Laud on the one hand, and, on the other, against the High-Calvin- ism represented by the Westminster Assembly. It was partly in sympathy with, and partly op- posed to, the philosophy of Descartes. Above all, it was in direct antagonism to the thinly disguised scepticism of Hobbes, and to the unbe- lieving and licentious tendencies of the times, particularly after the Restoration. Principal Tulloch, in the second volume of his Rational Theology in the Seventeenth Century, which is devoted to the Cambridge Platonists, charac- terizes the four leaders of the school as follows : Benjamin Whichcote, reason and religion; John Smith, foundations of a Christian philosophy; Kalph Cud worth. Christian philosophy in con^ flict with materialism; Henry More, Christian theosophy and mysticism. For Cudworth and More, see separate articles. Benjamin Whichcote was born in 1610, graduated at Emmanuel Col- lege in 1629, fellow, 1633-43. His appointment as provost of King's College, in 1644, marks the origin of the new philosophical and religious movement at Cambridge. His personal magnet- ism, and power as a preacher, greatly moved the university, and excited suspicion of his ortho- doxy among the Puritan leaders. Removed by Charles II., he died, in 1683, on one of his visits to Cambridge, in the house of " his ancient and learned friend Dr. Cudworth." Archbishop Tib lotson preached his funeral sermon. His prin- cipal works — Apostolical Apothegms and Select Sermons — were collected and published after his death. The Earl of Shaftesbury furnished the Preface for the Sermons. The following aphorism illustrates the Platonic oast of his mind and the general drift of his teaching : " Religion is being as much like God as man can be like him." John Smith was born in 1618, took his bachelor's degree at Emmanuel College in 1640, and his master's in 1644, in which latter year he was also chosen fellow of Queen's College. He died in 16.52, at the age of thirty-four, " a thinker with- out a biography." His funeral sermon was preached by John Worthington, and his Select Discourses were edited by Symon Patrick. The Discourses are ten. His original plan contem- plated discourses on what he enumerates as the three main articles of religious truth: (1) The immortality of the soul; (2) The existence and nature of God ; (3) The communication of God to man through Christ. But he did not live to enter upon the third of these topics. His Pla- tonism and the central principle of his argument may be seen in the statement, that it is only " by a contemplation of our own souls that we can climb up to the understanding of the Deity." We cannot dwell upon the minor members of the school. Culverwell, author of a Discourse of the Light of Nature, was a hearty Puritan and a decided Calvinist. Worthington was an ardent educational Reformer, which was a point of con- nection and sympathy between him and John Milton. Rust was the admirer and panegyrist of Jeremy Taylor, and his successor as Bishop of Dromore. Fowlei-, Bishop of Gloucester, and Patrick, Bishop of Chichester and of Ely, were offshoots of the school, but are known chiefly as dignitaries of the church. Lit. — Rational Theology and Christian Philoso- phy in England in the Seventeenth Century, by John Tulloch, D.D., Principal of St. Mary's College in University of St. Andrews, Edinburgh and New York, 1872, in 2 vols., vol. ii. ; Burnet's History of his Own Times, vol. i. ; Brief Account of the New Sect of Latitude-men, etc., probably by Bishop Patrick; Principles of Certain Moderate Divines of the Church of England, abusively called Latitudinarians, etc., by Bishop Fowler; Hal- lam's Introduction to the Literature of Europe, vol. ii. ; Lecky's History of Rationalism in Europe, vol. i. (extravagant in praise of Glanville and More on witchcraft, and in condemnation of Oxford University for opposition to free thought); History of Cambridge University, 2 vols., 4to, by PLITT. 1855 PLUMBR. K. AcKEUMANN, vol. ii. ; Dyer's History of Uni- versity of Cambridge, 2 vols., vol. ii., pp. 91-101, Emmanuel College. w. S. tylek. PLITT, Gustav Leopold, one of the editors of the second edition of Herzog's Real-Enci/klopaUie ; b. at Geiiin, near Liibeok, March 27, 1836 ; d. at Erlangen, Sept. 10, 1880. He studied theology at Erlangen and Berlin, was in 1867 appointed extraordinary, and in 1875 ordinary, professor of church history and encyclopedia in the former university. In 1872 he was given the degree of D.p. by Dorpat. His studies were chiefly his- torical, and concentrated on the period of the Reformation. After a number of minor treatises (De auctoritate articulorum Smalcaldicorum si/m- bolica, Erlangen, 1862 ; Desiderius Erasmus, 1863, etc.), followed, in 1867-68, his chief work, Ein- leitung in die Augustana, 2 vols., of which the &-st contains the history of the evangelical church till the diet of Augsburg ; and the second, the origin and development of the doctrinal system of the evangelical church. In 1873 he published Die Apolugie der Augustana,- in 1875, Grundriss der Symholik fiir Vorlesungen ; in 1876, Jodokus Trut- fetter; in 1879, Gabriel Bid: and at his death he left a nearly finished Lulhers Leben und Wirken, which has been finished by E. F. Petersen (chief pastor in Liibeck), and appeared at Leipzig in 1833. Although popular, it is scholarly; for Plitt was regarded as one of the best Luther scholars in Germany, and especially fitted to answer Roman-Catholic slanders against the Reformer. He also edited the Correspondence of Schelling, the gi-eat jihilosopher {Aus Schellings Leben, in Briefen, Leipzig, 1869, 1870, 8 vols.), whose grand- daughter he had married. When Dr. Herzog undertook the second edition of his Real-Ency- klopadie, he asked Professor Plitt, his colleague, to join him, as one eminently qualified by general learning, tireless energy, executive ability, and catholic sentiments. He lived, however, to see only six volumes through the press, dying before Dr. Herzog. Professor Plitt, was, however, no mere student and writer. Pie frequently preached'with accept- ance, and took great interest in missions, foreign and domestic. In 1867 he succeeded Professor Delitzsch as president of the Bavarian Society for the Conversion of the Jews. Pie took a prom- inent place in philanthropic work and in the organization of the Christian Commission in the Franco-Prussian war (1870-71). Consumption first showed itself in the winter of 1874-75; and, although able to work at times, he gi-adually suc- cumbed to the disease. F. frank. PLUMER, William Swan, D.D., LL.D., Presby- terian divine; b. in Greersburg (now Darlington), Penn., July 26, 1802; d. in Baltimore, Md., Oct. 22, 1880. In the nineteenth year of his age he was a pupil of the venerable Dr. McElhany of Lewisburg, W. Va., with whom he pursued his studies until he was prepared to enter A^'aslling- ton College, Lexington, Va., where he graduated. He received his theological training at Piinceton Seminary ; was licensed to preach by the presby- tery of Xew Brunswick in 1826, and was ordained by the presbytery of Orange in 1827. After several years of evangelical labor in North Carolina, lie returned to ^'irginia; and, after a short term of service in Prince Edward 11 -HI County, he was called to Petersburg in 1831. He removed to Richmond in 1834, to become the pastor of the First Presbyterian Chiirch. In the thirteenth year of his labors in Richmond, he accepted a call to the Franklin-street Church, Baltimore, of which he had pastoral charge from 1847 to 1854, when he was elected to the chair of didactic and pastoral theology in the Western Theological Seminary at Alleghany, Penn. Ow- ing to complications caused by the civil war, his connection with the seminary having been sev- ered, in 1862 he supplied the pulpit of the Arch- street Church, Philadelphia, until 1865, when he accepted a call to the Second Presbyterian Church of Pottsville, Penn. In 1867 he was elected to the professoiship of didactic and polemic theology in Columbia Seminary, South Carolina ; and, after filling that chair for eight years, he was trans- ferred, at his own request, to the chair of historic, casuistic, and pastoral theology, which position he continued to hold until 1880, when he was made professor emeritus by the board of directors. After his connection with Columbia Seminary closedyhe continued to supply different churches in Balti- more, and other cities and towns in Maryland, until his labors were terminated by death. This condensed enumeration of dates, and fields of labor, illustrates not only the vicissitudes of Dr. Plumer's life, and the versatility which char-^ acterized him, but the important positions and responsible trusts committed to him by the Great Head of the church. Dr. Plumer was a man of commanding personal appearance. Plis manner in the pulpit was pecul- iarly impressive. There was a dignity, and even a majesty, iu his presence, that commanded atten- tion. He was a voluminous writer. He wrote a Com- mentary on the Psalms, a Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans, another on the Epistle to the Hebrews, many practical works calculated to establish the faith of believers, or to awaken the impenitent, besides innunierable tracts for the Presbyterian Board of Publication, for the Meth- odist Book Concern of Xashville and of Xew York, for the Board of Publication of the Re- formed Dutch Church, for the Baptist Publica- tion Society of Philadelphia, for the American Sunday-school Union, and for the Presbyterian Publication Committee of Richmond. Some of these works wei-e republished in Europe: others were translated into German, French, Chinese, and modern Greek. While professor in the Western Theological Seminary, he was also the successful pastor of the Central Presbyterian Church of Alleghany. While pro- fessor in Columbia, the church to which he min- istered steadily grew in numbers, and was blessed with precious revivals. While pastor in the city of Richmond, he edited The Watchman of the South. Tiie presidency of several colleges, and the sec- retaryship of several of the boards of the church, were at different times offered him ; but he never saw his way clear to accept any of these appoint- ments. In 1838 "\^^ashington College (Pennsyl- vania), Lafayette College (Pennsylvania), and Princeton College, conferred upon him the title of doctor of divinity ; and in 1857 the University of Mississippi conferred upon him the degree of PLURALITIES. 1856 PLYMOUTH BRETHREN. doctor of laws. In 1877 Dr. Plumer was a delegate to the council of all the Presbyterian churches of the world, which met in the city of Edinbiu-gh. For more than forty years he was a contribu- tor to the periodical press, writing for reviews, for magazines, for many of the religious newspapers North and South, besides conducting a private cor- respondence which to most men would have been burdensome in the extreme. Perhaps no man of his time, not in political life, knew more people, or wrote a larger number of letters on subjects so varied and important. MOSES D. hoge. PLURALITIES, a term (pluralitas) in canon law for the holding, by a clergyman, of two or more livings at the same time. The canon law forbids it ; but Catholic bishops gi-anted dispensations to commit the offence, until the general council of 1273, when the right was taken from them. The popes still claim this right. In England the power to grant dispensations to hold two benefices with the care of souls is vested in the monarch and in the Archbishop of Canterbury. By 13 and 14 Victoria, c. 98, the benefices thus held must not be farther apart than three miles, and the annual value of one of them must be under a hundred pounds. PLYMOUTH BRETHREN, so designated in the British Empire and America, upon the Euro- pean Contineut generally named " Darbyites " (see App., Darby), are by themselves styled " Brethren." The characteristic of this school is an endeavor, in view of divided Christendom, to keep the unity of the Spirit. " That which char- acterized their testimony at the outset was the coming of the Lord as the present hope of the church, and the presence of the Holy Ghost as that which brought into unity, and animated and directed, tlie children of God. . . . The heavenly character of the church was much insisted upon " (Darby's Collected Writings, vol. xx. p. 19). The prophetic inquiry at the beginning of this century would explain their origin. Powerscourt Man- sion, County Wicklow, Ireland, was a centre of such inquiry. It is to Ireland that we trace them earliest. About 1827 an ex-Romanist, the late Edward Cronin, gathered some sympathizers, ulti- mately at his residence in Lower Pembroke Street, Dublin, for "breaking of bread" every Sunday morning. Shortly afterwards another company was formed, which Cronin joined, at 9 Fitzwilliam Square : in this group, nucleus of the Brethren, the most prominent figure was the Rev. J. N. Darby. A pamphlet by Darby, On the Na- ture and Unity of the Church of Christ (1828), dis- turbed many minds in the Protestant churches, and swelled the Brethren's ranks; so that in 1830 a public " assembly " was started in Aungier Street, Dublin. Amongst those early joining the movement was " the noble-hearted " Groves (New- man's Phases of Faith), who, however, left for Bagdad in 1829. To promulgate his views, Darby in 1830 visited Paris, afterwards Cambridge' and Oxford. At the last place he met with B. W. Newton, at whose request he went to Plymouth. " On arriving," Darby writes, " I found in the house Capt. Hall, who was already preaching in the villages. We had reading-meetings, and ere long began to break bread." Their first meeting- place was called " Providence Chapel ; " the Brethren, accordingly, " Providence People ; " but, preaching in country-places, they were there spoken of as " Brethren from Plymouth ; " hence elsewhere, "Plymouth Brethren." The largest number ever in regular communion at Plymouth was a thousand, more or less. Amongst those that here embraced the " testimony " was the late S. P. Tregelles. The title to communion originally, at Plymouth as in Dublin, may be gathered from Darby's Cor- respondence with Rev. J. Kelly (1839). He there writes of " real Christiajis," that " we should un- doubtedly feel it wrong to shut them out," what- ever their peculiarity of doctrine : " we receive all that are on the foundation, and reject and put away all error by the word of God and by the help of his ever-present Spirit." A notable instance had occurred of the excision of one, who, in the story of his religious opinions, has narrated his early connection with the Brethren amongst whom he sought to introduce heterodoxy as to Christ. The Brethren, however, have always restricted discipline, or departure from others, in respect of doctrinal erroi-, to cases falling under 2 John. Darby had written of Sardis and Thya- tira, that " degeneracy claimed service, and not departure " (Ibid.). But there is enough evi- dence of sharp discipline from the outset to for- bid the notion that the so-called " Exclusives " have later employed more stringent measures than was the wont of the Brethren at first : they may have become more consistent and systematic. The Brethren had given practical expression to their views of ministry ere Darby's Christian Liberty of Preaching and Teaching the Lord Jesus Christ appeared in 1834. In the same year was begun the Christian Witness, for which Darby wrote, On the Character of Office in the Present Dispensation (1835), uprooting all official appoint- ment. In the same periodical he wrote. On the 4-postasy of the Successive Dispensations (1836). We present an outline of these treatises : — "The old economy had fallen by the unfaithful- ness of the covenant-people. The whole people was placed under the law, made responsible for its observance. As a whole, it apostatized. The same happened with the New-Testament economy. Chris- tians wholly apostatized in the apostolic age. Failure ever marks man placed under responsibility. The whole Christian system depended upon continuance in God's goodness. If Christendom depart from the divine path for this dispensation, his goodness is abandoned. This is ' the ruin of the church.' Every present ecclesiastical organization is abnormal ; all Christendom obnoxious to judgment. According to Darby's tracts, Sur la Formation des &ylises (1840) and sequel, there remains but I'apostasie fatale et sans remide. A new church organization supposes a new apostolate. Cf. his Reply to the Zionsbote (vl. Jahrgang). All are rejected, Romanist and Prot> estant alike : they repose upon an unchristian sen- timent. Unlike other separatists, Darby places dissenters' systems under the same ban as national churches ; only he sees more corruption in the latter. He falls back upon la promesse da seigneur (Matt, xviii. 20), which provides a motto for the assemblies into which the church should resolve itself. More- over, ecclesiastical office is impaired by the church's ruin. See a tract, On the Apostasy — What is Succes- sion Succession of? (1840); also Le Ministere considird dans sa Nature, etc. (1843), and De la Presence et de V Action du S. Esprit dans V6;jUse, etc. The accept- ance of official ministry as medium between God and man ignores the privilege, enjoyed by every believer, of access to the throne of grace. 'There are, never- theless, ministeres in the word ; because, without such, PLYMOUTH BRETHREN^ 1857 PLYMOUTH BRETHREN. Christ's work would have been imperfeot : he has in- trusted to man the word of reconciliation. This is not a particular office (charge): service in the word IS tlie faithful exercise of a spiritual gift, something artol Christianity. But, in re- spect of title to minister, Kelly remarks, "Ordination was never practised as to . . . evangelists, or pas- tors, or teachers." Worship. — Of the simplest kind. No music, hymns (from a prescribed collection), praise, and prayer, as the Spirit leads. Cf. Kelly's Lecture (1870) and Reply to Rees, vindicating their practice; also his Thour/hts on the Lord's Prayer, for their disuse of the latter, conceived to he a symbol of the position and desires of the Jewish " remnant." lischatolofjy . — Distinction between the coming of Christ to gather his saints, the "rapture" (initial Ti-apovo-m), and his appearing for juilgment (jin arcia); " the day ot the Lord," generic. No true Christians will pass through the "tribulation." Preriiillennial advent; personal reign of Christ upon, that of the church over, the earth for a thousand years. Israel restored and converted; Christ's earthly Bride to PNBUMATOMACHI. 1859 PODIBBRAD. administer his government of the nations under mil- lennial blessing; after that, the final judgment of the wicked dead, the living nations having been judged at the beginning of the Messianic reign. The immor- tality of the soul vindicated as well by Darby (Col- lected Writim/s, vol. x.) as by F. W. Grant of America. Endless punishment: cf. Darby's Elements of Prophe- cy, Kelly's Lectwes on the Minor Prophets and Reve- lation, as to the Renewal of the Roman Empire, Anti- christ, etc. Their testimony is in the main as to the church, ■without neglect of evangelization. For their atti- tude towards ecclesiastical communities in general, see Darby's Considerations on the Relit/ioiis Move- ment of the Day (1830); cf. his Evanyelical Protes- tantism and the Biblical Studies of M. Godet (1875). National churches they regard as too broad; noncon- formacy, as too narrow. Naturally the Evangelical Alliance has not their support. They hold the Holy Spirit's presence in the church to be characteristic of this dispensation. " Their appreciation," says Bledsoe, "of the Holy Spirit's presence, power, and guidance, is the grand and distinctive character of their theology." In 1879 Miller wrote as follows : " In the United States 91 meetings have sprung up of late years ; in Canada there are 101 meetings ; in Holland, 39 ; in Germany, 189 ; in France, 146 ; in Switzerland, 72 ; in the United Kingdom, about 750, besides twenty-two countries where the meetings vary from 1 to 13." In 1S36 we find Brethren already in India. Bishop Wilson of Calcutta employed a charge to his clergy for an attack upon them. Lit. — Herzog : Les freres de Plymouth et J. Darby, Lausanne, 1815 ; Godet : Examen des vues Darbystes sur le saint ministere, Jfeuenburg, 1846 ; WiGRAM : The Present Question, 1848-49 ; Trot- ter : The Whole Question of Plymouth and Bethes- da; Memoir of A.N. Grores,lS56; Govett: The Church of Old, London ; Groves : Darbyism, its Rise and Decelopment, Bristol, 1867 ; W. Reid : Literature and History of the so-called Plymouth Brethren, London, 1875, 2d ed., 1876; Bledsoe: art. in Southern Review, Baltimore, 1877 (April) ; Miller ; The Brethren, their Rise, Progress, and Tes- timony, London, 1879 ; Tevlon : History and Doc- trines of the Plymouth Brethren, London, 1883. E. E. ■\VHITPIELD, M.A. (Oxf. member BiethroD). PNEUMATOIVIACHI, a name applied generally to all who held heretical views concerning the Holy Spirit, and more especially to the followers of Macedonius; which article see. It originated with Athanasius, and occurs for the first time in his epistle to Sei-apion. In reality the heresy designated by it is simply a form of Arianism. The Arians, rejecting the homoousian view of Christ, and thereby the Trinity, had no occasion to raise the question of the nature and pei'sonality of the Holy Spirit. But when the serai-Arians joined the orthodox church, and accepted the Nicsean Creed, quite a number of them, more especially the followers of Macedonius, trans- ferred the question from the second to the third person in the Trinity; and the controversy began anew. Serapion, Bishop of Thmuis, told Atha- nasius of this new heresy ; and he not only wrote against the Pneumatomachi, but assembled a synod in Alexandria, 362, which condemned them. Their final condemnation took place at the synod of Constantinople, 381. See Semi-Arians. POCOCK, Edward, D.D., Orientalist; b. at Oxford, Nov. 8, 1604; d. there Sept. 10, 1691. He was educated at Oxford; elected fellow of Corpus Christi College, 1628; chaplain to the Eng- lish factory at Aleppo, 1630-36 (during which time he made a collection of Greek and Oriental manu- scripts and coins on commission of Archbishop Laud); professor of Arabic at Oxford, 1636-40; in Constantinople, to seek for manuscripts, 1637-39; rector of Childrey, Berkshire, 1643 ; re-instated , in his chair, 1647 ; professor of Hebi'ew, and canon of Christ Church, 1648 ; and in spite of bigoted and prejudiced opposition from Roundheads, and the indifference of Cavaliers, he retained these positions till his death. He was one of the fore- most Orientalists in his day. His works are numerous and valuable. His Theological Works were published in 2 vols, folio, London, 1740; with a Life by the editor, Leonard Twells. They embrace Porta Mosis (a Latin translation of Maimonides' six discourses prefatory to his Com- mentary upon the Mishna, 1655), English Com- mentaries upon Hosea (1685), Joel (1691), Micah and Malachi (1677), and a Latin treatise upon an- cient weights and measures. The Commentaries formed part of Fell's projected Commentary upon the entire Old Testament. They are heavy and prolix, but learned. Pocock took a prominent part in Walton's Polyglot, furnished the collations of the Arabic Pentateuch, and was consulted by Walton at every step. (See Polyglot Bibles.) He translated Grotius' De veritate Christiance reli- gionis (1660) and the Church-of-England Liturgy and Catechism into Arabic (1674). His chief work was his edition of Gregorii Abul Farajii hisloria dynasliarum, Oxford, 1663, 2 vols., Arabic text with Latin translation. For Pocook's life, see Theological Works mentioned above. POblEBRAD, George of, a Bohemian noble (b. 1420), who by energy and capacity rose to such importance, that, in the abeyance of the Bohemian kingdom, he was made governor in 1452. On the accession of Ladislas (in 1452) he remained the chief person in the kingdom, and on the death of Ladislas (in 1457) was elected King of Bohemia by the Diet. The reign of King George (1457-71) marks the decisive period in the religious history of Bohemia. The Hussites had been in a manner reconciled to the church by the Compacts made with the Council of Basel. On the dissolution of the council, the Papacy neither accepted nor disavowed the Compacts. It saw that a breach with Bohemia was undesirable, and hoped to foster a Catholic re-action within the land, which would slowly bring back Bohemia to Catholicism. Podiebrad was the great oppo- nent of this policy, and was the greatest statesman of his age in Europe. He wished to unite Bohe- mia, and organize it into a great power. This was impossible, so long as Bohemia was rent by reli- gious discord, and, through want of Papal rec- ognition, was isolated from European politics. Podiebrad could not make peace with the Papacy without losing his hold on Bohemia : he could not attack the Papacy without losing his political position in Germany. He accordingly engaged in negotiations with the Papacy, and skilfully managed to lead the Popes, Calixtus III. and Pius II., to think that he was more compliant than he really was. Every mark of confidence which they showed he promptly used to assure his politi- cal position abroad. Yet there was opposition to him in his own kingdom, where the city of Breslau refused to, acknowledge him, and was the centre POETRY. 1860 POISSY. of a Catholic opposition. At last Podiebrad's diplomacy came to au end. Pins II. was alarmed at his increasing influence in Germany, and in 1462 disclaimed the Compacts, and demanded Podiebrad's unconditional obedience. -At first Podiebrad temporized, then auned a mighty blow at the Papacy. He proposed to the various courts of Europe the summoning of a parliament of temporal princes to discuss European affairs. His proposal was not agreed to, and Pius II. excommunicated him as a heretic in 1464. The death of Pius II. in the same year left the Bo- hemian question to a more determined but less politic pope, Paul II. Paul II. did not hesitate to abandon Bohemia to the horrors of a civil war. He authorized the formation of a league of dis- contented nobles, and called Mathias Corvinus, king of Hungary, to the aid of the church. The war that followed was not a religious war : it was a war of conquest on the part of King Mathias. Still Podiebrad was not conquered, and died vic- torious in 1471. Nor did Mathias gain his object. The Bohemian crown was given by the Diet to Ladislas of Poland. The war of Hungary and Bohemia was most disastrous to Europe: it wasted the power of the two countries which were the chief bulwarks against the Turk. Paul II., by encouraging it, diverted the Papacy from its cru- sading policy, which was the one point in which it could stand at the head of Europe. Lit. — Authorities. — Esche.vloer : Geschichte der Stadt Bre.ilau vom Jdhre 1440-79 (ed. Kunisch), Breslau, 1827-28; also a Latin original of the same {Historia Wratislaoiensis), ed. Markgraf, Bres- lau, 1872 ; Klose : Docimientiiie Geschichte von Breslau, 1781-83, 5 vols. ; Palacky ; Urkundliche Beitrage im Zeilaller Georg's von Podiebrad, Vienna, 1860. Modern Writers. — Palacky : Geschichte von Bohmen, vol. iv., Prag, 1857; Jordak: Das Konigthum Georg's von Podiebrad, Leipzig, 1861 ; VoiGT : Enea Silvio di' Piccolomini, Papst Pius II., vol. iii., Berlin, 1883. mandell ceeightojst. POETRY, Hebrew. See Hebrew Poetry. POHLMAN, William John, Reformed Dutch missionary; b. at Albany, N.Y., 1812; drowned at Breaker's Point, between Hong Kong and Amoy, China, Jan. 5, 1849. He was graduated at Rutgers College, 1834, and at the New-Bruns- wick Theological Seminary, 1837 ; sailed as mis- sionary to Borneo, May 25, 1838. In 1844 he was transferred to China, where, with Rev. David Abeel (see art.), he established the Amoy mission. POIIVIENICS. See Pastoral Theology. POIRET, Pierre, b. at Metz, April 15, 1646; d. at Rheinsburg, near Leyden, May 21, 1719 ; the only real mystic among the French Reformed theologians. He was first apprenticed to a wood- carver, but went in 1664 to Basel, to study the- ology, and was in 1888 appointed preacher at Heidelberg, and in 1672 at Anweiler. Having been driven away from Anweiler, in 1676, by the war, he resided for several years in Holland and at Hamburg, until he, in 1688, retired to Rheins- burg, where he spent the rest of his life. He had studied Tauler and Thomas a Kerapis, and lived in intimate friendship with Antoinette Bourignon and other mystics ; his theology of love, a theology based on sentiment, raising him above the dif- ferences of churches and creeds. His principal works are, L'dconomie divine, Amsterdam, 1687, 7 vols. ; Lapaix des bonnes ames (1687) ; Les prin cipes solides de la religion (1705), etc., — most o: them translated into' Latin, Dutch, and German He also translated the maxims of Jacob Boehmi in Latin, and edited the works of Madame Guyon [An English translation of his Divine Econoim appeared Lond., 1713, 6 vols.] C. SCHMIDT. POISSY, Conference of, 1561. To Catherine of Medici, regent of France during the minorit) of her son, Charles IX., it appeared altogethej necessary to bring about some kind of reconcilia tion between her Roman-Catholic and her Re- formed subjects. The latter were numerous, powerful, and influential ; but the very sympathy which they met with, even in the highest ranks of society, made it seem probable, that, with a little adroitness, the differences might be bridged over. A conference between the two parties was decided upon ; and Poissy, an abbey in the neigh- borhood of St. Germain, where the court resided, was chosen as the place of meeting. On Sept. 9, 1561, the first session was held, in the presence of the king, the queen, the princes and princesses of the royal house, and a great number of the high- est dignitaries of the crown, gentlemen and ladies. The Roman Catholics were represented by the cardinals of Tournon, Lorraine, Chatillon, Ar- magnac, Bourbon, and Guise, the archbishop of Bourdeaux and Embrun, and thirty-six bishops ; the Reformed, by thirty-four delegates, among whom were Beza and Peter Martyr Vermigli. The conference was opened by a speech of the chancellor, L'Hopital, which showed the Reformed that they did not meet their adversaries, as they had demanded and expected, on exactly equal tei-ms ; but which also showed the Roman-Catho- lic prelates that they were not simply sitting in judgment, " for their verdict would have no eSect if it were not found perfectly impartial and just." The word was then given to Beza. Pie appeared at the bar in the nobleman's black dress of the day ; and, when he knelt down to pray, — the prayer which is still used in the French Reformed Church at the opening of divine service, — the queen also knelt, and the cardinals arose and uncovered. He made a long speech, and gave a succinct representation of the whole Reformed faith, in order that people might understand both the points of difference and the points of agree- ment between the Reformed and the Roman- Catholic churches. The speech was cool and calm and conciliatory; and it was listened to with breathless attention, its delivery being disturbed only at one single point. When Beza, in devel- oping the Reformed doctrine of the Lord's Sup- per, used the expression that the body of Christ was as far from the bread as the highest heavens are from the earth. Cardinal Tournon jumped to his feet, and cried out, " Blasphemavit .' '' and such a tumult arose among the prelates, that the queen herself had to interfere, and impose quiet. Beza, however, remained calm, and continued his speech, which the next day was printed, and distributed by the thousands among friends and foes. On Sept. 16 the second session was held. Cardinal Lorraine answered Beza. His speech was proud, but adroit and impressive. He avoided mention- ing transubstantiation and the mass ; and, when he spoke of the bodily presence, he used terms which remind one of those of Luther. But he POLAND. 1861 POLAND. refused to give the Reformed, or anybody else, a copy of his speech; and the Roman-Catholic prel- ates in general declined to continue the discussion in public. The following sessions (Sept. 24, 26, etc.) were consequently held in private; only the princes and the prelates and the Reformed dele- gates being present. In the session of Sept. 26, Cardinal Lorraine very cunningly proposed that the Reformed should subscribe the Confessio Augustana: it was, indeed, his general policy to show off the difference which existed within the Protestant camp. But the Reformed as cunningly met the feint, urging that it would be of no use for them to subscribe the Confessio Augustana unless the Roman Catholics also subscribed. In the same session a mixed committee was formed, and charged with the drawing-up of s, formula con- sensus, which should be accepted by both parties. The committee actually succeeded in arriving at an agreement ; and its formula consensus, though very vague and ambiguous, was accepted, not only by the court, but also by Cardinal Lorraine, who declared " that he had never had another faith." The doctors of the Sorbonne, however, rejected th& formula as heretical; and, in the session of Oct. 6, the Roman-Catholic party presented a strictly Roman confession, which they demanded that the Reformed should subscribe. In the final session of Oct. 17 they went even farther, and demanded that all the churches and all the church- property which the " heretics " had taken posses- sion of in the various provinces should be restored. During the month which the conference lasted, a re-action took place in favor of the Roman Catho- lics. The financial pressure finally compelled the king to yield to their demands. He needed money, and the Roman-Catholic clergy was the only body within the state rich enough to furnish the funds. Nevertheless, the Conference of Poissy gave the Protestants of France an opportunity of publicly vindicating their religious views ; and the edict of Jan. 17, 1562, forpially recognized the Protestant religion, so far as it gave the Prot- estants a right to meet for worship unarmed, and outside of walled cities. See-PoLENZ : GescUcUe desfranz. Calvinismus, 1857, 2 vols. ; PuAUX : His- toire de la ref franc, 1860, 2 vols. HEEZOG. POLAND. Christianity first reached the Poles, a Slavic people inhabiting the plains along the Vistula, in the beginning of the tenth century, from Moravia, and through the pupils of Cyril and Methodius; and when, in 966, their duke, Misczyslaw, married the Bohemian princess Dombrowka, he suffered himself to be baptized, a large portion of his court and his people follow- ing his example. Thus, in its origin, the Polish Church was a daughter of the Greek Church ; and though, in accordance with the general practice of the Greek missionaries, service was celebrated in the Polish tongue, the liturgy, rites, discipline, social organization, architectural style, etc., were Greek. In its farther development, however, the Polish Church was brought nearer to the German Church (that is, to the Church of Rome) by the close connection which soon sprang up between the dukes of Poland and the kings of Germany ; and when the first Polish bishopric was formed, at Posen, it was placed under the authority of a German archbishop, first of Mayence, afterwards of Magdeburg. German missionaries supplanted the Greek, or rather Slavic, missionaries; and when, at the opening of the eleventh century, the Polish Church was thoroughly organized, the land being divided into seven bishoprics, it entered iilto direct communication with the Pope through the Archbishop of Gnesen. The German mis- sionary, however, who seldom understood the Polish tongue, and, in accordance with the prac- tice of the missionaries of the Church of Rome, always insisted upon using the Latin language in the celebration of service, worked with much less success in Poland than the Greek or the native missionary. Under his management the Poles remained heathen, though they were baptized; and it was necessary to employ barbarous punish- ments — knocking out the teeth of those who ate flesh during the fast, etc. — in order to enforce the simplest rules of discipline. More than a century passed away, and still the Poles sat wait- ing, and singing dirges on the anniversary of the day when the duke had ordered their idols to be burnt, or thrown into the water. Nor was the transformation within the church itself, from Greek to Roman, brought about easily. For a long time the Church of Rome felt compelled to temporize with respect to the use of the vernacu- lar in divine service, with respect to the cup iu the Lord's Supper, with respect to celibacy, and in many other points. In 1120 all the priests in the diocese of Breslau were married ; and, a century later, the synod of Gnesen (1219) still complained that the decrees against the marriage of priests had had no effect. But, in spite of all pliability and cautiousness, there always was in the Polish Church a strong opposition from the side of the laity to the hierarchical organization (the tithes could not be gathei'ed, the ecclesiasti- cal jurisdiction could not be sustained), and an equally strong opposition from the side of the hierarchy to the pope, — Gregory VII. complained in 1075 of the Polish bishops as ultra regulas lihe- ri et absoluti, and, under Innocent III., a bishop of Posen ventured to leave an interdict pronounced against the duke entirely unheeded. When it is added that the .Waldensians, the Beghards, the Fraticellis, the Bohemian Brethren, found numer- ous adherents in Poland ; that the Inquisition, introduced in the middle of the fourteenth cen- tuiy, utterly failed in suppressing the anti- Roman tendencies; that the university of Cracow was founded in 1410 on the plan of Jerome of Prague, — it cannot be wondered at that the Reformation spread rapidly in the country. Dantzig espoused the cause of Luther in 1518 ; and, though fearfully punished in 1526 by Sigismund I., it could not be made to submit. Most of the great cities, both in Poland Proper aii^ in Lithuania, followed the example ; and when, in 1520, a papal legate undertook, in accordance with a royal decree, to publicly burn the works of Luther at Thorn, he was stoned out of the city. In 1544 the Swiss Reformation was first made known in the coun- try (Stanislaus Lutormiski), and found many adherents, especially among the nobility; and in 1556 John a Lasco began his great work of organizing the Evangelical Church of Poland. Meanwhile the Roman Catholics were not asleep. They found an energetic and able leader in Hosius, Bishop of Culm, afterwards of Ermeland. Nevertheless, they could not prevent the diet of POLE. 1862 POIiEMICS. Petrikau (1555) from agreeing upon demanding a national council for the introduction of tlie Polish language in the mass, and the cup in the Lord's Supper, and for the abolition of celibacy and the annats; and in 1563 the king, Sigisraund II., issued an edict of toleration. It was, indeed, not the exertions of the Roman-Catholic party, but in- ternal dissensions, which finally checked the prog- ress of the Reformation. First a split took place among the Reformed on account of the unitarian or antitrinitarian views which arose among them (see art. Socinianism) ; next the Reformed and the Lutherans could come to no agreement. The synod of Sendomir (1570) brought about a con- sensus , but the Lutherans soon after repudiated it, and the two evangelical parties fought with more violence against each other than against the Roman Catholics. The Jesuits, of course, were not slow in availing themselves of the opportunity ; and from the middle of the seventeenth century they were able to begin actual persecutions, which, in connection with me political confusion of the eighteenth century, cut short all vigorous reli- gious life in the country. [See Frikse : Kirchen- geschichle des K'unicjreichs Polen, Breslau, 1786 ; Krasinski: The lieformation in Poland, London, 1838-40, 2 vols. ; Lescokuu : L'liglise caAoUque en Poloqne sous le (lourernement russe {1772- 1875), Paris, 1876, 2 vols.] D. erdmann. POLE, Reginald, Archbishop of Canterbury; b. probably in Lordington, Sussex, March, 1500 ; d. at Lambeth, Nov. IS, 1558. His mother was a niece of Edward IV., and governess of the eldest daughter of Heniy VIII. Pole was brought up at the king's expense, educated at Oxford, given the income of several church preferments, although he was not ordained until his elevation to the archiepisoopal throne. In 1520 he was sent to Italy to continue his studies ; returned, 1523. In 1529 Henry used him as agent to procure from the Paris university a favorable opinion upon the divorce from Catharine of Aragon. In order to avoid any public expression of opinion upon the matter, on his i-eturn he retired to the monastery at Sheen, and there prosecuted theological studies. In 1531 he declined the archbishopric of York, and in the next year left England for the Conti- nent. In 1535, on the king's demand for a defi- nite expression of opinion upon the divorce and upon the king's supremacy over the church, he wrote De imitate ecclesice , in which he not only uttered a judgment adverse to the king upon both points, but heaped abuse upon his opponents. The book, of course, filled Henry VIII. with as- tonishment and rage. He ordered Pole to appear in person before him to answer for his deed. This Pole declined to do, but told the king to reply to the book if he pleased; and the Bishop of Dur- ham undertook tlie task. Pole's motive in tlius bi'eaking with the king was political. He knew there was much dissatisfaction in England with Henry's doings: he hoped to head the party to put Edward IV. on the throne, and thus bring England on the side of the emperor. He probably also desired to marry the cousin of the emperor, the Princess Marie, the daughter of Catharine of Aragon. On the day before the arrival of the Bishop of Durham's answer, Pole was summoned to Rome. There he was highly honored by the Pope, Paul III. ; made a cardinal; sent (1537) as legate to the Netherlands, and given much to do in preparing the revolt which was to dethrone Henry. The scheme came to nothing ; and Pole found himself generally considered as a traitor, and as such he was mistrusted by both Francis I. and Charles V. The Pope, however, treated him kindly, and sent him (June, 1538) as legate to Toledo, and later (1541) to Viterbo. In the autumn of that year Henry threw Pole's mother (the Countess of "Salisbury) and his brothers into prison, and in 1541 executed them all, except the youngest bi'other, ou charge of treason. In 1554, on the coronation of Mary, Pole returned to Eng- land as legate ; entered heartily into the work of restoring the papal authority in England; was consecrated Archbishop of Canterbury (March 22, 1556), and during his brief authority put to death as heretics five bishops, twenty-one priests, eight nobles, eighty-four artisans, a hundi-ed peasants, ■ twenty-six women ; removed the bones of Peter Martyr Vermigli from Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford, to unconsecrated ground; exhumed the bodies of Butzer and Fagius, which had long rested in Cambridge, and bui-nt them. Yet Pole had been himself chai-ged with heresy. To him had been attributed the famous book Del henejizio di Gesu Christi confesso. He was more than sus- pected of maintaining the Lutheran justification by faith ; and his election as pope, on the death of Paul in. (in 1549), when he really had received the majority of votes, was prevented by the charge of heresy brought by his foe, Caraffa; and, when the latter became Paul IV. (1555), he withdrew Pole's commis.9ion as legate to England (May, 1557), and summoned him to Rome to appear before the tribunal of the Inquisition. Death intervened before the order could be obeyed, but the Inquisition called him a heretic. Carnesecchi says of Pole, that "in Rome he was considered a Lutheran, in Germany a papist, at the Flemish court to belong to the French party, at the French court to the imperial party." It was character- istic of him to try to please all parties. But, although vacillating upon other points, he always held firmly to the defence of the papal authority, and to his desire to bring England in uncondi- tional surrender to the feet of the Pope. He did what he could to bring this policy into action ; but the temper of the English people, the death of Charles V , and the fanatical zeal of the Pope, must have opened his eyes to its impossibility. Lit. — See Pole's letters in Quieini : Epist. Poll, Brixen, 1744 sqq. ; Calendar of State Papers, Henry VIII., London, 1875 sqq. Many works exist in manuscript in the library of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. See life of Pole by Thomas Philipps (Oxford, 1764) and Waltp:r F. Hook (in vol. iii. Lives of Archbishops of Canterbury, London, 1869). beneath. POLEMICS. Very early, Christianity felt com- pelled, by the very circumstances under which it was placed, to make direct attacks on its enemies, simply in order to defend itself. In other words, polemics very early became a necessary part of Christian apologetics. But practice develops method ; and it is evident, from the writing's of Irenseus, Tertullian, Athanasius, and Augustine, that those writers were fully conscious, not only of the value of polemics as a weapon, but also of the manner in which to use that weapon with POLBNTZ. 1863 POLYCARP. most effect And again : conscious method is the beginning of science ; not that polemics, though practised with great skill as an art, ever in an- tiquity developed into a systematic theory, a sci- ence. Even during the middle ages it "did not reach that stage ; and it was not until the Refor- mation had furnished new and violent impulses, that the need of a complete theory of the art of polemics was felt. Hints of the kind are scattered through the works of Martin Chemnitz, Bellar- min, Hunnius, and others ; but the Jesuits were the first to give systematic representations of the method of polemics : hence they were called "Methodists." The Protestants followed the example, and a considerable literature soon grew up. See Abraham Calovius (Synopsis con- trocersiarum, 1685) on the Protestant side, and Vitus Pichler (Theologia polemica, 1753) on the Roman-Catholic side. By Schleiennacher, finally, polemics was incorporated with the theologi- cal system as a part of philosophical theology. See his Darstellung des theotoglschen Slitdiuyns (Berlin, ISll), and more especially the work of his disciple, Sack: ChristUche Polemik (Bonn, 1838). As the systematization of the various theological departments has varied, the place of polemics in the system has, of course, also varied. See Pelt : Theol Encyclop., Hamburg, 1843 ; and J. P. Lange : Christl. Dogmatil; Heidelberg, 1849-52, 3 vols., etc. Such a change, however, does not materially alter its scientific character. L. PELT. POLENTZ, George of. See George of Po- lentz. POLIANDER, Johann, b. at Neustadt, in the Palatinate, 1487 ; d. in Konigsberg, 1541. He studied at Leipzig ; was rector of the Thomas school there, 1516-22, and acted as secretary to Eck during his famous disputation with Luther, in 1519, but was converted by Luther's argument, embraced the Reformation, and was in 1525 ap- pointed preacher in Konigsberg, where he spent the rest of his life. He was very active in intro- ducing the Reformation in Prussia, and is the author of the celebrated hymn, Nun loh mein Seel den Herren ("Now to the Lord smg praises"), translated by Mills, in Horm Germanicm. See RosT : Memoria Poliandri, Leipzig, 1808. POLITY, as applied to the church, means gov- ernment or administration of the church, so far as the church is considered simply as an institu- tion among other institutions. Among the most recent books in this department may be men- tioned, 6. A. Jacob : Ecclesiastical Polity of the New Testament, London, 1871 ; Charles Hodge: The Church and its Polity, New York and London, 1879 ; E. Hatch : The Organization of the Early Christian Churches, London, 1881 ; George T. Ladd: The Principles of Church Polity, New York, 1882 ; J. A. HoDGE : What is Presbyterian iaw ? Philadelphia, 1882 ; A. A. Pellicca : Tlie Polity of the Christian Church of Early Mediceval and Modern Times, translated from the Latin by J. C. Bellett, London, 1883. For the various forms of church government or church polity see Congregationalism, Episcopal Church, Episcopacy, Lutheran Church, Presbyte- rianjsm, etc. POLLOK, Robert, Scotch poet; b. at Muir- house, Eagiesham Parish, Renfrewshire, 1799 ; d. at Southampton, Sept. 15, 1827. He was gradu- ated at the university of Glasgow, studied the- ology, and was licensed in the United Secession Church (1827), but preached only once. He is remembei'ed for his Course of Time, published anonymously while a student (1827), a religious poem of extraordinary popularity for many years. The seventy-eighth thousand appeared in Edin- burgh, 1868, later ed., 1877 ; and at present there are ten editions selling in the United States. Besides this he published, also anonymously, Helen of the Glen, The Persecuted Family, and llalph Gemmell, three stories since repeatedly re- published, separately and together, under the caption. Tales of the Covenanters, Edinburgh, 1833, new ed., 1867, often reprinted in the United States. See the Memoir by his brother, Edin-. burgh, 1843. POLYCARP, Bishop of Smyrna. Though Poly- carp is one of the most celebrated characters in ancient Christendom, very little is known of his life. According to the account of his pupil, Ire- nseus, he was himself a pupil of the apostles, more especially of John, and had conversed with many who had seen the Lord in the flesh. According to TertuUian (De prcescriptione, 32) and Jerome (Catal. scr. eccl., 17), he was consecrated Bishop of Smyi'na by John. From the latter part of his life we know, that, while Anicetus was Bishop of Rome, he visited that city in order to establish uniformity throughout the Christian Church with respect to the term of the celebration of Easter. He did not succeed. But, on the other hand, the difference did not destroy the church communion ; Polycai-p participating in the Lord's Supper while in Rome. See Eusebius: Hist. Eccl., V. 23. A more detailed account has come down to us of his martyrdom. The Martyrium Pohjcarpi was known to Eusebius, who incorporated all its chief events with his church history. It was first ed- ited (Latin and Greek), but incomplete, by Halloix, then by Ussher, Ruinart, and others. The best edition is that by Zahn, in his Pair. Apost. Oper. Valesius declared those Acts the oldest of the kind I and the genuineness of the document was generally accepted, until Lipsius, and, after him, Keim, raised some doubt. Lipsius dates the Acts at about 260; and his reasons are, the high-pitched reverence for the martyi's, an indication of the use of the Roman Easter-term, and the occurrence of the categorical expression, "the Catholic Church." But that expression was by no means new in 167. The hint at the Roman Easter-term, if really found, would compel us to fix the date of the document much later, which is impossible on accoimt of Eusebius ; and, finally, the reverence for the mart3TS chimes in very well with the time. The only doubt which can be justly entertained with respect to the document is about its perfect authenticity. It may have been altered here and there, or subjected to interpolations. About the year of the death of Polycarp, there has, of late, been much controversy. Eusebius fixes it, both in his Chronicle and in his church history, at 166 ; Jerome, at 167. In the chrono- logical appendix to the Acts, Statins Quadratus is mentioned as proconsul of Asia ; and, in his Col- lectanea ad Aristidis vitam, Masson computed the proconsular year of Quadratus at 165-1 66. Wad- dington, however, in his Mc'moire sur la chronologie de la vie du rhe'teur Mlius Aristide, in the Mem. de POLYCHRONIUS. 1864 POLYGLOT BIBLES. I'lnstilut, 1867, vol. 85, computed the year of office of Quadratus at 155-156. and consequently fixed the death of Polycarp at Feb. 23, 155. His com- putation was immediately adopted by Eenan, Aube, Hilgenfeld, Gebhardt, Harnack, and others. Nevertheless, it involves very great difficulties, as, for instance, the visit of Polycarp to Rome while Anicetus was bishop ; and it rests merely on a series of ingenious hypotheses. Quadratus is only mentioned in the chronological appendix, and that appendix is most probably a later and consequently worthless addition. The Acts them- selves simply state that the martyrdom took place on Saturday, the 16th of Msan ; and the 16th of Nisan was a Saturday, botli in 166 and in 155. Of the letters of Polycarp, all have perished, with the exception of one to the Philippians. It was first published in Latin by Faber Stapulensis (1498), then in Greek by Halloix (1633), and after- wards often : the best edition is that by Zahn. As it contains a dii-ect reference to the letters of Ignatius, all critics who reject those letters as spurious have tried to make its genuineness sus- pected. It was known, however, to, and accepted by, Irenajus, Eusebius, and Jerome ; and it is dif- ficult to understand how a spurious letter of Poly- carp could have been brought into general circu- lation at the time when Irenteus wrote (about ISO), and still more difficult to understand how it could be accepted by him, the pupil of -Polycarp. [L. Duchesne : Vita sancti Poly. Smyr. episcopi auc- tore Pionio primum Greece edita, Paris, 1881, 40 pp. ; Funk- Pair. Ap., ii. 315 sqq.] G. UHLHOEN. POLYCHRONIUS, Bishop ,of Apamea, and brother of Theodore of Jlopsuestia, was one of the most prominent of the exegetes of the Anti- ochian school. Of his life nothing further is known. He wrote Commentaries on Job, Daniel, and Ezekiel. But, though he was never formally condemned, he was nevertheless considered a heretic ; and of his Commentaries, only fragments have come down to us in the Calence. See Bak- DENHEWER : Polychronius, 1879. POLYGAMY. See Marriage. POLYGLOT BIBLES are, in general, editions of the Scriptures in which two or more versions appear side by side. They have existed from very early times, perhaps from the period imme- diately following the return from the Babylonish captivity, when there are traces of a combination of the original Hebrew text and a Chaldee Tar- gum. There is, in the Barberini Library at Rome, a Samaritan Pentateuch Triglot, which dates from the middle age, and contains the original Hebrew text, the same translated into the Samaritan dia- lect of the first Christian century, and also into Arabic. In respect to the New Testament, the necessities of the peoples to whom the gospel was carried obliged early translations from Greek, and led to the separation of diglots, in which were the original text and the vernacular version. Of this character are some of the oldest manuscripts; e.g., among those having Greek and Latin texts are, for the Gospels, D (Codex Bezse), from A.D. 550; for the Acts, E (Codex Laudianus), from end of sixth century ; and, for the Pauline Epis- tles, D (Co^Jex Claromontanus), from second half of sixth century ; and F (Codex Augiensis), from close of ninth century. The Codex Borgianus (T), in the Propaganda College, Rome, dates from the fifth century, and presents Greek text and Sahidic version. These manuscripts tell their own story. The original had ceased to be intelligible, but the time had not yet come when it could be omitted : so there ai-e Greek-Syriac manuscripts, Greek-Coptic, and many other simi- lar combinations. The Roman Church has never authorized the use of the Vulgate in connection with any version. For the critical determination of the text of the Septuagint, Origen compiled the Hexapla, in which he presented the Hebrew text, in Hebrew and Greek letters, along with the Sep- tuagint and three different Greek versions, — Aquila's, Symmachus', and Theodotion's. Thus, although there were five texts, there were only two languages. But all these combinations of texts are not really polyglots in the present usage of the term. Nor is the word correctly applied to those editions of the Bible which contain, (1) Merely the Hebrew and Greek originals ; (2) The originals and a single complete translation for exegetical pui-- poses, usually modern, e.g., Greek New Testament with Latin translation of Erasmus or of Beza; (3) The originals and church authorized versions, e.g., with Vulgate, Luther, A. V.; (4) The ori- ginals and two versions in the same language, e.g., Greek text, authorized and revised versions ; (5) Several versions, with the omission of the originals, e.g., Canticles or the catholic Epistles in Ethiopic, Arabic, and Latin ; (6) The so-called Biblia pentapla, i.e., five German translations; (7) The original, an old version, and then a trans- lation of the version : such are triglots, but not polyglots; (8) The original and several versions in one language, e.g., Bagster's English Hexapla, which contains the Wiclif, Tyndale, Cranmer, Genevan, Anglo-Rhemish, and authorized versions of the New Testament, placed in parallel col- umns under reprint of Scholz's edition of the text of the Greek New Testament. Excluding these spuriotis polyglots, there remain only a few works to which the name properly belongs ; and among these are only four, which, on account of their importance, deserve special mention. I. The Complutensian Polyglot (Alcala, 1513-17, 6 vols, folio), one of the rarest and most famous of printed works, prepared, under the care and at the cost of Cardinal Ximenes (d. 1517, see art.), by famous Spanish scholars, among whom the work was thus divided : the Hebrew and Chal- dee texts were edited by three converted Jews, Alphonso of Alcala, Paul Coronell of Segovia, and Alphonso of Zamora; the Greek and Latin texts, by Demetrius Dukas of Crete, .(Elius Antonius of Lebrixa, Diego Lopez de Zunniga (Stunica), Fer- nando Nunnez de Guzman, and others. Begun in 1502, in celebration of the birth of an heir to the throne of Castile, Charles V. (Feb. 24, 1500), it was carried through the press of Arnaldo Guillermo de Brocario, at Alcala de Henarez, the Complutum of the Romans (hence the name Complutensian), from 1513 to 1517, but not published until 1520, by special permission of Pope Leo X. (March 22, 1520). The delay enabled Erasmus to have the glory of editing the first Greek Testament iiub- lislled (1516). The Complutensian Polyglot is in six folio volumes, of which the first four contain the Old Testament; the fifth, the New Testament (the printing of which was finished Jan. 10, 1514, POLYGLOT BIBLES. 1865 POLYGLOT BIBLES. the type is large and peculiar) ; aud the sixth, a Hebrew and Chaldee lexicon, with grammars, etc. (This volume was printed second, and was later separately published under title Alphonsi Za- MORENSis Inlroductiones hebraica, Complutum, 1528 and often.) The entire work of printing was ended July 10, 1517. In this Polyglot are given, (1) The Hebrew text of the Old Testament; (2) The Targum of Onkelos to the Pentateuch ; (3) The Septuagint ; (4) The Vulgate ; (5) The Greek New Testament. (This position of the Vulgate the editors " compare to the position of Christ as crucified between two thieves, — the un- believing synagogue of the Jews, and the schis- matioal Greek Church.") The Targum and Septuagint are accompanied, by literal Latin translations. The Septuagint then appeared for the first time, and not very correctly ; but the Vul- gate had often been printed previously, and the Hebrew several times. It were greatly to be desired that there was definite information re- specting the manuscripts from which the work was derived, and the principles upon which it was carried on. Nothing is known respecting the manuscripts for the Greek New Testament, except that they were from the Vatican Library, judg- ing from the character of the text, were late, and, after use, were returned.^ The New- Testa- ment Greek differs considerably from Erasmus', is but little more correct, and presents some egre- gious defects, especially in the Apocalypse. Of the Polyglot, six hundred copies were printed, three upon vellum. II. The Antwerp Polyglot (Antwerp, 1569- 72, 8 vols, folio), also called Biblia Rcgia (Royal Bible), was ultimately issued at an expense to Philip II. of Spain of two thousand ducats yearly. Its originator was Christophe Plantin, the famous Antwej-p printer, who, perceiving that the cost could not be borne by him, applied to the king. The latter not only cheerfully responded, but sent Benedict Arias Montanus (see Arias) from Spain to Antwerp to superintend the undertak- ing. Among his assistants were Andre Maes (Masius), Guide and Nicolaus Fabricius, Augus- tinus Hunnieus, Cornelius Gudanus, Johann of Haarlem, and Franz Raphelang, Plantin's son-in- law and successor. This Polyglot, besides all that is in the Complutensian, presents Chaldee Targums upon the whole Old Testament (except Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Chronicles), and the Peshito with Latin translation : the latter is print- ed both with Syriac and Hebrew letters. Five of the eight volumes contain the texts ; two, a Hebrew lexicon by Santes Pagninus, a Chaldee Syriac lexicon by Guido Fabricius, a Syriac grammar by Masius, a Greek vocabulary, gram- mar, a number of archseological treatises under allegorical names by Arias, and, moreover, a num- ber of brief philological and critical notes. The last volume contains a reprint of the Hebrew and Greek texts (except the Apocrypha), with an interlinear translation, which is partly the Vul- gate, and partly the version of Pagninus, corrected by Arias. This last volume has been frequently reprinted. The Polyglot, looked at critically, is not very satisfactory. It depends a good deal » Tregelles, Printed Text, etc., pp. 15-18, gives an official list of manuscripts used In tlie other parts of the Polyglot. too much upon the Complutensian ; and its varia- tions in the Greek New Testament are due to Stephen's readings, and not to any independent study of mauusciipts. Because Arias had printed in the Polyglot the Targums and much matter from Jewish sources, he was accused by the Jesuits of leanings toward Judaism, and was ultimately obliged to defend himself at Rome against the charge of heresy. (See Arias). Of this Poly- glot, five hundred copies only were printed ; and the greater part of these were lost at sea, on their way to Spain. It is therefore now a rare work. III. The Paris Polyglot (Paris, 1628-45, 10 folios, largest size), designed by Cardinal Duper- ron, edited by Gabriel Sionita (se^ art.), printed in Paris by Antoine Vitre, at the expense of the parliamentary advocate, Guy Michel le Jay. In external respects it is the finest of the polyglots, but in contents has the least critical value. It is substantially a mere reprint of the Antwerp Poly- glot, and makes no use of printed materials which had come to hand since; e.g., the LXX., from the Codex Vaticanus (1587), and the Sixto Clem- entiije Vulgate (1590, 1592). It presents, as its only novelties, the Samaritan Pentateuch with the Samaritan version of the same, a Syriac and an Arabic version of the Old Testament, each accompanied by a Latin translation. Cardinal Richelieu bid a hundred thousand pounds for the glory of being its patron, but Le Jay preferred to have the glory himself. So heavy was the ex- pense, that it absorbed his entire fortune ; while the defects of the work were so notorious, the volumes so unwieldy, and the price so high, that comparatively few copies were sold, except as waste-paper. Le'Jay, financially a ruined man, entered the .priesthood ; became dean of Verzelai; was made by Louis XIV. a councillor of state on Dec. 16, 1645, but was dismissed in 1657, when the number of councillors was reduced; and died July 10, 1674. During his lifetime (1666) three Dutch printers issued some copies of his Polyglot, with a new titlepage, and a dedication to Pope Alexander VII., as if it were a new work. The new title calls it Biblia Alexandrina Hepta- glotta. For an account of the Paris Polyglot, see Le Long : Discours historiques sur les principales editions des Bibles Polyglottes, Paris, 1713, pp. 104- 204. IV. The London Polyglot (London, 1654-57, 6 vols, folio) is the most important, the most com- pi-ehensive, the most valuable (critically speaking), and the most widely spread of the Polyglots. -It was edited by Brian Walton, printed by Thomas Roycroft, and dedicated, first to Oliver Cromwell (1657, these are the so-called "Republican" copies), and then afresh (1660), in different lan- guage, to Charles II. (these are the so-called " Loyal " copies, and are by far the more numer- ous). Cromwell practically proved his interest in AValton's scheme by allowing the paper for it to be imported free of duty, — a service acknowl- edged in the original preface. In the "Loyal" copies, however, this acknowledgment is with- drawn, and Cromwell is spoken of as " the great Dragon." It was published by subscription, — probably the first work in England so published, — at ten pounds a set. Twelve copies of the Polyglot were printed upon large paper. Walton had the assistance of all the learned men in Eng- POLYGLOT BIBLES. 1866 POLYGLOT BIBLES. land, particulaily the Orientalists, of whom the most famous were Edmund Castell (Ca|Stellus), Edwai'd Pocock, Thomas Hyde, Dudley Loftus, Abraham Wheelock, Thomas Graves (Gravius), and Samuel Clark (Clericus). It is said that an offer was made Le Jay for six hundred copies of his. (Paris) Polyglot at half-price, for circulation in England ; and that it was on his declining; the offer, that the plan of a polyglot which should greatly exceed the Paris in convenience and value, but be much less expensive, was formed. The first four volumes contain the Old Testament in the following forms i Hebrew text, with the Ant- werp Latin interlinear; the Samaritan Penta- teuch ; the Septuagint, from the Roman edition of 1587, with the various readings of the Codex Alexandriuus ; the fragments of the Itala, col- lected by Flaminius Nobilius; the Vulgate ac- cording to the Roman edition, with the corrections of Lukas of Brugge ; the Peshito, with transla- tion of some Syriac apocrypha, — a much better text than the Paris ; the Arabic version ; the Targums from Buxtorf's edition ; the Samaritan translation of the Pentateuch; and, finally. Psalms and Canticles in Ethiopic. AH these texts other than the Vulgate are accompanied by Latin trans- lations, and appear side by side. In the fourth volume are the Targums of Pseudo-Jonathan and of Jerusalem, upon the Pentateuch, and also a Persian translation of the same book. The New- Testament is in the fifth volume. The Greek text is that of Stephen's folio of 1550, with criti- cal apparatus, including the readings of Codex A, D (1), D (2), Stephen's margin, and eleven cursive manuscripts collated by or for Archbishop Ussher, and furnished with Arias' Latin transla- tion. Besides the Greek original, are .the Peshito, Vulgate, iEthiopic, and Arabic versions, for the Gospels also a, Persian version ; each with a lit- eral Latin translation. The sixth volume contains various readings and critical remarks. The whole work is appropriately introduced by Walton's Prolegomena, in which the subjects of Bible text and versions are discussed with marked ability : indeed, this part was repeatedly separately pub- lished (e.g., Leipzig, 1777, ed. J. A. Dathe; Cam- bridge, 1828, 2 vols., ed. F. Wranghara), and for a hundred years remained unexcelled. In con- nection with the Polyglot, generally goes the Lexicon heptaylotton of Edmund Castell (London, 1669, 2 vols, folio), a lexicon to the Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, Samaritan, iEtliiopic, and Arabic languages combined. The Persian is separately treated. From this as yet unique work a Syriac (Gottingen, 1788) and a Plebrew dictionary (1790) have been derived, both edited, with notes and additions, by J. D. Miohaelis. Besides the four great Polyglots, there are sev- eral minor ones : (1) The Heidelberg, in 3 vols. foUo, Old Testament, 1588 (Hebrew, LXX., Vul- gate, Latin translation of Santes Pagninus from Antwerp Polyglot), New Testament, 1599 (Greek, with Arias' Latin interlinear), the editor was probably Corneille Bonaventure Bertram (1531- 94) ; (2) The Hamburg, consisting of Elias Hutter's edition of the Hebrew Bible, and David Wolder's edition of the Septuagint, Vulgate, Pagninus' translation of the Old Testament, and Beza's of the New, with Luther's German Bible in parallel columns, the whole forming 6 vols. folio ; (3) The Nuremhurg, edited by Elias Hutter, of which, in its first form, only Genesis-Ruth were published (1599, folio), containing Chaldee, Hebrew, Greek, Latin, German, and another modern tongue, which varies in different copies ; in 1602 appeared the Psalter in Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and German ; 1599 the New Testament, in Syriac, Italian (Bruocioli), Hebrew (with Hutter's translation), Spanish (Cassiodora Reina), Greek, French (Genevan), Latin (Vulgate), Engli.'-h (Gene- van), German (Luther), Danish, Bohemian, and Polish ; (4) The Leipzig, edited by Christian Rei- neccius, New Testament (1713, with new title- page, 1747), in Greek, Syriac (Peshito), Romaic, German (Luther), Latin (Sebastian Schmidt), with Greek, various readings, and Luther's glosses, Old Testament (1750-51, 2 vols.), only in Hebrew", Sep- tuagint, Latin (Schmidt), and German (Luthei-). (5) The most comprehensive polyglot of recent times is Bagster's (London, 1831, folio) in which are presented the Hebrew and Greek (JMill) origi- nals, the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Septuagint, Vulgate, Syriac, German (Luther), Italian (Dio- dati), French (Osterwald), Spanish (Scio), and the authorized English versions. It w-as edited by Samuel Lee, and has good Prolegomena. (6) The most generally used and the cheapest polj'glot is the Bielefeld (184.5-54, 3 vols. ; 4th ed. 1875, 4 vols. in 6 parts), edited by Rudolf Stier and C. G. W. Theile, in which the Old Testament appears in Hebrew, Greek (Septuagint), Latin (Vulgate), and German (Luther) ; and the New Testament in Greek, Latin, German, and, in the fourth column, various readings from other German Bible trans- lations, or, in some editions, the authorized Eng- lish version. The New-Testament Greek text is substantially the "received," but with the more important various readings. (7) The Hexaglot Bible, edited by R. de Levante, London, 1871-75, 6 vols, quarto. This work is a mere reprint. It presents the Hebrew and Greek texts, with Septu- agint, Syriac (Peshito), Latin (Vulgate), English (authorized version), German (Luther), and French versions. Not falling under the head of polyglots, yet worthy of mention, are the New Testament in Greek, Latin, and Syriac (in Hebrew characters, with Tremellius' Latin version), edited by Tremel- lius, and published by Henry Stephens, Geneva, 1569, folio ; and, finally, such curiosities as the Lord's Prayer in a hundred and fifty languages, edited by Chamberlayne, 1715; J. Adelung's Mithridates (Berlin, 1806-17, 4 vols.), in which it appears in nearly five hundred languages and dialects ; and H. Lambeck's Psalm 104 "« Urlext mil seiner Uebertraguny in 11 SpracJien als Specimen einer Psalter-Pohjglotle (Kothen, 1883). Lit. — General. Le Long : Discours Mstorique sur les principales editions des Bibles polygloiles, Paris, 1713, reprint, by Masch, Bib. sacra, i., 1778 ; G. OuTHUYS: Geschiedkundig verslag der voor- naamste uilgaren van bet Bihlia PolygloUa, Frane- ker, 1822. For the Complutensian, liee Semler: Hist. u. krit. Samml. ilber die sogenannten Beweis- stellen, Halle, 1764-68, 2 vols. ; Goetze : Verthei- digung d. complitten. Bibel, Hamburg, 1765, 1766, 1796, 3 vols. ; Kiefer : Gerellete Vermuthinr/en iiber d. comp. N. r., Halle, 1770; S. P. Tregelles: An Account of the Printed Text of the Greek New Testament, London, 1854 (pp. 1-18) ; F. De- POLYTHEISM. 1867 POLYTHEISM. I.ITZSCH : Sludien zur Entslehunr/sgeschicJile d. Pol. d. Cardinal Ximenes, Leipzig, 1871 ; E. Reuss : Bih. N. T. Graeci, Braunschweig, 1872 (pp. 15 sqq.); S. Bergek; La Bible au XVl'siede, Paris, 1879. For the Antwerp, see Annates Plantiniennes, Bibliophile Bclye, 1836 sqq. For the Paris, see A. Bernard: Anloine Vitre et les caract. orient, de la B. polyglot, Paris, 1S57. Cf. encyclopedia arts, in Herzog, IF., by Reuss (the basis of this); in Wet- zer u. Welte, by Welte; in Lichtenberger, by S. BehGER. SAMUEL M. JACKSON. POLYTHEISM. The principal question relat- ing to this subject is that of the origin of polythe- ism. The circumstance that polytheism so often has developed into pantheism, as, for instance, among the Hindus and the Greeks, seems to designate it as the primitive form of all religion ; so that even the biblical monotheism might be considered as having grown up from it. The Bible itself, however, is very far from counte- nancing such a view. Neither Gen. iv. 26, nor Exod. vi. 3, contains any reference to a previous polytheism. Neither the Pentateuch nor the prophets show the least trace of an original poly- theism. Jahve-Elohim was with the patriarch before as after Noah ; and it was he who revealed himself on Moimt Sinai, and made his sole wor- ship the first commandment. The polytheism of heathendom is, indeed, in the Bible, considered a desertion from the one true God. The narrative in Gen. xi. of the building of the Tower of Babel, and the divine judgment which befell that under- taking, is a record of the separation, not only of languages and nations, but also of religions, and has been so considered by the earliest Christian writers (Origen : Contra Ceisuni, 1. v. ; Augus- tine : De civ. Dei, xvi. 6) and by the latest (ScHELLiNG : Einleitunff in die Philosophie der Mythologie ; Kurtz : Geschichte des alien Bundes ; Kaulen : Die Spraclwerwirrung zu Babel, 1861 ; M. A. Strodl : Die Entstehung der VOlker, 1868). Further on iu the Old Testament, the gradual development of polytheism from the primitive monotheism may be learned from the history of Abraham (in Gen. xiv. 18 the El Eljon of Mel- chisedec is the same god as the El Shaddai of Abraham ; but, according to Josh. xxiv. 2, Abra- ham separated from an idolatrous father and brother when he eniigrated to Canaan) ; from the history of Jacob, who saw the abomination of images creep into his family from Mesopotamian relatives and his father-in-law Laban (Gen. xxxi. 19) ; from the history of Joseph in Egypt, who married a daughter of the priest of On (Gen. xli. 50); and, finally, from the history of Moses, who, in a tremendous struggle with Egyptian and Midianite heathenism, strove to keep his people firm in the faith in the one God. In the same manner the New Testament, whenever it touches the subject, presupposes that the Pagan religions have developed from a true primitive religion by a process of decomposition and degeneration. See Rom. i. 21 ; Acts xiv. 16, xvii. 29. In spite of the plain assertion of the Bible, the opposite view, considering monotheism as a sim- ple evolution from polytheism, has, nevertheless, found many adherents among the disciples of modern naturalism. It first took shape among the English deists of the eighteenth century ; and it now occurs under three different forms, accord- ing as monotheism is developed from Fetichism, the belief in charms or enchanted objects, or Animism, the belief in spirits of ancestors and heroes, or Sabeism, the belief in the ruling power of the stars. The fetich theory originated in the days of Vol- taire and Hume It was founded by De Brosses (Du Culte des Dieux fetiches, Paris, 1760), and perfected by A. Comte {Plnlosophie positire, Paris, 1830). Since that time it has been a favorite doctrine among the French, English, and Ameri- can positivists. See Luhbock : On the Origin of Cicilization, 1867 ; Baring-Gould : Origin and Development of Religious Belief, 1869; J. A. Fak- rer: Primitive Manners and Customs, 1879; Ja- COLLIOT : La ge'nise de I'humanite, 1880. It starts from the assumption of a primitive atheism as the basis naturally given, and reaches monothe- ism through a stage of childish or childlike com- bination between a supranatural power and some incidental natural object, — a stone, the tail of an animal, etc. But it overlooks that there is a very striking resemblance between those childish fetich idols and certain forms of superstition in Buddhism, Islam, and Roman Catholicism. For w'hat is the difference between the fetich and Buddha's tooth in Ceylon, or the amulet of the Greeks and the Romans, or the talisman of the Mohammedan, or the miracle-working saint's image of the Roman Catholic? They are all tokens of degeneration, no more and no less, — remnants of a decayed monotheism. See Hap- PEi.: Die Anlage des Menschen zur Religion, Leiden, 1877; and O. Pfleiderer: Religionsphilosophie, Berlin, 1878. The same is the case with the sec- ond form of the theory, the so-called Animism. The name was first applied by G. E. Stahl (a physician, who died in 1734), to denote the doc- trine of the soul; anima being the true pi'incipla of life iu the human body. Thence it was trans- ferred to the religious worship of spirits by E. B. Tylor (Primitive Culture, London, 1871, and Anthro- pology, London, 1881). See, also, J. Lippert : Der Seelencult, Berlin, 1881. The spirits worshipped may belong to natural phenomena on which hu- man life is in a great degree dependent (springs, rivers, the winds, etc.), or to some great men (heroes) who have benefited their race, or simply to the ancestors. This idea of ancestral worship as the primitive form of all religion has been spe- cially developed by Herbert Spencer {Principles of Sociology). A mere glance, however, at the old state religion of China, the classical expression of ancestral worship, shows that all spirit-worship presupposes a supreme spirit, without which the whole spirit-world would perish at once. See E. Faber : Introduction to the Science of Chinese Reli- gion, Hong Kong, 1879 ; and J. Happel : Die alt- chinesische Reichsreligion, Leipzig, 1882. Still more untenable, and still more insufficient to explain the facts of history, proves, on closer examination, the third theoiy, — the so-called Sabeism, or star- worship. It was first set forth by the French astronomer Dupuis, in his Origine de tous les cultes, ou Religion universelle, Paris, 1794, 12 vols. ; and it has afterwards been adopted, under various modifications and restrictions, by nearly all phi- losophers who have engaged in the study of reli- gions with an astronomical basis, such as the Babylonian, Phoenician, and others. It is evi- POMPRBT. 1868 POOLE. dent, however, that, in the star-worship, we have not to do with a young, rising, religious aspi- ration, but with an old, sinking, superstitious effort, or as Le Page Renouf says concerning Egypt, in his Hibbert Lectures (London, 1880), "The sublimer portions are not the comparatively late result of a process of development or elimi- nation from the grosser. The sublimer portions are demonstrably ancient ; and the last stage of the Egyptian religion, that known to the Greek and Latin writers, was by far the grossest and most corrupt." A penetrating criticism of Sabe- ism shows, that, behind the star-worship, there always stands a derivative form of monotheism, henotheism, which again refers back to a pure, primitive monotheism. See Max AIijller : Intro- duction to the Science of Religion, London, 1873 ; and L. Krummel : Die Religion der Arier nach den indischen Vedas, Heidelberg, 1881. ZOCKLEE. POMFRET, John, a moral and sacred poet; was b. probably at Luton in Bedfordshire, 1677, .and d. in London, 1703; educated at Cambridge, and held the living of Maiden, Bedfordshire. His Poems appeared 1699, 10th ed., enlarged, 1736. Southey called him " the most popular of the English poets," and said, " Perhaps no composition in our language has been oftener perused than Pomfret's Choice. F. M. BIRD. POMPONATIUS, Petrus, b. 1462; d. 1524; descended from a noble family in Mantua ; studied philosophy and medicine at Padua ; taught after- wards there, and at Ferrara and Bologna; and was one of the most celebrated teachers of phi- losophy in his time. From Aristotle he drew con- clusions which stood in direct opposition to the tenets of Christianity ; but he escaped ecclesiasti- cal interference by declaring that his propositions were true only in philosophy, and that personally he accepted the revealed and inspired truth of the church. Thus he established a conscious and sharply defined antagonism between faith and intellect, religion and science ; and his views found great favor in his time. His principal works are, De immortalitate animce (in which he denies the immortality of the soul on philosoph- ical grounds, while he accepts it as a revealed truth), De incantationibus, and De fato, both of which tend in the same direction. See Oleaeius : De Pomponatis, Jena, 1705. POND, Enoch, D.D., Congregationalist ; b. at Wrentham, Mass., July 29, 1791 ; d. at Bangor, Me., Jan. 21, 1882. He was graduated at Brown University, Providence, R.I., 1813; studied the- ology under Rev. Dr. Xathanael Emmons (see art.), and was licensed June, 1814, and ordained pastor of the Congregational Church in Ward (now Auburn), Mass., March 1, 1815. There he remained until, in 1828, he went to Boston to edit The Spirit of the Pilgrims, an orthodox religious monthly which played an important part in the LTnitarian controversy then going on. He retired in 1832, and in September of that year went to Bangor, Me., as professor of systematic theology in the theological seminary there, and taught in this department until 1856, when he became presi- dent, and professor of ecclesiastical history, and lecturer on pastoral theology. In 1870 he retired from active service, although retaining his presi- dency until his death. To Dr. Pond, Bangor Theological Seminary is much indebted. AVhen he came to it, it had only one professor and two students, and a library of five hundred volumes. He proved himself to be the right man in the right place ; and, largely through his energy, the semi- nary was built up to its present strength. He was much beloved in the city and throughout the State. He was a voluminous author. Among his works may be mentioned Christian Baptism, Boston, 1817, 3d ed., 1832 ; Morning of the Reformation, 1842; No Fellowship with Romanism, 1843; The Mather Fam- ily, 1844 ; Young Pastor's Guide, Portland, 1844 ; Sioedenhorgianism revietoed, Boston, 1846 (new edi- tion, Swedenborgianism examined, 1861) ; Plato, his Life, Works, Opinions, and Influence, 1846 ; The Ancient Church, 1851 ; Lectures on Pastoral The- ology, Andover, 1866 ; Lectures on Christian Theol- ogy, Boston, 1868; The Seals opened, Portland, 1871 ; A History of God's Church from its Origin to the Present Times, Hartford, 1871 ; Conversations on the Bible, 1881. PONTIANUS, Bishop of Rome, succeeded Ur- banus in 230, but was, according to the Calalogus Liberianus, banished in 235 to Sardinia, where he resigned his position, and died shortly after. According to tradition, his remains were brought to Rome, and buried in the Cmmeterium Callisti. PONTIFICALE denotes any thing belonging to the bishop {pontifex), from the vestments he is to wear, to the rites he has to perform. In order to establish uniformity throughout the church, Clement VIH. charged a committee with drawing up a regulative in accordance with the best infor- mation on the subject which could be obtained ; and on Feb. 10, 1596, the Pontificale Romanum was formally confirmed. The Pope also ordered that it should never be changed ; but the printing of it was so careless, that, in 1644, Urban VIII. had to issue a new oiRcial edition of it. POOLE, Matthew, b. at York, Eng., 1624; educated at Emmanuel College, in Cambridge; he became minister of St. Michael-le-Quernes, London, in 1648, and devoted himself to the Pres- byterian cause. In 1654 he published The Blas- phemer slain with the sword of the Spirit, agamst John Biddle, the chief Unitarian of the time. In 1658 he published a Model for the maintaining of Students, and raised a fund for their support at the universities. In the same year he pub- lished Quo Warranto ; or, a moderate enquiry into the warrantableness of the preaching of unordained persons. In 1662 he was ejected from his charge, for nonconformity, and devoted himself to bibli- cal studies. The fruit of these was produced, in 1669, in the Synopsis Criticorum (5 vols, folio), a monument of biblical learning which has served many generations of students, and will maintain its value forever. Many subsequent editions have been published at Frankfort, Utrecht, and elsewhere. He was engaged, at his death, on English Annotations on the Holy Bible, and pro- ceeded as far as Isa. Iviii. His friends completed the work ; and it was published (London, 1685, 2 vols, folio), and passed through many editions. Poole also took part in the Romish Controversy, and published two very effective works : The Nul- lity of the Romish Faith, or, A Blow at the Root, etc. (London, 1666), and Dialogues between a Popish Priest and an English Protestant (1667). On this account he was gTcatly hated by the Papists, and his name was on the list of those condemned to POOR. 1869 POPE. death in the Popish Plot. He retired to Amster- dam, and died in October, 1679. Few names will stand so high as Poole's in the biblical scholar- ship of Great Britain. See Non-Conformist Me- morial, London, 1802, i. p. 167, and an account of the life and writings of Matthew Poole, in the An- notations, vol. iv., Edinb., 1801. c. a. briggs. POOR, Daniel, D.D., Congregational missiona- ry; b. at Danvers, Mass., June 27, 1789; d. at Mempy, Ceylon, Feb. 2, 1855. He was graduated at Dartmouth College, 1811, and Andover Semi- nary, 1814; sailed from Newbuiyport, Mass., for Ceylon, Oct. 23, 1815; returned home in 1848; went back to Ceylon, 1850. He was very success- ful in missionary labor. From 1823 to 1836 he was in charge of the mission seminary at Bati- cotta; from 1836 to 1841, at Madura on the main- land, where, in his first year, he opened thirty- seven schools. From 1841 to his death, he labored in Ceylon. See Sprague : Annals of the American Pulpit, ii. 617. POOR MEN OF LYONS. See Waldenses. POPE, The. The word "pope" is the Latin papa, from the Greek ffuTrn-af , and means " father." It was anciently given to all Christian teachers, then to all bishops and abbots, then limited to the Bishop of Rome and the Patriarchs of Alex- andria, Antioch, Jerusalem, and Constantinople. In the Greek Church to-day it is the customary address of every secular priest. The name ap- pears, as first applied to the Bishop of Rome, in the letter of a deacon, Severus, to Marcellinus (296-304) ; was first formally adopted by Siricius (Bishop of Rome from 384 to 398), in his Epist. ad Orlhod. prov. ; officially used since Leo I. (440- 461) ; and declared the exclusive right of the papacy by the decree of Gregory VII. (1073-85). Besides this title, the Pope is called Pontifex Maximus (literally, "chief bridge-builder"), in imitation of the Roman emperors, who united civil and religious functions; "Vicar of St. Peter (Boni- face, in 722, named the Pope this) ; Vicar of Jesus Christ, or of God (so, first. Innocent III., 1198- 1216). The popes since Gregory I. (590-604) call themselves Servant of the servants of God (^Servus servorum Dei). The Pope dresses ordinarily in a white silk cassock and rochet: hence the expression "white pope," in contrast to the " black pope," the general of the Society of Jesus. Over this white dress he throws a scarlet mantle. When celebrating mass, he changes his gown according to the season of the church year : thus at Whitsuntide he wears red ; on Easter-Eve, black ; at Easter, white ; in Lent and Advent, violet. His insignia consist of the pallium (see art.) which the Pope alone can wear on all occasions, the metropolitans only in their dioceses ; the straight staff {pedum rectum'), without a crook, surmounted by a cross ; and the tiara, a mitre (see art.) surrounded by a triple crown. He receives the latter at his coronation, from two cardinal deacons, who put it on his head, saying, "Receive the tiara ornamented by the three crowns, and know that you are the father of bishops and kings, the earthly governor of the world, the vicar of our Saviour Jesus Christ, to whom be honor, world without end." The official letters of the Pope are briefs or bulls (see art.). « The Pope, as head of the church, acts succes- sively as Bishop of Rome (the diocese comprcr hends the city and the country around within a radius of some miles, the cathedral of which is St. John Lateran), as Archbishop of the Roman province (which comprehends twenty-seven bish- oprics, besides six suburban bishoprics), as Pri- mate of Italy, and as Patriarch of the East." (S. Berger.) For the manner of the election of a pope, see Conclave ; for the papal system, see Papacy. See C. F. B. Allnatt: Cathedra Pe- tri; w. The Titles and Prerogatives of St. Peter and of his See and Successors, 3d ed., London, 1883. Cf. arts. Pape, by S. Berger, in Lichtenberg, Mncyclopedie, vol. x. (1881), 163-170; Pope, by J. B. MuLLiNGER, in Smith and Cheetham, Dictionary Christian Antiquity, vol. ii. (1880), 1651-77, and Dean Stanley's chap., " The Pope," in his Christian Institutions, London and New York, 1881. COMPLETE LIST OF THE POPES. (67-79?) Linus. (79-91?) Cletus, or Aiiaclet. (91-100?) Clemens I. (101-109?) Evaristus. (109-111 al. 119) . . . Alexander I. 117-127 al. 119-128 . . Sixtus I. (Xystus). 128-138 al. 1.39 . . . Telesphorus. (139-142?) Hyginus. ? 142-154 Pius I. ? 154-168 Anicetus. ? 168-176 Soter. ? 177-190 Eleutherus. ? 190-202 Victor L 202-218 Zephyrinus. 218-228 Callistus, or Calixtus I. CHippolytus, Antipope.) ? 223-230 tJrbanus I. ? 230-235 . . . . \ ^o^*.i^"'^s (resigned in 235-236 Anterus. 236-250 Fabianus, Martyr. oRA_oRi (The See vacant till ^^"~^°^ ] March, 251. ? 251-252 Cornelius (in exile). ? 251 .... (Novatianus, Autipope.) 252-253 .... Lucius I. ? 253-257 Stephen I. ? 257-258 Xystus (Sixtus) II. Till July 21, 259 . . . The See vacant. 259-269 Dionysius. 269-274 Felix I. 275-283 Eutychianus. 283-296 Gajus (Gains). 296-304 Marcellinus. 304-307 The See vacant. 308-309 Marcellus. ? 309-310 jEuseMus,d.Sept.26(?), 309-310 The See vacant. 311-314 Miltiades (MelcMades). 314-335 Silvester I. 336-337 Marcus. 337-352 Julius I. 352-366 Liberius. 385-366 .... Filix II., Antipope. 366 .... Ursiuus, Antipope. 366-384 Damasus. 384^398 Siricius. 398-402 Anastasius. 402-417 Innocentius. 417-418 Zosimus. 418, Dec. 27 ... Eulalius, Antipope. 418-422 Bonifacius. 422-432 Coelestinus. 432-440 Sixtus HL 440-461 Leo I. POPE. 1870 POPE. 461-46S Hilai-ius. 468-4S3 Simplicius. 483-492 Felix in. 492-496 Gelasiusl. 496-49S Aiiastasius II. 49S-514 Symraachus. 49S, Nov Laurentius, Autipopc. 514-523 Horinisdas. 523-.'i20 John I. 526-530 Felix IV. 530-532 Bonifacius II. 530, Sept. 17 ... , Diosoorus, Autipopc. 532-535 V^"'"'^^- ( Mercunus. 535-536 Agapetus I. 5.S6-5;57 Silverius. 537-555 Vigilius. 555-560 Pelagltis I. 560-574 John III. 574-578 Benedict I. 578-590 TelagiusII. 590-604 St. Gregory I. (the Great). 604-606 Sabinianiis. 607 Boniface III. 608-615 Boniface IV. 615-618 Deiisdedit. 619-625 Boniface V. 625-638 Honoriusl. 638(?)-640 Severinus. 640-042 John IV. 642-649 Theodorusl. 649-653 |055| .... St. Martin I. 6.54-657 Eugenius I. 657-672 Vitalianus. 672-676 Adeodatus. 676-678 Donus or Domnus I. 678-681 Agatho. 682-083 Leo II. 683-685 Benedict II. 685-686 JohnV. 686-687 Conon. 687-692 Paschal. 687 Theodoras. 687-701 Sergiusl. 701-705 John VI. 705-707 John VII. 708 Sisinnius. 708-715 Constantine I. 715-731 Gregory II. 731-741 Gregory III. 741-752 Zacharias. 752 (3 days) .... Stephen II. 752-757 Stephen III. 757-767 Paul I. 767 Constantine 11. 768-772 Stephen IV. 772-795 Hadrian I. 795-816 Leo III. 810-817 Stephen V. 817-824 Paschal L 824-827 Eugenius II. 827 (40 days) .... Valeiitinus. 827-844 Gregory IV. 844-847 SergiusIL 847-855 Leo IV. 855-858 Benedict in, 855 Anastasius. 858-867 Nicholas I. 867-872 Hadrian II. 872-882 John VIII. 882-884 Marinus. 884-885 Hadrian in. 885-891 Stephen VI. 891-896 Forraosus. 896 (15 days) .... Boniface VL 896-897 Stephen VII. 897 (4 months) . . . Romanus. 898 Theodoras II. 898-900 John IX. 900-903 Benedict IV. 903 (1 month). . , . Leo V. 904-911 SergiusIII. 911-913 Anastasius III. 913-May, 914 .... Lando. 914-928 John X. 928 (7 months) . . . Leo VI. 929-931 Stephen VIIL 931-936 John XI. 936-939 Leo VII. 039-942 Stephen IX. 943-946 Marinus II. 946-956 Aijapetus. 956-964 John XII. 963-965 Leo VHI. 964 Benedict V. 965-972 John XIIL 973 Benedict VL 974 Boniface VII. 975-984 Benedict VIL 984-9&5 John XIV. 985-996 John XV. 996-999 Gregory V. 997-998 ' Calabritanus John XVI. 998-1003 Silvester II. 1003 JohnXVII. 1003-1009 JohnXVIIL 1009-1012 Sergius IV. 1012-1024 Benedict VIIL 1012 Gregory. 1024-10.33 John XIX. 1033-1044 Benedict IX. (deposed). 1044-1046 Silvester JII. 1044-1040 Gregory VI. 1046-1047 Clement IL 1047-1048 DamasusII. 1048-10.54 Leo IX. 1054-10.57 Victor II. 1057-1058 Stephen X. (deposed). 105S Benedict X. 1058-1001 Nicholas II. 1061-1073 Alexander II. lOGl Cadalua (IlonoriusII.). 1073-1085 (Gregory VII. (Hilde- ) brand). 1080-1100 WibertuB (Clement III.). 1086-1087 Victor III. 1088-1099 Urban II. 1099-1118 Paschal IL 1100 Theodorious. 1102 Albertus. 1105-1111 Maginulfus (Silvester IV.). 1118-1119 Gelasius II. 1118-1121 BurdinuB (Gregory VIIL). 1119-1124 Calixtusll. 1124 i Theobaldus Buccapccus (Co- ) lestine). 1124-11.30 HonoriusII. 1130-1143 Innocent IL 1130-1138 AnacletUB II. 1138 Gregory (Victor IV.). 114.3-1144 CelestinelL 1144-1145 Lucius 11. 114.5-1153 Eugenius IIL 1153-1154 Anaslasius IV. 1154-11.59 Adrian IV. 1159-1181 Alexander IIL 1150-1104 OctavianuB (Victor IV.). Il(^_lie3 I Guido Crcmonsis (Paschal 1168-1178 i Johannes de Struma (Calix^ ) tusIII.). 1178-1180 ! I-'Bi'dus Titiuus (Innocent 1181-1185 LuciuVlIL 1185-1187 Urban 111. 1187 Gregory VIIL 1187-1191 Clement IIL 1191-1198 CeleslinellL 1198-1216 Innocent IIL 1216-1227 HoiioriusIIL POPE. 1871 PORDAGB. 1227-1241 Gregory IX. 1241 ..... CelestinelV. 1241-1254 Innocent IV. 1254-1261 Alexander IV. 1261-1264 Urban IV. 1265-1268 Clement IV. 1271-1276 Gregory X. 1276 Innocent V. 1276 Adrian V. 1276-1277 John XXI. 1277-1280 Nicholas III. 1281-1285 Martin IV. 1285-1287 HonoriusIV. 1288-1292 Nicholas IV. igai ( St. Celestine V. (abdi- ^''•'^ i cated). 1294-1303 Boniface VIII. 1303-1804 Benedict XI. 1305-1314 Clement V.i 1314-1316 The See vacant. 1316-1334 John XXII. 1334-i:j42 Benedict XII. 1342-1352 Clement VI. 13o2-13(i2 Innocent VI. 1362-1370 Urban V. 1370-1378 Gregory XI. 137S-1389 Urban VI. 1378-1394 Clement VII. 1389-1404 Boniface IX. 1394-1423 j^U09)'!'°' ^^^' ^'^''P"'*"^ 1404-1406 Innocent VII. 1406-1409 Gregory XII. (deposed). 1409-1410 Alexander V. 1410-1415 John XXIII. (deposed). 1417-1431 Martin V. 1417 . ... Clement VIII. 1431-1447 Eugene IV. 1439-1449 Felix V. 1447-1455 Nicholas V. 1455-1*58 CalixtusIV. 1458-1464 Pius II. 1464-1471 Paul II. 1471-1484 SixtusIV. 1484-1492 Innocent VIII. 1492-1.503 Alexander VI. 1503 Pius III. 1503-1513 Julius II. 1513-1521 LeoX. 1.522-1523 Hadrian VI. 1523-1534 Clement VII. 1534-1549 Paul III. 1550-15.55 Julius III. 1555 Marcellus II. 1555-1559 Paul IV. 1559-1565 Pius IV. 1566-1572 PiusV. 1572-1.585 Gregory XIII. 1585-1590 SixtusV. 1590 Urban VII. 1590-1.591 Gregory XIV. 1.591 Innocent IX. 1592-1605 Clement VIII. 1605 Leo XI. 1605-1621 Paul V. 1621-1623 Gregory XV. 162.3-1644 Urban VIII. 1644-1(555 Innocent X. 16.55-1667 Alexander VII. 1667-1669 Clement IX. 1607-1676 Clement X. 1676-1689 Innocent XI. 1689-1691 Alexander VIII. 1691-1700 Innocent XII. > Clement V. moved the pap.il see to Avignon in 1309 ; and his successors continued to reside there for seventy years, till Gregory XI. After that date, arose a forty-years' schism be- tween the Roman Popes and the Avignon Popes. 12 — III 1700-1721 Clement XI. 1721-1724 Innocent XIII. 1724-1730 Benedict XIII. 1730-1740 Clement XII. 1740-1758 Benedict XIV. 1758-1769 Clement XIII. 1769-1774 Clement XIV. 1775-1799 Pius VI. 1800-1823 Pius VII. 1823-1829 Leo XII. 1829-1830 PiusVIIL 1831-1846 Gregory XVL 1846-1878 Pius IX. (longest reign). 1878- Leo XIII. POPE, Alexander, b. in London, May 21, 1688 ; d. at Twickenham, May 30, 1744 ; ranks as a sa- cred poet in virtue of his Messiah (1712), Univer- sal Prayer (1732), and Dying Christian to his Soul (1712). The last-named, however little fitted for worship, has been constantly included in hymn- books ; and extracts from the other t wo h ave some- times been thus used. The Universal Prayer, which has offended many, is prized by others as one of the noblest of religious lyi-ics. F. M. bird. PORDAGE, John, one of the founders of the Philadelphian Society (see art.) ; b. in London, 1608 ; d. there 1698. He studied theology and medicine at Oxford ; was curate at Reading, and then rector at Bradfield in Berkshire. Influenced by the works of Jacob Boehme (see art.), he advo- cated fantastic notions, by which he attracted a little group of disciples, and also adverse criti- cism, the result of which was his deposition from the ministry. Pordage and the little company moved from Bradfield to London. In 1655 the plague drove them out of the city, and they went back to Bradfield; returned again to London, 1670, and remained there permanently. It was in the latter year that Jane Leade (see art.) founded the Philadelphian Society, which met in Pordage's house. Pordage was their seer, and derived his teachings from revelations. He distinguished four kinds of revelations by the Spirit: (1) Visions, the lowest degree, — mere heavenly shapes, images, and forms which are spiritually perceived by the inner sense of man by the operation of the Holy Ghost; (2) Illuminations, by which the human spirit becomes aware, as if by a ray of divine light falling upon it, of the meaning of the Eternal Spirit; (3) Immediate translations of the spirit of the soul into the principium (God), when it beholds the secrets of the Trinity according to 2 Cor. xii. 2, 4; (4) The descent of the Holy Spirit into the soul, completing its regeneration, strengthening its illuminated condition, and open- ing to the soul the glory of the New Jerusalem. He endeavored to popularize and expound Boehme's- teaching. He taught, among other things, that God created eternal nature out of the eternal nothing, or chaos, and put in it all the forces by which, later on, the worlds were made. Nature is composed of the four eternal elements, -— fire, water, air, and earth : "These are the materials of the substance of eternal nature." In the body of the same are the elements, salt, fire, water, and oil, light, air, a crystal, transparent earth, and a fifth substance, which results from the interwork- ing of all these elements. Out of the " four eter- nal elements " and the three eternal principia (phosphorus, salt, mercury) was the angelic world PORITOPPIDAN. 1872 PORT ROYAL. brought in an instant at the divine command. It has three divisions, — the external court, the inner court, and the Holy of holies. It is made up of a heaven and an earth ; but, instead of sunlight, it has the ineffable light of the Trinity, and, instead of stars, many " powers," which have a cei'tain independent existence. The angels consist of three eternal things, — spirit, soul, and love. It was the disturbance of the harmony between these three that caused the fall of a part of the angels. Their fall was the occasion for a new step in crea- tion. They fell into a hell of their own making; for, having broken through the band of eternal nature, the element of fire asserted itself, and enclosed them. . They have a " tincture " by which they destroy human souls. As the opposite to the fallen angels' world, God made a world of light and love, called in Scripture "paradise." By wisdom (sophia) the first Adamic man was made out of the substance of all things. He was bisex- ual ; but out of him, by the "female tincture," Eve was formed. Tor further information, see arts. Bkomley, Leadb, Philadelphiax Society; Wood: Atke- nce Oxonienses ; H. Hochhuth: Heinrichliorcheu. d. philadelpJilschen Gemeinden in Hesse, Gutersloh, 1879. Pordage's writings embrace Theologia mys- lica, 1680; Mystic divinitie, 1683; Metaphysica vera et divina, 1698. H. HOCHHUTH. PORITOPPIDAN, Erik Ludwigsen, b. at Aarhus, Denmark, Aug. 24, 1698; d. in Copen- hagen, Dec. 20, 1764. He studied theology in Copenhagen, visited Holland and England, and was appointed professor of theology in Copenha- gen, 1738, bishop of Bergen in Norway, 1747, and chancellor of the university of Copenhagen in 17.55. While tutor in the house of the Duke of Holstein-Ploen, he came in contact with the pietist movement of Halle ; and he represents that move- ment in the history of the Danish Church. He wrote an explanation of Luther's Catechism, which was generally used as a text-book in Denmark and Norway till the second decade of the present century; Mendoza, a theological romance in 3 vols., i742-43 ; Annales ecclesice danicm, 4 vols, in quarto, 1741-53, etc. He also wrote, and not without success, on history, geogTaphy, natural science, and political economy. PORPHYRY. See Neo-Platonism. PORTER, Ebenezer, D.D., Congregationalist ; b. at Cornwall, Conn., Oct. 5, 1772 ; d. at An- dover, April 8, 1834. He was graduated at Dart- mouth College, 1792; ordained, Sept. 6, 1796, pastor in Washington, Conn.; and Bartlett pro- fessor of sacred rhetoric in the Andover Theo- logical Seminary, from April 1, 1812, until 1832. During this period, so popular and honored was he, that he received calls to the presidency of the universities of Vermont (1815) and of Georgia (1817), and to Hamilton (1817), Middlebury (1817), and Dartmouth (1821) colleges, besides to the professorship of divinity at Yale College (1817). All these calls he respectfully but firmly declined. In 1827 he accepted the newly formed office of president of the Andover Theological Seminary. For the last twenty years of his life he was more or less an invalid. He published Young Preacher's Manual, or, A Collection of Treatises on Preaching, Selected and Becised, Boston, 1819, 2d ed., New York, 1829 ; Lecture on the Analysis of Vocal In- flections, Andover, 1824; An Analysis of the Prin- ciples of Rhetorical Delieery, 1827, 8th ed., by A. H. Weld, Boston, 1839 ; Rhetorical Reader, An- dover, 1831, 300th ed.. New York, 1858; Letters on Religious Revivals which prevailed about the Be- ginning of the Present Century, Andover, 1832, later editions, Boston (Cong. Pub.) and New York, 1850 (Methodist Book Concern); Lectures on Homi- letics. Preaching, and on Public Prayer, Andover, 1834 ; Lectures on . Eloquence and Style (posthu- mous), Andover, 1836. See Sprague: Annals, ii. 351. PORTIUNCULA INDULGENCE, ever since 1847, has been obtained in the Portiuncula Church, near Assisi, and in every other chu]-ch belonging to the Franciscan order; but originally it was granted only in the Portiuncula Church {Nostra Signora degii Angeli: see Francis of Assisi), for there, says the legend, Christ assured Francis that he would, gi'ant plenary indulgence to every one who should confess in this church, provided Francis obtained the consent of the Pope (Hono- rius III.). By advice of the cardinals, the Pope limited the time of obtaining this indulgence to one day, — from the evening of Aug. 1 to the evening of Aug. 2 ; but Innocent XII., in 1695, extended the indulgence to every day in the year; Gregory XV., to every convent of the Franciscan order; and the jiapal Congregation on Indul- gences, in 1847, to every Franciscan Church. PORT ROYAL, the most celebrated nunnery of France, and famous on account of the influence which in the seventeenth century it exercised on French society and on the Roman-Catholic Church in general, was founded in 1204 by Mathilde de Gaiiande, in commemoration of the happy return of her husband from the fourth crusade. It was situated in the swampy and unhealthy valley of the Yvette, in the department of Seine, between Versailles and Chevreuse, and belonged to the Cistercian order. The neighbor- ing Bernardine monastery, Vaux de Cernay, ex- ercised a kind of control over it, and provided it with confessors. The abbots of Citeaux held visi- tations in it from time to time, and the protocols of some of those visitations are still extant. It was exempted from the jurisdiction of the Arch- bishop of Paris; and Honorius III., granted it several great privileges, — to have administered the Lord's Supper even in times when an inter- dict was laid upon the country ; to give refuge to such laymen as wished to retire from the world, and do penance without taking the monastic vows, etc. With such advantages, the institution soon became prosperous. In 1233 it numbered sixty inmates. In course of time it acquired rich estates, and its abbesses belonged to the most distinguished families in France. Its great eccle- siastical importance, however, dates from its con- nection with the family of Arnauld. Jacqueline Marie Arnauld, generally known under the name of Mfere Angelique (b. 1591 ; d. 1661), became abbess of Port Royal in 1602, eleven years old. For some time she led a quiet and dignified though not strictly religious life. But in 1608 she was converted, and the immediate result of her conversion was a severe contest with her nuns and with her family. The nunnery, how- ever, was thoioughly reformed, and transplanted from the valley of the Yvette to the street of PORT ROYAL. 1873 PORTUGAL. St. Jacques in Paris ; and of her family a great number of its members — sisters and brothers, nephews and nieces — joined the institution. After the death of St. Francis of Sales, Zamet, Bishop of Langres, became the spiritual adviser of Mere Augelique; but the course which the institution took under his direction was not satis- factory. The discipline became still more austere, but at the same time the institution assumed an air of magiiificence and lofty reserve which was ill suited to its purpose. In 1633, however, a com- plete change took place in this respect. Agnes Arnauld published her Chapelet secret du St. Sa- crament ; and the book, which made a great sensa- tion, was condemned by the Sorbonne. Among its defenders was not only Zamet, but also St. CjTan ; and from gratitude the former introduced the latter to the nuns of Port Royal. St. Cyran (b. 1581 ; d. 1643) was an intimate friend and zealous adherent of Jansen ; and, as he soon be- came the true spiritual director of the institution, he made Port Royal the home of Jansenism. The number of nuns soon increased so much, that the country-seat of the institution, Port Royal des Champs, had to be restored and re-occupied. A number of male recluses, the so-called ancho- rets of Port Royal, — among whom were Antoine Lemaitre, Simon de Sericourt, Arnauld d' Andilly, Lancelot, Palla, Fontaine, the Duke de Luynes, and others, — settled there, or in the neighbor- hood. As most of those recluses belonged to the higher walks of society, and were men of note in science and literature, they threw a great lustre over the institution, and even gave it a kind of power. In their seclusion they generally contin- ued their various callings : Palla still practised as a physician ; Fontaine became the historiographer of Port Royal; Andilly translated the Fathers. Their principal occupation, however, and one of the most prominent features of the whole institu- tion, was the instruction and education of children. In 1637 the nuns began to teach the children of their relatives and acquaintances. In 1646 regu- lar schools were established in Paris, and in 1653 in the country. The total number of pupils edu- cated by the institution does not, probably, exceed one thousand. But, as the teacher had only a few pupils at a time, he could bestow so much more attention on each of them. The educational principle of Port Royal was moral, rather than intellectual ; though the latter element of education was by no means neglected. Racine wa^ educated there. The last object was, in strong opposition to the machine-training of the Jesuits, to develop each individual soul according to its powers; and no encouragement was ever given to enter monastic life. See Compayre : Histoire critique des doctrines de I'e'ducation en France, Paris, 1879, 2 vols. The success of the institution, however, soon awakened jealousy : chicaneries and persecutions began. By an order of Richelieu, who_ could tolerate no independent character in public life, St. Cyran was thrown into a dungeon of Vincennes, in 1638, on account of his book on virginity, and not relea-sed until 1643, two months aft.er the death of the cardinal. In the latter year Antoine Arnauld, the great Arnauld, the theologian of Port Royal (b. 1612 ; d. 1694), published his De la frequente communion. With its passionate de- mand for penitence, with its solemn warning against the idea of an opus operatum, with its grave protest against the frivolous enjoyment of the Lord's Supper, it was a direct challenge to Jesuitism. He was summoned to Rome, but he did not go. It must not be understood, however, that there was any thing subversive, or even reformatory in the stiiet sense of the word, in the activity of Port Royal. On the contrary, in spite of its views of sin and grace, it was, from the very fcst, averse to Protestantism; and it re- mained true to its instincts to the very last. It stood firmly planted on Roman-Catholic ground. But it demanded sincerity. It wished to make religion the root of human life, and thus it could not fail of coming into conflict with the Jesuits. Its adoption of the tenets of Jansen became the occasion; and when Innocent X. issued the bull of May 31, 1653, condemning the five propositions of Jansen, the storm, broke out. The bull was met with decided opposition from the side of Port Royal; and the result was, that Arnauld was expelled from the Sorbonne, that the anchorets were ordered to leave Port Royal des Champs, that the schools of the institution were closed, etc. The excommunication of the monastery was, however, averted by the miracle of the thorn (see p. 1753) ; and Pascal's Lettres provinciates almost turned the battle into a victory. Arnauld and the anchorets returned ; and Port Royal en- joyed peace for several years, until Louis XIV. assumed the government in person (1660). He was entirely in the hands of the Jesuits ; and the art. Jansenism shows how, dming the develop- ment of the Jansenist controversy, the situation of Port Royal became more and more critical. In 1669 a separation took place between Port Royal de Paris and Port Royal des Champs, to the great financial detriment of the latter. The king assumed the right of appointing the abbess of Port Royal de Paris, and fi'om that moment it lost all historical importance. In 1679 Port Royal des Champs was bereft of its right to receive novices, and thereby of the very condition of life. Finally, when the nuns refused to subscribe the bull of Clement XI. (^Vincam Domini, July 15, 1705), unless with some restrictions, the decisive blow was struck. On Nov. 22, 1707, the monas- tery was excommunicated ; and on July 11, 1709, the Archbishop of Paris, under whose authority it had retm'ned in 1627, issued an order for its dissolution. On Oct. 29, same yeai-, a squad of policemen entered the building, and drove the twenty-two nuns, of whom the youngest was over fifty years old, away by force. According to a royal order of Jan. 22, 1710, the buildings, even the church, were razed to the ground. Lit. — Fontaine : Me'moires pour servir a I'his- toire de P. R., Cologne, 1738, 2 vols. ; Dufosse: Me'm. pour servir a I'hisloire de P. R., Cologne, 1739, Vie des religieuses de P. R., Utrecht, 1740, 4 vols. ; Racixe : Abrege de I'histoire de P. R., best edition by Mesnard, Paris, 1865; Gdilbert: Me'moires sur P. R. des Champs, 1755-56, 7 vols. ; Gregoire : Les ruines de P- R., Paris, 1809 ; H. Reuchlin : Geschichle von P. R., Hambm-g, 1839-44, 2 vols. ; Sainte-Beuve : Port Royal, Paris, 1840-59, 5 vols. ; Beard : Port Royal, Lon- don, 1861, 2 vols. TH. SCHOTT. PORTUGAL, The Kingdom of, comprises an area of 34,502 square miles, with 4,550,699 in- POSCHL. 1874 POTTER. habitants, according to the census of 187S. The state religion is Roman Catholic; and other de- nominations are not allowed to worship in public, though they are tolerated. Plierarchically the country is divided into four provinces, — the arch- bishopric of Braga, with six bishoprics ; the pa- triarchate of Lisbon, with nine bishoprics; the archbishopric of Evora, with three bishoprics ; and the archbishopric of Goa, with eight bishop- rics. The clergy is paid partly by the state, partly by the congregations, and partly from ecclesiasti- cal funds. Each ecclesiastical province has its own priest seminary, besides the theological fac- ulty of the state university in Lisbon. During the union with Spain, in the sixteenth century, the Jews were expelled ; and only a few returned, when, in 1820, the country was again opened to them. The Jesuits were expelled in 1759, and have not been allowed to return. A law of Nov. 28, 1878, makes it possible for Protestants to contract legally valid marriages in the country. Under the authority of the Episcopal Church of England, several evangelical congregations have been formed in Lisbon and Porto. Distribution of the Bible in the vernacular tongue is not pro- hibited, and practically a considerable amount of toleration is exercised. f. fliedner. POSCHL, Thomas, b. at Horetz, in Bohemia, March 2, 1769 ; d. in a lunatic-asylum in Vienna, Nov. 15, 18.37; the founder of an enthusiastic sect, the PoscJilians. He was by nature sour, and addicted to mysticism and melancholy. As chap- lain of Anipfelwang in Upper Austria, he began to preach strange doctrines, — that women could hear confession, and give absolution ; that a cer- tain process of purification, which produced con- vulsions, was necessary to salvation ; that the Jews were about to be converted, after which a general emigration to the heavenly Jerusalem should take place, etc. He found many adhe- rents ; but, as singular excesses took place among them, he was arrested, and brought to Vienna, where it soon after was discovered that he was insane. Meanwhile, his adherents went so far as to perform human sacrifices, and had to be dis- persed by force. SeeWiJRTH: Voklaliruch,Ma,Ykt- breit, 1825. NEunEOliEE. POSITIVISM. See Comte, Auguste. POSSESSION, Demoniacal. See Demoniacs. POS3EVINO, Antonio, b. at Mantua, 1534; d. at Eerrara, 1611. He entered the order of the Jesuits in 1559, and was vei-y active in combating Protestantism in the valleys of the Waldensians, in France, and in Sweden (1577-81). Gregory Xni. also used him on important diplomatic missions. Besides a great number of polemical treatises, he wrote Moscovia (Wilna, 1586) and Apparatus sacer ad scriptores VeteHs el Noci Text. (Venice, 1603-06, 3 vols, folio). See D'Origny : Vie lie Possevin, Paris, 1712. C. SCHMIDT. POSSIDIUS, or POSSIDONIUS, Bishop of Ca- lama in Numidia; a pupil and intimate friend of Augustine; a vehement adversary of the Dona- tists ; was present at the Collalin cum Donatislis, in Carthage, 411, and at the synod of Mileve, 416 (Ma.nsi: Coll. Condi., IV. 51 and 335). In 437 he was banished by Genseric. The year of his death is unknown. He is the author of a very valuable Vita Atir/nxfini, generally printed together with Augustine's works, in the A. ,S. Boll. Aug. T. VI., p. 427 sqq., and separately edited by Salinas, Rome, 1731, 2d ed., Augsb., 1768. hauck. POSTEL, Guillaume, b. at Doleric, in Nor- mandy, May 28, 1503; d. in the monastery of St. Mai'tin des Champs, near Paris, Sept. 6, 1581. He pursued his studies under many troubles, and led an exceedingly erratic life ; visited Constan- tinople (whence he brought back a number of valuable Arabic and Syriac manuscripts), Vienna (where he aided Widdmanstadt in his edition of the Syriac New Testament), Venice (where he was arrested by the Inquisition, but released as a fool), Rome (where he entered the order of the Jesuits, but was expelled on account of his scientific vagaries), Paris (where he lectured to immense audiences, on mathematics. Oriental languages, and philosophy). He was, indeed, a great Ori- ental scholar ; but his works (De ralionilms Spi- riiiis sancti, La doctrine die siecle dore, De orhis terrcB Concordia, etc.) are full of sti-ange eccentricities. POSTIL (postilla), in mediaeval Latin, meant a continuous series of notes to the text of the Scrip- tures, and was thus called because following after the words of the text, post ilia. It seems to have originated in the time of Charlemagne : at least,, the Homiliarium of Paulns Diaconus was called a postilla. Afterwards the word came to mean a. collection of sermons ; as the postils of Luther, Corvinus, Brenz, and others. Medireval Latin had also a verb po.itillare : thus it is said of Nicholas of Lyra, on his tombstone, poxtitlacit Blblla. HERZOG. POTTER, Alonzo, D.D., LL.D., Bishop of the Protestant-Episcopal Church in the diocese of Pennsylvania; b. on the sixth day of July, 1800,- in La Grange, Dutchess County, N.Y. ; d. on shipboard, in the harbor of San Francisco, July 4, 1865. He was the sixth child of Joseph Potter, whose ancestors emigrated from England in 1640, and settled in Rhode Island. Though his parents were members of the Society of Friends, yet two of Joseph Potter's sons, Alonzo and Horatio, be- came, respectively, bishops of the two largest dio- ceses in the United States, — Pennsylvania and New York. 'When but fifteen years old Alonzo Potter entered the college at Schenectady, then under the presidency of the Rev. Eliphalet Nott; and all through his connection with Union Col- lege, till he graduated with the honors of his. class, in 1818, he took the first rank in scholar- ship. Immediately after his graduation he visited Philadelphia ; and while in that city he was bap- tized in St. Peter's Church by Bishop White, and shortly after was confirmed in Christ Church by the same bishop. Here he began his studies for- the sacred ministry, under the direction of Bishop White and the Rev. Samuel IL Turner, D.D.; but he was soon recalled to Union College as a tutor, and in about a year later he was chosen pro- fe.ssor of mathematics and natural philosophy in the same college. Thus, like ]{;dward Everett, he became a professor the same year that he came of age, — instances alike of rare abilities early matured, and successfully sustained througli life. On the 1st of May, 1822, he was ordained dea- con by Bishop Hobart, and two years later was advanced to the priesthood by Bishop Brownell. That same year he married Sarah Maria, only daughter of President Nott, " a lady of superior POTTER. 1875 POTTER. mind, exceeding loveliness of character, and ele- gant accomplishments." The relations into which, by his college duties and domestic ties, he was brought with Dr. Nott, were of great service to him in shaping his mind and studies, and, indeed, his whole future life. In 1825, when Hobart College, Geneva, needed a president, Professor Potter was chosen, but declined to accept the office. The next year he was elected rector of St. Paul's, Boston, Mass. ; and such were the peculiar circumstances of the case, that he felt constrained to accept the call, though at a great sacrifice of personal and domestic comfort. Under his wise administration the parish soon took the first rank among the churches, and the young pastor be- came a moral and intellectual power in that city. Ill health compelled him to resign his place in 1831 ; and he returned to the quiet of the profes- sor's chair in Union College, and was shortly after chosen vice-president of the college. In 1838 he was elected with great unanimity, by the Convention of the Diocese of Massachusetts, as- sistant bishop. He was in Europe at the time, but declined the high honor, as he had previously refused to allow his name to be used as a candi- date for the episcopate of AVestevn New York ; and, later still, he declined a similar overtui-e from the new diocese of Khode Island. Seven years later-, during which time his reputation rose higher and higher above his college horizon, he was chosen bishop of the diocese of Pennsylvania; and he was consecrated in Christ Church, Phila- delphia, on the 23d of September, 1815. The whole State of Pennsylvania soon began to feel the influence of his unremitting zeal and labors. He was so generous in his sympathies, so practi- cal in his plans, so wise in administering his high office, so skilful in calling around him the best elements, both lay and clerical, as co-workere with him, and so really great in his mental and moral character, that the church rapidly rose into prominence and power. In the second year of his episcopate he inaugurated the convocation system, which did so much to unify the clergy, and concentrate their power. In his fifth annual address he brought forward his project for a "church hospital," the result of which is seen in the best appointed hospital-building in the whole State, and which is now one of the noblest insti- tutions in Philadelphia. Shortly aftei-, he urged upon the convention the subject of a " training-college ; " and out of this has grown that beautiful building known as "The Philadelphia Divinity School," with its corps of able professors, and a long list of distinguished alumni, occupying some of the highest places in the church. He was one of the foremost to establish " young men's lyceuras," and "popular lectures," and " working-men's institutes." To perfecting these important agents for healthful public instruction to the industrial classes, he devoted much time and thought ; and their success was largely due to his wise suggestions and well-laid plans. He also took a deep interest in the temperance question; and by his personal example, and brave but judicious words, he ever upheld that cause, and backed it up with all his weighty counsel and influence. In the cause of education he was one of the foremost minds. His long experience, and breadth of view, gave much strength to his counsels ; and in the University of Pennsylvania, and all over the State, and, indeed, in the country at large, he was felt as an educational power. His active energies were ever on the outlook for wholesome and needful work ; and hence he was constantly called upon by various bodies of his fellow-men, and by various charitable and reli- gious organizations, to act with them on boards and committees and platforms; and everywhere he was welcomed as one wise in council, and earnest in action, and thorough in whatever he did. As a lecturer, Bishop Potter was unrivalled. This was shown by the wonderful ability which he displayed dm-ing the several years (1845-53) in which he was engaged in delivering his sixty '• Lowell Lectures " in Boston. These lectures, compassing almost the whole circle of philosophy, were delivered without the written page, and with but occasional use of a few brief notes ; yet, by common consent of the best thinkers who heard them, they were regarded as masterly, both in the grasp and treatment of the various topics which he handled. He was also very prominent in all philanthropic and missionary work, both at home and abroad. As a patriot, he stood unflinching amidst the most trying ordeals, — a stanch Union man, laboring with voice and pen for his whole country ; and, in all his utterances during the civil war, he blended the breadth of the statesman, the heart of the philanthropist, and the faith of the Christian. In 1858 he suddenly broke down, and was obliged to spend a year and more abroad. In 1858 the convention elected the Rev. Dr. Bowman as assistant bishop, which relieved Bishop Potter of many duties. For a time, and under the stir- ring events and stimulus of the civil w'ar, he seemed to rally ; but, after the death of his second wife, he was again suddenly stricken down. The assistant bishop, on whom he leaned, was also suddenly taken away by death ; and though an- other assistant bishop was elected in 1861 (the Rev. William Bacon Stevens, D.D.), yet it was evident that the good bishop's work was nearly done. In March, 1865, he sailed for California, via Brazil and the Straits of Magellan, having for fellow-passengers to Rio Janeiro Professor Agassiz and a party of scientists en route to Brazil. At Panama the bishop went on shore to conse- crate a church at Aspinwall, on the east side of the Isthmus, and there contracted a fever, of which he died, on board the steamship "Colorado," in the harbor of San Francisco, on the morning of the 4th of July, 1865. His character was noted for its massive quiet- ness and its thorough solidity. His life was as clear and honest as the day. He set his eye upon his destined work, and did it with " an eye single to God's glory." His influence in the diocese was felt by all men. His influence in the house of bish- ops was gladly recognized by all his brethren ; and in all the councils of the church, conven- tional, educational, or missionary, his voice and words were always sound and potential. He was a man of large " domestic affections and sympa- thies ; and his Christian character was that of a humble but strong believer in Jesus, ever seekiug to know and do the Master's will. POTTS. 1876 POWELL. His remains lie interred in Laurel Hill Ceme- tery, Pliiladelphia ; but his monuments are the noble institutions which he founded, the far- reaching plans which he inaugurated, and that vivid memory of his many and signal virtues which wiU ever linger in the diocese, and ever perpetuate his honored name as that of a godly, wise, and well-learned bishop. His Life was writ- ten by llev. Dr. JM. A. DeW. Howe, Philadelphia, 1871. WM. BACON STEVENS (P.E. Bp., Penn.). POTTS, George, D.D., Presbyterian; b. in Philadelphia, Penn., March 15, 1802 ; d. in New- York City, Sept. 15, 1864. He was graduated from the University of Pennsylvania, 1819, and from Princeton Theological Seminary, 1823. He was pastor in Natchez, Miss., 1823-35, and in New- York City from 1836 till his death (Duane- street Church, 1836-44 ; University-place Chui-ch, 1845-64). He was an eminent preacher, a leader in religion and philanthropy, a beloved pastor and friend. He had a memorable controversy with Bishop Wainwriglit, on the claims of Episcopacy {No Church without a Bishop, New York, 1844, pamphlet), and published single sermons and ad- dresses. See Allibone : Dictionary of British and American Authors, s.v. POULAIN, Nicolas, b. at Mesnils, in the de- partment of Seine-Inferieure, Jan. 13, 1807 ; d. at Geneva, April 3, 1868. He was successively pastor of Nanteuil-les-Meaux (1832-33), Havre (1833-56), Lausanne (1857-62), and Luneray (1862-66). He is the author of Qu'est ce qu'un christianisme sans dogmes et sans miracles f (1863) and L'ceuvre des missions evangeliques au ]}oint de vue de la di- vinile du christianisme (1867), both of considerable apologetic merit. POURING. The pouring of water on the head is the usual act of baptism in the Church of Rome and the Protestant communions. Sometimes, es- pecially in Protestant circles, a mere sprinkling is used, or a simple touching of the forehead with the moistened finger. What is the origin of the custom ? In the Apostolic Ch urch the regular baptism was by immersion. The oldest undisputed mention of pouring is found in the Epistle of Cyprian to Magnus, about 250 A.D. Certain ones converted in sickness, when innnersion was out of the ques- tion, had received merely a pouring (iwn loti, sed peifusi) ; and it was denied that they were Chris- tians in good and regular standing (legitimi Chris- tiani). Cyprian, after referring to certain Old-Tes- tament sprinklings, gives his opinion, that, "in a case of strict necessity," pouring or sprinkling may be accepted as valid baptism. He speaks, however, very diffidently. His language is, "So far as my poor ability comprehends the matter, I consider," etc. ; and " I have answered so far as my poor and small ability is capable of doing." He declares that he does not wish to prescribe to other ecclesiastics what they shall do about recog- nizing the validity of pouring ; and he suggests that those who are not satisfied with their affusion shall, on their recovery from sickness, be im- mersed. This epistle shows, that, in his day, pouring or sprinkling was uncommon,' and was used only when immersion was impracticable. For a long time pouring was considered as of but doubtful propriety. Those who received it were termed clinics, as having received only an irregular, or sick-bed baptism, and they were de- nied admission to the higher offices of the church. Yet there were exceptions. Novatiau, who had received only clinical baptism, was ordained pres- byter in Rome, and was even the candidate of a party to the papal chair. Immersion still remains the usage of the Greek Church ; and, says Stan- ley, " the most illustrious and venerable portion of it, that of the Byzantine Empire, absolutely repudiates and ignores any other mode of admin- istration as essentially invalid. " It long remained the ordinary usage of the Church of Rome. Re- ferring to baptism, Jerome, in the fourth century, says, mergimur ; and Ambrose, mersisti. In the fifth century Augustine says, demersimus , Leo the Great, demersio ; and Maximus of Turin, mer- gitur. Gregory the Great, in the sixth century, says, mergat ; Alcuin, in the eighth, submersio ; Hincmar of Rheims, in the ninth, mergitur ; and Lanfranc of Canterbury, in the eleve]ith, immersio. In the twelfth century Abelard says, mergere ; Anselm, mergitur ; and Bernard of Clairvaux, mersio. And Thomas Aquinas, as late as the middle of the thirteenth century, declares im- mersion still to be the older and better usage, but allows pouring and sprinkling as valid. But, when pouring had for many centuries been permitted in cases of necessity, its superior con- venience furnished a temptation to a free construc- tion of the term " necessity," and to the substitu- tion of affusion for immersion in oases where the strict necessity did not exist. The existence of this inclination is revealed by laws which con- demned it. For example, the Council of Chelsea, in 816, decrees as follows : " And let the presby- ters know, that, when they administer holy bap- tism, they may not pour water on the heads of the infants, but the infants must always be im- mersed." But, by the beginning of the fourteenth century (the time varying in different countries), the practice of immersion had, throughout most of Western Europe, fallen into disuse, and affu- sion had come to be employed, not only in cases of necessity, but as the ordinary usage. Against the idea that the disuse of immei'sion resulted from the extension of the gospel into colder regions, it may be remarked that it was in the countries farther north that immersion was longest practised. It remained the prevailing usage in England down to the reign of Elizabeth. And it may be noticed, that the baptismal rubric of the Church of England still dii'ects that the priest, taking the child, " shall dip it in the water," adding, however, " If they shall certify that the child is weak, it shall suffice to pour water upon it." In other words, pouring has no sanction in the case of a healthy child. And in the Prayer- Book of the Protestant-Episcopal Church of the United States, the direction, " Shall dip him in the water, or pour water upon him," which per- mits pouring, but by prior mention gives the preference to immersion, is a trace of the ancient Anglican usage. norman fox. POWELL, Baden, mathematician ; b. in Lon- don, 1796 ; d. there June 11, 1860. He was edu- cated at Oxford; entered holy orders, but had no charge; was Savilian professor of geometry in his alma mater, 1827-54, when he removed to London. His writings are either upon strictly scientific topics, or upon the connection between PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 1877 PRAYER. science and theology. Among the latter may be mentioned Connection of Natural and Divine Truth, London, 1838; Tradition Unveiled, 1839 (Supple- ment, 1840) ; The Unity of Worlds and of Nature. Three Essays, on the Spirit of Inductive Philosophy, the Unity of Worlds, and the Philosophy of Creation, 1855, 2d ed., 1856 ; Christianity without Judaism, 1857 ; The Order of Nature considered in reference to the Claims of Revelation, 1859 (the three vols, form a series). But his views obtained widest currency in the famous Essays and Reviews (Lon- don, 1860), to -which he contributed an essay On the Study of the Evidences of Christianity. His position was in the main rationalistic. He re- jected mu'acles on the ground that they were out of harmony with the methods of God's govern- ment; and, moreover, an examination of evi- dence for those said to have happened shows that they are insufficiently attested. PRACTICAL THEOLOGY, in the widest sense (as used by German divines), includes Homiletics, Catechetics, Liturgies, Pastoral Theology (Poi- menics), and Theory of Church Government. See those articles. PRADES, Jean Martin de, Abbe; b. at Castel- sarrazin about 1720 ; d. at Glogau, 1782. He studied theology, but belonged to the circle of the encyclopedists, and made a great sensation with some theses in which he drew a parallel between the cures of ^sculapius and the healings of Christ. The theses having been condemned, both by the Sorbonne and by Benedict XI V., De Prades fled to Holland in 1752. On the recommendation of Voltaire he was appointed reader to Friedrich XL, but was afterwards banished from the court on suspicion of having secretly corresponded with the Duke de Broglie. He recanted, and was made archdeacon of Glogau. He published an Abre'ge de Vhistoire ecclesiastique de Fleury, Berlin, 1767, 2 vols., to which Friedrich II. wrote the preface. PRADT, Dominique Dufour de, Abbe; b. at AUanches in Auvergne, April 23, 1759 ; d. in Paris, March 18, 1837. Elected a deputy to the States-General in 1789, he sided with the king, and emigTated in 1791, but returned in 1801, and was successively appointed almoner to the emperor, bishop of Poitiers, and archbishop of Malines. Sent as ambassador to Warsaw in 1812, he failed in his mission ; was recalled ; joined the Bourbons on the fall of Napoleon, but was coldly reeeived, and was even bereft of his arch- bishopric. Under Louis XVIII. he joined the opposition ; but, after the revolution of July, he again became a stanch royalist. Besides a num- ber of brilliant but rather superficial polemical treatises, he wrote Histoire de I'ambassade dans le grand-duche de Varsovie, Paris, 1815 ; Quatre Con- cordats, Paris, 1818, etc. PR/EIVIUNIRE (literally, ^0 defend in front of , the opening word of the writ), a term of English canon and common law, for a certain offence, the writ granted upon it, and its punishment. It was originally used by Edward III. to check the ari-ogant encroachments of the papal power. He forbade (27 st. 1, c. 1), upon certain penalties, any of his subjects, i.e., particularly the clergy, to go to Some there to answer to things properly belonging to the king's court ; and also the gift by the Pope of English ecclesiastical preferments of all grades. By these statutes Edward endeav- ored to remove a crying evil, but in vain. Rich- ard II. issued similar statutes, particularly one called thenceforth the " Statute of Prsemunire," assigning the following as the punishment for the offence : that they [the offenders] should be out of the king's protection, attached by their bodies, i.e., imprisoned during life, and lose their lands, goods, and chattels. Henry IV. and later sover- eigns have given the same name and penalty (known as a Prsemunire) to different olfences, which have only this in common, that they in- volve more or less insubordination to royal au- thority, e.g., denial a second time of the king's supremacy, assertion of the Pope's authority, re- fusal to take the oath of allegiance, questioning the right of the present royal family to the throne, affirming 'the king to be a heretic, refusal by a chapter of the bishop nominated by the sovereign. PR/ETORIUS is the name of two Lutheran theologians from the sixteenth century in Ger- many. — Abdias Prsetoriusi b. in Mark Branden- burg, 1524; d. at Wittenberg, 1573; was first rector in Magdeburg, then professor of theology in Francfort-on-the-Oder, and finally professor of philosophy in Wittenberg. He is noted from his controversy with Musculus concerning the neces- sity of good works.- — StepPian Praetorius wrote in last decades of the sixteenth century a number of works, of which a collected edition by Joh. Arndt appeared in 1622, and again in 1692. Mar- tin Statins, dean of Danzig (d. in 1655), published some extracts from his works under the name of Geistliche Schatzkammer. PRAYER. Speaking generically, prayer may be described as the expression of our requests to God; and, in the New-Testament usage of the word, no better definition of it can be given than that of the Westminster Shorter Catechism: "Prayer is the offering up of our desires unto God, in the name of Christ, for things agreeable to his wiU, with confession of our sins, and thankful ac- knowledgment of his mercies." JesUs command- ed his disciples to pray, and taught them how to pray, by giving them that model which is called among us "The Lord's Prayer." Paul, also, exhorted the Thessalonians to "pray without ceasing," and the Philippians to " be anxious for nothing, but in every thing, by prayer and suppli- cation with thanksgiving, to make their requests known unto God ; " while by their own example the apostles generally illustrated their precepts, and called upon God in every emergency. In the same way, the saints, under the Old-Testa- ment dispensation, cried unto the Lord, who " heard them, and delivered them out of their dis- tresses; " and the examples of Abraham's servant, of Jacob; of Moses, of David, of Solomon, of Elijah, of Hezekiah, of Isaiah, and all the proph- ets, inay be cited as confirming and authenticating the duty. JJut, while all this is true, objections more or less serious have been made to the assertion that "men ought always to pray, and not to faint." These may be reduced to two classes, • — the theo- logical and the philosophical. The theological is to the effect, that, as God is unchangeable in his purposes, it must be idle to suppose that any appeal of men can avail to alter his determina- tion. To meet that, some have alleged that the PRAYER. 1878 PRAYER. only effect of prayer is to be looked for in the heart of the suppliant. It avails, they assert, not to secure objective benefits, but simply to bring the spirit of the petitioner into harmony with God. Now, it cannot be denied that true prayer has such an effect upon the soul ; but then, it has so only in the souls of those who believe that God is able and willing to give them that which is best for them. Men will not continue to ask blessings if they suppose that the only good they are to derive is that they shall be brought to resignation and to peace ; and so the experience of the subjective benefits of prayer depends on the belief in its objective power. The true an- swer, therefore, to the objection which we are now considering, must be sought elsewhere ; and it IS to be found in the fact, that the prayer of the suppliant enters into the purpose of God in connection with the bestowment of his blessings. It is his will to give benefits to his people as an- swers to their prayers ; and along with every promise there is the implied condition, "I will yet for this be inquired of by the house of Israel to do it for them." The philosophical objection is based on the uniformity of the operations of what are called the laws of nature ; and the alle- gation is, that no answer to prayer can be made, except by miracle, which it would be absurd to expect. To this it might be enough to reply, that the impulse of the human breast to pray is in- eradicable, and that, in taking account of nature, we must by no means lose sight of the nature that is within ourselves. But, going farther into the subject, we may ask, What, in such a connec- tion, is meant by "laws of nature"? The Duke of Argyle, in his admirable volume on The Ileiyn of Law, has enumerated five distinct senses in which the terra " law " is used by good and repu- table writers ; but for our present purpose it will be enough to speak only of one. In its physical sense, a law is the formulated expression of an observed invariable sequence of certain conse- quents from certain antecedents. In this sense, a law is a human inference from the observation of the operations of nature, and, as Sir John Herschel has said, "has relation to us as under- standing, rather than to the universe as obeying, certain rules." Thej' are not enactments which nature is bound to obey; but rather the general- ized formute of the observations which men have made of what they call the operations of nature ; or, as believing in a personal God, we prefer to put it, they are the classifications of men's obser- vations of God's methods of operation in the universe. They are thus limited to the sphere that is within tjfie range of human investigation, and they tell us absolutely nothing of God's method of working in that region that is be- yond the observation of man. Now, it is quite conceivable, that, in that upper region, God may so work upon the lower, as through the ordinary operations of nature, and without any miracle, to answer prayer. This is substantially the answer given by Chalmers to the objection now before us. McCosh, however, prefers to say that God has so adjusted the laws of nature, that he can, through tiiem, and not in contravention of them, answer prayer. '\\'ithin a limited sphere, one man may grant the request of another in this way, through the opei-ation of natural laws ; and what is possible to the creature within a certain area is surely possible to the Creator through- out his own universe. How this is done we may be unable to determine ; yet every devout mind must acknowledge the truth of Isaac Taylor's words, " This is indeed the great miracle of Providence, that no miracles are needed to ac- complish its purposes." (See on this subject the second chapter of the second book of 2%e Method of the Dicine G ocernment, Physical and Moral, by James McCosh, D.D., LL.D.) We must distin- guish between law and force. Force is the energy which produces the effects, but law is the olJ- served manner in which force works in the pro- duction of these effects. If, therefore, in the last resort, that force be the volition or power of a personal, omnipotent Being, whom we call God, where is the impossibility, or even difficulty, in- volved in the supposition that he may exert that force through his own appointed modes of opera- tion for the hearing of prayer? When God created the world, he certainly did not shut himself out of it; and he who gave the universe its laws, or rather, whose modes of operation these laws are, can surely so employ them as to answer the eur treaties of his children through them. Thus the whole question about the possibility of the an- swering of prayer resolves itself into one as to the existence of a personal God. If there be no God, or if, as seems to be the case with many in these days, God be nothing else than " a fine name for the universe," then there is an end of the mat- ter. But if there be one omnipotent and gracious Being, who is God over all, and to whom men can come as to a father, then prayer to him is as ap- propriate as are children's requests to their father; and he is as able to answer petitions as the human parent is to give good gifts to the prattler that sits upon his knee. Moreover, as is evident from many instances of answers to prayer which are recorded in the Scripture, God has fulfilled the desires of his people, without having re.sort to that which we distinctively call miracle. Thus, taking the case of Elijah's prayer for rain, on the summit' of Mount Carmel, we can see that there was nothing in the coming of the storm on that occasion, different from what is observed to this day in the eastern portion of the Mediterranean. It was a purely natural occurrence, but its com- ing at that time was not a mere coincidence. If, indeed, we had nothing more before us than the fact that a man prayed for rain, and the other fact that rain came just after he had prayed, we might say that there was only a coincidence. But when we take in the other facts, that the Lord had promised to hear Elijah's prayer, and that Elijah offered his prayer in the faith of that promise, it is impossible to rest for a moment in that conclusion. What we see here, then, is that God, through the common operations of nature, answered the earnest entreaty of his ser- vant. But an illustration may make the matter somewhat plainer. There is an inland city in the State of New York which is supplied with water from a river that flows near it. The method is as follows I in a small house on the bank of the river there is an engine which goes night and day, pumping water from the stream into the main pipe which leads to the city. The demand in the city regulates the motion of the engine ; so PRAYER. 1879 PRAYER. that, the more water is drawn off, the faster the engine goes. But when a fire occurs, some one in the city touches a spring, which rings a bell in the engine-room ; on hearing which, the engineer, by the turning of a lever, causes the engine to move with such rapidity as to charge the mains to their greatest capacity, so that when the hose is at- tached to the plugs, water is sent to the top of the loftiest building in the place. Thus an extraor- dinary demand is met through the ordinary chan- nel. And, if this can be accomplished by human skill in a single instance, who shall say tliat the all-wise God has not adjusted the usual operations of his universe so as to admit of his meeting unusual emergencies through them? But it is needful now to look at some of the statements of the word of God upon the subject of prayer in general. The " charter " of a Chris- tian's liberty regarding it may be found in the words of Christ himself, " Ask, and it shall be given you ; seek, and ye shall find ; knock, and it shall be opened unto you : for every one that asketh receiveth ; and he that seeketh findeth ; and to him that knocketh it shall be opened " (Matt. vii. 7, 8). But here, again, difficulty emerges ; for, on the one hand, there are some who say, " AVe have asked, and we have not received ; " and, on the other, there are some who insist that the terms shall be interpreted in the largest sense, and must be lield as meaning that God has prom- ised to give whatever his people choose to ask. Now, if these were the only words bearing on the subject which the Bible contains, there might be some ground for the despondency of the first class of objectors and for the fanaticism of the second. But we must interpret them in harmony with other declarations ; and, when we do that, we get the full teaching of the Scriptures on the point. \ow, it is said by James, " Ye ask, and receive not, because ye ask amiss, that ye may consume it on your lusts." And the Lord himself has put the condition thus : " If ye abide in me, and my words abide in you, ye shall ask what ye will, and it shall be done unto you;" and again, in the Thirty-seventh Tsalm, "Delight thyself also in the Lord, and he shall give thee the desires of thine heart." So, also, it is written, " When ye stand praying, forgive, if ye have aught against any: that your Father also which is in heaven may forgive your trespasses. But if ye do not forgive, neither will your Father which is in heaven for- give your trespasses." IMoreover, it must not be forgotten, that in the word of God we have ac- counts of prayers offered for certain things which the suppliants, though they were sincere, did not receive. Thus, David prayed for the life of his child, but the child died ; and Paul besought the Lord thrice that his thorn in the flesh might de- part from him, and received an answer, indeed, but not the thing which he requested. While, again, we read that God gave Israel a king in his anger; and, on another occasion, that "he gave them their request, but sent leanness into their souls." From all these passages, then, it appears that the universal promise is accompanied by certain indispensable conditions. These connect themselves, first, with the character of the sup- pliant, for he must delight himself in God, and abide in Christ; second, with the nature of his request, for that must be agi-eeable to the will of God ; and, third, with the purpose and preroga- tive of God himself, for the end of his existence is not simply to answer prayer : but he uses his prerogative in the answering of prayer, for moral purposes, making his treatment of their petitions a part of the education to which he subjects his people, and by which he trains them into holiness of character. It would be easy to dwell on each of these three conditions, and to show their great importance; but we content ourselves here with pointing out merely that they are conditions which everywhere and in all circumstances qualify the pron'iise of universal answer to prayer. Now, when these things are remembered, it will be seen how utterly impossible it is for men to gauge the value of prayer by any merely human test. The demand made for that a few years ago, only re- vealed the shallow views entertained upon this subject by those who made it; though perhaps it was provoked by the extravagant and unscrip- tural things said by many who thought that they were exalting prayer. For how shall any test that men can apply determine when a true prayer is offered? How, again, shall any such gauge reveal whether the request is one of which God approves? And where are the delicate instru- ments which shall indicate or measure the results on the character of the suppliant, which are pro- duced, sometimes by the denial, and sometimes by the granting, of his requests ? "We have left ourselves little space for the con- sideration of the constituent parts of which prayer is composed ; but that is the less to be regretted, • as the controversies of the present time have left them, for the most part, severely alone. They are, Adoration, or the ascription of praise to God, of which the best Liturgy of direction is to be found in the Book of Psalms ; Thanksgiving for mercies received, an act which recognizes the goodness of God in our daily lives, alike in the bestowment of temporal things and the granting of spiritual blessings; Confession ok sins, or the acknowledgment of our guilt as before God, not because he is not already well acquainted with it, but in order, that, by bringmg it out before him, we ourselves may see how gi-eat it is, and may hate sin with a perfect hatred; Petition, wherein we make known our requests unto God for spiritual and temporal things for ourselves and for others. In reference to all these, the gi-and indispensable things are, that the suppliant be sincere, not using words to which he attaches no meaning, or confessing sins of which he does not feel the guilt, or asking things which he really does not wish to receive ; and that he approach God through Jesus Christ, the great and only Mediator. He who so pours out his heart before the Lord — observe, it is the heart that he is to bring, not the lip, and the heart is to be poured out, so that nothing of burden or of gratitude is left unspoken — will surely be blessed; for the whole matter of duty and promise is comprised in the words of Paul, "Be anx:ious for nothing; but in every thing, by prayer and supplication with thanksgiving, let your requests be made known unto God. And the peace of God, which passeth all understanding, shall keep your hearts and minds through Christ Jesus." Lit. —Matthew- Henry: Method for Prayer, Amer. ed., Philadelphia; Hannah More: Spirit PRAYER. 1880 PRAYER. of Prayer, Amer. ed., New York; A. F. T. Tho- LUCK : Stunden christlicher Andaclit, Gotha, 1S40 ; Eiig. trans., Hours of Christian Decolion, Boston, 1871; J. C. Rylk: Cali to Prayer, New York, 1855; E. Bickeusteth: Treatise on Prai/er, Amer. ed., N.Y., 1856; A. Phelps: The Slill Hour, Bost., 1859, new ed., 1875 ; H. P. Liddon : Some Elements ofRelif/ion, London, 1872 ; J. M. Manning : Helps to a Life of Prayer, Boston, 1875; Prayer-gauge Debate, by Tyndall, F. Galton, and others, against Liddledale, McCosh, and others, Bost., 1876 ; Samuel Cox : Expository Essays and Dis- courses, Lend., 1877; and the Records of the Ful- ton-street Prayer-Meeting, N.Y., by Rev. Drs. Chambers {Hours of Prayer in the Noon Prayer- Meeting) and Prijie (Power of Prayer, 1859, en- larged ed., 1873 ; Prayer and its Answer, 1882 ; Fif- teen Years of Prayer). WILLIAM M. TAYLOR. PRAYER, Book of Common. Although the service-books of the English Church before the Reformation were' mostly in Latin, English prym- ers, originating, probably, in still simpler manuals of great antiquity, were in use at the beginning of the fifteenth century. The Portiforivm secun- dum usum Sarum, i.e., the Breviary, is clearly the basis of the Book of Common Prayer, and was called "Porfcfory," "Porteau," "Portuary," "Por- tuis," " Portuasse," and " Porthoos." This Prym- er of Salisbury Use (about A.D. 1400) contains in English, (1) Matins and Hours of our Lady; (2) Evensong and Compline ; (3) The vii. peni- tential psalms ; (4) The xv. psalm.'; ; (5) The Lit- any ; (6) Placebo ; (7) Dirge ; (8) The psalms of commendation ; (9) Pater noster ; (10) Ave Maria; (11) Creed; (12) The ten commandments; (1-3) The seven deadly sins. Marshall's Prymer {ante 1530 and 1535), suppressed on account of its aggressive sentiments, and Hilsey's Prymer (1539), more conservative, and set forth at the commandment of Cromwell, led the way, with others, for The Prymer set forth by the King's Majesty (1545), which omits Nos. 4, 6, 10, and 13 of the aforesaid contents, and adds to the rest the Kalendar, the Injunction, the Salutation of the Angel, certain graces, the psalms of the Pas- sion, the Passion, and certain godly prayers. The Lite)!?/ contains certain petitions requesting "the prayers of angels, saints, and martyrs," and " to be delivered from the tyranny of the Church of Rome ; and the Dirige, or dirge, has prayers for the dead. The former was compiled by Cranmer from the old litanies and the litany prepared by Melanchthon and Buoer for Hermann, Archbishop of Cologne, 1543. Before the Prymer of 1545, convocation had authorized, in 1537, The godly and pious Institution of a Chrysten Man, contain- ing the Lord's Prayer, Ave Maria, Creed, Deca- logue, and the seven sacraments, etc., and in 1543 the same, corrected and altered, entitled A Necessary Doctrine and Erudition for any Chrysten Man. The former was called "The Bishops' Book; " the latter, " the King's Book ; " and both, with the Articles of 1536, contain the authorita- tive opinions of the Church of England during Henry VIII. 's reign, and exhibit, on the whole, a retrogression in matters of doctrine. See Formu- laries of Faith, etc, Oxford, 1825. A commission, including Cranmer, Goodrich, Holbech, Day, Skip, Thirlby, Ridley, Cox, May, Taylor, Haines, Rob- ertson, and Redman, appointed in 1547 to revise the Church-Service, published March 8, 1548, as a first instalment. The Order of the Communion, framed in its new portions on Hermann's Consulta- tion, from which the Exhortation, the Confession, and the Comfortable Words are derived. It was a tremendous step in the direction of reform ; for it ordered the connnunion to be solemnized in English, and restored the cup to the laity. The First Liturgit of Edward VI., pub- lished June 9, 1549, differed fi-om the Prayer-Book now in use (in England), as follows : Matins and Erensong began with the Loi'd's Prayei', and omitted all prayers after the third collect. The Litany stood after the communion office, was not ordered to b'e used on Sundays, and contained a petition for deliverance from the tyranny of the Bishop of Rome, while it omitted a h.undred and sixteen addresses to the apostles, the Virgin, and the saints. The Communion Office began with an introit, and omitted the Decalogue ; the Virgin was mentioned by name in the praise given for the saints; the sign of the cross was used twice in the consecration of the elements, and the formula of their presentation contained only the first clause of that now in use ; water was mixed with the wine. In the Baptismal Office, forms for exor- cism, anointing, and trine immersion, were pro- vided. In the offices for Confirmation, Matrimony, and the Visitation of the Sicl; the sign of the cross was retained; iu the first, the catechumen made no promise, in the second, money was given to the bride, and, in the third, the sick might be anoint- ed : the Burial-Service contained a prayer for the person deceased, and a special service for com- munion. In the Preface the compilers state that the book was designed to establish uniformity of worship for the whole realm, to simplify it, to provide for the use of the whole Psalter, and the reading of " the whole Bible, or the greatest part thereof," so that nothing should be read but "the very pure word of God,- — the holy Scriptures, — or that whicli is evidently grounded upon the same," and "in the English tongue." The Collects, Epis- tles, and Gospels, in the Prayer-Book of 1549, were almost identical with those in the Salisbury Hours, but much of the new matter introduced was taken from Hermann's Consultation. The regulations with regard to dress were, that priests should wear the surplice in parish churches, adding the hood during the sermon ; and in cathedrals, that the bishop, at the communion, should wear a sur- plice or albe, with a cope or vestment, besides his rochet, and carry a pastoral staff himself, or have it borne by a chaplain, and the officiating priest wear a white albe, plain, with a vestment or cope, the assisting ministers to appear in albes and tunicles. The ordinal, entitled The Forme and Manner of Makyng and Consecrating of Arch- bislwppes, Bishoppes, Priestes, and Deacons (4to, 1549), was published separately, and differed from the present office on these chief points : it began with an introit, required deacons to wear albes, and the one reading the gospel a tunicle ; the bread and chalice, as well as the Bible, to be placed in the priests' hands, and the pastoral staff to be committed to bishops before the words, "Be to the flock of Christ a shepherd." The arch- bishop laid the Bible on the bishop's neck. The office of 1549, slightly changed, was adopt-, ed in The Second Liturgy of Edward VI., PRAYER. 1881 PRAYER. 1552. The revised book of 1552 brought the following most important changes • it inlrudiiced, (1) the sentences, exhortation, confession, and absolution, at the opening of the service ; (2) the Decalogue in the communion office ; (3) the use of the Litany on Sundays. Of these, 1 and 2 are thought to have been taken from Vallerandus Pol- Ian us. It omitled, (1) In the Communion-Service, the Introit, the name of the Virgin, the Thanks- giving for the Saints, the Sign of the Cross in Consecration, the Invocation of the "\\'ord and the Holy Spirit, the Admixture of water with \\ine, and the first clause of the present form at the delivery of the elements ; (2) In Baptism, the form of exorcism, the anointing, the use of chrism, and the trine immersion ; (3) In Confirmation, the sign of the cross ; (4) In Matrimonj', the sign of the crogs and the giving of money; (5) In the ^'isita- tion of the Sick, the allusion to Tobias and Sarah, the anointing, and the directions about Private Confession ; (6) In the Burial- Service, the prayers for the dead and the Eucharist. The rubric con- cerning vestments forbade the use of albe, vest- ment, and cope, and required the bishop to wear only a rochet ; the priest or deacon, only a surplice. The most important change was doctrinal, and referi'ed to the presence of Christ in the conse- crated elements as not difi'ering from his presence to the prayers of believers. As the influence of Luther's Service of 1533 colored the first Liturgy of 1549, so that of Bucer, Peter Martyr, Pollan- dus, and John a Lasco, may be traced in the second Liturgy of 1552. The Liturgy of Elizabeth (1560) agreed substantially with the book of Edward VI., 1552, except "with one alteration, or addition of cer- tain Lessons to be used on every Sunday in the year, and the form of the Litany altered and corrected, and two sentences only added in the delivery of the Sacrament to the communicants, and none other or otherwise ; " and " that such ornaments of the church and of the ministers thereof shall be retained and be in use as was in this Church of England, by authority of Parlia- ment, in the second year of King Edward XL, until other order shall be therein taken, etc." (1 Eliz. c. 2, April 28, 1559). The prayers for the queen, and for the clergy and people, and the collect, " O God, whose nature," etc., were intro- duced, but placed at the end of the Litany ; and one of two collects for the time of death was omitted. A series of editions of the Puritan Book of Common Prayer was published from 1578 to 1640. That of 1578 is remarkable for omissions, not only of rubrics, but of entire sen'ices, — e.g., those for the Private Celebration of Sacraments, of Confirmation, and the Churching of AA'omen, — and for the uniform use of Morning, Evening, and Minister, in place of Matlens, Evensong, and Priest. In that of 1589, most of the omissions and altera- tions were restored. A Full and Plain Declaration of Ecclesiastical Discipline (1574), A Brief and Plain Declaration, etc. (1584), A Booke of Common Prayer (presented to Parliament, 1584), and A Booke of the Forme of Common Prayers, etc. (1584, 1585), were Puritan substitutes for the Liturgy ; but the last did not obtain the sanction of the law. Knox's Book of Common Prayer (1564) has been reprinted by Dr. Gumming, London, 1840. Certain alterations in the Liturgy, made during the reign of James I. (1601), are of doubtful legali- ty. Among the most important were the inser- tion of the term " lawful minister " in the rubrics of the office of Private Baptism, restricting the administration- to the minister of the parish, or some other lawful n\inister ; the addition to the Catechism of the Explanation of the Sacraments (attributed to Dr,. John Overall), and, to the Occasional Prayers, certain Forms of Thanksgiv- ing answering to the Prayers for Eain, etc. The charge brouglit against Archbishop Laud, of hav- ing corrupted the text of the Liturgy, is utterly unfounded (Lathburj-: History of the Book of Com- mon Prayer, pp. 225-227). In 1645 (Jan. S) Par- liament took away the Book of Common Prayer, and established The Directorv, which rejected the Apocrypha, discontinued private baptism, sponsors, the sign of the cross, the wedding-ring, and private communion, removed the commu- nion-table into the body of the church, abolished saints' days and vestments, the burial-service, and the public recitation of the Decalogue and of the creeds, though the Decalogue and the Apostles' Creed were subsequently supplied. (It is re- printed in Reliq. Liturg., iii., and in Clay, Book of Common Prayer illustrated, App. ix.-xi.) . The Last Revision of the Liturgy was made in 1662. Among the important changes were, (1) The extracts from the Bible — except the Psalter (which is Coverdale's text of 1539), the Decalogue, and the Sentences in the communion-service — give the text of the Authorized Version ; (2) The separate printing of the Order for jMorning and Evening Service, with the introduction of the last five prayers from the Litany, and of the Oc- casional Prayers, augmented by a second prayer for fair weather, the two prayers for the Ember weeks, the prayers for Parliament and All Condi- tions of !Men, as well as by the General Thanks- giving, and a Thanksgiving for restoring public peace at home ; (3) Some new collects, epistles, and gospels were supplied, and verbal changes made ; such as " church " for " congTegation," and " bishops, priests, and deacons," for " bishops, pas- tors, and ministers;" (4) The exhortations in the communion-service were altered ; the rubrics re- lating to the offertory, the placuig of the bread and wine on the table, and their disposition, di- recting the form of consecrating additional bread and wine, and the covering of the elements, were added ; the last clause respecting departed saints was added to the Prayer for the Chm-ch JNIilitant ; and in the Order in Council (1552), at the end of the office, the phrase " corporal presence " was substituted for "real and essential presence;" (5) Among the more important additions in the rest of the book are the Office for the Baptism of those of Riper Years, the Form of Prayer to be used at Sea, new psalms in the Churching Ser- vice, and the last five prayers in the Visitation of the Sick. There have been four Acts of Uniforjiity, — 1548, 2 and 3 Edw. VI., c. i. ; 1552, 5 and 7 do., repealed in 1BS9; 1559, 1 Eliz. c. ii., not re- pealed ; and 1662, 14 Carol, ii. The last two' are often printed in the beginning of the Prayer-Book. The four services, until 1859 annexed to the Book of Common Prayer, known as the State Ser- vices, by the authority of an order from the sov- ereigTi in council, repeated at the beginning of PRAYER. 1882 PRAYER. every reign, with the exception of the last about to be named, have been removed by the authority of a royal warrant, dated Jan. 17, 1859. They consist of forms of prayer for, (1) The 5th of November, the Gunpowder Treason.; (2) The 30th of January, the Martyrdom of Charles J. ; (3) The 29th of May, the Restoration ; and (4) The Sovereign's Accession. The Aktici.es of Ke- LiGiON" were first published in English and Latin, A.D. 1552, when they numbered forty-two, attrib- uted to Cranmer, aided by Ridley and others. A new body of Articles, presented in 1562 by Arch- bishop Parker to convocation, numbered thirty- eight, and were printed the next year in English and Latin. They were again revised in 1571, when Art. 29 was re-introduced, so that they num- bered thirty-nine. The Ratificalion, still subjoined to them, was added in 1572 ; and the thirty-sixth canon of 1604 requires all the clergy and graduates of the Universities to subscribe to them. The Prayer-Book of 1549 was used first in Ireland on Easter-Day, 1551 ; and the Irish Act of Uniformity (2 Eliz., c. ii.) authorized a Latin version. The book of 1552 not having been ordered for observ- ance, the Irish Parliament, in January, 1560, passed an Act of Uniformity, authorizing the Prayer-Book set forth in England, and the Latin version (made by Haddon) for the benefit of min- isters unable to use English, and because there was no Irish printing-press, and few could read Irish (Stephens : Manuscript Book of Common Praijer for Ireland, Int. p. viii.). The use of the Book of 1662, approved by the Irish Convocation (August-November, 1562), was enjoined by the Irish Parliament in 1666. An Irish version of the Prayer-Book was printed in 1608. In Scotland the Prayer-Book had been in general use in the time of Elizabeth (between 1557 and 1564) ; but the Scottish bishops being averse to the adoption of the pjuglish Book, urged by James I., in the next reign framed a book of their own on the English model, with certain variations, which, though sanctioned by royal authority, and printed, never came into general use. The English Book, except the Comnmuion Office (framed upon the Book of 1549), is now used by three-fourths of the ministers of the Episcopal Church in Scotland; but even the uses of the Communion Office are far from uniform. The Amekican Prayer-Book is framed close- ly upon the model of the English book, and was the work of three successive General Conventions (1785, 1786, 1789). It was adopted substantially in its present form by the General Convention of 1789, with many variations from the English book, of which the following are the most important : it entirely omits the Athanasian Creed, the Absolu- tion in the Visitation Office, the Magnificat and the Song of Symeon, the Comiuination, the Lord's Prayer, and the Versicles after the Creed; it leaves optional the use of the ci'oss in baptism, of the words " He descended into hell " in the Creed, of the Gloria Palri between the Psalms, and altogether considerably enlarges the discretionai'y power of the minister. Selected portions of the Psalms may be used in place of those in the Daily Order ; and of late years, since the Revision of the Lectionary, both in the Church of England and the Protestant- Episcopal Church in the United States, similar discretion has been allowed by the setting forth of alternative lessons. It adds to the number of the Occasional Prayeis also a form of prayers for the Visitation of Prisoners, a form of prayer, etc., for the Fruits of the Earth, a form of Family Prayers. A form for Consecrating Churches (re- sembling that published by Bishop Andrewes) was provided in 1795, and an Office of Institution in 1804. The change of " Absolution " into " Dec- laration of Absolution," of "verily and indeed taken " into " spiritually taken " (Catechism), and the permission of using an alternative formula instead of " Receive the Holy Ghost," etc. (Ordi- nal), are as significant as the introduction of the prayers of invocation and oblation in the Com- munion Office. The changes rendei-ed necessary by political and local causes need not be men- tioned : in the Thirty-nine Articles, the eighth does not mention the Athanasian Creed, the twenty-first is omitted, and the thirty-fifth printed with a proviso. Standard Editions of the Book of Com- mon Prayer : (1) In the Church of England, the Sealed Book of 1662; (2) In the Irish Church, the Manuscript Book attached to the Irish Act of Uniformity, 1666 ; (3) In the Protestant-Epis- copal Church in the United States, the octavo edition set forth by the General Convention of 1844, published New York, 1845. Lit. — NiCHOLLS : Commentary, etc., 2d ed., London, 1712; Wheatley: Rational Illustration, etc., London, 1720, folio; Sparrow: A Rationale, etc., London, 1722; Comber: Companion to the Temple, new ed., Oxf ., 1841, 7 vols. Svo ; Card- well: Docum. Ann., Oxf., 1844; Synodalia, Oxf., 1842 ; Historij of Conferences, Oxf., 1841 ; Palmer : Origines Liturrj., Oxford, 1836, 2 vols.; Maskell: Tlie Ancient Liturgy, etc., London, 1846; Monum. Rit. Eccl. Angl. London, 1846, 3 vols.; Clay; Liturgies, etc. , — Elizabeth, Parker Society, 1847 ; Prioate Prayers, etc., 1851 ; The Book of Common Prayer illus., London, 1 841 ; Historical Sketch, 1849; Lati-ibury: History of Conrocation, 2d ed., London, 1853; History of the Book of Common Prayer, 2d ed., London, 1858 ; Stephens : 7'he Book of Com- mon Prayer, loith Notes, a reprint of the Sealed Books, and The Book of Common Prayer, printed from the manuscript attached to the Irish Act of Uniformity, Eccl. Hist. Soc, 3 vols., 1849 ; Proc- ter : History of the Book of Common Prayer, 4th ed., Camb., 1860; Blunt: Annotated Book of Common Prayer, etc., Lond., 1866; Short: History of the Church of England, N.Y., 1855; Bishop White : Memoirs, etc., N.Y., 1830; Brownell: Family Prayer-Book, i^ev/Yovk, 1865; Butler: Common Prayer int. by its History, Bost., 1845; Caswall: America and the American Church, Lond., 1849; WiLBERFOnCE : History of the Protestant-Episcopal Church in America, N.Y., 1849. J. I. MOMBERT. PRAYER FOR THE DEAD was offered among the later Jews (2 Mace. xii. 43-45), and from them passed into the Christian Church; but at present only a small portion of the Protestant Church, the ritualists, continue the practice. In a certain form, that 6f repetition of the names or classes of deceased believers before God in prayer, the practice — though of doubtful utility, and inclining toward superstition — is not in it- self sinful ; but as it exists in the Church of Rome it is coupled with the doctrine of purga- tory, and in any case savors of the doctrine of PRAYER. 1883 PREACHING. probation after death. Such prayers are first among Christian writers referred to by Tertullian (fl. 2:20) and as a long-established custom (De exlwrtatione Castitalis, c. 11; De monog., c. 10; cf. De corona, c. 3, De anima, c. 58). " St. Augustine (d. 430) often alludes (e.g., De Cum pro Mori., i, 17) to the universal usage of the church to pray for all regenerated in Christ (i.e., the bap- tized), though whether, or in what degree, prayer would be profitable and availing, depended upon the present life. And St. Chrysostom (d. 407) says {Com. in Philip, horn., 3) that "it was not in vain enjoined as a law by the apostles that a memorial of the dead should be made in the solemn mysteries, as knowing that great gain re- sulteth to them, and great assistance " (Blunt). But, with these writers, prayer for the dead was the natural result of the idea of the unbroken connection between all the members of Christ's body, living and dead, and probably, also, of the idea of Hades. (See art.) The practice was not the result, but the cause, of the doctrine of pur- gatory. (See PuRGAToriY.) Such prayers are found in their least objectionable form in the ancient liturgies; e.g., Divine Llturqy (1) of James (Clark's translation, pp. 23, 26, 34, 38), (2) of Mark (p. 60), and (3) of the Holy Apostles (pp. 82, 83). In the mass, prayer for the dead is an integral part. (See Mass.) In the Edward VI. Prayer-Book (1569) burial-service, there were several such prayers; e.g., "We commend into thy hands of mercy, -most merciful Father, the soul of this our brother departed . . . that when the judgment shall come, which thou hast com- mitted to thy well-beloved Son, both this our brother and we may be found acceptable in thy sight, and receive thy blessing." But the Prot- estant Church now well-nigh unanimously rejects the ancient usage, holding that such prayer is at best superfluous respecting the blessed dead, and utterly unavailing for the lost. On behalf of the practice, see F. G. Lee : Christian Doctrine of Prayer for the Departed, London, 1872, new ed., 1874 ; H. M. Luckock : After Death, London, 1879, 3d ed., 1881. PRAYER, The Lord's. See Lord's Prayer. PREACHERS, Local. See Local Preach krs. PREACHING. The discourses recorded in Acts differ widely from modern sermons. They have no text, contain no exposition, and do not constitute part of a formal service. Scripture is quoted at length, but either by way of example, or as fulfilled prophecy. The discourse of our Lord in the synagogue at Nazareth (Luke iv. 16) is no exception. For exegesis the Jewish mind was unadapted, because it could not keep strictly apart different periods. Yet the synagogue dis- courses were the pattern for the first Christian preaching, which, like them, consisted of free speeches prefaced by Scripture-readings. It is evident that at first the Scripture read was ex- clusively the Old Testament. Justin Martyr thus describes the Christian preacliing of the second century: "On the day called Sunday, all who live in cities or in the country gather to one place, and the memoirs of the apostles, or the writings of the prophets, are read, as long as time permits; then, when the reader has ceased, the president verbally instructs, and exhorts to the imitation of these good things " {Apol. maj.. c. 67). Tertullian (d. 230), writes : « We assem- ble to read the sacred writings, to draw from them lessons pertinent to the times, either of forewarning or reminiscence. However it be in that respect, with the sacred words we nourish our faith, animate our hope, strengthen our con- fidence, and, no less thi'ough the inculcations of the precepts, we confirm good habits. In the same place, also, exhortations are made, rebukes and sacred censures administered " (Apologet. , c. 39). In the Apostolical Constitutions, ii. 57 (see art.) mention is made of Scripture-reading, followed by discourses from a body of presbyters, each speaking in turn, and finally a speech from the bishop (the presiding officer). The instances quoted prove that in the second century there were not, properly speaking, any sermons, only exhortations. The first preacher in the modern sense was Origen (d. 254). His method was the . allegorical ; but so rich is his exposition, that each of his sermons is a seed-plot for other sermons. It was his learning, joined to great natural gifts, which made him so inspiring a preacher ; and the fact is of interest as proving that the true sermon is the response to the church's desire to hear Bible exposition, and at the same time ex- hortations based directly upon Scripture. After Origen, comes that grand succession of preachers who.se learning has commanded the respect even of their severest critics, and whose eloquence has stirred the feelings even of the dullest. In the instance already quoted from Justin Martyr, " the president " delivered the discourse ; and so it remained, for a long time, in the church the especial duty of the bishop to preach. There is no instance of a bishop being deposed because he could not preach, but there are several in- stances of presbyters being elected bishops because they could. A non-preaching bishop was some- what disreputable. Yet even in the so-called Apostolical Constitutions (I.e.) mention is made of presbyterial preaching: indeed, many instances are recorded of deacons, such as Athanasius of Alexandria (d. 373) and Ephrem Syrus (d. 378), preaching original discourses. But the theory was, that the bishop was the preacher : if a pres- byter or deacon preached, it was as the bithop's- substitute. As the church grew, the demand for preaching was far more than any one man in the local church or neighborhood could meet ; and therefore presbyters and deacons were more and more pressed into service, and preached regu- larly in places where the bishop came only occa- sionally. Still, the theory was kept up ; and the bishop was answerable for what the presbyter or deacon said, as is clearly proved by the case of Nestorius (see art.). Did laymen ever preach in the early church ? As a general rule, no. But yet there were a few exceptions. Thus Origen preached before his ordination ; and, more strik- ing still, Constantino preached frequently to large assemblies; and one of his sermons has come down to us (Euseb. : De vita Con., IV. c. 29-34; 0pp., ed. Zimmerm. " Constant. Imp. Oratio," pp. 1047-1117). Monks were not allowed to preach, because they were not clerics, until the middle age, when regular preaching monastic orders were organized. (See Dominic; Francis.) Preaching by women was strongly forbidden in the Catholic Church, according to Paul's explicit direction PREACHING. 1884 PREACHING. (1 Cor. xiv. 34, 35 ; 1 Tim. ii. 11, 12), but was a feature with the heretics, and even with the JNIontanists, much to Tertullian's dislike {De prcescript., c. 41 ; De bap., c. 17 ; De veland. virgin. c. 9). The great day for preaching was naturally Sun- day; but upon many other days, as upon holy days, every day during Lent, upon every Saturday, and at other times, it was the practice in the early church to have sermons, and that not only in the morning. As was to be expected, the sermons were generally simple and brief, especially in the West. Those of Augustine and Chrysostom were probably as exceptional in length as they were in matter. It is probable, although there is no direct statement of it, that the clepsydra (water-clock) was used; for the usual length of the Latin homi- lies which have been preserved is a quarter-hour, which would indicate some way of measuring- time. Sermons were almost invariably given in churches, and as part of a service. The preacher sat upon the throne {cathedra) ; or sometimes, if presbyter, stood before the altar, if deacon or monk, by the reading-desk. In the fourth cen- tury the sermons were more oratorical, and then the usual place for the preacher was by the desk. The congregation stood around him, and expressed their pleasure by stamping of feet, and clapping of hands, — a practice Chrysostom vigorously dep- recated in a sermon which was loudly applauded. He also complains of the talking going on during preaching. The sermons of such preachers as Ambrose, Augustine, and Chrysostom, were delivered to large audiences, and regularly taken down by short-hand reporters. But other preachers were by no means so popular : indeed, the same com- plaints of long sermons, poor sermons, or no sermons, and the same exhortations to be more regular in attendance, which are now made, can be read in the Fathers. In regard to the delivery of sermons, there was the same diversity as at present. Some sermons were read (but these were especially those of ad- mired preachers, and they were read by deacons, instead of original discourses) ; some were recited memoriler; others were extempore, although usually after careful preparation. This last was probably the commonest mode. Immediately before the sermon a short free prayer was oifered; then came the salutation, "Peace be unto you," and the response by the people, " And to thy spirit ; " the text was given out, the sermon delivered, followed by the doxology. It is a remarkable fact, that preaching was little, if at all, cultivated in the church at Rome (Sozo- men : Hist., vii. 19 ; Cassiodorus : Hist, tripartita). There exist no sermons of any Roman bishop prior to Leo the Great (d. 461). The example of this chm-oh was, therefore, not favorable to the practice. After the ninth century, preaching generally declined. During the middle age, in place of the sermon in the service, came, usually, a short address at the conclusion of mass. The schoolmen were not preachers for the people. Their subtilties were endless. Their debates often were upon trifles. But the age was not lacking in preachers. They belonged, for the most part, to the Dominicans and Franciscans, and either preached in monasteries, or went from place to place, now gathering a crowd in a field, now in a church. Their sermons were eminently popular, full of quotation from the Bible, and of allusion to it ; full of stories, fables, and parables. Many of these preachers were deeply spiritual, and earnestly desirous of benefiting their hearers. Prominent among the mediaaval preachers are Anthony of Padua, who preached once to the fishes; Bernard of Clairvaux, who converted many to monastioism, and roused all Europe to the second crusade ; Bonaventura, who, when asked by Thomas Aquinas for the source of his power, pointed to the crucifix hanging in his cell, and said, " It is that image which dictates all my words to me;" Francis Coster (1581-1619), whose stories are so striking; Bertholdthe Franciscan of Regensburg, the greatest of the popular preach- ers of the time, whose audiences numbered thou- sands; John of Monte Corvino, the apostle to the Mongols ; Savonarola, preacher and prophet, priest and politician, saint and martyr ; and per- haps, as one of the best specimens of mediaeval pulpit eloquence and unction, John Tauler of Strassburg. The latter is wonderfullytender and searching. Quaint, even grotesque, in style, it is easy to understand how profitable his preaching was. Very strange stories are told about these preachers, — how bold they were in their attacks ; and how they were obeyed, even when their de- mands were most strenuous, as, for instance, when they exhorted theii- hearer? to give up their jewels and ornaments ; how they were reverenced by king and people ; how they interpreted the Scrip- tures correctly through their spiritual insight; and how they led holy lives, — in the world, yet not of it. But the preachers whose names have come down to us were probably exceptional, not only in ability and learning, but in grace. The generality of those who assayed to preach were probably lacking in all three ; for the barrenness, the conceit, the ignorance, or the pedantiy of preachers, is frequently complained of in this period. The so-called Life of Taulei-, always prefixed to his Sermons, throws a flood of light upon the shortcomings of his contemporaries. The " Reformers before the Reformation," the men who prepared the way for Luther's work, were all preachers. John' Wiclif, in England, sent out his " Poor Priests," who filled the land with his doctrines. He himself preached in a learned and scholastic manner for the university of Oxford, and in a popular and hortatory man- ner for his congregation at Lutterworth, johann Wessel, in Germany, was a preacher learned and popular. Peter Waldo in France, and Hus in Bohemia, spread their docti'ines by preaching. The Reformers, therefore, used a familiar weapon, but they handled it with distinguished success. Unlike many of their contemporaries, they util- ized preaching primarily for edification. Luther, Zwingli, Melanchthon, Calvin, Butzer, aimed to save men and comfort them. To this end they opened to them the Scriptures. But it was not long before the Protestant ndnisters degenerated into disputants. The Lutheran Church was split into the rival camps of the Philippists and Gne^io- Lutherans ; the English-speaking Protestants were divided into Prelatists and Presbyterians. But it was unfortunate, to say the least, that the PREACHING. 1885 PRECIOUS STONES. pulpit was used for sectarian purposes. Sermons were written, not to expound the Scriptures, but theological abstractions and subtilties. Preachers neglected the spiritual needs of their hearei-s, to show up_ the falsity of their opponents' position and the impregnable character of their own. A cut-and-dried Protestant scholasticism corrupted the Continental pulpit of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. There was no preaching of the necessity of repentance. Then came Ra- tionalism as a re-action. But piety cannot exist where every sentence of God is punctuated with a question-mark. The Rationalists preached fin- ished sermons, but they failed to start the new life. While discoursing eloquently upon morals, they forgot to expound the word of God ; and in consequence they preached the chui'ches empty, and they have not since been filled. But it must not be supposed that there was not earnest preach- ing of the fundamental doctrines of sin and sal- vation. In the coldest times of formal orthodoxy, there were congregations whose hearts burned within them while their preachers were with spir- itual insight opening to them the Scriptures. Spener and the Pietists were living protests against deadness and dry rot. And, while the Continental Protestants seemed to have fallen asleep, the Prot- estants of Great Britain and America were awake. Such preachers of the seventeenth century as Jeremy Taylor, Robert South, Richard Baxter, John Owen, and John Bunyan in England, have never been excelled anywhere ; and while, in the eighteenth century, the Established Church of England relapsed into torpor, John Wesley and George Whitefield, with Jonathan Edwards and Samuel Davies in America, and others like them in fervor and grace, gave powerful impetus to religion. A revival followed these efforts; and the nineteenth century saw in Great Britain and the United States the pulpit on the side of the most wonderful philanthropy. Foreign missions, Bible societies, abolition of slavery, civil-service reform, temperance, have had some of their ablest advocates in the pulpit. In the Roman-Catholic Church, preaching has never been honored as among Protestants ; but under the spur of the latter it has greatly im- proved since the Reformation. The palmiest days of this church's pulpit-eloquence were in France, in the seventeenth century, when opposi- tion to Protestantism was sharpest. Bossuet, Mas- sillon, Bourdaloue, and Fenelon are the greatest names. In England and the United States, Ro- manism has lately striven to equal Protestantism in preaching. It conducts revival-meetings called "missions." It cultivates elocution and rhetoric, and provides churches with seats, unknown in the old Roman-Catholic countries. It is said that the Paulist Fathers in Jfew-York City, and other missionary orders elsewhere, preach with a vigor and sternness equal to that of the mediseval preachers. Lit. — AuGUSTi : Handbuch d. clirist. Archd- ologie, Leipzig, 1836, 1837, 3 vols., ii. 244 sqq. ; Paniel: Fragmatische Geschiclile d. christ. Bercdts- amkeit, Leipzig, 1839, 1840, 1st part, Die altere Zeit: J. M. Nealk: Mediceval Preachers, London, 1856,' new ed., 1873; S. Baring-Gould: Post- mediceval Preachers, London, 1S65 ; E. Paxton iiooo : Lamps, Pitchers, and Trumpets, 1869, new ed., 1872; Broadus : Lectures on the History , of Preaching, iiew York, 1876; A. Nebe : Zur Ge- schichte d. Predigt, Wiesb., lS79, 3 vols. ; Richard Rothe: Gesch. d. Predigt ron Anfang his auf Schleiermacher, Bremen, 1881; cf. Palmer's art. Predigt, in Hekzog I., vol. xx. 410-429 ; also art. HOMILKTICS. SAMUEL M. JACKSON. PREACHING FRIARS were the Dominicans. See DoMiNlc. PREBEND {prvebenda, "allowance") meant, originally, the provision or food which each monk or cleric received from the common table ; and in that sense the term continued to be used, even after the common life had generally been dis- solved, and the revenues of the institution divided among the members. The fixed income thus formed was then called a prebend, or benejiciuiu prcebendce, or beneficum jyrcebendale. AVith respect to the recipient, prebends were called prcebendtu capitulares, or prcebendcB dovticetlares, according as they were given to a regular member of the chap- ter, or to some domicellaris, or junidr. With respect to their size, they were divided into majores, media, minores, and semi prcebendce. The recipient of a prebend is a prebendary. MEJER. PRECIOUS STONES are often referred to in the Bible. The Hebrews were well acquainted with their vahie, and had countries for neigh- bors such as Arabia (1 Kings x. 2) and Egypt, or carried on convei'se with countries such as India and Cyprus, where precious stones were found. Sblomon's wealth and commercial enterprise brought many pi'ecious stones to Palestine (1 Kiugs X. 10 sq.). The oldest market for them was Babylon. The Hebrews, at a very early period, understood the art of cutting and engTav- ing gems, and attributed it to the influence of God's spirit (Exod. sxxi. 5, xxxv. 33). They used them for seals and rings (Song of Songs, v. 14 ; Ezek. xxviii. 13), and in other ways for per- sonal adornment. The high priest's shoulder- pieces were adorned with two precious stones, and his breastplate with twelve, tipon which the names of the twelve tribes were engraved (Exod. xxviii. 9 sqq.). The earthly temple was orna- mented with them (1 Chron. xxix. 2; 2 Chron. iii. 6) ; and so was the heavenly temple, as seen in the visions of the seers (Exod. xxiv. 10 ; Ezek. i. 26 ; Dan. x. 6 ; Rev. iv. 3). The foundations of the walls of the new Jerusalem will be gar- nished with twelve precious stones (Rev. xxi. 11, 18 sqq.), which seem to be chosen with reference to Exod. xxviii. 17-20. The following precious stones are mentioned by name in the Bible. We are helped in our interpretation of the Hebrew and Greek names by the ancient versions, Jose- phus {Ant., III. 7, 5 ; Bell. Jud., V. 5, 7), and book xxxvii. of Pliny's Natural History. We can arrive only at the probable truth about some of them. (1) DHS, the sardius, or sardonyx, so called be- cause first found near Sardis, of a reddish color, was very much esteemed and used. The finest specimens came from Babylon. (2) rnB3, the yellow topaz, which is also mentioned by Job (xxviii. 19), came from Ethiopia, and especially from an island in the Persian Gulf [some writ- ers identify this stone with the chrysolite]. (3) r\pl3, the emerald (" the glittering," Rev. iv. 3), was found especially in Egypt. (4) 1]3J, the car- PRBCONIZATION. 1886 PREDESTINATION. buncle, was the name of several stones ^ith a glowing red color, as of the African and Indian ruby, and the garnet ; which latter is probably referred to in the Bible, (o) T3D, the sapphire (Job xxviii. 6, 15). Pliny calls it the lapis-lazuli, which, however, does not seem to be meant in the Old Testament. (6) D^n' is translated by Lnther, " diamond." It is probably the onyx or the opal (Pliny). (7) DK''?, the ligure, probably means the hyacinthe, which is found in Ethiopia, but, according to some, amber. (8) Ui^, the agate, found in Cyprus, Syria, Egypt, etc. (9) ni^bnx, the amethyst, which was much esteemed, came from India, Arabia,and Egypt. (10) ly'tynn, (Ezek. i. 16 ; Dan. x. 6, etc.), translated beryl, is probably the chrysolite. Rosenmiiller translates the word, "topaz." (11) DHiy, the onyx, which came from the land of Havilah (Gen. ii. 12). (1-) T\2W\ the much-discussed jasper (Rev. iv. 3, xxi. 11, 19), the best varieties of which came from India. (13) ijlj, translated carbuncle (Isa. liv. V2) and agate (Ezek. xxvii. 18). (14) T:3i2;, the diamond, an apt illustration of Israel's obsti- nacy (Ezek. iii. 9; Zech. vii. 12), translated in the English version " adamant." See Gessner : De omni rerum fossil, fjenere, Zurich, 1566; Braun: De cestilu sacerilolum Hebrce, Amsterdam, 1680, 2d ed., 1698; Bellkrmann: D. [Trim u. Thummim, d. aelteslen Gemmen, Berlin, 1824 ; [A. H. Church : Precious Stones in. their Scientific and Artistic Rela- tions, London, 1883]. RUETSCHI. PRECONIZATION (from prceconizare, or prm- conisare, which in medi aal didaoKa'Aiif). They maintain that the latter were distinctively preachers of the Word, and that therefore there were two kinds of elders, — ruling elders and teaching elders, and that the latter eventually became known as the pastors, the bishops of the churches. It is also taken for granted that the Christian elders, as the succes- sors of the Jewish elders, had charge of public worship as well as discipline, and took charge of the reading of Scripture and exhortation (i.e., of preaching). It is quite natural, however, to sup- pose that the elders, who appear always in a plurality in a congregation, were not equally gifted, and distributed their various functions among themselves according to their ability. Nor was preaching in the apostolic age confined to any ecclesiastical office. PRESBYTBRIANISM. 1919 PRESBYTBRIANISM. This, then, is the claim of Presbyterianism, that the churches of the apostolic age were served by three classes of ministers, or office-bearer's. At first, from the necessity of the case, a church had only tw.o kinds of officers, — elders and deacons. Eventually the evangelist, or missionary, became a stated, settled minister, a pastor ; or one of the elders occupied that position; so that each church had its liyytAof (" angel, herald, preacher "), as in the case of the seven churches of Asia (Rev. ii., iii.). As the chief overseer of the church or con- fregation, he came to be known distinctively as emaKOTTo; ("the bishop"); but he was the bishop of only a single church, of only one town or city. Every town or city had its own church, its own bishop. The bishops of the early ages were as numerous as the churches, residing often not more than five or six miles apart, and counted by hundreds along the southern shores of the Medi- terranean, in Italy, and in the East. They were simply what the Presbyterian pastor now is. Such are the grounds, in general, with some possible variations, on which Presbyterianism claims to be both primitive and apostolical, as conforming more closely to the New-Testament pattern than any other form of church order. It is affirmed by some, that this form of church government is authoritatively and exclusively enjoined in the Scriptures ; that it is therefore of universal obligation, and that no other is of divine right. They claim to be "jure divino Presbyterians." The great body of Presbyteri- ans, however, are content to claim simply that their views are clearly sanctioned by Scripture. In common with all the churches of the Refor- mation, Presbyterianism abjures the Papacy, with its vicegerency, its infallibility, its decretals, its mariolatry, and its masses, as a monstrous inno- vation on the truth and simplicity of the gospel, and as treason to the Great Head of the church. In common with Independency and Congrega- tionalism, it maintains the parity of the gospel ministry in opposition to every form of Prelacy. It discards the High-Church dogma of "apostoli- cal succession." It teaches that the apostles, as such, had no successors ; that the presbyter of the New Testament is not a priest ; that the ministry of the Christian church are sacerdotal neither iu name nor in authority. They are simply ser- vants of Christ and of his people, heralds of the cross, preachers of the gospel, not lords over God's heritage, yet, in the truest sense, successors of the apostles. They are all brethren, and Christ alone is their Lord and Master. Presbyterianism claims to be the primitive Episcopacy, and abjures the exclusive Episcopacy of Prelacy as a corruption, as a usurpation of prerogatives on the part of metropolitan and other pastors, towering at length in the pretensions of patriarchs, and culminating in the tyrannical arrogance of the Bishop of Rome as the Vicar of Christ. As to the Church, Presbyterianism distinguishes between the visible and the invisible Church ; the latter including the whole company of the re- deemed from among men to the end of time; the former consisting "of all those throughout the world that profess the true religion," both infants and adults. This one Church, it teaches, has many parts. As the race is separated into numer- 15-111 ous nationalities, so the Church is distributed into many families,_ separated by oceans and conti- nents, and tribal barriers, and divers tongues, as also by peculiarities of faith and order. The necessities of time and place demand, that, in order to the public worship of God, these larger divisions be distributed into smaller neighbor- hood churches or congregations, not as independ- ent organizations, but as parts of the one great whole. Presbyterianism, therefore, teaches that any number of Christian people meeting statedly for public worship and the orderly celebration of the Christian sacraments, and covenanting together for these ends, is a particular church. It may be more or less scriptural in form, pure in doctrine, and spiritual in worship; yet it is a church, a distinct organization, dependent on no specific order of men beyond or above it, for leave to be and to do. But, in the constitution and care of these par- ticular churches, Presbyterianism avails itself of the advantages of a representative form of gov- ernment. It makes orderly provision for the counsel and co-operation of neighboring minis- ters and churches, by fixed principles and uniform regulations, instead of leaving every thing to the exigencies of time and place, and traditionary usage. It provides for periodical instead of only occasional convocations, for a, fixed and not a fluctuating constituency of its councils, and so for the common interests of the community. It recognizes the Church as a great common- wealth, and, by means of well-digested formulas of faith and order, it aims to bring its detached parts into an organic union, the more effectually to give expression to church -fellowship, and to secure to the particular church its rights and privileges ; to provide for them a learned and godly ministry, and so preserve them from the inroads of ignorance, immorality, superstition, and intolerauce in the pulpit, and conserve the purity of doctrine ; to secure a ready and appro- priate redress for injuries; to maintain a uniform standard of godliness; and to combine the re- sources of the whole for the general good. These salutary ends it seeks to accomplish by a regular series of church judicatories, the session or consistory of a particular church, the presby- tery or classis, the synod, and the general synod or assembly. The principle of constitutional representation is maintained throughout ; and opportunity is given, by a system of review, com- plaint, and appeal, for the righting of wrongs and the correction of errors ; while, in a well organ- ized and carefully cpmpacted body, provision is made for the most effective aggressive movement against the combined powers of evil. It is a gTeat church with numberless compacted parts, a great Chi-istian republic, of which the Lord Jesus Christ alone is the sovereign. 2. Articles of Faith. — In like manner, Presby- terianism claims that its faith as well as its form is based, not on tradition or custom, not on the inductions of mere human reason, or philosophic thought, but simply and solely on the word of God. It receives and adopts the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments as being, not simply containing, a revelation of the mind and will of God, as given by inspiration of the Most High, . PRESBYTERIANISM. 1920 PRE SBYTBRI ANISM. and as being "the only infallible rule of faith and practice." It rejects as uninspired the apocry- phal books and the whole body of papal decretals and canon law. In general, it receives and adopts Protestantism in distinction from Romanism, Trinitarianism in distinction from Ariauism and Socinianism, and Calvinism in distinction from Pelagianism and Arminianisra. (See these several titles.) It maintains the absolute dependence of every hu- man being, from first to last, on the alone suffi- ciency of divine grace, for salvation from the guilt and power of sin unto eternal life, together with the free agency of man, and his responsibility for every thought, word, and deed. It exalts the infinite sovereignty of God, and his absolute con- trol of all worlds and creatures. It represents God as overruling all human agency, so as, with- out violence, to bring about the purposes of his will in the work of redemption. It maintains the innate depravity and want of original righteousness on the part of all the pos- terity of Adam, and the amazing gi-ace of God in giving his Son to die for a sinful world, and his Spirit to renew and sanctify the heirs of salva- tion, thereby making salvation absolutely sure to every believer. It represents the God of the Bible as carrying forward to certain fulfilment, through all time, an eternal purpose and plan of redemption, whereby to glorify his only-begotten Son the Lord Jesus Christ, and make the blood of the atonement irresistibly efficacious in the eternal salvation and glorification of a great mul- titude whom no man can number. It claims that this system of faith is revealed in the Holy Scriptures, and is " mighty through God to the puUing-down of strongholds," — " mighty " in the regeneration of the individual man and in the elevation of the human race; " mighty " in the widest possible diffusion of light and love through the ages, and in the effectual spread of truth and godliness through the habitable world, developing the mind, purifying the heart, and ennobling the soul. 1 1. History. — The modern revival of this form of Christianity dates back to the first days of the Protestant Keforniation. Unhappily, the Re- formers differed essentially in relation to the sac- rament of the body and blood of Christ. Those who held with Luther were called "Lutherans" (see this title) : those who sided with Zwingli, because of their more thorough abjuration, both in doctrine and discipline, of the errors of the Papacy, obtained the name, distinctively, of "The Reformed." At a council held at Zurich, Oct. 26, 1523, the principles of Presbyterianism were formally adopted, and thenceforth became the dis- tinctive principles of "the Reformed churches." Under the teachings of Farel, Viret, and Calvin, French Switzerland, in 1535, adopted the same principles. The Huguenots, some twenty years later (1555), joined them, and established the French Reformed Church, after the model of Cal- vin, in his "Institutes." The Belgian Reformed Church and the German Reformed Church took form about 1560, at which time the Presbyterian Church of Scotland, under the leadership of John Knox, separated herself from the Papacy. Twelve years later (1572), the Presbyterian system was developed, under Cartwright, in England; while the Church of England retained (though doc- trinally of the Reformed faith) the system of Prelacy. During the Conunonwealth (1840-60) she became Presbyterian. The Presbyterianism of Ireland dates from the same period. The next generation witnessed the rise of Presbyteri- anism in the British Colonies of America, where it has taken firm root, and has obtained the most vigorous growth. More than thirty thousand churches in all the world are Presbyterian. Its principal symbols of faith are the Canons of the Synod of Dart, A.D. 1619, and the Confes- sion and Catechisms of (lie Westminster Assembly of Divines, London, A.D. 1648 (see Dort and West- minster) ; also the Heidelberg Catechism, by Ur- sinus, A.D. 1563. These symbols, however, have been so modified by the Presbyterian churches of America, in particular, as to exclude the Church and State theory, and to affirm the complete inde- pendence of the Church in respect to the State. In fine, this system claims for itself a large- hearted catholicity. It extends the right hand of fellowship to all cotnmunions that profess the faith, and hold to the headship, of om- Lord Jesus Christ; and most cordially does it co-operate with Christian people of every name in giving the Bible to the world, and in every good work for the purification and elevation of our common humanity. Lit. — Calvin : Institutio Christiance Religionis, 1536, 2d ed., 1559 ; Viretus : De vero Verbo Dei, Sacramentorum et Ecclesice Mi7iisterio, 155S; Beza: De Diversis Ministrorum Gradibus, 1594:; William Stoughton: An Assertion for True and Christian Church Policie, 1604; Calderwood: Altare Da- mascenum, seu Ecclesice Anglicana Politia, 1623; Bdxtorp : Synagoga Judaica, Basel, 1641 ; Gilles- pie : Discipline and Government of the Church of Scotland, 1641, and Aaron's Rod Blossoming, or the Divine Ordinance of Church Government, 1646 ; also Notes of Debates and Proceedings of the Assembly of Divines at Westminster (February, 1644, to January, 1645); Rutherford : A Peaceable Plea for Paul's Presbytery, 1642, and Due Right of Presbyteries, 1644; Baillie : A Dissuasive from the Errors of the Times, 1645 ; Bastwick : Independency not God's Ordinance, 1645, and 2'he Utter Routing of the Whole Army of all the Independents and Sectaries, 1646 ; sundry London Ministers : Jus Divinum Regiminis Ecclesiastici, 1646, and Jus Divinum Ministerii Evangelici, 1854; Smectymnuus : An Humble Remonstrance, 1648 ; Drury : A Model of Church Government; 1647; London Prov. As- sembly: A Vindication of the Presbyterial Gov- ernment and Ministry, 1650 ; Collings : Vindicice Ministerii Evangelici, 1851 ; Byfield : Grand De- late between Presbytery and Independency, 1652, and The True Church of Christ, 1653 ; Baxter : Five Disputations of Church Government and Wor- ship, 1659, and Treatise of Episcopacy, 1681, also Church History of the Government of Bishops, 1681 ; Forrester : Confutation of Episcopacy , 1684, and The Hierarchical Bishops' Claim to a Divine Right, 1699; Clarkson: No Evidence for Diocesan Churches, 1681, and Diocesan Churches not yet dis- covered in the Primitive Times, 1682, also Primi- tive Episcopacy, 1 688 ; King [Sir Peter] : Inquiry into the Co7istitution, Discipline, Unity, and Worship of the Primitive Church, 1691 ; Rule : Good Old Way Defended, 1607 ; Jameson : The Fundamen- PRBSBYTBRIUM. 1921 PRIDBAUX. tals of the Hierarchy Examined and Disproved, 1697, and The Sum of the Episcopal Controversy ^ 1713 ; Laudeb : The Jurisdiction and Power of the An- cient Bishops, 1707, and The Divine Institution of BisJiops having Churches consisting of many Congre- gations, 1711; Andersox: A Defence of the Church Government, Faith, Worship, and Spirit of the Presbyterians, 1714 ; Peirce : A Vindication of the Dissenters, 1717; Dunlop: A Collection of Con- fessions of Faith, etc., 1719, 2 vols.; Ayton: A Clear Account of the Ancient Episcopacy, 1726, and The Original Constitution of the Christian Church, 1730 ; Dickinson : The Scripture Bishop Vindicat- ed, 1733 ; TowGOOD : The Dissenting Gentleman's Letters, 1746; Welles: The Divine Right of Pres- byterian Ordination, 1763, and A Vindication of the Divine Right of Presbyterian Ordination, 1767; Hall [Archibald] : Constitution, Order, Disci- pline, and Fellowship of the Christian Church, 1769 ; Brown [John of Haddington] : Constitution, Gov- ernment, and Discipline of the Christian Church, 1799 ; Whytock : Short Vindication of Presbytery, 1799 ; Brown [John of Langton] : Vindication of the Presbyterian Form of Church Government, 1805; Mitchell: Presbyterian Letters, 1809; Mil- ler [Samuel] : Constitution and Order of the Christian Ministry, 1807-09, and Warrant, Nature, and Duties of the Office of the Ruling Elder, 1831, also Presbyterianism the truly Primitive and Apos- tolical Constitution of the Church of Christ, 1835 ; and Vindication of Ao., 1840; Barnes: Scriptural Argument for Episcopacy Examined, 1835, and The Apostolic Church, 1843 ; Lorimer : Character and Advantages of Presbyterianism, 1842; Smyth [Thomas] : Presbytery, and not Prelacy, the Scrip- tural and Primitive Polity, 1843, and Name, Nature, and Functions of Ruling Elders, 1845 ; Hether- ington: History of the Westminster Assembly of Divines, 1843 ; Mitchell and Struthers : Ses- sions of the Westminster Assembly of Divines (1644-49), 1874; J. Macpherson : Presbyteri- anism, 1883; Proceedings of the First General Presbyterian Councd, Edinburgh, Scotland, 1877 ; and Proceedings of the Second General Presbyte- rian CounezV, Philadelphia, Penn., 1880; Schaff : Bibliotheca Symbolica Ecclesice Universalis, The Creeds of Christendom, vol. i. chap. 7 (pp. 354 sqq.), and vol. iii., containing the Reformed Creeds. E. F. hatfield, d.d. PRESBYTERIUM (npeai3vTipiov) denotes the body of elders, whether Jewish (Luke xxii. 66 ; Acts xxii. 5) or Christian (1 Tim. iv. 14). PRESBYTERY. (1) The part of the church, behind the altar, which contained seats for the bishops and presbyters (priests), divided from the rest by rails, so that none but clergy might enter it. (2) An ecclesiastical court of Presbyterian churches, next in rank above the session, com- posed of all the ministers, and one elder from each church within a certain radius, and having jurisdiction over the ministers composing it, over the candidates for the ministry and licentiates, and over the churches within its bounds. See Presbyterian confession of faith. PRESENCE, The Real. See Lord's Supper, PRESIDING ELDERS are officers of the Meth- odistEpiscopal Church who are appointed by the bishops over a certain territory (District) for a term not exceeding four years. Their duties are. to travel through this District ; to be present at, as far as practicable, and to hold, all the quar- terly meetings ; to call together the Quarterly Conference ; to hear complaints ; to receive and try appeals ; to renew all licenses approved by the Quarterly Conference, . etc. ; to oversee the spir- itual and temporal business of the church in a given District ; to promote all those interests; to maintain discipline ; and to decide all questions of law involved in proceedings pending in a District or Quarterly Conference, subject to an appeal to the president of the next Annual Conference. They are paid by their respective Districts. It is manifest that the office is one of gTeat power and usefulness. It was early created in the American Methodist Church, in imitation of the office of assistant, appointed by Wesley himself to help him in his onerous labor. See Discipline of tie Methodist-Episcopal Church, ed. 1880, pp. 109-112. PRESSLY, John Taylor, D.D., United Presby- terian; b. in Abbeville District, S.C., March 28, 1795; d. at Allegheny City, Penn., Aug. 13, 1870. He was graduated at Transylvania' University, Kentucky, 1812, and from Dr. Mason's theological seminary, 1815 ; licensed the latter year by the Second Associate Reformed Presbytery of South Carolina; ordained and installed, July 3, 1816, pastor of the Cedar Spring congregation, the one in which he had been brought up. There he faith- fully and successfully ministered until 1832, when he came to Pittsburgh to be professor of theology in the theological seminary of his denomination. The same year the seminary was removed to Alle- gheny, and Pressly became pastor in that city. He took a leading part in organizing the United Presbyterian Church, which in 1858 was formed out of the Associate and Associate Reformed Presbyterian churches; and the strength of this denomination in Pittsburgh and its neighborhood is more due to him than to any other one man. As preacher, pastor, and professor, he was un- usually successful, and his impress upon his de- nomination will not pass away. See sketch of him by Rev. Dr. Kerr, in Maccracken's Lives of the Leaders of Our Church Universal, pp. 778- ■783. PRESTER JOHN. See John the Presbyter. PRESTON, John, D.D., Puritan divine; b. at Heyford, Northamptonshire, 1587 ; d. in that shire, July, 1628 (buried in Fawsley Church, July 20). He was admitted fellow of Queen's College, 1609 ; entered holy orders, but never had a charge, or married. On the nomination of the Duke of ' Buokingharri, he was made chaplain to Prince Charles, preacher at Lincoln's Inn, and master of Emanuel College (1622). He was the chaplain- in-waiting at King James's death, and " came up, with the young King and the Duke of Bucking- ham, in a close coach, to London." In his closing years, his stanch Puritanism cost him the duke's patronage. As a preacher, he attracted great at- tention. He was also a vigorous defender of Calvinism. His writings were very popular. See list in Darling; also Neal: Hist. Puritans, Har- per's ed., vol. i. pp. 275, 276, 281, 296, 297. PRIDEAUX, Humphrey, D.D., Church of Eng- land ; b. at Padstow, Cornwall, May 3, 1648 ; d. at Norwich, Nov. 1, 1724. He was graduated B.A. at Christ Church, Oxford, 1672 ; and in 1676 published there Marmora Oxoniensa, or a tran- PRIBRIAS. 1922 PRIESTS AND PRIESTHOOD. script of the inscription on the Arundel Marbles (many typographical errors ; more correctly pre- sented by Richard Chandler, Oxford, 1763, folio). In consequence of this Mork, the lord-chancellor, Finch, gave him the living of St. Clement's, near Oxford, 1679, and a prebend in Norwich Cathe- dral, 1681. In 1688 he became archdeacon of SufEolk, and in 1702 dean of Norwich. He wrote two celebrated works, — The true nature of imposlure fully displayed in the life of Mahomet, wiOi a discourse annexed for the vindication of Christianity from this charge (London, 1697), and The Old and New Testament connected in the history of the Jeics and neighboring nations, from the de- clension of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah to the time of Christ (London, 1716, 3 vols. 8vo, best ed. (the 25th) by J. Talboys Wheeler, London, 1858, 2- vols. 8vo, 3d ed. of this edition, 1876). The first of these two works maintains with great learning and prejudice the lowest view of Mo- hammed's character : the second presents an im- mense mass, of erudition upon all relevant topics. See his anonymous Life (London, 1748), and his Letters to John Ellis, edited by E. M. Thompson, for Camden Society, London, 1875. PRIERIAS, Sylvester, b. at Prierio, in the Italian countship of Montferrat, about 1460. His true name was Mazolini. The date and place of his death are unknown. He entered the Dominican order when he was fifteen years old ; taught the- ology in Padua and Rome ; published liosa aurea (1503) and Summa Sylveslrina (1515), now entirely forgotten ; and was made Magister Sacri Palatii by Leo X. His place in church history, however, he owes to his writings against Luther (/n proe- sumptuosas Martini Lutheri conclusiones de potestate Papce dialogus, 1517; Replica F. Sylvestri Prieria- tis, and Epitoma Responsionis, 1519), which by their extravagancy and incompetency oonti'ibuted not a little to further the cause of the Reforma- tion. OSWALD SCHMIDT. PRIESTS AND PRIESTHOOD IN THE OLD TESTAMENT. The priesthood, according to the Old Testament, fulfils a threefold office for the people: it presents their sacrifices to God, in- quires his will, and is the guardian and teacher of his law. It is natural that these duties should lead to the establishment of an order which should make the priesthood a profession, as the various services demanded would ultimately ex- clude other pursuits. But the Israelitish priest- hood was not simply professional in its origin. The idea which underlies it, even in the different documents which are claimed by the critics to constitute the Pentateuch, is that of mediatorship. God's design for the race was that of unobstructed comnmnion with himself. This is the idea which is presented to us in the account which is given of Eden and the fall of man. God's design for his chosen people was, that they should be a king- dom of priests, among whom he should dwell, and to whom he should more directly make known his will ; but their sin with reference to the golden calf showed that they were not fitted for such communion, and that thei-e was need of a mediator. Sin, then, according to the Old Testament, is regarded as the barrier which has broken off the direct intercourse between God and his people, and for which some atonement must be made. The people may not themselves approach directly to God to do him homage, or to learn his M-ill : hence arises the idea of a person of more holy character, who stands between God and man as a mediator. Eemakk. — It is a matter of debate as to tlie origi- nal meaning of the word " Kolien." Some claim that the Arabic indicates that it originally meant sooth- sayer; others, as Fleischer, afBrm that it signifies to stand by a person to help him. It is probable that both meanings may be drawn legitimately from the root. (Compare Curtiss's Levitical Priests, 'pp. 57, 58.) Persons Eligible to the Priesthood. — This being the idea which underlies the priesthood, we have to consider what persons were eligible to the office. Modern critics, especially of the German and Dutch schools, in their radical reconstruction of the Old- Testament history, utterly reject the Aaronitic priesthood as being the earliest form among the Israelites, and consider it the latest. They hold that the true principle of history is that of de- velopment, and that simpler laws and institu- tions must have preceded those which wei'e more elaborate. They maintain, with reference to the object of worship, that the Jsraelites were origi- nally polytheists, and that the more spiritual monotheistic conception of God was the noble fruitage of prophecy about the eighth century before Christ. They claim that the mode of woi'- ship in sacrifices, festivals, etc., was far simpler at the beginning of Israel's history than in the Priests' Code which mirrors the state of things- after the exile. The legal documents in which they trace the gradual developments of the priest- hood are the Book of the Covenant with its affili- ated Jehovistic history (eighth century B.C.), the Book of Deuteronomy (621 B.C.) with the deu- teronomic elements in Joshua, Ezekiel's Torah (xl.-xlviii., 573 B.C.), and the Priests' Code (444 B.C.) with related parts of Joshua, which is con- sidered by the critics as forming, with the Penta- teuch, a Hexateuch. Their theory involves the complete demolition of the traditional structure of Old-Testament history and the construction of an entirely new edifice. Those who adopt this critical reconstruction of the Old Testament dis- cover the following successive steps in the priest- hood : — 1. According to the Jehovist, any one may serve as priest. This is illustrated by the history of the Jehovistic period, where Gideon, Manoah, Samuel (who, they say, was made a Levite by the chronicler), Saul, David, and others who were not sons of Aaron, or even Levites, offered sacrifices in direct antagonism to the Priests' Code (Num. iii. 10, xviii. 7). 2. According to Deuteronomy (x. 8, xxxiii. 8- 10 ; 1 Sam. ii. 28) and contemporaneous writers, there is, for the first time, a priesthood which is confined to the tribe or guild of Levi. Not all Levites are priests; but any Levite who may desire, contrary to the express stipulations of the Priests' Code, may become a priest by virtue of his belonging to the tribe (Deut. xviii. 6, 7). 3. A farther step in the priesthood is exhibited in Ezekiel, who fii-st introduces the distinction between a family, that of Zadok, and the tribe of Levi. The priesthood is limited to the family of Zadok of the tribe of Levi, because they have remained faithful in the service of Jehovah : the PRIESTS AND PRIESTHOOD. 1923 PRIESTS AND PRIESTHOOD. rest of the Levites, because they have served as idolatrous priests of the higli places, are forever deposed from the priesthood (Ezek. xliv. 10-14). 4. The last step is seen in the Priests' Code. Here the priests trace their lineage back to Aaron : all other Levites are excluded from the priest- hood, and the system is crowned throug-h the institution of the high priest. While neither in the prophets, nor in the earlier historical -writings, do we find any trace of this highly developed hie- rarchy, yet in the Books of Chronicles and Ezra [Nehemiah], which were written long after the introduction of the Priests' Code, we find such a hierarchy participating in the affairs of the nation. This representation, however, according to the critics, is not historical. Many of them hold that there was no intention to deceive on the part of the chronicler ; but, in rewriting the history, he naturally treated it in the light of his own time, without being at all conscious that the Aaronitic priesthood was of comparatively modern origin. Now, we cannot dispute, that, when we consider these arguments of the critics without regard to other facts, they carry great weight. But, in determining the question of the origin of the Aaronitic priesthood, there are several considera- tions which seem to render their theory very im- probable. 1. According to their hypothesis, we must sup- pose that the Israelites were originally a horde of barbarians, and that the priesthood, as we find it in the middle books of the Pentateuch, was not developed until after the exile, or at least nine hundred years after the time of Moses. Now, there are two facts on which scholars are well agreed : (1) That Moses is an historical personage, and (2) That the Israelites came out from Egypt. It is well known, however, that, of the four princi- pal castes in Egypt, the priests stood next to the king, occupying relatively the same position which Aaron does with reference to Moses in the Priests' Code, and that Eleazar does with reference to Joshua in the priestly portions of Joshua. While we cannot admit, with Brugsch, that " Moses modelled his teachings on the patterns given by the old Egyptian sages," yet it seems incredible, that, with such a training as he had enjoyed in Egypt, he should have established no priesthood. If, however, he did found such an order, it is easy for us to see points of correspondence between the Aaronitic priesthood, with its high priest, common priests, and Levites, and the different orders of the Egyptian priesthood. 2. It is sometimes further objected, that so elaborate a system could not have been devised at the beginning of the Israelitish nation. But when we remember that Joseph at the very be- ginning of their history was son-in-law of a priest, and that Moses, as the reputed son of an Egyp- tian princess, may well have been familiar with the priestly system, and was, besides, the son-in- law of the priest of Midian, and had forty years in which to digest his knowledge, we might certainly expect, that, under God's direction, he would be ready to present as elaborate a system during the forty years of his life as a leader of Israel as we find in the middle books of the Pentateuch. Hence those who hold that God chooses persons and instrumentalities that are adapted to his ends must admit that Moses was more likely to intro- duce such a system than Ezra, that Egypt and Midian were more suggestive of it than Babylon. 3. The assumption that the representations in regard to the origin of the Aaronitic priestliood are essentially false cannot well be sustained, unless it can be proved that Hebrew literature did not arise until about the eighth century B.C., as the critics claim. But again: if Moses is an historical personage, we have reason to believe that the beginnings of Hebrew literature were contemporary with him. It does not seem possi- ble that he could have been ignorant of the art of writing, at a time when the Egyptians, judg- ing from the memorials that have come down to us, could hardly have been less conversant with it than when Herodotus wrote (ii. 82), " No Egyp- tian omits taking accurate notes of extraordinary or striking events." But Egypt was not the only nation that had a literature at that time. Chal- dffia, which was the birthplace of Abraham, had already written down the primitive traditions be- fore he was born; and the Phoenicians, the most cultivated people of antiquity, in whose land Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob sojourned, had un- doubtedly come into possession of the art of writ- ing. Now, when we take these facts into account, and remember that the Hebrew was really the Phoenician language, it would be passing strange if the adopted son of Pharaoh's daughter (ac- cording to the Scriptures), or the priest, who, according to tradition, was the leader of Israel, left no memorials. 4. The critics maintain that the Old-Testament Scriptures belong to two classes of authors, — the priests and the prophets. They find these tw^o classes of writings represented in the Pentateuch and Joshua, and in the historical books. The Jehovistic writings are the prophetic; the Elohis- tic, the priestly. It was once the claim of the critics that the Elohistic writings were the oldest, and that the Jehovistic were younger. Since the publication of Graf's work on the historical books of the Old Testament (1866), and especially of Wellhausen's History of Israel (1878), the ma- jority of Old-Testament scholars in Germany have reversed the relation. But here, again, if the Egyptian priesthood had any influence on that of Israel, we must believe, if there are two classes of writings in the Old Testament, that the priestly are not younger than the prophetic ; for the Egyptian priesthood, were the giaardians of the sacred books, which they explained to the king. In the same way, the Israelitish priests are guard- ians of the written law of Moses (Deut. xvii. 18, xxxi. 9, 24). Hence not only that which we find in the Pentateuch, but what we can gather from the external history of the nation, points to the prominence of the priesthood at the inauguration of the nation under Moses, as well as during the return to first principles under Ezra. 5. The representations of the Old-Testament books, .when taken according to the age which has been assigned them by tradition, give a consis- tent account of the origin of the priesthood, and one which we might expect from the con- nection' of Israel with Egypt ; while the notices contained in the different documents discovered by the critics in the Pentateuch are highly frag- mentary. Without raising the question as to the Mosaic PRIESTS AND PRIESTHOOD. 1924 PRIESTS AND PRIESTHOOD. authorship of the entii'e Pentateuch, there is cer- tainly good reason for believing that Moses is the author of those parts of the Pentateuch which are assigned to him. Some of the most temperate of the modern critics consider him the author of the Ten Commandments and the book of the cove- nant ; but neither contain any directions as to the priesthood. It is most unlikely, however, that he should have composed such a work, and not have prepared any regulations in regard to the priesthood, when the Egyptians had books which remind us strongly of the regulations of the Priests' Code in treating of sacrifices, first-fruits, the land-tax, the priest-tax, etc. And not only this, but the view of the critics would lead us to suppose that he founded no priesthood at all. We cannot believe that Moses would neglect such an institution, when the Egyptian customs and the middle books of the Pentateuch are favorable to the view that he did not. The Book of Deuteronomy harmonizes well with its supplementary position in connection with the middle books of the Pentateuch ; but it is not adapted to give an independent account as to the origin of the Levitioal priesthood. The persistent use of the terminology, " priests, Le- vites" (Deut. xvii. 9, 18, xviii. 1, xxiv. 8, xxvii. 9; Josh. iii. 3, viii. 33), is indeed striking ; and the inference that any Levite may become a priest would be legitimate, if we had to do with this book alone. The references to the priesthood, however, are of a very partial and incidental character, and lead to the supposition that Deuter- onomy must have been supplementary to a much larger book than that of the covenant. Such a book must have contained priestly regulations, and have been a priestly code. Indeed, on many accounts, the so-called Priests' Code is fitted to take the precedence, were it not for the critical objections which are urged. In a passage (Deut. X. 6-9), which, according to some critics, the Deuteronomiker has introduced from an older writer (Jehovist, — Kayser), . we read, " There Aaron died, and was buried there, and Eleazar his son was priest in his stead." When did Aaron become priest ? and what were the circumstances of his induction ? Did the Levites belong to the same grade of the priesthood as himself and Eleazar ? These are questions to which neither the Jehovist nor the Deuteronomiker gives us any response, but which are clearly answered in the Priests' Code. May any Levite become a priest ? The natural inference from Deut. xviii. 6, 7, is that he may. But the answer is not unequivocal ; for we find in Chronicles that sons of Aaron and their assistants are classed as Levites (2 Chron. xxiii. 18, XXX. 27, xi. 13, 14, etc.). Now, these considerations show the absurdity of making the few references that we have in the book of the covenant a mirror of one stage of the priest- hood, or rather of a time when there was no regular priesthood, and those that are found in Deuteronomy an indication of the first stage in the Levitical priesthood. The attempt would be utterly ridiculous, were it not that the re- sults claimed by the critics in sacrifices, festi- vals, in language and literature, seem to point in the same direction ; but the modern critical the- ory rides through not a few places in the Old 'J'estament rough-shod. It is certain that Deuteronomy, does not attempt to define the different duties of the priesthood. Even according to it, there must have been a gra- dation in these duties between the most menial ser- vice and the giving of a divine decision by Urim and Thummim (Deut. xxxiii. 8). It is certain that all the offices of the tribe, from an Aaron to a common Levite, are grouped together ; and this is natural in a farewell address like Deuteronomy. If we throw the light of the Priests' Code upon the subsequent history, it explains several things. (1) A high priesthood is implied in the prominent mention of Aaron, Eleazar, and other priests, in Deuteronomy, Joshua and Judges, Samuel and Kings, as well as in their use of Urim and Thum- mim. (2) There is nothing but the theory of the critics in the way of supposing that there were priests and Levites during the Old-Testa- ment histoiy. They are definitely distinguished as priests and Levites in 1 Kings viii. 4. Kuenen tries to escape from this difficulty by quoting the parallel passage in Chronicles (2 Chroh. ' v. 5), without the connective, and assuming that in this place the chronicler exactly followed the original text of Kings. But then, if, as Kuenen assumes, the chronicler was rewriting the history from the stand-point of the Priests' Code, the omission of the connective would not escape him, and he would be likely to insert it, that he might express the difference between the priests and the Levites. It is probable, therefore, that we have here a clerical error, as the versions and a very large number of the best manuscripts insei't a connec- tive. Then, too, in Isa. Ixvi. 21, the priests and Levites are mentioned according to the authority of the versions and the oldest manuscripts (see Curtiss's Levitical J'riesis, pp. 205 ff.). (3) The critics say that tne Levitical cities existed only on paper; but.there are casual references in the his- tory to some of them, which, from their unde- signed character, support the view that they really existed. The Levite who is mentioned in Judg. xix. 1 ff. lived on the sides of Mount Eiahraim, — perhaps in Sheohem, which was a Levitical city (Josh. xxi. 20, 21). So, too, the father of Samuel, who is mentioned by the chronicler as a Levite descended from the family of Kohath (1 Chron. vi. 7-13, E. V. 22-28), is spoken of as being from Mount Ephraim (1 Sam. i. 1). This coincides with the statement that the children of Kohath had Shechem with her surrounding pasturage in Mount Ephraim (Josh. xxi. 21). Another marked, but unintended, coincidence is found in the mention of Beth-shemesh in the first Book of Samuel (1 Sam. vi. 9-15). This city, accord- ing to the Book of Joshua, was given to the sons of Aaron (Josh. xxi. 16). If there is any point to the narrative at all, it is that the two new milch cows which have been selected to draw the ark of the Lord, contrary to their natural instincts, under the divine guidance, leave their calves, which had been shut up at home, and carry the ark to the priestly city of Beth-shemesh, where the Levites, among whom were doubtless sons of Aaron, are ready to receive it. But perhaps most important of all is the twofold mention of the priestly city of Anathoth, whither Solomon dis- misses Abiathar from the high priesthood (1 Kings ii. 26), and where Jeremiah's fathei', who was a priest, resided (Jer. i. 1). PRIESTS AND PRIESTHOOD. 1925 PRIESTS AND PRIESTHOOD. N"ow, if we read the history of the priesthood according to the Priests' Code, we get the follow- ing representation : it is descended from Aaron, through the houses of Eleazar and Ithamar, since Nadab and Abihu were put to death for oSering strange fire (Num. iii. 4). In the subsequent history we can trace the house of Eleazar only as far as Phinehas, his son. This is not strange, as it was not the object of the prophetic authors of the Former Prophets (Joshua -Kings) to give a history of the priesthood. In the Book of Samuel we are introduced to Eli, who is sup- posed to have belonged to the house of Ithamar. Owing to the wickedness of Eli's sons, a curse falls upon this house (1 Sam. ii. 31-34). Both of his sons, Hophni and Phinehas, are slain (1 Sam. iv. 11); a terrible massacre overtakes the priestly city of Nob (1 Sam. xxii. 19) ; and the prophecy receives its special fulfilment in the deposition of Abiathar from the priesthood by* Solomon (1 Kings ii. 27), and in the putting of Zadok, a descendant of Eleazar, in his place. Under Jero- boam, a great misfortune befalls the priesthood. Since motives of state policy lead him to dis- courage the people from going to Jerusalem, he establishes the worship of the calves in Dan and Bethel (1 Kings xii. 28-29), and the priests are compelled to leave the land (1 Kings xii. 31 ; 2 Chron. xi. 18-15). Even in Judith, all the priests (except the sons of Zadok, and hence the sons of Ithamar) serve the people in their idola- trous practices, and hence are deposed from the priesthood, and are compelled to do the work of the ordinary Levites (2 Kings xxiii. 8, 9 ; Ezek. xliv. 10-14). Whether this regulation extended to the children of the priests, we do not know. During the history of the royal period, as given in the Books of Kings and by the prophets, we meet with priests who occupy positions corre- sponding to what we might expect froln the high priest. Now, while this is the case, it is evident that the chronicler does not attempt to conform the history to the regulations in the Priests' Code; but as I have shown in my dissertation, De Aaro- nilici Sacerdol'd atque ThorcB Elohisticce Oru/ine, he presents very decided variations from it, both in regard to the priests and the Levites. We do not, therefore, see any sufficient reason for hold- ing that the history of. the priesthood had a dif- ferent origin from that which the Old Testament is commonly understood to teach. The Duties of the priests were twofold with reference to' God and man, although the idea of mediatorship was contained in them all. The high priest was to offer sweet incense every morn- ing and evening upon the altar of incense (Exod. XXX. 7, 8). The priests were to keep the lamps of the golden candlestick in order, and to light them every evening (Exod. xxvii. 21 ; Lev. xxiv. 3, 4). They were to clear away the ashes from the altar of burnt offering, and keep the fire burning constantly upon it (Lev. yi. 9-13), to offer the regular morning and evening sacrifices (Exod. xxix. 38-42), and to pronounce the bene- diction upon the people (Num. vi. 24-26). They were also to set twelve fresh loaves of shew- bread every sabbath on the table before the Lord (Lev. xxiv. 5-8). They were to blow the two silver trumpets, either for the. calling of the as- sembly (as an alarm in case of war), or, in their times of gladness, at the beginning of the months, over their burnt offerings and peace offerings, and for the j'ear of jubilee (Num. x. 2-10, xxxi. 6; Lev. XXV. 9). During the sojourn in the wilder- ness, they were intrusted with the immediate care of the ark of testimony and of the sacred vessels of the sanctuai'y, which they were to cover before they were borne by the Levites (Num. iv. 4-15). The main part of the duties of the priests had reference to the needs of the people in the special and individual offerings which they might wish to present, as described in the sacrificial ritual (Lev. i.-vii.). Besides, the priests were to offer the fat of aU animals killed for domestic pur- poses, and sprinkle their blood upon the altar (Lev. xvii. 3-9). They were to determine the valuation of vows (Lev. xxvii.), and to conduct the ceremonies in the consecration of a Nazarite (Num. vi. 1-21). They were to examine those afflicted with leprosy, and leprous houses (Lev. xiii.-xiv.), and women suspected of adultery (Num. V. 12-31). Moreover, as the depositaries of the law, they were to teach the people the statutes of the Lord (Lev. x. 11 ; Deut. xxxiii. 10 ; 2 Chron. xv. 3). The Dress and Marnier of Life of the priesthood, as well as their physical soundness, indicate their holy, and hence mediatorial character. None who were afflicted with any bodily infirmity might serve as priests (Lev. xxi. 17-23). The dress of the high priest has already been described (see p. 991). During their official service they wore garments of white byssus, consisting of drawers from their hips to their thighs, and a close-fitting body-coat, without seam, woven throughout, which, according to Jewish tradition, reached to the an- kles (Josephus : Antiq., III. 7, 2), and was gath- ered about the hips with a girdle ; while upon the head they seem to have worn a white cap (Exod. xxviii. 40-42). During their service in the taber- nacle or temple they were not allowed to drink wine or strong drink (Lev. x. 9; Ezek. xliv. 21). They might not incur defilement on the death of relatives, except for a mother, a father, a son, a daughter, a brother, or a sister who was a virgin (Lev. xxi. 1-3 ; Ezek. xliv. 25). The regulations respecting the high priest on the death of rela- tives were still more strict (see p. 991.) They were prohibited from forming any impure marriage connection (Lev. xxi. 7), and could only wed a virgin or a priest's widow (Ezek. xliv. 22) ; al- though it was not allowed the high priest to maiTy a widow (Lev. xxi. 13-14). The Income and Possessions of the priests de- pended upon the religiousness of the people. In striking contrast with the revenues of the Egyp- tian priests, and never at any time excessive, as Ewald has remarked, they must have been entire- ly inadequate in times of religious declension, and have led to suffering and crime. Instead of own- ing a third of the land, they were told that they had no inheritance like their brethren ; that the Lord was their inheritance. They were assigned thirteen cities by Moses (see p. 1311) as places of residence, the fields that were consecrated to the service of the Lord and not redeemed (Lev. xxvii. 21), a tenth of the tithe which belonged to the Levites (Num. xviii. 26-28), the redemp- tion-money for the first-born of man or beast PRIESTHOOD IN R. C. CHURCH. 1926 PRIESTHOOD IN R. C. CHURCH. (Num. xviii. 14-19), and their share in the fiftieth of half the booty whicli was given to the Levites in time of war (Num. xxxi. 30, 47). They were to receive also the wave offering (Lev. xxiii. 19, 20), the shew-bread (Exod. xxv. 30 ; Lev. xxiv. 5-9), the heave offering, the meat offering, the sin offering, and the trespass offering (Num. xviii. 8-14), the best of the oil, of the wine, and wheat, as first-fruits, etc. The Ordination of the priests was especially indicative of their sacred character. It is a mooted question whether the service of induction described in Lev. viii. was repeated on the ap- pointment of the successors of Aaron and his sons. However this may be, these were solennily set apart to the service of God, as mediators be- tween him and his people, in the presence of the congregation of Israel. After they had been washed, and had put on their priestly garments, they were anointed with a precious oil, which might not be used for any common purpose. This oil was poured on the head of the high priest ; while his sons, according to the rabbins, had only their foreheads anointed with the finger. After this, the sacrificial rites took place, consist- ing in a sin offering, in a burnt offering, and a peace offering. In connection with this sacrifice, Moses touched the tip of the right ear, of the right thumb, and of the gi'eat toe of the right foot, of Aaron and his sons, with blood ; signifying, that, as mediatoi'S between God and his people, they were to hear his word, do his work, and walk in his ways. Lit. — See the works quoted in this encyclo- pedia under Lkvites, vol. ii. p. 312, and Lund : Die Alien JiidiscJieh Heiligthmner, Hamburg, 1711 ; Reland : Antiquitales Sacrce Veterum Hebrceorum, Lipsise, 1715, pp. 127-208 ; Lightfoot : Minis- terium Templi, in Ugolini's Thesaurus, Venetiis, 1748, vol. ix. pp. 809-978, and various disserta- tions in vols, xii., xiii. of the same work, Venetiis, 1751-52; Winer: Biblisches Realworterbuch,Lieip- zig, 1847-48, pp. 269-275; S.\alschutz : Das Mosaische Recht, Berlin, 1853, pp. 89-128, and Archaoloffie der iHebraer, pt. ii., Konigsberg, 1856, pp. 342-369 ; Stahelin : Versuch einer Geschichte derVerhaltnisse des Stammes Levi, Ztscli. d. morgenl. Gesell., vol. ix., Leipzig, 1855; Hamburger: Real-Encyclopadie fur Bibel und Talmud, Berlin, 1870, pp. 842-850; Smith: Dictionary of the Bible, New York, 1870, pp. 2575-2587; Graf: Prieste.r, in Schenkel's Bibel-Lexicon, vol. iv., Leip- zig, 1872, pp. 590-605 ; S. I. Curtiss : The Leoiti- ea/ PrJeste, Edinbiu-gh, 1877 ; Schultz: Altlesla- mentliche Theoloffie, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1878, pp. 366-374 ; Rif.hm : Handworterbuch des Bi- blischen Altertums, Bielefeld and Leipzig, 1880, pp. 1215-1230; Buedenkemp: Gesetz und Propheten, Erlangen, 1881, pp. 172-202 ; Kittel: Die Priester und Leviten, in Theologische .Studien aus fViirttem- 6fir(7, Ludwigsberg, 1881, pp. 147-169; Delitzsch: Der mosaische Priestersegen, in Zeitschriftfilr Idrch- liche Wissenschaft und kirchliches Lehen, Leipzig, 1882, pp. 113-126; Oehler (Orelli): Priester- tum im Alten Testament, in Herzog, 2d ed., vol. xii. pp. 213-228. SAMUEL IVES CUKTISS. PRIESTHOOD IN THE ROMAN-CATHOLIC CHURCH. Very early, indeed already towards the close of the first century, a parallel was drawn between the officials of the Christian congregations and the priests of the Old Testament. (See 1 Ep. of Clement, c. 40.) As yet, however, the idea of the priesthood of the Old Testament exercised no real influence on the idea of the office in the Chris- tian congregation, and could exercise none, be- cause, in the Christian congregation, no offering of sacrifices by its officials was known ; the whole congregation considering itself a people of priests. According to Justin (Dial. 117; comp. Apol. 1, 67), the individual members of the congregation, and not its officials, are the acting subjects in the celebration of the Eucharist. Tertullian (De exh. cast., 7 ; comp. De bapt., 17 ; De monog., 7) bases the right of every Christian to administer the sac- raments on the universal priesthood of the faith- ful ; and the same idea occurs in Augustine (De civit. Dei, 20, 10), and in Leo the Great (Sei-m., 4, 1). But, alongside of this idea of a universal priesthood of all the faithful, there developed, in course of time, another idea, of directly opposite character. In Africa people first became used, in what manner is not known, to designate bishops and presbyters as sacerdotes. The custom was cuiTent at the time of Tertullian, as may be seen from his polemics against it ; and in the third century it also became prevalent in Rome. As soon, however, as a dis- tinction was established between the members and the officers of the congregation, as between priests and laymen, it was impossible to prevent the Old- Testament idea of priesthood from creeping in, and making itself felt. Now, in the Old Testa- ment, the ideas of priest and sacrifice are insepara- ble ; and, by offering up the sacrifice for the people, the priest became the mediator between the peo- ple and God. There was also a Christian sacrifice; but, as long as the faithful themselves offered up the sacrifice, the idea was rather in favor of that of universal priesthood. As soon, however, as the idea of sacrifice changed, and the sacrifice was of- fered up, not by the faithful, but for the faithful, that of priest changed too, and the priest became a mediator between God and the faithful. In the time of Cyprian this change was accomplished : see his Epistles, 55, 8 ; 56, 3 ; 61, 1, etc. The priest, and not the congTegation, had become the acting subject in the celebration of the Eucharist. For the transition in the Greek Church see Apost. Constit., ii. 25, 12, and vi. 5, 1. At the time of Chrysostom the change had taken place. Thus the pi-iestly character of the higher clergy, derived from the sacrificial character of the mass, was transmitted to the mediseval church, which accepted all those ideas as axioms. (See Petrus Lombardus : Sejit. iv., dist. 24 J.) When Thomas Aquinas incidentally mentions the universal priesthood of all the faithful, he gives to the idea an almost metaphorical signification : the faithful shall, like the priest, offer up spiritual sacrifices to God. The Roman Catechism also speaks of a twofold priesthood, an internal and an external ; but it lays all emphasis on the latter, — the ex- ternal, the hierarchy. The foundation of that priesthood is carried back to the Lord himself, who gave to the apostles and their successors the powers of consecration, of baptism, of offering and administering the Body and Blood of Christ, and also of forgiving or retaining sins ; and the office itself is spoken of in the most extrava- gant expressions. The priest is not only the emissary and interpreter, but the very repre- PRIESTLEY. 1927 PRINCE. sentative, of God on earth ; and above his office none liigher can be imagined, either with respect to dignity or to power. Admission to that office can be had only through a solemn consecration, sacramentuiH ordinis, which can be given only by a bishop, but which imparts to the ordained an indestructible spiritual character, by virtue of which he can discharge his lofty spiritual func- tions. The conditions of admission are baptism, male sex, unmarried state, twenty-five years' age, etc. ; excluded are slaves, thos'e who were born illegitimately, those who have spilt blood, those who sufPer from some conspicuous bodily defect, etc. This view of the priesthood the Roman-Catholic Church retained in spite of the objections of the Protestant churches, and she still retains it almost without the least modifica- tion. [See Eng. trans. Catechism of ike Council of Trent, Bait., pp. 220 sqq.] haitck. PRIESTLEY, Josepfi, LL.D., F.R.S., b. at Field- head, Yorlishire, March 18, 1703 ; d. at Xorthum- berlahd, Penn., Feb. 6, 1804. He was graduated at the dissenting academy at Daventry, and was successively Independent minister at Needham Market, Suffolk (1755), and at JSTantwich, Cheshire (1758) ; professor of belles-lettres at Warrington dissenting academy (1761) ; minister at ^lill-Hill Chapel, Leeds; librarian and companion to tlie Earl of Shelburne (1773) ; minister at Birming- ham (1780) and at Hackney (1791) ; sailed for America (April 7, 1794), and lived the rest of liis days on his son's farm. His great reputation rests upon his discoveries in chemistry and physics, par- ticularly the discovery of oxygen gas, indeed, of almost all gases. But he is mentioned here because he was a vigorous champion of Unitarian senti- ments, although ill fitted by temper and study for a religious champion. His principal theological work is A History of the Corruptions of Christianity, Birmingham, 1782,2 vols., newed., London, 1871. As among these "corruptions " he put the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity, his book excited a great commotion. He also wrote A History of the Early Opinions concerning Jesus Christ, compiled from Original Writers, proving that the Christian Church was at first Unitarian, Birmingham, 1786, 4 vols.; Notes on all the Books of Scripture, for the Use of the Pulpit and Private Families, Northumberland (Penn.), 1803, 4 vols. By his advocacy of the " lib- eral side in politics, no less than in religion, he made himself so obnoxious at Birmingham, that his house was entered and sacked by a mob on July 14, 1791, while some friends were celebrat- ing the destruction of the Bastille. For this af- front he received £2,502 damages. A statue of him was placed in 1860 in the mu- seum of Oxford University ; and another was un- veiled at Birmingham, Eng., Aug. 1, 1874; while on the same day, the American chemists cele- brated at Korthumberland, Penn., the centennial of his discovery of oxygen. His bibliography, compiled in 1876, and placed in the Library of Congress, comprises more than three hundred publications of various sizes, and on numerous subjects. The most of his laboratory was in 1883 given over to the Smithsonian Institute, Wash- ington, D.C. For his biography, see Memoirs of Br. Joseph Priestley, to the Year 1795, written hy Himself; with a Continuation to the Time of his Decease, by his Son, London, 1806-07, 2 vols. PRIMACY, PRIMATE. The hierarchical or- ganization followed the political division of the Roman Empire ; but in- course of time the titles of the superior ecclesiastics were clianged. In the Orient, tlie patriarch stood at the head of the whole organization, and under him the eparclis in the provinces, and the exarchs in the dioceses. In the Occident, the episcopus primce sedis bore the title of primas, which meant the same as metro- politan, or archbishop. The more or less promi- nent position of a bishop depended generally on the importance of the location, or — as in Pontus, Africa, and Spain — on the date of the ordination. The Bishop of Carthage, however, occupied a peculiar position, somewhat similar to that of an Oriental patriarch. He had the right of super- vision over all the African provinces ; he convened the general synods of Africa, and presided over them ; - no bishop could be elected without his knowledge ; and, in case of a disputed election, he made the decision, etc. But he had no peculiar title : he was simply styled primas, or senex. In course of time, however, the title of primas, origi- nally given to all metropolitans, was superseded by that of archiepiscopus, and retained only by the vicars of the Pope. Their rights — defined partly by older canons, partly by custom — con- sisted in confirming the bishops and archbishops elected, convening national synods, and presiding over them, receiving appeals, superintending the districts, and crowning the kings. Gradually, however, their rights were absorbed by the Pope, and their position became in reality only one of honor. The primacy of Spain was Toledo; of France, Bourges and Lyons (for Rheims and jffar- bonne the primacy was a mere title) ; of Italy, Pisa : of Hungary, Grau ; of Bohemia, Prague ; of Poland, Gnesen ; of Denmark, Lund ; of Eng- land, Canterbury; of Scotland, St. Andrews; of Ireland, Armagh ; of Germany, the three ecclesi- astical electorates, and Magdeburg and Salzburg. In Protestant countries the title has been retained in England, where the Archbishop of Canterbury is Primate of all England, and the Archbishop of York, Primate of England; and in Sweden, where the Archbishop of Lund is still styled Primate of Sweden. See J. F. Mager : Diss, de primatibus, Leipzig, 3d ed., 1741 ; Damianus Molitor : De primatibus, Gbttingen, 1806. H. F. JACOBSEN. PRIMICERIUS (from jjrimus, "first," and cera, " wax "), he who has his name inscribed as the first on the waxed tablet; the head of any body of officials, in contradistinction to the secundocerius, tertiocerius, etc. At the papal court, organized, to some extent, on the model of the Byzantine court, there were several officers wlio bore the title of primicerius. Most frequently, however, it was ap- plied to the head of the lower clergy, the officer ranking immediately after the archpresbyter and archdeacon, and fulfilling the duties of the jiros- ceptur, or scholasticus, or prcecentor. PRIMITIVE METHODIST CONNECTION. See Methodism. PRINCE, Thomas, CongTegationalist ; b. at Sandwich, Mass., May 15, 1687 ; d. in Boston, Oct. 22, 1758. He was gi-aduated at Harvard College, 1707 ; visited Barbadoes and Madeira ; preached for several years at Combs and other places in England ; returned to Boston, July 20, 1717, and on Oct. 1, 1718 was ordained colleague- PRINCETON. 1928 PRINCETON. pastor of the Rev. Dr. Joseph Sewall, Old South Church, Boston. His memory rests upon his Clwonological history of New England in the form of annals . . . with an Introduction containing a brief epitome . . . of ecents abroad from the Crea- tion, Boston, vol. i., 1736; Nos. 1, 2, 3 (66 pp. in all) of vol. ii., 1755. The history proper begins with 1602. He intended to bring it down to 1730 : but the strange lack pf encouragement by the public probably disheartened him; so that almost twenty years elapsed after the appearance of the first volume, ere he began the second, and, his death coming soon after, he brought the histoi'y down no later than Aug. 5, 1633 ; and as, during the Revolutionary war, many of his manuscripts were destroyed, a large part of his invaluable collection (made during fifty years) of, facts respecting the early history of the country has perished. His History was republished (ed. by Nathan TIale), Boston, 1826, and again (ed. by S. G. Drake), Bos- ton, 1852, and portions in fifth edition of Morton's New-England Memorial, Boston, 1855. Besides this, he wrote An account of the Earthquakes of New England (1755), New England Psalm book reoised and improved (1758), and other works. His library was bequeathed to the Old South Church, and by it deposited in the Public Library, Boston, 1866, of which a catalogue has been pub- lished. See Sprague : Annals of the American Pulpit, vol. i. 304. His son Thomas (b. 1722; d. 1748) edited the earliest American periodical. The Christian his- tory, containing accounts of the revival and propa- gation of •religion in Great Britain and America for 'l74S, Boston, 1744-45, 2 vols. It was published weekly. PRINCETON, the Village, its Institutions, Theology, and Literature. I. The Bouough of Princeton is situated almost midway between Philadelphia and New York, on the old Indian path between the fords of the Raritan and the Delaware, near its inter- section with the line dividing the provinces of East and West Jersey, two hundred and twenty- one feet above the sea, on the first foot-hills, which, rising above the sandy plains of the south, roll on northward and westward to the Allegheny Mountains. The first settlements were made in 1694, and generally called) after the neighboring rivulet, "Stony Brook." It was called Princeton in 1724. The battle of Princeton, Jan. 3, 1777, was a turning-point in the Revolution. Two eminent citizens of Princeton, Richard Stockton and John Witherspoon, signed the Declaration of Independence. On the 18th of July, 1776, the first Legislature of New Jersey, under the Consti- tution, met in Princeton, and organized the new State government ; and Princeton continued the capital until the latter part of 1778. During four months, from June 20 to Nov. 4, 1783, the Ameri- can Congress held its sessions in the librai'y-room of the college ; and Washington, for some time in attendance, issued his farewell orders to the Revo- lutionary armies from the house of Judge Berrien on Rocky Hill. The village itself, numbering three thousand inhabitants, is distinguished only by its fine trees and elevated situation ; but in recent times the beautiful and spacious buildings erected by munificent patrons for the uses of the college and the theological seminary are, upon the whole, unrivalled in America. In this ]-espect the village is admitted to approach more nearly than any other the ideal of an English university town. The cemetery has grown to be one of the most celebrated in the land ; for here lie a long line of illustrious citizens, presidents, and pro- fessors, including the Bayards and Stocktons of New Jersey, Edwards, Davies, and Witherspoon, of the college, and the Alexanders, Miller, and Hodge, etc., of the seminary. II. Its Institutions. — (1) Princeton College (corporate name. College of New Jersey, and from its oldest main building, called Nassau Hall) was founded by members of the synod of New York (New Light), for the purpose of raising a godly • ministry for the Pi-esbyterian Church, and for uniting religion and science in the higher edu- cation. The most active founders were JNIessrs. Dickinson, Pierson, Pemberton, and Burr, residing in East Jersey. The Rev. Gilbert Tehnent and Samuel Blair, leading members of the presby- teries of New Brunswick and New Castle, and representatives of the Log College, Neshaniiny, Penn., cordially co-operated with the originators of the college from the date of the second charter. The first charter was given by acting Governor Hamilton, in 1746; and the second and permanent charter was given by the great civil patron of the college. Governor Belcher, in 1748. Jonathan Dickinson was chosen first president, May, 1747 ; and the college opened, in the fourth week of May following, in Elizabethtown, where President Dickinson died on the 7th of October. Rev. Aaron Burr was immediately appointed president ; and the college moved to Newark, and the first Com- mencement was held Nov. 9, 1748. In the fall of 1756, Nassau Hall arid the president's house being- finished, the college was i-emoved to Princeton. It is governed by a board of trustees, of which the governor of the State is ex officio president, consisting of twenty-seven persons, including the president of the collegfe, twelve of whom are re- quired by law to be citizens of New Jersey, and one-half of whom are required by uniform custom to be ministers of the gospel. The citizejis of Princeton and other friends of the college raised its first funds in small sums. The Rev. Messrs. Tennent and Davies collected money for it in Great Britain. Until recently it has been m9,inly dependent on tuition-fees. In the last fifteen years its grounds, buildings, museums, library, appara- tus, curriculum, and professorships, including a school of science, have been erected, extended, and endowed on a noble scale, by the munificent gifts of such patrons as James Lenox, John C. Green, John I. Blair, William Libbey, Henry G. Marquand, Robert and Alexander Stuart, N. N. Ilalsted, and others. Following Harvard, Yale, and William and J\Iai-y, Princeton College is the fourth in age, and in rank not far behind the first of American colleges. Its presidents have been Jonathan Dickinson, Aaron Burr, Jonathan Edwards, Samuel Davies, Samuel Finley, John Witherspoon, Samuel Stanhope Smith, Ashbel Green, .James Carnahan, .John Maclean, and James McCosh. From the first, until the found- ing of the theological seminary, the college always, in its president or another, provided a professor of theology. It has sent out 5,500 graduates, 1,087 ministers of the gospel, 1 President and PRINCETON. 1929 PRINCETON. 2 Vice-Presidents of the United States, 310 high magistrates, 187 presidents and professors of col- leges and theological seminaries, of whom 32 have heen in the service of their alma mater. It pos- sesses one of the roost rare and extensive paleonto- logical museums in the country, and its united libraries amount to about 75,00U. (2) Princeton Theological Seminai-i/. — After the first settlement of the various Christian de- nominations in the United States, their candi- dates for the ministry received their theological education from the more learned pastors. The president, or other theological professor in Piince- ton College, taught theological classes from the first, until the commencement of the Presbyterian Theological Seminary in the same place. The presidents of Yale College began to hold theo- logical classes in 1754 : its theological seminary as a distinct department was added in 1822. The Associate Synod founded the first American Prot- estant theological school in Beaver County, Penn., in 17S4, under the Rev. John Anderson, D.D. The Associate Reformed Seminaiy, under Dr. John M. Mason, in the city of Xew York, was commenced in 1804 ; Andover, in 1808 ; the Dutch Reformed, in New Brunswick, N.J., by Dr. John H. Livingston, in 1810. Princeton Theological Seminary was founded by the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church, under Dr. Archibald Alexander, in 1812. He continued in office until his death, in 1851. Its principal founders were Rev. Drs. Green, Woodhull, llomeyn, !Miller, Arch- ibald Alexander, James Richards, Amzi Arm- strong, etc. Dr. Samuel Miller of New- York City was elected second professor in 1813 (d. 1850). The Rev. Charles Hodge was made professor in 1822 (d. 1878). Rev. Joseph Addison Alexander, D.D., was made instructor in 1833, and professor in 1835 (d. 1860). Rev. John Breckinridge, D.D., became professor in 1836, resigned in 1838. Rev. James Waddel Alexander, D.D., became profess- or in 1849, and resigned in 1851. The present faculty consists of Rev. W. H. Green, D.D. (be- came professor in 1851), Rev. A. T. M'GiU, D.D., in 1854, and retired Emeritus in 1883, Rev. C. W. Hodge, D.D., in 1860, Rev. James C. Moffatt, D.D., in 1861, Rev. Charles A. Aiken, D.D., in 1871, Rev. A. A. Hodge, D.D., in 1877, Rev. Francis L. Patton, D.D., in 1880, Rev. William M. Paxton, D.D., in 1883. The whole number of students, from the beginning to the spring of 1882, has been 3,464. These have graduated from 150 different colleges: 204 have been for- eign missionaries. The chief benefactors of the seminary have been Robert and James Lenox, Robert L. and Alexander Stuart, John C. Green, George Brown, and Levi P. Stone, etc. These have endowed this eldest of Presb^-terian semina- ries with admirable grounds, dormitories, chapel, library-biiildings and library, lecture-rooms, pro- fessors' houses, scholarship and other funds. The library contains about 40,000 volumes. III. Theology. — The philosophy taught in Princeton from the first, by Jonathan Edwards, Witherspoon, James McCosh, and L. H. Atwater, has been that known as the "Scotch School." The representative theologians of Princeton have been Jonathan Edwards, John Witherspoon, Ar- chibald Alexander, and Charles Hodge. These have all been conservative Calvinists of the Old School, of the special t3-pe represented by the Westminster Standards. This was true equally of the founders of the seminary, — Ashbel Green, James Richards, and others. The term " Princeton Theology " originated in New England about 1801 or 1882, and was applied to the general characteristics of that system ad- vocated by the Biblical Repertory and Princeton Mevieic in its controversies with the disciples of Drs. Hopkins, Emmons, Finney, and Taylor, the leaders of various phases of the '-New-England School." Of this "Princeton Theology" the char- acteristic was close and persistent adherence to the type of Calvinism taught in the Westminster Standards as these are interpreted in the light of the classical literature of the Swiss and Dutch and English Puritan theologians, who wrote after the date of the synod of Dort, especially Francis Tur- retin of Geneva, and John Owen of England. The phrases " Princeton Party " and " The Princeton Gentlemen " were applied to the party represented by the Biblical Repertory during the controversies which terminated in the disruption of the Pres- byterian Church in 1838. This " party " was in perfect doctrinal agreement with the Old- School party in that struggle, biit hesitated to follow its leaders in some of their more extreme and de- batable methods of reform, such as the " Act and Testimony" of 1834, etc. IV. Lit. — The sources of information on the subjects embraced in this article are The History of the College of New Jersey, from its Origin in 17Jf6 to Commencement of 1854, ^U John ]Maclean, tenth president of the college, Phila., 1877, 2 vols., J. B. Lippincott & Co. ; The History of Princeton and its Institutions, by John Hageman, Phila., 1879, 2 vols., J. B. Lippincott & Co. ; Princeton College during the Eighteenth Century, by Rev. Sajiuel D. Alexaxdek, D.D., 1872 ; The Princeton Book, a Series of Sketches pertaining to the History, etc., of the College and Theological Seminary, illus. with views and portraits, Boston, 1879, 4to, Houghton, Osgood, & Co. ; A Brief History of the Theological Seminary, pamphlet, by Dr. Samuel Miller, Princeton, 1838; The General Catalogue of the Col- lege of New Jersey, by Professor H. C. Cameron, D.D., Princeton, 1882; The General Catalogue of the Princeton Theological Seminary, by the Rev. William E. Schenck, D.D., Princeton, 1882, 8vo, 330 pp. ; the Lives of Drs. Archibald and Joseph Addisbn Alexander, of Drs. Samuel Miller, Ashbel Green, and Charles Hodge. The Biblical Repertory and Princeton Reriew, from 1825 to 1872, Dr. Charles Hodge editor-in-chief, represents the " Princeton school " by discussions on all topics, biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical. Dr. Sam- uel Miller contributed between 1830 and 1842 twenty-five articles ; Dr. Archibald Alexander, in all, seventy-seven articles; Dr. Joseph Addison Alexander, ninety-three ; Dr. James W. Alexander, one hundred; Dr. Lyman H. Atwater, sixty-six; and Dr. Charles Hodge, a hundred and forty-two. ;\lr. Hageman, in his History of Princeton, etc., has enumerated seventy authors, citizens of Prince- ton, principally officers of the college and semi- nary. These have issued about four hundred and thirty distinct volumes, besides a larger number of printed essays, sermons, orations, not yet col- lected. Not counting the works of the immortal Edwards, the principal permanent works which PRIOR. 1930 PRISCILLIANISTS. have rendered Princeton famous are The Works of the Rev. John Wilherspoon, D.D., LL.D., with Life of the Author in a Sermon, by Rev. Dr. John RoDGERS of New- York City, Philadelphia, 1800, 3 vols., W. W. Woodman ; also the various Works, as yet uneolleoted, and too numerous to mention here, of Professor Joseph Henry, LL.D., of the Smithsonian Institute, Washington, D.C. ; Pi'o- fessor Arnold Gcyot, Ph.D., LL.D. ; President James McCosh, D.D., LL.D. ; Professor Sam- uel Miller, D.D., LL.D. ; Drs. Archibald, James W., and Joseph Addison Alexander; and of Dr. Charles Hodge, especially his Sys- tematic Theology, New York, 1872, 3 vols. 8vo, Charles Scribner & Co. A. A. HODGE. PRIOR and PRIORESS are, as titles of monas- tic officials, of comparatively late date, — from the time of Pope Celestine V. towards the end of the thirteenth century. With respect to priors, a dis- tinction must be noticed between a prior daustralis and a prior conuentualis. The former was simply a subordinate officer of the abbot, appointed by him, and in certain cases acting as his substitute ; while the latter was himself the head of a mon- astery, and exercising the same authority as an abbot. PRISCILLIANISTS, so called from their found- er, Priscillian, were a religious sect which flour- ished in Spain and Gaul from the fourth to the sixth century, but was declared heretical, and finally put down, by the Catholic Church. Among its peculiar tenets the following were the most conspicuous. Thei'e is only one God, and the Trinity is only a triple form of revelation ; but from God emanate spirits, which, however, gradu- ally deviate more and more from the divine per- fection. The world was created by such a spirit, but by no means by a perfect one ; and the con- dition of the world soon became so much the worse as it fell under the influence of the Devil. The Devil is not a fallen angel, not even a crea- ture of God. He developed spontaneously from chaos and darkness, and is the principle and sub- stance of evil. From him come plagues, diseases, sufferings, etc. The human body is his handi- work. The human soul, on the contrai-y, ema- nates from God; and, to save it from the Devil, Christ appeared on earth. But Christ was not a real man, and not actually born by Mary. He only assumed human flesh, without also assuming a human soul ; and he was altogether exempted from the human process of growth and develop- ment. From these doctrinal tenets the Priscil- lianists derived a very austere asceticism. They abstained altogether from flesh; they took great care not to put any children into the world, etc. Externally they maintained connection with the church, and professed to be good Catholics, only that they fasted on Sundays and on Christmas Day, and avoided swallowing the elements in the Lord's Supper. But secretly they celebrated divine seiTice in their own manner, allowing women to officiate, and opening the doors both for magic and licentiousness. They also kept their doctrines secret, and for that purpose they considered both lying and perjury admissible. They had a literature. Besides Priscillian, their founder, Latronianus, Tiberianus, and Dictinnius are mentioned among them as authors. But that literature has altogether perished. The sect was first discovered in Spain in 379. Priscillian, a rich and gifted man, of a distin- guished family, devoted himself from early youth to philosophical and theological studies, disdain- ing all vain and frivolous enjoyments. Like many other gifted men of his time, he fell into the hands of the Manichseans. But his ambition did not allow him to become a mere adept of another sect. He aspired to form a sect himself. Mixing up various elements of Gnosticism and Manichasism with Christianity, he developed a system of his own, and succeeded in having it adopted, not only by a number of women, but even by two bishops, Justantius and Salvianus. The miserable condition of Catholic Christianity, and the degeneration, spiritual and moral, of the hierarchy, contributed much to his success, not to speak of the general longing after the hidden truth, which the Manichsean propaganda had awakened far and wide in the congregations. Bishop Hyginus of Cordova was the first to take notice of the spreading heresy. But he was a man of Christian feeling and of discrimination : he wished to convert the heretics. Quite other- wise with Bishop Idacius of Emerida, and Bishop Ithacius of Sosserba : they wanted to suppress the heresy. As the condemnation and excommu- nication launched against the Priscillianists by the synod of Saragossa (380) proved of no avail, the two bishops appealed to the emperor, Gratia- nus ; and he actually issued an edict threatening the heretics with banishment from the country. Meanwhile, Priscillian, who had become Bishop of Avila, repaired to Italy, and exerted himself to win Ambrose of Milan, and Damasus of Rome, for his cause. In that he failed, but by bribery he succeeded in having the imperial edict can- celled. Shortly after, however, Gratianus was assassinated ; and a new appeal was made by the Catholic bishops to his successor, Maximus. In spite of the protest of Bishop Martin of Tours, who declared it a crime for the secular power to interfere in matters purely religious, Maximus condemned Priscillian to death, as a heretic ; and he was decapitated at Treves in 385. It was the first time that a Christian was punished with death on account of heresy, and all Christendom felt the shock. The death of the leader, however, was not the end of the movement. The military force which Maximus sent against the Priscillianists was re- called at the instance of Bishop Martin of Tours ; and, in spite of the condemnation of the synod of Toledo (in 400), the sect spread freely. The con- fusion became still worse when the Arian Visi- goths broke into the country. They hated the Catholics, and they were too rude to really under- stand the heretics. At that period Orosius wrote against the Priscillianists, also Augustine and Leo the Great. But every thing proved in vain until King Theodemir abandoned Arianism, and joined the Catholic Church ; then the synod of Braga (563) succeeded in employing really effec- tive measures against the heretics, and the sect soon disappeared. See the pertinent writings of Orosius, Augustine, Jerome, Leo the Great, and Sulpicius Severus, also S. van Fries : Diss, de Prise, Utrecht, 1745, and Ludkert: De hmr. Prise, Copenliagen, 1840. albrecht vogel. PROBABILISM. 1931 PROBATION. PROBABILISM, in morals, denotes a view, ac- cording to which it is not necessary that the will shall be determined by a sure conviction of truth : it is sufficient to act upon a probable opinion of truth. Such a view was first developed by the Greek Sophists, and afterwards by the Jewish Talmudists. In the Christian Church the first traces of it are found in the writings of certain Greek Fathei-s, after Chrysostom, who admitted a certain " economy," or fraus pia (see Gass : Ge- schichle d. chr. Ethik, i. 231), and in the mediseval penitentials, which, with the formula nihil meet (" it does not hurt "), opened up a wide field to moral indifference. Well prepared by the casuists and the Dominican theologians of the later middle ages, the view was finally brought into system by the Jesuit moralists. Gabriel A'asquez was the first to adopt it, about 1598 : with Escobar, who died 1633, it reached its full bloom. He discussed, for instance, the question whether it is sufficient to love God once in one's life (Vasquez), or thrice (Henriquez), or once every three years (Coninch), or once every year (Hurtado de Mendoza). An opinio probabiUs, that is, the opinion of some doctor gravis et probus, is quoted for each proposition. Personally he adopts the view of Henriquez, but he declares that the confessor is morally bound to give absolution on any of these terms. In 1620 the Sorbonne protested against the doctrine of Probabilisra. In 1656 the Lettres provinciales of Pascal made the view actually odious to all serious people. In 1665 Alexander VII. felt compelled to disavow a number of the propositions of the Probabilists, and in 1679 Innocent XI. expressed himself still more plainly on the subject. jSTever- theless, when, in 1691, the general of the Jesuits, Tyrso Gonzalez, published his Anti-probabilist Fundamenta theologicB morcdh, he raised such a storm in the society, that he barely escaped deposi- tion, and the Jesuist moralists continued to teach their old doctrines under various modifications; as Probabilism pure and simple, which asserts that it is by no means necessary to prefer a more to a less probable opinion ; or JEquiprobabilism, which declares fliere can be no choice between two opin- ions unless they are equally probable ; or Proba- biliorism, which demands that the more probable opinion shall always be chosen, etc. See Sam. Rachel: Examen probabililatis Jesuiticce, Helrast., 1664 ; COTTA : De probabililale morali, Jena, 1728 ; CoNCiNA : Storia del probabil. e rigorismo, Lucca, 1748, 2 vols. ; Joh. Hcber : Der Jesiiitenorden, Berlin, 1873, pp. 284 sqq. zockler. PROBATION, Future, the doctrine taught by some modern German divines, that the offers of the gospel will be made to men in the next life who never had a probation in the present life. It must be distinguished from purgatory, where souls are supposed to undergo purification through penal suffering; from the doctrine, that, in the in- intermediate state, the process of sanctification, incomplete at death, is carried on to perfection ; and from Universalism in all its forms. How long the period of post mortem probation lasts is not asserted ; though, if it exist at all, there is no rea- son why it should terminate before the judgment. The most natural mode of conceiving of it is to sup- pose that the conditions of the sinner as to motive and will, and of the gospel as to the requirements of faith and repentance, are carried over into the intermediate state, covering the period between death and the resurrection. Some hold that all who die unregenerate will have the opportunity in the next life of repenting, and believing in Christ ; others (and this is the more common view) limit future probation to the heathen, to infants dying in infancy, and all other persons to \\hom the gospel had not been presented in this life. In support of one or the other, or both, of these views, it is urged : — 1. That it is wrong to make a sharp antithesis between the embodied and the disembodied con- dition of the soul ; that, while death is a crisis, we have no right to regard it as the terminus of all gracious influence and opportunity. In reply to this, however, it should be said that the contrast between the present and the future life is made' expressly, or implied, in the New Testament. " It is appointed unto men once to die, but after death the judgment " (Heb. ix. 27). 2. T"3.t the Bible condemns no one to whom the gospel has not been brought home, and that in the case of heathen who have not heard the gospel, and of infants dying in infancy, it is es- sential to any fair treatment of them, that offers of the gospel be made to them after death. To this it is replied, that the heathen are not con- demned because they rejected Christ, but because they sin — "As many as have sinned without law shall also perish without law ; " and that it is not held that infants dying in infancy are condemned. It is true that the Bible conditions salvation by belief, and that iirfants cannot believe ; but it is far more rational to suppose that the condition of faith applies only to those who were capable of being outwardly called than to suppose that in- fants dying in infancy are to receive a probation in the next world, and an opportunity to repent, believe, and embrace the gospel. 3. That Christ went and preached to the spir- its in prison (1 Pet. iii. 19). To this argument it is enough to reply that this is a very difficult passage, and that it is not certain whether the spirits were preached to in prison, or whethei- they were preached to in the days of Noah, and for their disobedience had been in prison ever since ; that, supposing that Christ went to Hades with a proclamation to the antediluvians, we are not told what it was — it may or may not have been the gospel ; and that although such overtures were made to the antediluvians, and at a particu- lar crisis in the economy of grace, it does not follow that they should be continued ever after. 4. That other passages of Scripture furnish a basis for the belief in future probation. The strongest of these are Matt. xii. 32, and 1 Pet. iv. 6. From the first it is argued, and the high authority of Augustine is quoted in support of the exegesis, that the non-forgiveness of sins against the Holy Ghost in the next world implies the possible forgiveness of all other sins : so Lange, Olshausen, and others. But there is no reason to believe that these words meant more than that blasphemy against the Holy Ghost can never be forgiven, as, indeed, is taught in so many words in Mark iii. 29. In regard to the second pas- sage, there is the difficulty, referred to above, of knowing whether the text means to teach that the gospel was preached to men while they were in the state of the dead, or whether, having been PROCESSION. 1932 PROCOPIUS. preached unto, those here spoken of have since then been dead. It must be evident there is very slight, if there is any, exegetical support for the hypotliesis of a probation in the future state. The argument in favor of it rests mainly upon a priori and specula- tive grounds, founded, partly in sentiment, and partly also in wrong conceptions regarding the covenant of grace. For, in reply to those who advocate the theory, it may be urged : — 1. While it may be properly said that no one under moral government can be justly condemned who has not had a fair opportunity, this cannot be urged in supporting a future probation. If the government of God were conducted upon the prin- ciple of individualism, something might be said in favor of a future probation for the heathen. But the Bible emphasizes the race-unity of man- kind. It teaches the representative responsibility of Adam, and accordingly that the race had its probation in him. Condemnation, therefore, does not follow rejection of the gospel, though that re- jection may enhance it. The gospel finds men in a state of condemnation ; and, though acceptance of Christ may be necessary to salvation, rejection of him is not the condition of condemnation. 2. There is no adequate explanation of the apostle's Epistle to the Romans, if the heathen can be justly condemned only after they have rejected Christ. Paul's argument is unequivo- cally to the effect that the light of conscience is sufficient to condemn them. 3. The Scriptures not only distinctly say, " After death, the judgment," but they teach that we are to " stand before the judgment-seat of Christ, that every one may receive the things done in his body." The references to the future life contained in the New Testament imply that this life is in antithe- .sis to the life to come, as to working, and receiving reward, as to sowing and reaping, as to running, and reaching the goal. The sins that bar entrance into heaven are sins that presuppose the present conditions of our earthly life. Sodom and Go- morrah are represented as suffering the vengeance of eternal Are. Christ says, " Whosoever shall be ashamed of me and my words in this adulterous and sinful generation, of him also shall the Son of man be ashamed when he cometh in the glory of his Father with all his holy angels." These considerations should be enough to show how perilous it is to neglect salvation in this world in the hope of having opportunities of repentance in the world to come, and how mistakenly the Church would be acting if the hope (for which the Bible gives no warrant) that the heathen are to have a probation after death should lead her to relax her effort to evangelize the world. Lit. — ScHAFF : Com. (Lange) on Malt. xii. 32 ; Die Sunde wider den heil. Geist; Oostekzee : Chris- tian Dogmatics ; Dorner : System of Christian Doc- trine ; CuAVEN : Excursus on Hades (Lange's Com. on Rev.); Martensen : Christian Dogmatics ; Far- RAR : Eternal Hope. FEAifCIS L. rATTOK. PROCESSION OF THE HOLY GHOST. See FiLIOQUE. PROCESSIONS were frequently used both by the Greeks and the Romans ; and a triumphal pro- cession from the Campus Marlins to the Capitol, in the days of the Roman Republic, was, with its songs, its images, its flowers, and its incense, not so very different from a Palm-Sunday procession of to-day in a Roman-Catholic country. Proces- sions — in the proper sense of the word, for pro- cessio and procedere meant in early days simply " going to church " — are not mentioned, how- ever, in the history of the Christian Church until the fourth centm-y. In Constantinople, where the Arians were not allowed to worship within the walls, they walked morning and evening, in long processions through the streets, out to their meet- ing-places outside the walls ; and as those proces- sions, at which hymns were sung made a great impression on people, and threatened to seduce the Catholics, Chrysostom instituted similar pro- cessions, and arranged them with considerable pomp. A notice of Ambrose (Epist. 40, ad Theo- dosium) shows that processions were in use in the West at the same time, at least, among the monks. During the middle ages the Roman- Catholic Church developed this feature of ceremo- nial life with great magnificence ; and minutely regulated processions became parts of her cele- brations, as, for instance, of the Corpus Christi Festival. Since the Reformation, however, pro- cessions have lost much of their significance, not only in Protestant countries, but also in countries in which Protestants and Roman Catholics live together. Cf. art. Processionen, in Wetzer u. Welte, viii. 80.3-809. PROCLUS. See Xeo-Platonism. PROCOPIUS OF C/ESAREA, b. at C^sarea in Palestina ; studied law at Berytus, and accom- panied Belisarius as legal adviser on his campaign in Persia in 526 ; visited Africa, 533-536, and Italy, 536-539; and settled in 542 in Constantinople, where he was made prefect in 562. The date of his death is not known. He wrote a work on the wars of Justinian, another on his public buildings, and a third, which was not published until after his death, and forms a kind of supplement to the first. They have considerable interest to the church historian. The best edition of them is that by Dindorf, Bonn, 1833-38, 3 vols. PROCOPIUS OF GAZA lived in Constanti- nople during the reign of Justin I. (518-^527), and compiled from the works of the Fathers commen- taries on the Octateuch (ed. C. Clauser, Zurich, 1555), on Isaiah (ed. J. Curterius, Paris, 1580), and on Kings and Chronicles (ed. I. Meursius, Lyons, 1620), thus opening the long seiies of catena- writers. PROCOPIUS (surnamed The Great, to distin- guish him from contemporaries of the same name) was a Bohemian priest, who on the death of Zizka, in 1424, succeeded him as leader of the Hussite army. Procopius was sprung from the lower nobility, and had been a follower of Hus. As a priest he never bore arms ; but he learned warfare under Zizka, and conducted campaigns with consummate skill. He was more of a states- man than Zizka, and his policy was to terrify Europe into peace with Bohemia. He wished for peace, but an honorable and enduring peace. In 1426 he invaded Saxony, and defeated the Ger- mans at Aussig. In 142'r he turned to ignomini- ous flight, at Tachau, a vast host of Crusaders. In 14;U he still moi-e ignominiously routed the forces of Germany at Tauss. These victories of Procopius rendered inevitable the assembling of the Council of Basel, which was the only hope of PRODICIANS. 1933 PROPAGANDA. Evirope for the settlement of the Bohemian ques- tion, which could not be settled by the sword. With the council, Procopius was willing to nego- tiate for an honorable peape. In January, 1433, Pi-ocopius and fourteen other Bohemian leaders came to Basel to confer with the council. The disputation which ensued contains the most com- plete statement of the Hussite views. Procopius respected Cardinal Cesarini, the president of the council ; and the conference was conducted with moderation and good feeling on both sides. When the conference was over, envoys were sent by the council to a diet in Prague to gauge the feeling of Bohemia. Bohemia, anxious to present a united front to the council, strove to reduce the town of Pilsen, which still held by Catholi- cism. The siege did not succeed, and a mutiny against Procopius arose in the army. The proud spirit of Procopius was broken; and he retired from the management of affairs in September, 1433. Soon after this, the Bohemian Diet accepted the Compacts as a basis of negotiation with the coimcil. When once the idea of peace prevailed in Bohemia, it spread rapidly; and a party in favor of the restoration of Sigismund as king of Bohemia began to form. The barons of Bohemia and JMoravia formed a royalist league, and Proco- pius roused himself to oppose them. In Alay, 1434, the barons' army met the Taborites, mider Procopius, at Lipan. After a desperate fight, Procopius was defeated and killed. With him fell the power of the Taborites, and thq moder- ate party was thenceforth predominant in the management of Bohemian affairs. Lit. — The authorities for this period are nu- merous. The chief may be found in HOfler : Geschichtsschreiber der Hussitischen Beioegung, Vi- enna, 1856-66, 3 vols.; Palacky: Urkundliche BeUriif/e zur Gesckichte des HussUenkriegs, con H19 bis 1436, Prag, 1872-73, 2 vols. The conferences with tlie Council of Basel are given by various writers in Monumenla Conc'diorum Generalium Se- culi XV., vol. i., Vienna, 1857. For a careful historyof the period, Palacky: Gesch. von Bohmen, vol. iii., Prag, 1856. majstdell cbjeightost. PRODICIANS, a sect of Antinomian Gnostics, founded by Prodicus in the second centuiy, claimed, as the sons of the most high God, and a royal race, to be bound by no laws. They rejected the sabbath and all external ceremonies as some- thing fit only for those who stood under the sway of the demiurge. As their authorities, they quot- ed some apocryphal writings of Zoroaster. PROFESSIO FIDEI TRIDENTIN/E. See Tki- DENTiNE Profession of Faith.. PROLOCUTOR, chairman of a convocation. (See art.) PRONIER, Cesar Louis, b. at Geneva, Switzer- land, Oct. 19, 1831 ; d. at sea, Nov. 22, 1873. He was in early life in business in the United States, but, returning, studied theology at Geneva and Berlin. In 1863 he was called to the chair of systematic theology in the Free Church theologi- cal seminary, Geneva, as successor to Dr. Gaussen (see art.), and held the position at the time of his death. He was a delegate to the Sixth General Conference of the Evangelical AUiance, held in iSTew-York City, October, 1873; was upon the "Ville du Havre" when she collided with the " Loch Earn," and went down with the ship. This disaster created great sympathy in the United States ; and a large sum was at once raised for the families of the three delegates to the Alliance Conference, — Pronier, Carrasco, and Cook. .See memorial sketch in Evangelical Alliance, New York, 1874, pp. 763-765. PROPAGANDA, The. L Definition-. — The missionary operations of the Roman-Catholic Church were conducted, from the thirteenth cen- tury on, by the different religious orders. The Jesuits were specially active in missionary enter- prises ; and Ignatius Loyola started the idea of establishing colleges for the training of mis- sionaries from the lands where missionary opera- tions were to be carried on. On June 21, 1622, Gregory XV., the first pupil of the Jesuits who reached the papal dignity, founded the Congregaiio de Propaganda Fide (the Society for the Propa- gation of the Faith). This society, as well as the training institute in its palace, and the whole missionary system of the Catholic Church, is called the Propaganda. The congregation of the Propa- ganda includes all the cardinals, and has the entire missionary work of the church under its super- vision. When it undertakes a missionary enter- prise, it confides the new field to the care of some religious order, and sends out missionaries under the charge of an apostolical prefect (prcefeclus apostolicus). As the work advances, the Pope, by reason of his authority as universal bishop, sub- stitutes for the prefect an episcopus in partilnis (provisional bishop), who is also called apostolic vicar, and finally, if the success waiTants it, estab- lishes a bishopric. On account of the heresy of Protestant lands, they are included, with heathen lands, under the head of missionary territory. Pius IX. even went so far as to establish a con- gregation of the Propaganda for the Greek Church (per gli affari di Rite orientale). Protestants, being in the eyes of the Catholic Church heretits, are to be brought into subjection to its discipline. The bishoprics in German}', North America, Eng- land, and Holland, are missionary bishoprics in the sense that their bishops have oversight over the heretical Protestants. The Bishop of Pader- born, in 1864, did not hesitate to call himself " the lawful overshepherd of the Protestants living in his see." The bishops in these lands are in con- stant communication with the Propaganda at Rome. The doctrine promulgated by Benedict XIV., and re-affirmed by Pius VI. in 1791, is held in the Catholic Church, that the heathen are not to be forced into obedience to the Church, but that Protestants who have received baptism are so to be forced (sunt cogendi). The Church calls to its help the civil power to secure this end, and, if it should ever gain the supremacy in Germany or a,ny other Protestant country, will fully carry out this policy. See Mejer : D. Propaganda. Hire Provinzen u. ihr Recht, mit besonderer Riicksicht auf Deutschland, Gottingen, 1852 sq. ; Bullarium Cong, de Propaganda Fide, Rome, 1839 sqq. MEJER. II. Missionary Operations among the Heathen'. Western Africa. — Roman-Catholic missions in Western Africa run back to the mid- dle ages. The Portuguese discoverers who took these regions in the latter half of the fifteenth century planted the Christian Church through the Dominicans and Franciscans who accompanied them. In the kingdom of Congo the fayor of PROPAGANDA. 1934 PROPAGANDA. the king (who became a convert) and the compul- sion of the Inquisition secured for the Christian doctrines a pretty wide diffusion. Tlie principal city gave the name to a bishopric in the early part of the sixteenth century, and gloried in a number of churches and convents. The Jesuits entered in 1547, and for a time revived the mission, which had begun to show signs of decay. But the gradual departure of the Portuguese was accom- ))anied with the decline of Christianity; and when, in the eighteenth century, all commerce of Euro- ])eans with Congo ceased, the land revei'ted to its lieathen condition. Since the recent expedition of Stanley, the Catholics have again, under the protection of the Portuguese flag, entered the old field. An apostolic prefectui'e was established in the French possessions of Senegambia in 1765. The work has been prosecuted with some vigor since 1848, when the congregation of the Most Holy Heart of Mary, established for the conversion of the negroes, took up the work. In the first ten years, 42 out of 75 missionaries became victims to the climate. This prefecture has been divided, and the following four apostolic vicariates estab- lished : 1. Senegambia, with stations at St. Louis, Goree, Dacar, near Cape St. Verde, etc., and in- cluding, in 1878, 10,000 Catholics; 2. Sierra Leone, with 1,000 Catholics, who were won, not from the heathen population, but from Protestant congre- gations ; 3. Uahomey, including the so-called Benin coast; 4. The two Guineas, with Gaboon for its centre, where the zealous and consecrated Father (later Bishop) Bessieux established several insti- tutions, which are said to be the most flourishing on the western coast of Africa. This mission, which he founded in 1849, had 2,000 adherents at his death, in 1876. There is also an apostolic prefecture of Corisco and an apostolic vicariate of Libpria, which, however, for a number of years, has existed only on paper. Southern Africa. — This has been unfruitful ground for Catholic missions till latelj'. The Dutch government and population were very in- imical to them. The apostolic vicariate of the Cape Colony was established in 1847, and was divided nine years later. In 1874 the apostolic prefecture of Central Cape Colony was founded, and in 1852 the vicariate of Natal. More effort has been put forth to gather together the Catholics among the European emigrants than to convert the heathen. A seminary has been founded in Grahamstown for the training of native helpers. From Natal, work is pushed among the Basutos; but it does not appear how many of the 700 con- verts of 1880 had before been rescued from a state of heathenism by the Protestant society of Paris. The diocese of Central Cape Colony numbered, in 1876, 390 adherents. The year previous a sta- tion was established in Namaqualand, where the Rhenish missionary society has been laboring for many years. The most advanced mission-field is that of the Jesuits on the Upper Zambesi. They' began their labors in 1879. Eastern Africa. — Through the discoveries of the Portuguese, Christianity was also planted in this region in Mozambique, Inhambane, etc. In the kingdom of Monomotapa it prevailed for half a century. With the departure of the Portuguese these missions likewise declined. Since 1863, sta- tions under the protection of the Sultan of Zanzi- bar have been maintained on the island and at Bagamoyo, where the congregations of the Holy Spirit and of the Holy Heart of Mary have built up successful educational institutions. Zanzibar constitutes an apostolic prefecture. Catholic Hiis- sions got a foothold in Abyssinia in the seven- teenth century, but were subsequently suppressed. Abyssinia was made an apostolic " vicariate in 1853. Of the results of the mission there are no accessible reports. Central Africa constitutes an apostolic vicari- ate. The Jesuits attempted to push forward into this region in 1848, and occupied Khartoum and Gondokoro. The missions were abandoned on account of the murderous climate, but resumed in 1861 by the Franciscans. This second effort has also failed ; and in 1865 only two missionaries were left at Khartoum, forty (most of them Germans) having succumbed to the climate. The idea of converting Africa by Africans was taken up, and in 1867 an institution was founded near Cairo to train Africans. Another institution, at Verona, trains Europeans for the M'ork. The station at Khartoum was re-enforced in 1872. The Catho- lics, under the direction of the Archbishop of Al- giers, have pressed on to the kingdom of Mtesa on the Victoria Nyanza, where they are seeking to push out the Church Missionary Society, and to Lake Tanganyika. North Africa. — The Franciscans have attemjited to win the Copts in Egypt for the Papal chair. The Jesuits also undertook the work, and by the close of the last century 15,000 had been won. In 1837 the apostolic vicariate of Egypt was established. The archbishopric of Algiers includes the sees of Oran and Constantine-Hippo. There has been some missionary activity ; and different societies have been at work among the natives, but with what results we cannot discover. African Islands. — Madagascar, the most impor- tant for Catholic missions, became the scene of Franciscan labors in 1642. In 1674 the Portu- guese colony of Fort Dauphin was destroyed. In 1832, stimulated by the achievements of the Lon- ' don Missionary Society, the apostolic prefect of Bourbon made a new attempt. In 1844 the Jes- uits undertook the work, and since that time, or, moi-e definitely, since 1868, when French influence began to be felt, have had yearly additions of 1,600 adults and 800 baptized children. These figures seem to be inexact. Tananarive is the headquarters of the mission. Several societies are laboring in Bourbon, Mauritius, and the Sey- chelles. Turning to Asia, we pass over the labors of Catholic missionaries in Syria, Asia Minor, and Persia, where the efforts are directed to make con- verts from the Protestant churches. Of the work among the Mohammedans there is no report. British India. — ■ Early in the sixteenth century we find Franciscans and Dominicans at work at Goa, which in 1534 gave the name to a bishopric. With Francis Xavier, who, accompanied by two other Jesuits, entered Goa in 1542, began a new period, — a period of earnest and fruitfid effort amongst the natives. He displayed a rare devo- tion, labored also in Tinnevelly, and is said to have baptized 10,000 converts in a single mouth. Zealous as Xavier was, he succeeded only in build- ing up a nominal Christianity. He left after a PROPAGANDA. 1935 PROPAGANDA. few years of effort, and was followed by other Jesuits, who in 1565 counted in the Portuguese possessions in India 300,000 Christians. Goa was elevated to an archbishopric in 1557. In 1606, in the hope of reaching the higher castes, the Jesuit Roberto de' Nobili published a holy Veda, in which he accommodated Christianity to the Brahmans. It secured, so it is said, the conversion of 30,000 natives ; but the principle carried out in the book was condemned by the Pope. The Lidian mis- sions subsequently declined with the decay of the Portuguese power. In the present century new life has been infused into them. There are a number of apostolical vicariates ; and the different dioceses are distributed among the Benedictines, Jesuits, and other oi-ders. Missionaries from the Mill-Hill Seminary, near London, have been carry- ing on work since 1S79 in the vicariate of Afghan- istan and Beloochistan. The following table gives the statistics of 1S79, according to the vicariates : — Colombo . . . . . 108,400 Borabay-Puna . 61,000 Jafiia . . . . 67,300 Haiderabad . . . 9,000 Madiir.i . . . . . 169,000 ViBhagapatara . . 10,000 Quilon . . . . . . 87,600 "Western Beugal . . 14,100 Verapoly . . . . . 310,000 Ceuti-al Beugal 1,200 AtaisBiir. . . . 27,000 Eastern Bengal 11,300 Coimbatur . . . 21,000 Patna . ... 9,300 I'ondicheiy . . . . 144,000 Agra ... 14,300 Madr.-is . . . . Hiangalur . . . 84,000 Total .... . 1,432,400 Goa . . . . . 245,000 It is difficult to determine the value of these fig- ures, as all the European Catholics in India, and all the pld and nominal Christians, are included in the table. The Catholic schools of India had only 81,436 pupils in 1868, while the Protestant schools a few years later had 115,735. Farther India. — Malacca was made a bi.shopric in 1557, after Xavier had labored there for two years. The early missions in Burmah accom- plished little. In 1722 it was made an apostolic vicariate. Since 1856 it has been under the con- trol of the Paris jMissionary Seminary. It is now divided into three vicaHates, with 16,000 Catho- lics. The Siam mission was in a flourishing con- dition in the last century. After a period of lapse, it was revived in 1840. Siam now includes two vicariates under the control of the Paris Seminary, with 20,800 Catholics. The missions in Cochin- China and Annam were more numerous in the seventeenth century. Two hundred missionaries suffered martyrdom there, but Christianity per- sisted. Among the heroic Jesuits, Alexander of Rhodes deserves mention. Napoleon was induced, by the persecutions of the Christians, to declare war in 1858. In 1880 the vicariates were credited with the following number of adherents : — Cambodia 10,000 Western Coohin-China, 38,500 Eastern Cochln-Chjoa . 31,500 Northern Cochin-China, 25,200 Southern Tonkin . . . 71,500 "Western Tonkin Middle Tonkin . Eastern Tonkin . . 140,500 . 142,600 . 67,000 Total 526,300 Catholic missions followed the Portuguese to the Philippine Islands in the sixteenth century. Manila gave the name to an archbishopric, and several bishoprics were established. 5,502,000 Catholics are reported for these islands. The total population is 7,451,000. The old missions on Java (1596) were abolished by the Dutch. In the present century Batavia (1842) has been made a vicariate, and is credited "with 23,600 Catholics. 16 — III China. — We pass by the Franciscan mission s^^ under the lead of John of Monte Corvino, which perished in 1370, after an existence of eighty years. The Jesuits resumed the work. Fran- cis Xavier died in 1552 on the threshold of it. Among his successors, Matteo Ricci (1582-1610) deserves special mention. He understood how to win the favor of the official classes, and even of the emperor himself (1601). Practising a cun- ning policy, he allowed the worship of ancestors, and even of Confucius, to be carried on at the side of the worship of Mary, etc. There were perse- cutions; but an imperial decree tolerated the Chris- tian religion, and, at the close of the seventeenth century, it is said there were 300,000 Christians in China. The Dominicans and Franciscans entered China in 1630, and likewise practised a sharp policy of accommodation. The Pope severely condemned the practice, and sent out two legates to Pekin, who were treated with indignity- In 1724 Christianity was forbidden, but the Jesuits persisted. At pres- ent there are 519 priests and 413,000 Catholics in China. Japan. — Seven years after the first Europeans trod the soil of Japan, Francis Xavier landed there (1549). He left the island after three years of labor, which was almost fruitless. His succes- sors secured the favor of some of the feudal lords ; and the number of converts increased to 600,000 after Xobunaga ascended the throne, and insti- tuted a cruel persecution against the Buddhist priests. Augustines, Dominicans, and Francis- cans entered the country. The Inquisition was set in motion. The priests lost the favor of the rulers ; and in 1614 all of them were expelled from the country, and a relentless persecution instituted against the Christians. In 1859 the Catholics entered Japan once again, and were re- joiced to find the relics of their old congregations. The country is divided between the two apostolic vicariates, — Xagasaki, with 20,000 Catholics in 1881, and Tokio. Australia. — A missionary station was estab- lished in 1846, by the Benedictines, among the aborigines. It is at New Nursia, West Austra- lia. Spanish monks instruct about 300 natives in the art of agriculture and different trades. New Zealand, etc.— In 1833 Gregory XYI. organized the apostolic vicariate of Eastern Oce- anica, and three years later that of ^^'estern Oceanica. Bishop Pompallier arrived in New Zealand in 1838, planted stations where Protes- tant missions had borne most fruit, and succeeded in winning 5,000 Maoris in the first twelve years. War deprived the church of these converts, and in 1870 the Bishop of Auckland complained that there was no mission among the Maoris. The missions in New Caledonia, begun in 1843, includ- ed, in 1875, 3,000 baptized persons. The Loyalty Islands, which had been a fruitful field for the London Missionary Society, were forcibly annexed by France in 1864. Catholic missionaries entered the country, preceded by French cannon. The natives have proved remarkably faithful, and in 1876 there were only 2,000 Catholics. The Fiji Islands were entered in 1844, and 7,600 Catholics are ascribed to the islands. How many of these are natives is not stated. The apostolic prefect has his residence on Ovalau. Central Oceanica constitutes an apostolic vica- PROPAGA-NDA. 1936 PROPHETIC OFFICE. riate. Bataillou started a mission on the Island of Uea iu 1830. The wliole population of 4,000 is Catholic. The same is true of the population (15,000 souls) of Futuua. The French flag com- pelled many of the islands to receive the mis- .sioiiai'ies. This was the case with the Tonga I.slands in 165S. But the natives remained true to the Protestant Church. For example, in the northern group there are 6,000 Protestants and only 200 Catholics. On the Samoa Islands, where a mission was started in 1845, there are " about 5,000 converts." The violent occupation of Tahiti by the Catholics at the time stirred the blood of the Protestant world. In 1836 two priests were expelled from the laud; but the French com- pelled the Protestant queen to re-admit them to her dominions, and to pay a heavy indemnity, and forced her in 1842 to accept a French protecto- rate. The people rose in revolt against this for- eign injustice, and could only be put down after two years of resistance. The Protestant mis- sionaries, robbed of tiieir influence, left. The whole population was forced to contribute to the cathedral of Papeiti ; but, notwithstanding these measures, only 500 converts have been made. The return of many to a semi-heathenish life is due to the violent measures of the Catholics, by which the congregations were robbed of their pastors. A small vessel, " The Vatican," plies between Tahiti and the adjoining islands. The Marquesas Islands form a vicariate by them- selves. Catholic missionaries in 1838 planted tliemselves at tlie very station which had been the scene of the hard struggles of a Protestant mission. Under the protectorate of the French flag (1842) earnest efforts ha\'e been made to win the islanders, but with little success. The Hawaiian Islands. — The Catholics suc- ceeded in getting a foothold on this territory of the American Board in 1840. The entire popu- lation had at that time renounced heatheniam. The mission has been successful, and in 1874 there were 24,000 Catholics on the islands. The devotion of Father Damian Deveuster, who has given himself up to the work among the lepers, who occupy an island by themselves, deserves mention. America. — In America we are brought in con- tact with the missions among the Indians and negi'oes. For the United States, see arts. Indi- ans and Roman-Catholic Church in the United States. In the diocese of Quebec, Canada, the Jesuits have been laboring among the Indians since the beginning of the eighteenth centui-y. Perhaps 18,000 Canadian Indians are connected with the Catholic Church. The centre of missionary operations in the diocese of Toronto is the station of St. Bonifacius on the Red River, established in 1820. The centre in the western diocese of St. Albert is St. Anna, established in 1843. The apostolic vicariate of Athabasca be- gan with a station in 1849. In Mexico the cross was planted by the bloody liand of Cortez. The first missionaries were Franciscans, and in the first six years 200,000 heathen were converted. There are now 6,000,- 000 Christian Indians in Mexico ; but their Chris- tianity is for the most part a nominal profession. The case is similar in Central America, where there are 1,200,000 Catholic Indians. In the West Indies the natives died out, and the negroes were baptized without much preparation. In South America the .lesuits carried on extensive missionary operations in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and trained the Indians in the arts of civilized life. With the abolition of the order, the Indians were neglected, and re- turned to a semi-heathen condition. We regret to be obliged to j-enounce the plan of giving a statistical table of Catholic missions. The facts and reports forbid it. The defective- ness of the reports seems, in m^iy cases, to be intentional. The successes are fi-equently exag- gerated, and the failures suppressed ; while the ' achievements on the fields cultivated by Protes- tant societies are magnified and gloried in. .Under these circumstances it is not possible to get a fair conception of the success of Catholic missions. It is a fact, however, that their revival in the middle of this century followed the hard and heroic pioneer work of Protestant missiona- ries. So far as we can judge, the results of Roman-Catholic missions in this period have been, upon the whole, very small, and dispropor- tioiied to the amount of labor .spent. The num- ber of converts made in this century would be very small if the multitudes converted at an ear- lier period were not counted in. Lit. — The most important works on the sub- ject are Annates de la Propagation de la Foi, Lyons (since 1822) ; D. kathol. Missionen, Illustririe Zeii- schrifl, Freiburg-i.-Breisgau ; Hahn : Geschichle der katholischen Missionen, Kbln, 1857-63, 6 vols. ; Kalkar : Den katJiolsk-e Missions-Historie, Copen- hagen, 1862; Dictionnaire des Missions Catholiques, par DjNNKOvscoY, Paris, 1864 (to be used with caution). grundemann. PROPHETIC OFFICE IN THE OLD TESTA- IVlENTi The object and signification of the Old Testament prophecj' is seen from Deut. xviii. 9-22. Before his death Moses appointed a suc- cessor, in the person of Joshua, for the theocracy, and laid down rules for the monarchy, thus indi- cating, that, with his death, the revelation of the divine will was not to be final, but that, lather, new organs of revelation wei-e to be expected. The theooratical people was not to be left without a guide, thus being led to take refuge in lieathen- ish divination. And, as the people was unable to bear the terrors of the appearance of God, Jeho- vah intended to connnunicate his will to tlie people through men, by raising from among the people, from time to time, men like Moses. These messengers and interpreters of Jehovah bear the ordinary name of nabi, deri\ed from the verb naOa, "to bubble forth," which finds its explana- tion in Exod. iv. 1-17, where God says to Moses, "Aaron shall be thy nabi, i.e., speaker." The prophetical office was not, like that of the priests, a prerogative of the tribe or family, but was to be in connection with the people of the covenant. Though the prophet was an immediate organ of Jehovah (cf. Isa. i. 4), yet he was to begin with Moses, and continue the revelation given to hiui, thus always keeping alive the communication between Jehovah and his people, iu whose midst he dwells and moves ; whilst the absence of proph- ecy was a sign that Jehovah had retired from his people (Amos viii. 12 ; Lam. ii. 9 ; Ps. Ixxiv. 9). The historic origin of prophecy is connected PROPHETIC OFFICE. 1937 PROPHETIC OFFICE. with the foundation of the theocracy (cf. Jar. vii. 25). Moses, in spite of his high position (Num. xii. 6-8), is really the first in the prophetic office (Deut. xxxiv. 10). He is the prophet, not only in the wider sense in which the name nabi was already used by the patriarchs (Gen. xx. 7 ; Ps. cv. 15), but in the special signification, be- cause he is in possession of that gift of the spirit which makes the prophet (Num. xi. 25). Side by side with Moses, his sister Miriam is mentioned as a prophetess (Exod. xv. 20). Josh- ua is nowhere called Nabi. In the period of the Judges the prophetic office appears in Deborah (Judg. iv. 4, 6, 14). The same book also men- tions (vi. 8) a prophet ; and 1 Sam. ii. 27, a "man of God," a prophet probably, is spoken of, who predicted to Eli the death of his two sous. But under Samuel the prophetic office became a more formal institution, and he is therefore to be regarded as the real founder of the Old-Testa- ment prophetic office (cf. Acts iii. 24). Israel, without the ark of the covenant, now experiences that the presence of God is everywhere where he is sought with earnestness, and that the mediatorship between God and the people now rested in the person of the divinely inspired prophets. The many prophets which then existed Samuel brought together, and formed the so-called schools of the prophets, or, rather, prophetical society. That Levites also belonged to this society, we may infer from the fact that not only was Samuel a Levite, but also that sacred music was cultivated in that society, which had its seat at Ramah. We may also assume that sacred literature was cultivated here, as, no doubt, prophetic writing, especially theocratic historiography, commenced with Sam- uel (cf. 1 Chron. xxix 29). At that time the foundation may have been laid for that great his- toric work 'which is so often mentioned in the books of Kings, and which undoubtedly was known to the chronicle-writer. That the members of the prophetic society did not lead an ascetic life, we see from the public activity which the prophets now exercised. With the institution of the monarchy, Samuel had resigned his judicial and executive function, and the prophets now be- came loatchmen of the theocracy : hence they are called tsophim or metsappim (Mie. vii. 4; Jer. vi. 17 ; Ezek. iii. 17, xxxiii. 7). The watchmen exer- cised their functions not only over the people, but also over the monarchy ; and the ways of the peo- ple and of their leaders were judged in accordance with the divine law. In short, they became the spiritual overseers and theocratic historiographers. The relation of the prophetic office to the mon- archy is shown in the behavior of Samuel towards Saul (cf. 1 Sam. xv. 11, xvi. 1) ; and Samuel's word (1 Sam. xv. 22) is, so to say, the programme for the position of the prophetic office to the sacrificial cult. After the election of David in the place of Saul, Samuel retired to Earaah for the remainder of his life. With Saul the prophets had no intercourse (1 Sam.-xxviii. 6). It seems, however, that they were ou good terms with David ; and Gad the prophet (1 Sam. xxii. .5), who is mentioned beside Nathan, probably be- longed to the society at Ramah. The chief musi- cians appointed by David (1 Chron. xxv. 1, 5 ; 2 Chron. xxix. 30, xxxv. 15), though called prophets and seers, must not be placed in the same line with Gad and Nathan, although the sacred song emanating from the heart moved by the Divine Spirit may be called prophesying. Under Solomon the prophetic office for a time stood in the backgi'ound, until towards the end of his reign, when his heart was inclined to apostasy, the warning voice of the prophet, perhaps of Akijah the Shilonite, was heard (1 Kings xi. 11- 13). The great influence which the prophetic office still exercised among the people may be seen from what we read of the prophet Shemaiah (1 Kings xii. 21 sq. ; 2 Chron. xi. 2.) In the follow- ing centuries the activity of the prophetic office was mainly in the kingdom of the ten tribes, the history of which was mainly the conflict between the prophets and the apostatized kings. This religio-political conflict, which had already been inaugTU-ated under Jeroboam, was continued under his successors; and Jehu, Elijah, Elisha, Jonah, Avios, Hosea, Isaiah, Oded, and Nahum ar'e men- tioned as the men of God who pleaded the cause of Jehovah. Different, however, was the char- acter of the prophetic office in the kingdom of Judah, where the prophets found a strong sup- port in the theocratic kings. Prophetic societies did not exist there ; although it cannot be doubted that prominent prophets had their circles, where their friends and disciples met (cf. Isa. viii. 16), and where, in the midst of the apostasy of the people, the Divine Word was studied, and trans- mitted to future generations. We therefore only meet with individual prophets in the history of the kingdom of Judah. Thus under Rehoboam we find Shemaiah (2 Chron. xii. 5 sq.); under Asa, Azariah, the son of Oded (2 Chron. xv. 1), and Hanani {xvi. 7). Under Jehoshaphat we find Jehu, the son of Hanani (xix. 2), and Eliezer (xx. 37). During Jehoshaphat's reign the work of the priests seems to have been of more influ- ence than that of the prophets, as may be seen from 2 Chion. xvii. 7 sq., where, among those who were sent about to teach the people, no prophets are mentioned. That both prophets and priests acted harmoniously, we see from Joel, who tjelonged to the earlier period of the reign of Joash. When a plague visited the country, he brought it about that both priests and people held a fast-day. In the latter part of Joash's reign lived Zechariah, the son of Jehoiada, the first martyr of the proph- ets of Judah (2 Chron. xxiv. 19 sq.). Under Joash's successor, Amaziah, two prophets (2 Chron. xxv.) are mentioned. Taken all in all, the work of the prophets in Judah, with the exception of Isaiah, was of less effect than that of the pi'ophets in the kingdom of the ten tribes. With Joel, or perhaps with Obadidh, i.e., in the first decades of the ninth century B.C., the begin- ning was already made with the writings of prophetical books. The older prophets also had uttered prophecies, which were written down in the prophetic books of history. The basis of the prophetic eschatology is already contained in the older testimonies of revelation; but, whilst the former prophets had more regard for the pres- ent of the kingdom of God, the prophetic word now views the future. Despised and misjudged by the contemporaries, the prophetic word in its historic fulfilment was to legitimate to future generations God's power, justice, and faithfulness, and was intended as a guide to the pious. ^"- For PROPHETIC OFFICE. 1938 PROPHETIC OFFICE. this reason, the word of the prophets had to be transmitted faithfully, which could only be done in writing. This writing-down is therefore often referred to by the prophets as effected at divine command (Isa. viii. 1 ; Hab. ii. 2 sq. ; Jer. xxxvi. 2), and, by expressly emphasizing the ob- ject of the writing, to show to coming generations the truth of the prophecy (Isa. xxx. 8 ; Jer. xxx. 2,3; of. Isa. xxxiv. 16). In some cases the writ- ing follows the oral utterance in order to confirm the latter, and where sometimes (Isa. viii. 1 sq. ; perhaps Isa. xxx. 8 belongs here also) it was suf- ficient to note down before witnesses the more salient points. In general, however, the literary activity is independent from the, oral preaching; and prophets (like Amos, Hosea, Micali) probably did not write down their prophetic utterances tiU towards the close of their life, thus transmit- ting to the world in a formulated order a totality of their prophetic office. That some literary pro- ductions have been lost, we may infer from the reference often made to older sources, as Isa. ii. 2-4 ; Mic. iv. 1-4 ; Isa. xv. sq. But, on the other hand, we perceive herein an important peculiarity of prophetic literature ; viz., the connection which exists between the prophetic books, in so far as the younger prophets in a great many instances looked up the utterances of the older prophets, made them their own, enlarged and developed the same. Thus, e.g., Amos i. 2 follows Joel iii. 16 ; the younger Micah takes up the close of the dis- ccmrse of the older (1 Kings xxii. 28). Almost throughout all prophets, especially in Zephaniah and Jeremiah, wfe find allusions and references to former prophetical works; but herein we pei-- ceive the unity of the spirit iu which the proph- ets stand, who, in spite of the changes of times, followed up this one unity of the word of God which they proclaimed ; thus also proving the last- ing validity of the not yet fulfilled prophecies. As has already been indicated, the work of Isaiah was of the greatest effect in the kingdom of Judah. At the beginning of his ministry, Ju- dah was in the zenith of her power, brought about under the powerful reigns of Uzziah and Jotham. And although these kings in general preserved the theocratic order, yet the moral and religious condition of the people was less pleasing ; since corruption, idolatry, and other vices had taken a hold upon the people, especially upon the higher classes. In connection with this we find a degen- erated priesthood (Mic. iii. 11 ; Isa. xxviii. 7), which, together with a nmnber of false prophets and flattering demagogues, strengthened the peo- ple in their sins (Isa. i.x. 14 sq., xxviii. 7 ; Mic. ii. 11, iii. 5). After Isaiah had already announced under Jotham the coming of the great day of Jehovah (Isa. ii.-vi.), his public activity, as far as we can see from his own book (vi'i.), com- mences under Ahaz, in that critical moment when the Syro-Ephraimitic war became inmiinent for Judah, and it reaches its height imder Ilezekiah. For while the prophet continues the word of the former prophets, yet in him prophecy for the first time takes a universal stand-point, from which all destinies of the kingdoms of the world, and of the heathenish nations at large, become a part of the divine ways of judgment, the end of which is the eternal kingdom of God triumphing over all power and greatness of heathendom. Contempo- rary with Isaiah was Micah the prophet, "full of power by the Spirit of the Lord, and of judgment, and of might, to declare unto Jacob his transgres- sion, and to Israel his sin " (Mic. iii. 8), coinciding with Isaiah especially in the development of the Messianic idea. His influence is especially men- tioned by Jeremiah (xxvi. 18 sq.). With Nahum, probably a junior contemporary of Isaiah, the series of those prophets who are mentioned by name as living during the Assyrian period closes. Very valuable, as illustrating the history of proph- ecy, is the Book of Jeremiah. His calling took place, according to i. 2, xxv. 3, in the thirteenth year of Josiah ; and thus his work, like that of Zephaniah, commences with the beginning of those reforms which were inaugurated by the king, and who was supported by the prophets. It is true that Huldah the prophetess, after the law had been found, exhorted the king to carry out the work of reformation more energetically ; but the solemn renovation of the covenant itself, which Josiah undertook, took place with the help of the prophets (2 Kings xxiii. 2). As may be seen from Jer. xi. 1-8, the prophets especially undertook, by earnest preaching at Jerusalem and in the cities of Judah, to impress upon the people the solemn obligation they had taken upon them- selves. But, after all, this reformation was not effective. The conversion was not with the whole heart, but feignedly (.ler. iii. 10). Instead of true religio7i, mere ceremonies were regarded as the main worship of God ; and as, in times past (Ps. XV., xxiv., 1.; Isa. i. 11, xxix. 13; Mic. vi. 6), hypocrisy and mere external forms were stig- matized by the prophets, so now a part of the prophetic preaching was directed against these practices. Under Joiakim and his successors, Jeremiah had to suffer very much; whilst Uriah the prophet, who had tried to evade the vengeance of the king by his flight to Egypt, was brought back, and murdered. The last decades of the kingdom of Judah are marked by a struggle between true and false prophets, which mainly concerned the political questions of the day. Whilst Jeremiah, who in prophetic spirit recognized the divine mis- sion of the Chaldsean power, exhorted to a faith- ful adherence to the oath sworn to the heathenish power, the false prophets exhorted to break the Chaldasan yoke (Jer. xxvii., xxviii.) by making a union with Nebuchadnezzar. The false proph- et who thus opposed Jeremiah was Hananiah. In the captivity, also, the Jews were led astray by Ahab, Zedelciah, and Shemaiah, against whom Jeremiah also lifted up his voice in warning the people (of. Jer. xxix. and Ezek. xiii. 9). It is re- markable, that, according to Ezek. xiii. 17-23, the false prophets were mainly women ; for, though the female seer was not altogether excluded from the prophetic gift, yet prophetesses were exception- al cases in the Old Testament. In the struggle which Jeremiah, amidst many sufferings, carried on till the dissolution of the kingdom, he stood alone as prophet in Jerusalem, assisted only by his companion and pupil, Baruch, in the writing- down and proclaiming of his prophecies. But outside of Jerusalem, in the captivity, the pi'iest Ezekiel was his contemporary fellow-laborer, who, in the fifth year of his captivity, was called to the prophetic office. Ezekiel's position among the PROPHETIC OPPICB. 1939 PROPHETIC OFFICE. exiles is to be compared with that of the prophets among the ten tribes. Without a temple and sacrifice, he is to the people the nucleus for preaching the Divine AVord, and giving them" prophetic advice (Ezek. viii. 1, xi. 25, xiv. 1, xx. 1, xxiv. 19). Side by side with the prophetic word, which continually had Israel's future mission in view, those laws, especially the sabbath, were observed, which could be kept even in heathen lands. These observances were, so to say, a fence for the people, scattered among the nations, against heathenish customs. This must be espe- cially held in view in order to understand Ezekiel and his junior contemporary Daniel. It is true, that the former often speaks of usages and cus- toms (cf . iv. 14, XX. 13) ; but he does not regard the sanctiflcation of the people in such formali- ties, as may be seen from the manner in which he exercises his prophetical office, and from his prophecies, according to which the restitution of Israel was mainly conditioned through the out- pouring of that spirit which creates a new heart (xi. 19, xxxvi. 26), and which was to follow, by a new outward form of the theocracy, as the effect of the new life. Ezekiel may have nourished, to some degree, that Levitical spirit which was promi- nent among the Jews in captivity; but its degen- eration was not his fault. As for Daniel, in whose book many thought to have found a support for a righteousness through works, it must not be overlooked, that, in all these instances (as in i. 8 sq., iv. 24, vi. 11), Daniel's adherence to the faith of the laws of his fathers is expressed ; and that he did not intend to teach the religion of ceremonies may be seen from his penitential prayer (ix. 4 sq.). The prophetic office in the exile was not only for the Jews in the diaspora ; but it had also, as may be seen from Daniel, a special mission for the Gentiles. It was of the greatest importance, that by transplanting the prophetic office upon heathenish soil, especially upon the main seat of .heathenish divination, the Gentiles themselves had the light of the Divine Word given unto them ; and their magicians and astrologers had an oppor- tunity to bring their arts face to face with the revelation of the living God. The battle which Jehovah had to fight at the redemption of Israel from Egyptian bondage with Egypt's gods was now repeated, but on a larger scale. Heathendom was to learn where a knowledge of divine counsel, ruling the ways of nations and prophecy of future kings, was to be found, in order to measure the reality of its gods. To carry ou this battle, besides Daniel, that great unknown was especially called, whose prophetical book is contained in Isa. xl.- Ixvi. A fruit of victory of this battle is the liberation of the people through Cyrus, who per- mitted the people to rebuild the temple, which included also the rebuilding of Jerusalem in a certain degree. Gyrus' interest was mainly reli- gious, and to this he was probably led by Daniel and an acquaintance with the prophetic word re- ferring to him. As to the activity of Israel's watchmen (cf . Isa. lii. 8, etc.) after the return of the people to the Holy Land, we know nothing. Our knowledge of the post-exile activity of the prophets com- mences with the time of hard trials, which be- gan with the interruption of the building of the temple. When despondency took hold on the people, and the better ones doubted whether Israel could still hope for forgiveness of sins, and fulfilment of the divine promises, Haggai and Zechariah were called in the second year of Darius Hystaspes (Ez. v. 1, vi. 14), to take up again the testimony of the ancient prophets (Zech. i. 4, vii. 12), and to encourage the people. The day of small things must not be despised (iv. 10), since every thing depends, not on might of men, but on Jehovah's spirit (iv. 1-6 ; Hag. ii. 5) ; and as, in spite of all difficulties, the building of the temple will be completed (Zeoh. iv. 7-9), so also the completion of the salvation is assured. True, the Gentiles enjoy peace, and Judah is bowed down (i. 8-13) ; but soon the powers of the world will devour each other (Hag. ii. 6, 21 ; cf. Zech. i. 18-21), and the kingdom of God will triumph, and receive the best of the Gentiles and their treasures (Hag. ii. 7 sq. ; Zech. viii. 20-23), while the people themselves shall be sifted anew (Zech. v.). From this time on, till Nehemiah, prophets are no more mentioned ; and the first notice which we have only shows how degenerated the pro- phetic office was by becoming a tool for political intrigues. Nehemiah is accused by Sanballat, that he had appointed prophets for the sake of being proclaimed king by them. Nehemiah, on the other hand, accuses Sanballat of having bribed the prophet Shemaiah in order to intimidate him. In connection with this, other prophets also, and a prophetess, Noadiali, are mentioned as opponents of Nehemiah (Neh. vi. 6-14). To Nehemiah's time, probably, belongs the prophet Malaclii, who closes the canonic prophecy. The tendency which completed itself afterwards in Pharisaism has now taken a deep root in the people. Malachi opposes the religion of dead works (i. 6-ii. 9, ill. 7-12). With the announcement of the divine messenger (iii. 1) prophecy ceases, till, four hun- dred years later, prophecy once more is revived in that same messenger, who, pointing to the sun of salvation which had already appeared, closes the time of the old covenant by proclaiming, " He must increase; but I must decrease " (John iii. 30). During that long intervening time, it is Israel's calling to preserve in itself the root of the future congregation of salvation, whilst the root itself was to pi'eserve the oracles of God (Rom. iii. 2). To do the latter was the main object of the scribes, who took the place of inspired prophets. As during all this time the people are left without the ark of the covenant and the Urim and Thum- mim, so also without the prophetic spirit. Not even the Maccabean period can produce a prophet (1 Mace. iv. 49, ix. 27, xiv. 41). As soon, how- ever, as the time of the messianic salvation appears, the. power of the prophetic spirit is again felt (Luke ii. 25, 26). It is also remarkable, that as iDef ore the destruction of Jerusalem by the Chal- daeans, false prophets were in their height, thus leading the people to destruction, so, likewise, before the destruction of Jerusalem by the Ro- mans, a number of pseudo-prophets became the leaders, of the people (Joseph. : Jewish War, VI. 5, 2 sq.), while the words of the true prophets were not heeded (VI. 6, 3). Lit. — WiTSius : De prophelis et prophetia, in Miscellan. Sacr., tom. i. ; J. Smith: De prophetia et prophetis, in J. Clekicus, Vet. Test, prophet.. PROPHETS IN N. TESTAMENT. 1940 PROPITIATION. Amstel., 1731, pp. i-xxix; Chr. A. CEUsirs : Hypomnemata ad tlieologiam pi-opheticam, pt. i., (Lips., 1764-78) ; Hengstenberg : Christologie lies A.T., 1829-32, 2d ed., 1854-57, iii. 2 p. 158 sq. ; A. Knobel : Der Prophetismus der Hebraev, 1837; P. M. Kostee: Die Propheten des A. und N.T., 1838; Redslob : Der Bee/riff der Nabi, 1839 ; J. Chr. K. Hofmann : Weissagung und Erfilllung, 1841-44; Fr. Delitzsch : Die bibl. proph. Theologie, Hire Fortbildung dwell A. Cru- sius, Li., 1845; A. Tholuck: Die Propheten und Hire Weissagungen, 2d ed., 1860 ; G. F. Oehler : fJeber das Verhaltniss der alttest. Proplietie zur lieid- nisclien Mantik, 1861 ; H. Ewald : Die Proplieten des Alien Bundes, 2d ed., 1867 ; Kuper : Das Prophetenthum des A. Bundes, 1870; Oehler: Theologie des Alien Testaments, 1873, 2d ed., 1882 ; B. DuHM : Die Theologie der Propheten, 1875 ; KuENEN : De Profeten en de Prophetie onder Israel, 1875 (Eng. trans., The Prophets and the Prophecjj in Israel, 1877) ; Reuss : Les Prophetes, 1876; H. ScHULTZ : Altiestamenst. Theologie, 2d ed., 1878; F. Hitzig: Bibl. Theologie des A.T., ed. by Kneuoker, 1880; Kleineet, in Eiehm's Handworlerhuch, s.v. ; Bredenkamp : Gesetz und Propheten, 1881 ; C. Bruston : Ilistoire critique de la litterature prophetique des Hebreux depuis les origines jusqua la mort d'Isaie, Paris, 1881 ; W. Robertson Smith : The Prophets of Israel, Edinb. and New York, 1882 ; R. A. Redford : Prophecy, its Nature and Evidence, Loudon, 1882 ; F. E. KoNiG : Der Offenbarungsbegriff des Alien Teslamentes, Leipzig, 1882, 2 vols.; Oeelli: Die alttestamentlicJie Weissagung von der Vollendung des (?o«esre2"c/ies, Wien, 1882 ; [Green: Moses and the Pro;)Ae(s, N.Y.,1883]. OEHLER. (VON ORELLI.) PROPHETS IN THE NEW TESTAMENT. From Matt, xxiii. 34 (cf. Luke xi. 49) we iearn, that, after the ascension of Clirist, prophets were to come who would proclaim, especially to the Jewish people, the truth of the salvation as it is in Christ, and thus bring about the decision either for or against. The testimony of the first Chris- tian church is entirely of a prophetic character. The first eifect of the Pentecostal spirit is the prophesying of the believers who were so suddenly and miraculously filled with his power (Acts ii. 4) : their word is followed by signs and wonders (iii. 6, iv. 30, V. 12, 15, 16, ix. 34, 40). The judicial power of their prophecy reveals itself in the his- tory of Ananias and Sapphira (v. 1-11). The Church as such, in her appearance and condition, as well as in her activity, stands like a prophet of God in the midst of the people ; and in the consciousness of this her oflBoe she abandons every worldly avocation. She has a charge committed to her by the Lord ; thi'ough her, God will give " repentance to Israel, and forgiveness of sins " (v. 31) ; she is the Zion that bringeth good tidings, and which says unto the cities of Judah, " Behold your God!" (Isa. xl. 9.) From this church proceed the different prophets, such as Stephen, who experienced what the Lord prophesied (Matt, xxiii. 34). At his death the Pentecostal Church for the first time comes in conflict with the carnal-minded Israel : her testi- mony is resisted with blood, but she does not cease. Those who were scattered abroad (Acts viii. 4) founded the diaspora, to which St. James addresses his Epistle : they are the prophets (Jas. v. 10) who went about in Judsea, Samaria, Galilee, and preached the word of God to the Jews. . In transferring the office of the Church to her members, we thus get the wide range in which the idea of the New-Testament prophecy is to be taken. It corresponds entirely with Deut. xviii. 18 sq. ; and thus a prophet is such a one, who is called by the spirit of God, here by the spirit of Jesus Christ, to become the organ of communi- cating the truth in such a manner that his testi- ' mony, with convincing power of the truth, proves itself to the hearers as the word of God (2 Cor. ii. 14-17). The prophetic illumination comprises the contents and form of the speech (Matt. x. 19, 20). It does not exclude the subjective activity of the prophets, but includes it (1 Cor. xiv. 32), and lifts it up beyond the natural degree of knowledge and faculty, and renders it serviceable to the higher purposes of the Holy Spirit. The object of prophecy is the edification of the con- gregation (1 Cor. xiv. 4), and this also must be taken in the widest sense. In the Acts of the Apostles, mention is made of the following, as men of prophetic calling : Agabus (xi. 28), Barnabas, Simeon Niger, Lucius of Cyrene, Manaen, and Saul (xiii. 1), from among whom Barnabas and Saul were separated for the work whereunto the Holy Ghost had called them. Judas and Silas, who were sent with Barnabas and Paul to Antioch (xv. 23-29), were also proph- ets ; and prophetical faculties were also giv'en to the four virgin daughters of Philip (xxi. 9). The charisma of prophecy was not limited to these individuals. It was found in the congrega- tions of the apostolic times everywhere. Wher- ever Paul speaks of the gifts, offices, faculties, of the Church (Rom. xii. 6-8 ; 1 Cor. xii.-xiv. ; Ephes. iv. 11; 1 Thess. v. 20), he also mentions the prophets immediately after the apostles (1 Cor. xii. 28; Ephes. iv. 11). He distinguishes be- tween prophets and evangelists, pastors, teachers. As to their activity in the congregations, cf. 1 Cor. xiv. 1, 3, 5, 19, 29-33. Excluded from public speaking, as well as from prophesying, were wo- men (1 Cor. xiv. 34, 35). As to the contents of the prophetical speech, we have no particulars ; but, in order to find out the pureness and divine origin of such communi- cations, the Church had the gift of discerning of spirits (1 Cor. xii. 10) which accompanied prophecy (xiv. 29), and for which a canon was laid down (1 John iy. 1-3). Although the apostolic rule of discerning of spirits already shows that the warn- ing words of Jesus (Matt. vii. 15, 22, xxiv. 4 sq., 23 sq.) were already fulfilled at a very early time (Acts XX. 30 ; Rev. ii. 20), the Apocalypse of St. John was certainly intended to be the keystone of New-Testament prophecy ; since, after the death of the apostles, prophecy makes room for the use of the writings of the New Testament, which ever since have become the rule of faith for the believers. To the believer the more sure word of prophecy (2 Pet. i. 19) must be sufficient, which shineth as a light in this dark place, until the day dawn, and the daystar arise. K. burger. PROPITIATION. A sacrifice offered to God to render him propitious. Such an effectual sacri- fice was Jesus Christ : he is therefore our propi- tiation. For the doctrinal statements, see Atone- PROSELYTES OP THE JEWS. 1941 PROSELYTES OP THE JEWS. PROSELYTES OF THE JEWS. At all times there were non-Israelites, who, by conversion to the God of Israel, were incorporated into the peo- ple of Israel. They must be distinguished from the so-called strangers, who, either for a time or permanently, resided among Israel, and the num- ber of whom amounted, in the time of David and Solomon, to 153,600 (2 Chron. ii. 17). Many of these strangers became adorers of Jehovah, and by circumcision became members of the house- hold of Israel. Slaves who were circumcised, and partook of the Paschal lamb (Exod. xii. 44), may also be called proselytes. The children of a heathenish slave born in the house were circum- cised ; but, according to rabbinic interpretation, they were not yet like a free-born. According to Jebamoth (fol. 46, vol. i.), the master, in case he intended to retain a heathenish slave bought of a heathen, was to make it known in the act of bap- tism by putting around him a chain. The baptism did not mean liberty, but servitude: it coupled Judaizing with permanent slavery. It then mainly depended upon the master, whether and when he was to set him free. If such was the intention of the master, the slave had to be re- baptized before three witnesses. Heathehish slaves who refused to undergo circumcision and baptism had to be sold again to heathen, after twelve months (Jebamoth, fol. 48, col. 2). Resi- dent strangers, when circumcised, became as the born Israelites, excepting Edomites and Egyp- tians, whose children can only enter into the con- gregation in their third generation (Deut. xxiii. 8), while an Ammonite or Moabite was forever excluded (Deut. xxiii. 3). A circumcised proselyte could marry a Jewish woman, but a priest could not marry the daughter of a proselyte (Lev. xxi. 14). A proselyte could hold no public office, nor become a member of the Sanhedrin, unless he was the son of a Jewess ; but he could not become king, or general, or president of the council, even if his mother were a Jewess (Maimonides : Ilil- choth Sanhedrin, 2, 9 ; Melachim, 1). Yet strangers, though they were not circumcised, who abstained from certain heathenish abominations (Lev. xvii. 10 sq., XX. 2, xxiv. 16), enjoyed protection and favors in the land, and could even receive appoint- ments at the court (cf. 2 Sam. xi. 6, xv. 18 sq., xxiv. 16). A class of proselytes were the Nelhinim (q.v.). Besides these, Nehemiah mentions such as had " separated themselves from the people of the lands unto the law of God " (Neh. x. 28). In the time of the Seleucidse, a Jewish propa- ganda developed itself as a re-action against the Hellenistic, which was forcibly introduced. John Hyrcanus forced circumcision on the Idumaeans about 129 B.C. The Iturfeans were converted in the same way by Aristobulus. From this time we may date the zeal of the Pharisees for making proselytes, who travelled by "land and sea " to make many converts without converting the heart. Such Jewish proselytes were more fa- natic than the Pharisees themselves (Matt, xxiii. 15), and became the fiercest persecutors of the Christians (Justin: Dial. c. Tryph., p. 350, ed. Sylburg). The Roman diaspora was especially zealous in making proselytes. At last such proselytes became contemptible to the Jews them- selves. In the Talmud they are spoken of as dangerous to Israel as leprosy, preventing the coming of the Messiah. The proselytes, says the Talmud, were the cause that the Jews made the golden calf, and inaugurated the rebellion (Num. xi.). Absalom's behavior was caused by his mother, Maacha, whom David made a prose- lyte. But there were not wanting those who praised the proselytes. That there were many Jewish converts from among the Greeks and Ro- mans, who exercised a Jewish influence, we see from Cicero, Pro Flacco, c. 28; Horace, Sat. i. 9, 69 sq., 4, 142 ; Juvenal, 14, 96 sq. ; Tacitus, Ann., 2, 85, Hist., 5, 5; Seneca, De superst. ; Dio Cassius, 37, 17. A catalogue of proselytes men- tioned by ancient writers is given by Causse in Museum Haganum, i. 549 sq. The rabbis distin- guish proselytes of righteousness and proselytes of the gate. The proselytes of righteousness receive circumcision, and with it (Gal. v. 3) the whole JMosaic ceremonial law: they thereby become "sons of Israel," and "Israelites in every re- spect," and are called also "complete Israelites." When a proselyte asked for admission, he was first catechised as to his motives. If these were satisfactory, he was first instructed as to the divine protection of the Jewish people, and then circum- cised — only when he was a male — in the presence of three teachers. In the case of a convert already circumcised, it was still necessary to draw a few drops of "the blood of the covenant." A special prayer accompanied the act of circumcision. The proselyte then takes a new name, opening the Hebrew Bible, and accepting the fii'st that came. But the convert was still a "stranger; " and, unless he had been baptized, his children are counted as bastards, i.e., aliens. To complete his admis- sion, baptism was required. When the wound caused by circumcision was healed, he was stripped of all his clothes in the presence of the thi-ee wit- nesses who had acted as his teachers, and who now acted as his sponsors, the " fathers " of the proselyte, and led into the pool or tank. As he stood there, up to his neck in water, they repeated the gTeat commandments of the law. These he promised and vowed to keep; and then, with an accompanying benediction, he plunged under the water. A female proselyte was conducted to the tank by three women, while the three teachers stood outside at the door, reading to her aloud the law. A new name was given to her after baptism. By baptism the proselyte became a new creature. All natural relationships were cancelled. As long as the temple stood, baptism was followed by the offering of a, sacrifice con- sisting of two turtle-doves or pigeons. After the destruction, a vow to offer it as soon as the temple should be rebuilt was substituted. As to the proselytes of the gate, also known as the " sojourners " (Lev. xxv. 47), they were not bound by circumcision and the other special laws of the Mosaic code, but obliged themselves to ob- serve the so-called seven precepts of Noah ; viz., (1) against idolatry, (2) against blaspheming, (3) against bloodshed, (4) against uncleanness, (5) against theft, (6) of obedience, with (7) the pro- hibition of flesh with the blood thereof. Whoever wished to become a proselyte of the gate had to declare it solemnly before three witnesses. As to the antiquity of the baptism of prose- lytes, and its relation to the baptism of John, cf . Schneckenburger : Ueber das Alter derjUdischen PROSPER OF AQUITANIA. 1942 PROUDFOOT. Prosebjlen-Taufe, Berlin, 1828. The Talmudic treatise concerning proselytes (Massecheth Gerim) has been published by R. Kirchheim, in Septem Ubri Talmudici parvi Hierosolymitani, Frankfort-on- the-Main, 18.51. lbyree. (delitzsch.) PROSPER OF AQUITANIA, the ardent literary champion of Augustine. Of his personal life very little is known. He was born in Aquitania, and probably in the last decade of the fourth century. He died in Rome, but the date of his death is not known. He i-eceived the ordinary rhetorical education. As a theologian he became a pupil of Augustine; and, though he never made the personal acquaintance of his master, h6 clung to him with unwearied perseverance. From 428 to 434 he lived in Southern Gaul, in intimate con- verse with the monastic settlements of Proven9e, more especially of Marseilles. There he became acquainted with a set of views very different from those he had adopted from Augustine ; and he opened the Semi-Pelagian controversy (429) by his letter to Augustine, giving an account of those views, and asking him to interfere. He himself wrote, before the death of Augustine, his epistle to Rufinus, and his poem, Adversus ingratos. After the death of Augustine, he wrote in his defence. Pro Auguslino responsiones, and was generally considered as the leading representative of the Augustinian views. Two Genoese priests ad- dressed a number of questions to him concerning difficult passages in the works of Augustine, and he answered them by his Responsiones ad excerpta Gennensium. A work of similar character is his Responsiones ad capilula objeciionum Vincenliana- rmn; the author, probably, being Vicentius of Lerius, who was a Semi-Pelagian. But, in spite of his zeal and industry. Prosper did not succeed in converting the Massiliotes to the Augustinian views. In 432 he visited Rome, to induce Pope Celestine I. to interfere ; in the next year he pub- lished his last instalment in the controversy, De gratia Dei et Libera arbitrio : and in 434 he moved to Rome. There he finished his Chronicle, one of his principal works. The first part (to 378) is only an extract from Eusebius, Jerome, and Augustine : the second part (to 455) is original, and written, as the book itself shows, partly in Gaul, and partly in Rome. He also wrote a book of epigrams, and a Liber Sententiarum, or " Collec- tion of Gems," from Augustine. The best edition of his works is that by Le Brun and Mangeant, Paris, 1711. H.vuCK. PROTESTANTEN-VEREIN {Protestant Union), a voluntary organization of rationalistic ministers and professors in Germany. It was formed in 1863, and fairly started June 7 and 8, 1865, at Eisenach. Since 1867 it has had yearly meetings. But it has come into such strong opposition to the orthodox and conservative tendencies of the German Church authorities, that it has had to fight for its life. See Holtzmann u. Zopkfel : Lexikon fur Theologie u. Kirclienwesen, Leipzig, 1882, s.v. PROTESTANTISM. See Reformation. PROTEVANGELIUM. See Apocrypha. PROTONOTARIUS APOSTOLICUS. Accord- ing to later accounts. Bishop Clement of Rome first appointed a notary {notarius regionarius) in each of the seven wards of the city, for the purpose of drawing up an official record of the deeds and sufferings of the martyrs. These notaries belonged to the clergy of the city. They were appointed by the Pope ; and, when it proved necessary to increase their number, the seven original notaries were distinguished by the title Protonotarii Apos- tolici. In course of time they obtained other di.s- •tinctions and great revenues. They even claimed to take precedence of the bishops, which, however, Pius II. denied them by the breve of June 1, 1459. They formed a college of their own, and their number was by Sixtus V. increased to twelve. In the papal chapel they sit on the second tier ; but in the consistories, where four of them must be present, they sit beside the Pope ; and their signature is necessary to the validity of any docu- ment which concerns the whole Roman-Catholic Church. SeeBANGEN: Die romische Curie, Miin- ster, 1854. H. F. jacobson. PROTO-PRESBYTER, or PROTO-POPE, corresponds, in the Grseco-Russian Church, to the arch-presbyter of the Church of Rome, denoting an intermediate officer between the bishop and the priests. There is a proto-presbyter or proto- pope at each cathedral ; and, so far as he exercises a kind of superintendence over the neighboiing parishes, his position resembles that of the dean. He is not boiind to remain unmarried. PROUDFOOT, William, S. T. P., b. in the par- ish of Manor, Peeblesshire, Scotland, May 22, 1788; d. in London, C. W., Jan. 16, 1851. He was the son of pious, godly parents, and from a child knew the Scriptures. He was educated at the Univei'sity of Edinburgh, where he was distin- guished alike for his rare natural endowments and for the extent and variety of his attainments. After leaving the university, he attended a full course of five sessions at the theological hall of the Secession Church, at that time under the charge of the venerated and venerable Dr. Law- son, many of whose students lived to do him honor, and none more than the gifted and learned Mr. Proudfoot. About the age of twenty-five he was ordained as pastor of the congregation of Pitrodie, in Perthshire, where for nearly twenty years he labored as an earnest and able minister. lie took a deep and lively interest in all questions connected with the government and extension of the church. His lofty intellectual powers, his rich mental culture, and vast and varied acquire- ments, fitted him for a prominent place among his fellow-laborers in any sphere. When, in 1832, the United Secession Church resolved to estab- lish a mission in Canada, Mr. Proudfoot was one of three chosen to go out as pioneers. On his arrival, he went west as far as London, then only a city of the future. The entire region was only being opened up for settlement. For many years he visited different sections of the country; the roads often almost impassable, and accommoda- tions of any kind of the most primitive style. From his mature age, personal dignity, high char- acter, and great force of will, he was recognized as a leader, a patriarch, an apostle, and was cheer- fully acknowledged by his brethren to he primus inter pares. He was chosen clerk of the synod, and, except when acting as moderator, filled that office with great judiciousness and tact. He was wise in counsel, as well as efficient in action ; and his opinions had great weight in any deliberative assembly. In 1844 he was unanimously chosen PROVERBS OF SOLOMON. 1943 PROVERBS OF SOLOMON. the first professor of theology in that branch of the church ; and most ably and satisfactorily did he discharge the duties of that office till his de- cease. On the occurrence of that sad event, the church felt deeply the sore bereavement; and the synod passed resolutions expressing the high estimate they entertained of his eminent talents, his varied erudition, and manifold services. Mr. Proudfoot was a man of commanding presence, of great personal power, and force of character. In debate his spirit was candid, his argument cogent, his language incisive, his invective some- times sarcastic and scathing. As a theologian, he was scholarly and profound ; as a scholar, erudite and accurate ; as a preacher, instructive and im- pressive ; as a teacher, clear, logical, and inspiring. It is a matter of painful regret that the treasures which he left in neatly written manuscripts have never been published ; but it is not yet too late to hope that his memoir, and some of his discourses and sermons, may enrich the theological literature of the Dominion. William or^uston. PROVERBS OF SOLOMON. I. The External Plan of the Book of Proverbs, and its own Testimony as to its Origin. — The internal superscription of the book, which recommends it, after the manner of later Oriental books, on account of its impor- tance, and the general utility of its contents, extends from verse 1 to 6 ; with verse 7 the book itself begins. The book is described as ' ' the proverbs of Solomon ; " and then there is annexed the statement of its object, which, as summarily set forth in verse 2, is practical, and that in a twofold way, — partly moral (3-5), and partly in- tellectual (6). The former presents moral edifica- tion, moral sentiments for acceptance, not merely to help the unwise to attain to wisdom, but also to assist the wise. The latter seeks by its contents to strengthen and discipline the mind to the under- standing of thoughtful discourses generally : in other words, it seeks to gain the moral ends which proverbial poetry aims at, and at the same time to make it familiar ; so that the reader, in these proverbs of Solomon, or by means of them as of a key, learns to understand such like apothegms in general. Thus understood, the title of the book does not say that the book contains proverbs of other wise men besides those of Solomon : if it did, it would contradict itself. It is possible that the book contains also non-Solomonic proverbs, possible that the author of the title of the book added such to it himself; but the title presents to view only the proverbs of Solomon. If i. 7 begins the book, then, after reading the title, we cannot think otherwise than that here begin the Solomonic proverbs. If we read farther, the con- tents and the form of the discourses which follow do not contradict this opinion ; for both are worthy of Solomon. So much the more are we astonished when we meet at x. 1 with a new superscription, which is followed to xxii. 16 by a long succession of proverbs of quite a different tone and form, — short maxims (mashals proper) ; while in the pre- ceding section of the book we find fewer proverbs than monitory discourses. What, now, must be our opinion when we look back from this second superscription to the j)art (i. 7-ix.) which imme- diately follows the title of the book ? Are i. 7-ix., in the sense of the book, not the proverbs of Solo- mon ? From the title of the book, which declares them to be so, we must judge that they are. Or are they proverbs of Solomon ? In this case the new superscription (x. 1) appears altogether in- comprehensible. And yet only one of the two is possible. On the one side, therefore, there must be a false appearance of contradiction, which on a closer investigation disappears. But on which side is it V If it is supposed that the tenor of the title (i. 1-6) does not accord with that of section X. 1-xxii. 16, but that it accords well with that of i. 7-ix., then Ewald's view is probable, that i.-ix. was originally one whole, intended to serve as an introduction to the larger Solomonic Book of Proverbs, beginning at x. 1. But it is also possible that the author of the title has adopted the style of section i. 7-ix. The introductory section (i. .7-ix.) and the larger section (x.-xxii. 16) are followed by a third section (xxii. 17-xxiv. 22), which again is followed by a short fourth sec- tion (xxiv. 23-34), a kind of an appendix to the third, bearing the superscription, "These things also belong to the wise." The proverbs of Solo- mon begin again at xxv. 1, extending to xxix. This fifth portion of the book has a superscrip- tion similar to that of the preceding appendix, commencing, " Also [dd] these are proverbs of Solomon, which the men of Hezekiah, king of Judah, collected." The Hebrew word translated " collected " denotes " to remove from their place," and means that the men of Hezekiah removed from the place where they found them the following proverbs, and put them together in a separate collection. The words have thus been understood by the Greek translator. The Hezekiah glean- ings of Solomonic proverbs are followed by two ■appendices, the authors of which are given : the fii'st (xxx.) is by " Agur the son of Jakeh ; " the second (xxxi. 1-9), by a "King Lemuel." In so far the superscriptions are clear. The names of the authors, elsewhere unknown, point to a for- eign country ; and to this corresponds the peculiar complexion of these series of proverbs. As a third appendix to the Hezekiah collection (xxxi. 10 sq.), follows a complete alphabetical proverbial poem in praise of a virtuous woman. By reviewing the whole argument, we see that the Book of Proverbs divides itself into the fol- lowing parts : 1. The title of the book (i. 1-6), by which the question is raised, how far the book extends to which it originally belongs ; 2. The hortatory discourses (i. 7-ix.), in which it is a question whether the Solomonic proverbs begin with these, or whether they are only the introduc- tion thereto, composed by a difl:erent author, per- haps the author of the title of the book ; 3. The first great collection of Solomonic proverbs (x.- xxii. 16) ; 4. The first appendix to this first collec- tion, " the words of the wise " (xxii. 17-xxiv. 22) ; 5. The second appendix, supplement of the words of some wise men (xxiv. 23 sq.) ; 6. The second great collection of Solomonic proverbs, which the "men of Hezekiah " collected (xxv.-xxix.); 7. The first appendix to this second collection, the words of Agur (xxx.); 8. The second appendix, the words of King Lemuel (xxxi. 1-9) ; 9. Third appendix, the acrostic ode (xxxi. 10 sq.). These nine parts may be comprehended under three groups : the in- troductory hortatory discourses with the general title at their head, and the two gi-eat collections of Solomonic proverbs, with their two appendices. PROVERBS OP SOLOMON. 1944 PROVERBS OP SOLOMON. In prosecuting our farther investigations, we shall consider the several parts of the book, first from the point of view of the manifold forms of their proverbs, then of their style, and, thirdly, of their type of doctrine. II. The Several Pm-ts of the Book of Proverbs ivith Respect to the 2Ianifolh, both of which represent the primitive shortenings, all syllables with a full vowel are intermediate, and in ascending become long, in descending, short. Hence the most manifold rhythms arise, e.g., the anapestic, wSnUshlickuh miniinnU iXbuihemO (ii. 3), or the dactylic, aSjidOb- ber elSm5 bldppo (ii. 5), and thus obtains the appearance of a lively mixture of the Greek and Latin metres. But this is the very beauty of this kind of poesy, that the rhythms always vary according to the thoughts and feelings ; as, e.g., the evening song (Ps. iv.), towards the end, rises to the anapestic measure, H-dttah Jahaweh libdilud, in order theii quietly to subside in the iambic, lO.bHa.ch ttishibeni. With this alternation of rise and fall, long and short syllables, harmonizing in lively passages with the subject, there is com- bined, in Hebrew poetry, an expressiveness of accent which is hardly to be found anywhere else to such an, extent. Under the point of view of rhythm, the so-called parallelismus membrorum has also been rightly placed since the time of Lowth. The relation of the two parallel members is like the two halves on either side of the principal csesura of the hex- ameter and pentameter, and this is particularly manifest in the double long line of the csesural schema; e.g. (Ps. xlviii. 5, 6), "They beheld, PSALMS. 1955 PSALMS. straightway they marvelled, | bewildered they took to flight. Trembling took hold upon them there, | anguish, as a woman in travail." Here the one thought is expanded in the same verse in two parallel members. But from the fact of the rhythmical organization being carried out with- out reference to the logical requirements of the sentence, as in the same psalm, vers. 3, 7 (" Elo- him in her palaces | was known as a refuge. With an east wind thou breakest | the ships of Tarshish "), we see that the rhythm is not called into existence as a necessity of such expansion of the thought, but, vice versa, this mode of expanding the thought results from the require- ments of the rhythm. Here is no logical paral- lelism, but merely that which De Wette calls rhythmical, the rhythmical rise and fall, the dias- tole and systole. The ascending and descending rhythm does not usually exist within the compass of one line ; but it is distributed over two lines, which bear the relation to one another of rhyth- mical antecedent and consequent, and form a dis- tich. This distich is the simplest ground-form of the strophe, which is visible in the earliest song handed down to us (Gen. iv. 2o sq.). The whole Ps. cxix. is composed iu such distichs, which is the usual form of the apothegm : the acrostic letter stands there at the head of each distich, just as at the head of each line in the likewise distichic pair Ps. cxi., cxii. The tristich is an outgrowth from the distich ; the ascending rhythm being pro- longed through two lines, and the fall commen- cing only in the third, e.g., xxv. 7 (the n of this alphabetical psalm) : — " Have not the sins of my youth and my transgres- sions in remembrance : According to thy mercy remember thou me, For thy goodnesg' sake, O Jalive ! " If we now further inquire whether Hebrew poesy goes beyond these simplest beginnings of the strophe formation, and even extends the network of the rhythmical period, by combining the two and three line strophe with ascending and de- scending rhythm into greater strophic wholes, rounded ofE into themselves, the alphabetical psalm (xxxvii.) furnishes us with a safe answer to the question, for this is almost entirely tetras- tichic; e.g. : — '• Ahout evil-doers fret not thyself ; About the workers of iniquity lie thou not envious: For as grass they shaH-soon be cut down, And as the green herb they sliall wither." But it admits of the compass of the strophe, in- creasing even to the pentastich (vers. 25, 26) ; since the unmistakable landmarks of the order, the letters, allow a freer movement ; — " Now I, who once was young, am become old ; Yet have I not seen the righteous forsaken, And his seed begging bread. He ever giveth and lendeth. And his seed is blessed." From this point the sure guidance of the alpha- betical psalms fails us in investigating the Hebrew strophe system. Whether and how a psalm is laid out in strophes is shown by seeing, first of all, what its pauses are, where the flow of thoughts and feelings falls in order to rise anew, and then by trying whether these pauses have a like or symmetrically correspondent number of stichs (e.g., 6, 6, 6, 6, or 6, 7, 6, 7), or, if their compass is too great for them to be at once regarded as one strophe, whether they cannot be divided into smaller wholes of an equal or syninietrical num- ber of stichs. For the peculiarity of the Hebrew strophe does not consist in a run of definite metres closely united to form one harmonious whole (for instance, like the Sapphic strophe, with which Isa. xvi. 9, 10, with their short closing lines, correspond), but in a closed train of thought which is unrolled after the distichic and tristichic ground-form of the rhythmical pei-iod. Respecting the use of music and song in divine worship, the Thora contains nothing except the injunction concerning the ritualistic use of silver trumpets to be blown by the priests (Num. x.). David is really the creator of liturgical music; and to his arrangements, as we see from the Chronicles, every thing was afterwards referred, and, in times when it had fallen into disuse, restored. The instrument by means of which the three choir-masters (Heman, Asaph, and Ethan- Jeduthun) directed the choir was the cjunbals (D"r\'7Sa) : the hai'ps (Q''?^^) represented the sopra- no ; and the bass (the male voice in opposition to the female) was represented by the citherns, an octave lower (1. Chron. xv. 17-21). In a psalm where Selah (1^70) is appended, the stringed in- struments and the instruments generally are to join in in such a way as to give intensity to that which is being sung. To these instruments, be- sides those mentioned in Ps. cl., 2 Sam. vi. 5, belonged also the flute and the trumpets. In the second temple it was otherwise. The sounding of the trumpets by the priests, and the Levitical song with its accompanying music, alternated: they were not simultaneous. The congTegation did not sing with the choir, but only uttered their Amen. In the time of the second temple, the singing of the psalm appointed for each day commenced, at a sign given with the cymbal, at the time when the ministering priest offered the drink-offering. The Levites standing upon the platform, who were both players and singers, were at least twelve in number. Of what kind this song and music were, we can hardly now have an idea ; and it is nothing but a mere fiction of Anton and L. Haupt to assert that the present accentuation of the psalms represents the fixed song of the temple. We have no tradition as to the value of the notes of the so-called metrical accentuation ; and what we know at present is derived from but fragmentary notices contained in older \Aorks con- cerning the intonation of some metrical accents. Since Gerbert (De musica sacia) and Martini (Sloria della musica), the view has become very gen- eral, that in the eight Gregorian tones, together with the extra tone (tonus peregrinus'), used only for Ps. cxiv., we have a remnant of the ancient temple song, and this in itself is by no means im- possible in connection with the Jewish nationality of the primitive church, and its gTadual severance from the temple and synagogue ; but the Jewish tradition, if the eight tones ai'e to be traced back to it, has been developed under Greek influence. The " eight " tones are also mentioned elsewhere (cf . Steinschneider : Jewish Literature, pp. 154, 337), and recall the eight chvirch-tones, in the same manner as the two modes of using the accents in chanting, which are attested in the ancient PSALMS. 1956 PSALMS. service-books, recall the distinction between the festival and the simpler ferial manner in the Gre- gorian style of church-music. The history of Psalmody, especially of the prac- tical use of the Psalter, is a glorious history of blessing and victory. No other book of the Old Testament has gone so much from the heart and mouth of Israel into the heart and mouth of the church as this Old-Testament hymn-book. But, ■with all this praise, neither the real value of this hymn-book of Israel, nor the wonderful effect which it exercised upon the church, is sufficiently acknowledged. To do this we consider — 8. The Holeriological Signification of the Psalter. — When men had corrupted themselves by sin, God did not leave them to that doom of wrath which they had chosen for themselves, but visited them on the evening of that most decisive of all days, in order to make that doom the disciplinary medium of his love. This visitation of Jehovah- Elohim was the first step, in the history of re- demption, towards the goal of the incarnation ; and the so-called protevangelium was the first laying of the foundation towards this goal of in- carnation and the recovery of man. The way of this salvation, making its way in history and m the consciousness of men, runs all through Israel ; and the Psalms show us how this seed-corn of words and deeds of divine love has expanded with a vital energy in the believing hearts of Israel. They bear the impress of the period during which the preparation of the way of salvation was cen- tred in Israel, and the hope of redemption was a national hope. At that period the promise of the future Mediator was in its third stage. The hope of overcoming the tendency in mankind to be led astray into evil was attached to the seed of the woman, and the hope of a blessing for all nations, to the seed of Abraham ; but at this period, when David became the creator of psalm-poesy for the sanctuary service, the promise had assumed a messianic character, and pointed the hope of the believing ones towards the king of Israel, and, m fact, to David and his seed. When Solomon ascended the throne, the messianic desires and hopes of Israel were directed towards him, as Ps. Ixxii. shows : they belonged only to the one final Christ of God, but they clung for a time inquir- ingly, on the ground of 2 Sam. viii., to the son of David. But it was soon found out that neither in Solomon, nor in that son of David referred to in Ps. xlv., the full reality of the messianic idea had yet appeared ; and when, in the later time of the kings, the Davidic line became more and more inconsistent with its theocratic calling, the mes- sianic hope broke entirely with the present, which became merely the dark background from which the image of the Messiah, as purely future, stood forth in relief. The son of David, in whom the prophecy of the later time of the kings centres, and whom also Pa. ii. sets forth before the kings of the earth, that they may render homage to him, is an eschatological character. But why is it, that, in the post-exile hymns, Messiah is no more the object of prophecy and hope? Because, with the Chaldsean catastrophe, the messianic hope had suffered a heavy shock, which made it unpopular. This we als'o find in prophecy ; for in Isa. xl.-lxvi., where the Messiah appears as the servant of Jehovah, the image is no more as it was before, i.e., a clear, national image of the king, but it is enriched by many points, as the ex- piatory sufferiilgs and the two states, whereby it has become more universal, spiritual, and divine. Thus we find it more or less in Zechariah, Mala- chi, and in Daniel's Apocalypse. And although we find nowhere in the Psalms an echo of this advanced messianic ijrediction, yet there are not a few psalms, as Ixxxv., xci., cii., especially xcvi.- xcviii., which have been written under the in- fluence of Isa. xl.-lxvi. We call these psalms, in distinction from the strictly messianic ones, theocratic, i.e., such as do not speak of the king- dom of Jehovah's Anointed, but of the theocracy as such, which is complete inwardly and out- wardly in its own representation of itself, — not of the advent of a human king, but of Jehovah himself, with the kingdom of God manifest in its glory. For the announcement of salvation in the Old Testament runs on in two parallel lines : the one has as its termination the Anointed of Jehovah, who rules all nations out of Zion ; the other, Jehovah, sitting above the cherubim, to whom all the earth does homage. These two lines do not meet in the Old Testament: it is only the fulfilment that makes it plain that the advent of the Anointed and that of Jehovah is one and the same. And of these two lines the divine preponderates in the Psalter : the hope is directed, after the cessation of the kingdom in Israel, beyond the human mediation, directly to- wards Jehovah, the author of salvation. The Messiah is not yet recognized as the God-man. Jesus is in Jehovah. Jehovah is the Saviour. The Saviour, when he shall appear, is nothing but the visible manifestation of the rii'lty" (salvation) of Jehovah (Isa. slix. 6). As to the relation of the Psalms to sacrifices, it is true we find passages in which the legal sacri- fice is acknowledged as an act of worship on the part of the individual and of the congregation (Ps. Ixvi. 15, li. 19) ; but there are many more pas- sages in which it appears as something not at all desired by God (xl. 7 sq., 1., li. 18 sq.) ; but in this respect the Psalms show the progress of the history of salvation. It is a continuation of the words of Samuel (1 Sam. xv. 22 sq.) : we feel already something of the spirit of the N"ew Testa- ment. In place 6f sacrifices is required contri- tion of heart, prayer, thanksgiving, yielding one's self to God in the doing of his will, as Prov. xxi. 3, to do right, Hos. vi. 6, kindness, Mie. vi. 6-8, acting justly, love, and humility, Jer. vii. 21-23, obedience. This is what surprises one. The disparaged sacrifice is regarded only as a symbol, not, as a type : it is only considered in its ethical character, not in its relation to the history of re- demption. Its nature is unfolded only so far as it is a gift to God (pip), not so far as the offering is appointed for atonement (mi!3) : in one word, the mystery of the blood remains undisclosed. And why? Because the bloody sacrifice, as such, in the Old Testament, remains a question, to which only Isa. lii. 1 3 sq. gives the only distinct answer. The prophetic i-epresentation of the passion and sacrifice of Christ is only given in direct prophetic language thus late on ; and it is only the evangeli- cal history of the fulfilment that shows how ex- actly the spirit which spoke by David has moulded that which ho says concerning himself, the type, PSALMS. 1957 PSALMS. into correspondence with the antitype. The con- fidence of faith under the Old Testament, as it is found in the Psalms, rested upon Jehovah, as con- cerning the atonement, so concerning the redemp- tion. Jehovah is not only Saviour, but also the Atoner (n3ja), from whom expiation is earnestly sought and hoped for (Ps. Ixxix. 9, Ixv. 4, Ixxviii. 38, Ixxxv. 2, etc.). Jehovah, at the end of his course of the redemptive history, is the God-man; and the blood given by him as the medium of atonement (Lev. xvii. 11) is, in the antitype, his own blood. As to the moral self-confidence bordering on self-righteousness, and the imprecations found so often in the Psalms, which makes it difficult to amalgamate the prayers of the Psalms with the Christian consciousness, it must be observed that the self-righteousness here is a mere appearance, since the righteousness to which the psalmists ap- peal is not a sum of good works which are rec- koned up before God as claiming a reward, but a godly du-ection of the will, and a godly form of Ufe, which has its root in the surrender of one's whole self to God, and regards itself as the opera- tion and work of justifying, sanctifying, preserv- ing, and ruling grace (Ixxiii. 25 sq., xxv. 5-7, xix. 14, and other passages). There is not wanting an acknowledgment of the innate sinfulness of our nature (li. 7), of the condemnation of man before Grod apart from his grace (cxliii. 2), of the many, and, for the most part, unperceived sins, even of the converted (xix. 13), of the forgiveness of sins as a fundamental condition of salvation (xxxii. 1 sq.), of the necessity of regeneration (li. 12), in short, of the way of salvation, which consists of penitential contrition, pardon, and newness of life. As for the so-called imprecatory psalms, the Chris- tian and the Church wish the conversion of the enemies of Christ ; but, suppose that they reject all means (vii. 13, ix. 21), the transition from a feeling of love to that of wrath is also warranted in the Xew Testament (e.g.. Gal. v. 12), and, as- suming their absolute satanic hardness of heart, the Christian also may pray for their final over- throw. Where, however, as in Ps. Ixix. and cix., the imprecations go into particulars, and extend to the descendants of the unfortunate, and even on to eternity, they have emanated from a pro- phetic spirit ; and, for the Christian, they admit of no other acceptation, except as, reiterating them, he gives the glory to the justice of God, and com- mends himseM the more earnestly to his favor. As for the relation of the Psalms to the last things, the hope of eternal life after death is nowhere definitely expressed, but there are, never- theless, passages in which the hope of not fall- ing a prey to death is expressed so broadly, that the thought of a final destiny of all men being inevitable is completely swallowed up by the living one's confidence of living in the strength of God (Ps. Ivi. 13, and especially xvi. 9-11) ; passages in which the covenant relation with Jehovah is con- trasted with this present life and its possession, in such a manner that the opposite of a life extending beyond the present time is implied (xvii. 14 sq., Ixiii. 4) ; passages in wh^ch the end of the ungodly is compared with the end of the righteous, as death and life, defeat and triumph (xlix. 15), so that the inference forces itself upon one, that the former die, although they seem to live forever, and the latter live forever, though they die ; passages in which the Psalmist, though only by way of allu^ sion, looks forward to a being borne away to God, like Enoch and Elijah (xlix. 14, Ixxiii. 24). No> where, however, is there any general creed to be found ; but we see how the belief in a future life struggles to be free, at first only as an individual conclusion of the believing mind from premises which experience has established ; and, far from the grave being penetrated by a glimpse of heaven , it has, on the contrary, to the ecstasy of the life derived from God, as it were, altogether vanished ; for life in opposition to death only appears as the lengthening of the line of the present acl infinilum. On the other hand, death and life in the mind of the psalmists are such deep-rooted notions (i.e., taken hold of at the very roots, which are grounded in the principles of divine wrath and divine love), that it is easy for the New-Testament faith, to which they have become clear, even to their back- ground of hell and heaven, to adjust and deepen the meaning of all utterances in the Psalms that refer to them. It is by no means contrary to the meaning of the Psalmist, when, as in passages like vi. 5, Gehenna is substituted for Hades to adapt it to the Kew-Testament saint; because, since the descent of Jesus Christ into Hades, there is no longer any linibus patrum. The way of all who die in the Lord is not earthwards, but upwards : Hades exists only as the vestibule of hell. Kor is it contrary to the idea of the poets to think of the future vision of God's face m all its gloiy, in Ps. xvii. 15, and of the resurrection morn, in Ps. xlix. 14; for the hopes expressed there, though to the Old-Testament consciousness they referred to this side the grave, are future according to theu" New-Testament fulfilment, which is the only truly satisfying one. The innermost essence of both Testaments is one. The Old-Testament barrier contains already the germinating New-Testament life, which at a future time shall burst it. The eschatology of the Old Testament leaves a dark background, which, as is designed, is divided by the New-Testament revelation into light and dark- ness, and is to be illumined into a wide perspec- tive, extending into the eternity beyond time. Everywhere, where it begins to dawn in this eschatological darkness of the Old Testament, it is the first morning rays of the New-Testament sunrise which is already announcing itself. The Church, as well as the Christian, here cannot re- frain from leaping the barrier of the psalmists, and understanding the Psalms according to the mind of the Spii'it, whose purpose, in the midst of the development of salvation and of the per- ception of it, is directed towards its goal and con- summation. But the scientific exposition must carefully distinguish between the times of the history of salvation, and the degrees in the per- ception of that salvation. How late this object of scientific exposition has been perceived wiU be seen by reviewing, — 9. The History of the Exposition of the Psalms. We begin (a) with The Apostolic Exposition. The Old Testament is, according to its essence, Chris- tocentric : therefore the innermost truth of the Old Testament has become known with the reve- lation of Jesus Christ, but not at once. His pas- sion, resurrection, ascension, are but three steps of this progressive opening of the Old Testament, PSALMS. 1958 PSALMS. especially of the Psalms. Before and after his resurrection he unfolded the meaning of the Psalms from his own life and vicissitudes; he showed how what was written in the law of moses, and in the Prophets and in the Psalms, was fulfilled in him ; he revealed to his disciples the meaning of rou amiivai tu; ypa^ug (Luke xxiv. 44 sq.). Jesus Christ's exposition of the Psalms is the beginning and goal of Christian psalm-inter- pretation. It began, as that of the Church, and first of all as the apostolic, with the Pentecost ; and how strongly the disciples were drawn to the Psalms, we see from the fact, that, with the excep- tion of the Book of Isaiah, no other book of the Old Testament has been cited so often as the Book of Psalms. It is quoted about seventy times in the Ifew Testament, (i) The Post-Apostolic, Pa- tristic Exposition. With the exception of Origen and Jerome, the interpreters of the early Church had no knowledge of the Hebrew, and even these two not sufficient to free themselves from a de- pendence upon the LXX. Of Origeu's Com- mentary and Homilies on the Psalms, we have fragments in the translation of Rufiuus. From Jerome, we have an excellent translation of the Psalter {Psalterium juxta Hebrceos, piiblished in the Hebrew-Latin Psalterium, edited by Tischendorf, Baer, Delitzsch, Leipzig, 1874, and by De Lagarde, after his own recension, Leipzig, 1874). This Psalterium is the most important work of the pa- tristic period. Athanasius wrote on the contents of the Psalms in his epistle ^^poc MopKeVuvov elg T^v ip/ij/vsiav Tuv TpaXiiuv, translated into Latin by Eeuchlin, and from the Latin into German by Jorg Spalatin (1516). About the time of Athanasius, Hilarius Pictavieusis wrote his Tractatus super Psalmos, with an extensive prologue. We still have his exposition of Ps. i., ii., ix., xiii., xiv., li., lii., liii.-lxix., xci., cxviii.-cl. (according to the numbering of the Septuagint), which is more use- ful for the dogmatic theologian than for the exe- gete. Of somewhat later date are Ambrose's Enarrationes in Ps. i., sxxv.-xl., xliii., xlv., xlvii., xlviii., Ixi., cxviii. (tome ii. of the Benedictine edition). The most comprehensive work of the early Church on the Psalms was that of Chrysos- tom, of which only the third part is still extant. It is composed in the form of homilies : the style is brilliant, the contents more ethical than dog- matic. The only representative of the school of Antioch is Theodoret ; but his work is a mere be- ginning, and therefore defective throughout. The Western counterpart to Chrysostom's Commentary are Augustine's Enarrationes in Psalmos (in tome iv. of the Benedictine edition), the chief mine of all later exposition in the Western Church. Cassio- dorus, in his Exposiliones in omnes Psalmos (tome ii. of the Benedictine edition), draws largely from Augustine, though not devoid of independence. What the Greek Church has done for the exposi- tion of the Psalms has been garnered up many times since Photius, in the so-called Catenae: one, extending to Ps. 1., was published at Venice, 1569 ; another, more complete, was edited, in 3 vols., by the Jesuit Corderius, Antwerp, 1643. From the Catena of Nicetas Heracleota, Folckmann pub- lished extracts in 1601. But, in spite of all de- fects which we find in these works, it must be said that the Church has never found such rapturous delight in the Psalms, which it was never weary of singing day and night, never used them with richer results, even to martyrdom, than at that period. Instead of profane popular songs, as one passed through the country one might hear psalms resounding over the fields and vineyards. And how many martyrs have endured every form of martyi-dom with psalms upon their lips! That which the Church in those days failed to furnish in writing towards the exposition of the Psalms, it more than compensated for by preserving the vitality of the Psalms with its blood, (c) The Medimval Church Exposition did not make any essential advance upon the patristic, (d) The Mediceval Synagogue Exposition is wanting in the recognition of Christ, and consequently in the fundamental condition required for a spiritual vmderstanding of the Psalms. The midrash on the Psalms, entitled OlD iniiy, and the midrashic Catenae entitled DlpT, of which at present only ''Jl;?DtS' DlpV (by Simeon Kara ha-Darshan), and not the 'lOD !31pS' (by Machir ben abba Mari), is known, are of little use. With the study and cul- tivation of the grammar, about the year 900 A.D., exposition and exegesis also commenced among the Jews. At the head of this period of Jewish exegesis we find Saadia Gaon (d. 941, 942), author of an Arabic translation of and exposition on the Psalms. The next great expositor who wrote on the whole of the Old Testament (with the excep- tion of Chronicles) and on almost the whole of the Talmud is Rashi (d. 1105). Nicolaus de Lyra (d. 1340), author of Postillce perpetuce, made use of tlie works by Jewish expositors. Lyra and Paul de Santa Maria, Archbishop of Burgos (d. 1435), the author of the Addiciones ad Lyram, were both Jewish Christians. Less dependent upon tradi- tion are Aben-Ezra (d. 1167) and David Kimchi (d. about 1250) ; the Karaite Jephet, from whose Commentary on the Psalms De Barges' published some fragments (1846), was Aben-Ezra's teacher. Compared with other books, the Psalms were less commented upon by the Jews. In later commen- taries, as in that of Moses Alsheoh (Venice, 1601) and Joel Shoeb (Salonichi, 1569), the simplicity and elegance of the older expositors degenerate into a repulsive scholasticism. The simple though mystical commentary of Obadiah Sforno (d. at Bologna, 1550), the teacher of Reuchlin, makes an exception, (e) The Reformation Exposition. With the Reformation the rose-garden of the Psalter began to breathe forth its perfumes as with re- newed freshness of a May day ; for, converted into imperishable hymns (by Luther, Albinus, Franok, Gerhard, Jonas, Musculus, Ringwaldt, and others), it was transferred into the psalmody of the Ger- man Lutheran Church. In the French Reformed Church, Clement Marot translated into verse fifty psalms ; two were added by Calvin, and the rest by Beza; while Goudimel, the martyr of St. Bartholo- mew's night, and teacher of Palestrina, composed the melodies and chorals. The English Church adopted the Psalms as part of its Liturgy: the Congregational followed the example of the Con- tinental sister-churches. And how diligently was the Psalter moulded into Latin verse ! But the exegetical functions of ' psalm-exposition have been more clearly apprehended and more happily discharged than ever before. Luther's interpre- tation of the Psalms, in spite of its deficiencies, PSALMS. 1959 PSALMS. excels every thing hitherto produced, and is still a perpetual mine of wealth. M. Butzer's Com- mentary (1520) is distinguished by sagacity and delicacy of judgment. Calvin's exposition has many excellencies ; but his deficiency consists in denying the messianic relation, even in those psalms which the modern rationalistic exegesis must even acknowledge. Calvin's strict historical method of interpretation becomes a caricature in Esrom Riidinger, the Moravian. {/) The Post- Reformation Exposition is best represented by Martin Geier, more dogmatist, however, than exe- gete. In the Reformed Church we find Coccejus (d. 1669). Johann Heinrich Michaelis represents, in his Adnolationes uberiores in Hagiographa, the exposition of the Psalms from 1600 to 1750 : every thing is accumulated here; the glossarial annotations groan beneath the burden of num- berless iinsifted examples and parallel passages. After 1750 Burk published his Gnomon to the Psalms (1740), and Christian A. Crusius, his Hy- pomnemala (1764) : both follow Bengel's principles. To have freed the psalm-exposition from want of taste is the merit of Herder ; and the merit of Hengstenberg consists in having brought it back, out of this want of spirituality, to the believing consciousness of the Church, {g) Modern Exposi- tion is marked by De Wette's Commentary, which was first published in 1811 (ed. by G. Baur, 1856), and forms an epoch in exegesis. The negative criticism of De Wette was supplemented by the positive results of Hitzig (1835, 1836), who was followed by Lengerke (1847) and J. Olshausen (1853), but with this difference, that, while Len- gerke surpasses Hitzig by asserting that not a single psalm can be ascribed with certainty to David, Olshausen finds Maccabean influences wherever the opposition of the just and unjust is mentioned. But, though excellent in linguistic respect, yet Olshausen's Commentary is surpassed by that of Hupfeld (1855, 1858 sq.). Beside all these works, Ewald's Commentary (1839, 1840) has a special charm. The merit of having per- ceived fully the object of the expositor, and having explained the Psalms in the spirit of the Church, and thus in truly spiritual rapport with the spirit of the psalmists, belongs to the much abused name of Hengstenberg (1842-47, 2d ed., 1849-52). The kindred spirited works of Umbreit {Christ- liche Erhauung aus dem Psalter, 1835) and Stier {Siehenzig Psalmen, 1834, 1836) comprise only a part of the Psalms. The Commentary, of Tholuck (1843) is adapted to gain friends for the Psalms from among the educated classes. The same may be said also of Vaihinger's Commentary (1845). A second edition of Hupfeld's Commen- tary was published by Riehm in 1867-71 : a third is to be prepared by Eb. Nestle. For Lange's BibeliBork, Moll wrote the theologico-homiletical exposition of the Psalter, 1869-71 [Eng. trans. New York, 1872]. The German predecessors to Moll have been made use of in the excellent Commentary on the Psalms by J. J. Stewart Perowne (1864, 1868). In Holland, the General Synod of the Reformed Church adopted in 1855 the resolution of preparing a commentary on the Old Testament. The Psalms were given to John Dyserinck, and his work was published in 1877. In 1878 he also published Kritische Scholien bij de Vertaling van het boek der Psalmen, containing emendations on 250 passages. Degenerated be- yond measure is the critico-conjectural tendency in Graetz's (the Jewish historian) critical Com- mentary on the Psalms (1882, 1883, 2 vols.). To exegesis and textual criticism this scholar has evidently no call. A more pleasing and intelli- gent work is the fifth part of the Biblical Com- mentary by the veteran Ed. Reuss, who treats of the Psalms and Lamentations under the main title of Poe'sie Lyrique (2d ed., 1879). He refuses to assign any date to almost all the Psalms (Geschichte des Alten Testaments, 1881, § 157), and doubts that "we have Davidic psalms at all." Stade also (Zeitschrift, 1882, p. 166) declares the Psalter to be the product of post-exile Judaism, and asserts that each and every psalm must be re- garded as post-exilic, unless the contrary is proved. The critical stand-point of an Ewald and Hitzig, who, like Herrn. Schultz in his O. T. Theol. (2d ed., 1878, pp. 84 sq.), acknowledge a group of real psalms of David, is thus surpassed ; and freer scope is now left to the modern reconstruction of the re- ligious history of Israel according to the Darwin- istic pattern. feais^z delitzsch. (B. pick.) The English literature on the Psalms embraces translations of the Commentaries by Hengsten- berg (Edinb., 1845-48, 3 vols.), Tholuck (by J. I. Mombert, Lond., 1856, N.Y., 1858), Delitzsch (Edinb., 1871, 3 vols.), Moll (in Lange Series, N.Y. and Edinb., 1872) ; original works by Horne (Lond., 1776, 2 vols., many eds., e.g., N.Y., 1865), HoRSLEY (Lond., 1815, 2 vols., 4th ed., 1845), J. A. Alexander (N.Y., 1850, 3 vols)., Perowne (Lond., 1864-68, 2 vols., 4th ed., 1878-79), Plumer (N.Y., 1867), Barnes (N.Y., 1809, 3 vols.), Spurgeon (^Treasury of David, homiletical, Lond., and N.Y., 1870-84, 7 vols.), W. Kay (Lond., 1871), J. G. Murphy (Edinb., 1875), Fausset (Lond., 1877), D. Thomas (Lond., 1882 sqq.). '\\'orks upon Individual Psalms or Groups of Psalms. — Sir Richard Baker : Meditations and Disquisitions on the First and Seven Penitential Psalms, Lond., 1640, rep. 1882 ; John Brown : The Sufferings and Glories of the Messiah (Ps. xviii.), Edinb., 1853 ; James Morgan : The Penitent (Ps. li.), Belfast and Lond., 1855 ; Charles Bridges ; Exposition of the 119th Psalm, Lond., 22d ed., 1857, N.Y., 1867; Samuel Cox: The Pilgrim Psalms, an Exposition of the Songs of Degrees, Lond. and N.Y., 1874. Works upon the Psalms as a whole. — T. W. Chambers : The Psalter a Witness to the Divine Origin of the Bible, N.Y., 1876; William Alexander : The Witness of the Psalms to Christ and Christianity, Lond., 1877, 2d ed., 1878; T. C. Murray : Origin and Growth of the Psalms, N.Y., 1880. PSALMS, Use of the, in Worship. There are professing Christians, not a few, who believe, that, in the exercise of praising God directly or for- mally, the inspired Psalter, that is, the canonical Book of Psalms, only, should be used, or at least should be used to the exclusion of all uninspired songs. At present this position is held by the United Presbyterian Church of North America, the Asso- ciate Presbyterian Church of North America, the Associate Reformed Synod of the South (U. S.), the Reformed Presbyterians (commonly called Covenanters) of Scotland, Ireland, and America, the United Original Secession Church of Scotland, PSALMS. 1960 PSALMS. and, we believe, the General Synod of the Chris- tian Reformed Church of Holland. In the Pres- byterian Church in Ireland, the only authorized manual of praise is the Book of Psalms ; although, in many congregations of that church, "para- phrases " of other parts of Scripture, and a few uninspired hymns which have never received the sanction of the Church, are also used. In the AV^al- densian Church, so far as the original congrega- tions in the Piedmoutese valleys ai'e concerned, the Psalms only are used in praising God, or at least were till very recently ; but, in the mission congregations of that church in other parts of Italy, uninspired hymns have been introduced. In all the Presbyterian churches of Scotland, Can- ada, the United States, and Australia, there is a considerable number of persons who favor the view that only the Psalms should be used in the service of praise. Among those who advocate the exclusive use of inspired songs in praising God, some (a small minority, it is believed) hold, that, besides the Psalter, other parts of Scripture may warrantably be employed in that exercise. It is, moreover, to be observed that the advocates of Scripture Psalmody do not object absolutely to the use of iminspired hynms as a means of exciting and expressing pious feeling ; their objection being to the use ot such compositions in the direct and proper worship of God. Some of the considerations urged in favor of restriction to the Psalms are here subjoined. 1. To worship God otherwise than he has ap- pointed is " will-worship," more or less gross. The law regulative of worship is not that we may use both what is commanded and what is not ex- pressly forbidden, but that we must be limited to the use of what is either expressly or implicitly appointed by God (Deut. xii. 32 ; Matt. xv. 9, xxviii. 20). 2. To the Old-Testament Church God gave inspired songs, and prescribed the use of them in worship. 3. There is no evidence that God ever author- ized his ancient people to employ in the stated service of song any other hymns than those final- ly collected into one book, that of Psalms. 4. This book continues to be the only divinely authorized hymn-book of the church. It is more suited to the present dispensation than it was even to the past. It is full of Christ, as the early Chris- tian writers asserted vigorously. From the most devout Christians of the last eighteen centuries the highest eulogies of the Psalms have pro- ceeded. Of the right and obligation to use the Psalms in praise, there has been no repeal. No substitute, no supplement, has been furnished or authorized by God. At the institution of the Supper, Christ and his disciples " hymned." It is generally admitted that the hymns used on the oc- casion were the Psalms, extending from Ps. cxiii. to Ps. cxviii. inclusive. Our l^ord thus wedded together the Supper and the Psalms, and authori- tatively transferred the Psalms to the worship of the New-Testament Church. By apostolic authority the use of the Psalms in praising God is clearly enjoined in Eph. v. 19 and Col. iii. 16. It is urged, indeed, that, in these texts, the use of " hymns " and " spiritual songs " is also enjoined, and therefore that unin- spired odes may warrantably be employed in for- mal praise. The reply made to this is, that it assumes with- out proof that the " hymns " and " songs " meant are uninspired compositions ; that the argument, if valid, would prove that it is sinful not to use uninspired hymns ; that the direction given is not to prepare hymns, but only to sing them ; that the epithet " spiritual," applied to the songs, marks them as emphatically the product of the Spirit, that is, as inspired, and not merely devotional (1 Cor. ii. 13, xiv. 1) ; that it is difficult to be- lieve that the apostle placed inspired and unin- spired compositions on the same level; that, if psalms differ materially from hymns and songs, these latter must differ from each other, whereas, no distinction is made between them practically by hymn-singers ; that the advocates of an un- inspired hymnology seem to admit that psalms may fitly be called hymns, for psalms may be found in many popular collections styled Hymnals or Hyvin-hoohs ; and that in the Septuagint ver- sion of the Old Testament, the version used by the Christians of Ephesus and Colosse, the three terms which the apostle uses are employed to designate the Psalms, while, moreover, Josephus, a contemporary of Paul, frequently styles the Psalms " hymns," and expressly says that David wrote " ddilg els debv adi vfivovg" that is, " SODgS and hymns to God" (Ant., 7, 12, 3). 5. If other hymns than those of the Psalter were used in the Apostolic Church, some of them would surely have survived. But not even one has certainly come down from the first two centuries. The earliest Christian hymn extant is believed to be that to the Lor/os, attributed to Clemens Alexandrinus, who died about 220 A.D. ; but there is no evidence that it was ever used in the express worship of God. It needs to be noted that the mere existence of a hymn, or the fact that it was sung devotionally, is no proof that it was used in formal worship. During, at least, the first four centuries, the Psalms were pre-eminently used in worship ; and the earliest departures from them, so far as the Orthodox were concerned, consisted in the chanting of fragments culled from other parts of Scripture, as if, in the heart of the church, the feeling existed, that, in praising God, inspired compositions only should be employed. 6. The fact that God gave to the church a psalm-book, but not a prayer-book, seems to teach that between prayer and praise there is such a difference, that the right to make our own prayers does not warrant the conclusion that we have the right to worship God with hymns uninspired. 7. The aid of the Spirit is promised in reference to prayer, but no such aid in reference to hymn- making, a much more difficult operation. 8. The inspired Psalter is the true Union Hymnr book. Prepared, as it was, by the Spirit, it meets the wants of all Christians, while, moreover, it forms a golden link between the church of the past dispensation and that of the present. Lit. — William Annamn : Letters on Psalmody, Pittsburgh, Penn. ; Vindication of Letters on Psalm- ody, Pittsburgh, 1866 ; John Muirhead : The Dicine Institution of singing the Psalms of David, Montrose, 1790 ; John Anderson : Vindicim Can- tus Dominici,1800; Gilbert McMaster : Apology for the Book of Psalms, Philadelphia, 1852; The PSALMS. 1961 PSEUDBPIGRAPHA, True Psalmody, Philadelphia, 1860; William BiNNiE : The Psalms, their History, Teachings, and Use, London, 1870 ; Bishop Alexander : Witness of the Psalms to Christ, 1877. JAMES HARPER. Instrumental Music in Worship. Those churches which reject uninspired hymns, though not they only, have hitherto been noted for a re- pugnance to the use of instrumental music in worship : hence a brief statement of the anti- instrumental line of argument may not unfitly be appended to the sketch given of the arguments against uninspired hymns. Anti-instrumentalists commonly reason thus: — 1. In the matter of worship, our gi-eat inquiry should be, " What has God appointed ? " Any form of worship not appointed is forbidden. 2. That only which is necessary to the suitable observance of a prescribed form of worship can be regarded as a circumstance needing no explicit appointment. If so, instrumental music is not a circumstance of worship. 3. Though divinely prescribed in the Old Dis- pensation, instrumental music was not intended to form an element of Xew-Testament worship ; for (1) It is in keeping with the sensuousness which distinguished the Old Dispensation from the New. (2) It pertained to the transient ceremonial sys- tem of the Israelites. The temple was the seat, and Levites the performers, of the instrumental service. Even if practised elsewhere and by others, it could still be deemed ceremonial ; for the rites of the ceremonial system were not limited to the precincts of the tabernacle, or the temple. The Psalms, indeed, which by divine authority are still sung, enjoin the use of instruments, but so do they the use of sacrifices ; while, besides, an injunction is more than a permission, which is all for which most instrumentalists contend. (3) The Xew Testament is unfavorable to the view that instrumental music is among the ap- pointments of New-Testament worship. At the institution of the Supper, Christ and his disciples " hymned," but used no instruments. If, in the most sacred of our observances, instrumental music may be wisely dispensed with, why not in all? Sanction of instrumental music in worship is supposed by many to be found in Eph. v. 19 and Col. iii. 16, where occurs the word ipuTilu, which, it is alleged, means to sing with the accompani- ment of a harp. But this argument would prove that it is as much a duty to play as to sing in wor- ship. It is questionable whether, as used in the New Testament, i/'uA;U) means more than to sing. But, even admitting that it retains an instru- mental allusion, we may hold, with Meyer and others, that it does so only figuratively ; the heart being the seat or the instrument of the action in- dicated. The absence of instrumental music from the worship of the church for some centuries after the apostles, and the sentiment regarding it which pervades the writings of the Fathers, are unac- countable, if in the apostolic church such music was used. Lit. — In Favor of Instrumental Music. Alex- ander Fleming: Letters and Answers, 1808; Anonymous : Organs and Presbyterians, Edin- bm-gh, 1829; D. F. Bonner: Instrumental Music divinely authorized in the Worship of God, Roches- ter, N.Y., 1881. Against Instrumental Music. John Calvin : Commentary on Psalm cl. ; Gisbek- T0S VoETiDS : Politicm EccL, vol. i. lib. 2, tract. 2, cap. 2, Amsterdam, 1663 ; James Begg : The Use of Organs in Christian Worshij) Indefensible, Glasgow, 1866 ; James Glasgow : Heart and Voice, Belfast, 1874 (?) ; D. W. Collins : Musical Instruments in Divine Worship condemned by the Word of God, Pittsbui'gh, Penn., 1881 ; James Harper : A Counterblast to the Organ, New York, 1881. JAMES harper (Professor of Theologj-, U. P. Theol. Seminary, Xeoia, O.). PSALTER, technically the Book of Psalms ar- ranged for use in worship. So in the Roman- Catholic Church the Psalter presents the Psalms distributed to fit diflerent services. In the Prayer- Book, the Psalms are divided into sections for reading in daily morning or evening service. The translation is that of the Great Bible (Cranmer's, 1539). PSELLUS, b. in Constantinople about 1020; studied in Athens ; held for many years the first chair in philosophy in his native citj', and was appointed tutor to the imperial princes, but lost the favor of the court after the death of Jlichael Ducas, and retired in 1078 to a monastery, where he died after 1105. He was a very prolific writer, and wrote on metaphysics, logic, mathematics, physics, jurisprudence, medicine, etc. His prin- cipal works are, De omnifaria doctrina, a meta- physical exposition of the fundamental ideas of all science ; De dcemonum operatione, a dialogue edited by Boissonade (Paris, 1838) ; and, of special interest for the study of the sect of the Euchites, a comparison between the ancient Christian and Pagan orators, etc. All his works are found collected in Migne : Pair. Grmca, vol. 122. See Leo Allatius : Diatriba de Psellis (Paris, 1864), who mentions five other writers of the same name. gass. PSEWDEPIGRAPHA OF THE OLD TESTA- MENT. After a careful examination of the scope of the biblical canon, the ancient church divided the mass of biblical literature, in the widest sense of the word, into three classes ; viz., (1) The ca- nonical and inspired ; (2) The non-canonical, but, on account of their long use, Worthy of being read in the churches (JivTiTis-ydfieva and uvayiyvuaKo- fieva, £KK?.jjaLa^6fieva) ■ and (3) The other books of a biblical character in circulation (biblical name in the .title, a biblical form, biblical contents, but differing greatly in spirit and truth from the ca- nonical books), called secret, and such that should be kept secret (amKpv(pa). Virtually the same books which the ancient church called Apocrypha are embraced under the name Pseudepigrapha by the Protestant Church. Since, after the example of Jerome, the non-ca- nonical books of the Old Testament received the name Apocrypha, it became necessary to find a new one for the third class. The name -iptvdeni. ypaipov is indeed taken only from a single and out- ward mark ; namely, the spurious character of the author's name which they bear. It is neither suf- ficiently comprehensive, nor does it distinguish sufficiently this class of writings from theanti- legomena ; nor is it applicable to all the writings of the third class. For many reasons, however, it is probably the best term that could be found. PSBUDBPIGRAPHA. 1962 PSBUDBPIGRAPHA . The pseudepigrapha ave divided into those of the Old, and those of the New Testament ; the former embracing all those that claim to have been written by an Old-Testament personage, whether the contents be of a Jewish or of a Christian character; the latter embracing those pretending to be gospels, epistles, revelations, etc., of New-Testament characters. The latter class could probably better be called Apocrypha of the New Testament (in the old sense of the word). In the following will be found a bird's-eye view of the Old-Testament pseudepigrapha, both of those that are still preserved, and of those whose name alone we know. We preface a few general remarks on the origin and development of this whole class of literature. The rapid growth and spread of pseudepigraphic literature among the Jews and Christians in the last century be- fore, and the early centuries after, Christ, is a pe- culiar phenomenon, for which other nations (e.g., the Indian) have only distant analogies; which is all the more remarkable, because such writings are in direct contradiction to the duty of strict truthfulness demanded by both Mosaism and Christianity. That these books were used only in sectarian circles cannot be proved. It is true that heretics in the early days of the church fre- quently adopted this method of promulgating their errors ; but this was already the period of the decay of this literature : and we must remember, on the other hand, that, in the course of the centuries during which it flourished, it generally was employed for honorable and usually noble purposes, and by members of the orthodox church at that. There is no doubt that their origin is not to be explained as an imitation of the secret books in possession of the priests of the Gentile temples, but that they are the outgrowth of the peculiarity and life of the Jewish congregation, and were then transferred to the Christian Church. Above all, we must remember that it was the cus- tom of Jewish writers not to prefix their, names to their productions, as these were written for the service of the congregation, and not for fame, ex- cept in the case of prophets, where the person of the prophet was guaranty for the truth of the reve- lation. Thus the names of the authors of nearly all other books, even of such having the literary finish of a Job, have been hidden from posterity. This custom of omitting tiie author's name ex- plains, to some extent, the origin of writings under a strange name. The other weighty reason lies in the inner rupture in the spiritual life of the Jews, which began already before the captivity, but showed itself in great potency in the first cen- turies of the New Jerusalem. With the ruin of the old political and religious organization, and the sufferings under heathen supremacy, the free- dom of the spirit was also broken, the Holy Spirit of revelation withdrew, the state of affairs among the fathers and the doctrines of former days be- came the decisive rule for the new; and as all this led to the formation of a canon in the first centu- ries after the exile, thus it also increased the rev- erence for the old history, the old persons and writings, so much, that these ruled and decided the whole spiritual life of the people. The ex- amination, study, and application of the sacred writings, were the fundamental objects of these times. Although, through association with other nations and educational forces (Persians, Greeks Romans), and through a more systematic and a deeper investigation of the old books, new knowl- edge and aims were born, and although, in ex- traordinary and dangerous times, prominent men would feel themselves called upon to speak to the congregation, yet the lack of personal influence always induced such authors to put their thoughts and words into the moutli of some pious hero of antiquity, and conform the shape and style of their writings to those of the Old Testament. A thorough acquaintance with these latter facili- tated the application of their contents to later circumstances. Such revivification of ancient persons, and making them the bearers of later thoughts, are common to all literatures ; and it was but one step farther to ascribe a whole book to them. In many respects it can be compared with the dramatic works of other nations. But to call such writings simply fraudulent cannot be justified ; as they were not necessarily written with such intent, and the knowledge of their late ori- gin was constantly present to the minds of the readei's. But the danger of leaving a false im- pression existed for the. contemporaries, — indeed small, but constantly growing with time, especial- ly when Christianity brought these later spiritual productions of the Jews to nations who did not understand them. The opposition of the early Christian Church against such books can thus be easily understood. But theological science must investigate, and make all possible use of them. The pseudepigraphical form was chiefly adopted for the purpose of exhortation, instruction, and consolation in the great trials and troubles of post-exilic days. These writings seek to be for the present what the prophets were for the past, and accordingly they mostly have a prophetic character. Some, however, appear as apocalypses, in imitation of the Book of Daniel. In addition to this class of literature, there was one of a similar kind ; namely, that of the hagga- dic Midrash, of which there are many representa- tives. These embrace a vast number of explana- tions, stories, narratives, and the like, concerning biblical persons, events, etc., which arose in the course of time by help of the imagination or exe- getical play and tricks. The production of fables and stories began early among the Israelites, and continued down to the middle ages. The Targu- mim, Midrash, and Talmudic writings bear ample testimony to this fact; and our pseudepigrapha contain much of such materials. With the rise of Christianity, a new element was introduced into this literature, and contribut- ed to its growth and development. The Essenes were not, as is frequently stated, the mediums which transferred this class of writing's into the Christian territory. There is no historical evidence for this, not even in Josephus. But Jewish-Christian pseudepigrapha flourished most abundantly among the Judaizing sects and the Gnosticism arising from them, especially in Asia Minor and Egypt. In the hands of the sects and heretics they later became instruments for dan- gerous purposes, which resulted in the antagoniz- ing attitude of the church. The number of Jewish and Christian pseude- pigrapha was undoubtedly very large. Already in the Apocalypse of Ezra (4 Ez. xiv. 46 Lat. ; xiv. PSBUDBPIGRAPHA. 1963 PSBUDBPIGRAPHA. 51 Ethiop.), seventy apocryphal books are dis- tinguished from the twenty-four canonical, which, however, is probably a round number, but became authoritative for later tinrts. It is probable that those preserved are the best of their class. Of many we have only the titles, or short extracts in the Church Fathers. The last decades have dis- covered some that were thought lost, and the fu- ture may still furnish us more. They are more than mere curiosities of literature: they nearly all have historical value, and were the popular literature of their day. The following list embraces all those which have been preserved, in part or in whole, as also those whose titles alone we possess. On this lit- erature in general, cf. J. A. Fabricius : Codex Pseiitlepic/raphus Veteris Testamenli, Hamb., 2 vols., 2d ed., 1722 (the best book on the subject) ; also HiLGENFELD : Messias Judceorum, Lips., 1869; O. F. Fritzsche : Libri Apocri/phi Veteris Testa- men/i, Grpece, Lips., 1871; [Kitto: Cyclop. Bibl. Lit. (3d ed.), i. 168 ; Samuel Davidson : " Apoca- lyptic Literature," in Encyclop. Brit., vol. ii. pp. 180 sqq. For magazine articles, cf. Poole's Index, 3d ed., under " Apocrypha," p. 47]. I. Lyrical Poetry. — l.The Psalter of Solo- mon (Greek), published first from an Augsburg manuscript (since lost) in 1626, by a Jesuit, J. L. de la Cerda; later by Fabr.^, i. 914 sqq., with a collation of a Vienna manuscript of the tenth century; by Hilgenfeld, in Zlschrft. f. luiss. TlieoL, xi. 134 sqq., and in Mess. JiuL, pp. .3 sqq. ; by E. Geiger, Der P.tcdler Salomes mit Ubers. u. Erkldr. (Augsburg, 1871) ; and by Fritzsche, I. c. pp. 569 sqq. A German translation (from Geiger's text) is furnished by Hilgenfeld, in his Zlschrft., xiv. 383 sqq., and one by Wellhausen, Die Pharisaer und Sadd. (Griefsw., 1874), pp. 138 sqq., together with a good discussion, pp. 112-120, 131-138; [an English translation by B. Pick, in Presbyterian Jieciew, October, 1883]. It is a collection of songs for the congregation, in the manner of the biblical psalms (even with the diaxpal/ia xvii. 31, xviii. 10), eighteen in number, bearing the title falfioi QpaXriipiov, Cod. Ang.) '^a7.oiiCn>To;. It is probable that they were not originally issued under Solo- mon's name, but later received it on the basis of 1 Kings V. 12. That the original was Hebrew, and not Greek, is clear from the errors in the trans- lation, as also from the fact, that, without doubt, they were at one time used in the worship of the synagogue (E. Geiger, 20 sqq. ; Wellhausen, 132 sqq.) ; for they are not of Christian (Gratz : Gescli. d. Juden, iii. 489), but of Jewish origin. The con- tents determine their date. A heathen ruler has torn down the walls of Jerusalem, has entered and defiled the holy places, has spilled much blood, and has led many into captivity, even to the extreme west (Ps. ii., viii., xvii.). This was a just punishment for the wickedness of those who had hitherto been ruling: they have themselves in- vited the enemy in (Ps. i., ii., iv., viii., xii., xvii.). The congregation of the faithful must learn the proper lessons from such tribulations {passim). Although the minor particulars of these hymns have not been sufficiently explained, yet these contents in general point to the destruction of the Asmonean monarchy by Pompey in 63 B.C. Not only do the descriptions of ii. 1 sqq., vm. 15-24, xvii. 13-20 (especially viii. 16, xvii. 14), harmonize with his doings, but also the manner of his death, in ii. 30 sqq., as all the best investigators acknowl- edge (Movers, Delitzsch, Lange, Keim, Hitzig, Xdldeke, Wittichen, Hilgenfeld, Geiger, etc.). They accordingly originated between the years 63 and 45 B.C. The utterances seem to be the expres.sion of the pious under the catastrophe of 63, and uttered soon after. The most remarkable feature is this, that the psalmists see in the As- moneans unholy usurpers, who have been justly hurled from the throne (xvii. 7 sq., viii. 12 sq., ii. 3, iv. 1-23, viii. 8 sqq., xii. 1-4, xvii. 6-8, 17- 22) ; and they thus sympathize with the Phari- sees. In the place of these godless rulers, the singers pray for the speedy coming of the Anoint ed One, the Messiah, the Son of David, and the advent of the kingdom of God (ii. 36, v. 22, xvii. 1-38, vii. 9, xi. 1 sqq., xvii. 23 sqq., xviii. 6 sqq.). In so far these psalms are an important index to the relation of the parties in those days. They are also full of messianic hopes, faith in the resurrection and eternal retribution (iii. 16, xiii. 9, xiv. 2, 7, iii. 13, xiv. 6, xv. 11). They are sonie- tirties found in manuscripts of the Greek Bible, and sometimes were counted among the autile- gomena of the Old Testament. Cf. Hilgen- feld : Mess. .Jud., p. xi. sq. On the five t'ptiai of Solomon, found in the Gnostic Pislis Soplda, cf. Hilgenfeld, p. xiv. 2. A Pseudepigraphon of Ao/3i(5 is mentioned in the Conslit. Apo.it., vi. 16. Whether this is Ps. cli. of the Greek Bible, or a larger, independent work, can now no longer be decided. n. Prophetic Writings, (a) The So-called Apocalypses, Recelalions, (b) Testaments (see below). (a) This is the name assigned to those books of fictitious prophecy, whicli, after the spirit of proph- ecy had departed from Israel, were written, in the manner of the genuine prophetic books, to solve the problems suggested by the fate and sufferings of the people. Such is the historical origin of each one of them. They seek a solution of the intricacies of the present in predictions of the glory of the future. Accordingly they do not imitate the old prophets in their chief peculiar- ity, namely, to comisel and warn the people on account of their sin, but make a subordinate office, that of foreseeing and of foretelling the future, their chief object, but nevertheless endeavor to erect their prophetic building on the foundation of the inspired seers. The chief contents of these revelations are the messianic times in their rela- tion to the present time and circumstances. Not that the messianic times would come, but when and how, was the question for the waiting congre- gation. The books that seek to answer these ques- tions are called Apocalypses. Their contents are most varied and peculiar, their explanation mani- fold and strange ; the topics discussed all refer- ring directly or indirectly to the kingdom of God, and the future of the chosen people; the style enigmatical and highly figurative. Cf. on the whole matter LiJCKE : Einleitung in die Offenb. des Joh.^, 1848; Hilgenfeld: Die jud. Apoka- lyptik, 1857 ; Langen : Das Judenthum in Palds- iina, 1866; Schureu: Lehrhuch d. N. T. Ztgsch. 1874; [Dean Stanley's History of the Jewish Church, 3d series, lect. xlvii.]. 3. The Enoch and Noah Writings, combined in the Book of Enoch. This book, cited in Jude PSBUDEPIGRAPHA. 1964 PSBUDEPIGRAPHA. 14 sq., much used by the Christian writers of the fii-st five centuries, and then lost to the Greek Church also, with the exception of the remnants preserved iu the Chronology of George Syncellus, and a few fragments (89, 42-49) discovered by Mai and Gildemeister, was in 1773 found entire in the Bible of Ethiopia by Bruce, who brought three manuscripts to Europe. It has since been published in the Ethiopic by Laurence in 1838, and in much improved form by Dillmann in 1851. Lam'ence also rendered it into English (1821), and Dillmann into German (1853). The litera- ture on this subject is remarkably rich. [See the original art. It is mentioned and utilized in SciiODDE : The Book of Enoch, translated, with In- troduction and Notes, Andover, 1882, besides which the following woi'ks in English may be consulted, — Drummond : The Jewish Messiah, Lond., 1877, pp. 17 sq. ; BisSELL : The Apocrypha of the Old Testament, N.Y., 1880, pp. 665 sq. ; Laurence: Book of Enoch the Prophet, translated, with text corrected by his latest notes, with an Introduction by the author of "Evolution of Christianity," London, 1883 ; Dean Stanley : I. c, lect. slix. The articles in English magazines upon it are mentioned in Poole's Index, p. 419.] The book, aside from the introduction (i.-v.), embraces five parts : (1) vi.-xxxvi., narrative of the fall of the angels, and of a tour of Enoch, in company with an angel, through heaven and earth, and the mysteries seen by him; (2) xxxvii.-lxxi., parables concerning the kingdom of God, the Messiah, and the messianic future; (3) Ixxii.- Ixxxii., astronomical and physical matter ; (4) Ixxxiii.-xci., xciii., two dream-visions, giving a symbolical representation of the history of the world to the messianic completion; (5) xcii., xciv.-cvii., exhortations of Enoch to Methusaleh and his descendants. Then follows an appendix, ■_ cviii. Enoch's revelations embrace both Jews and Gentiles, treat extensively of the messianic kingdom and the Messiah, explain the mysteries of the visible and the invisible world, and might be called a system of biblical gnosis, derived from a study of the sacred writings, together with hag- gadic matter on antediluvian affairs. They are pervaded by a deep moral tone, and in tenor and style the Old Testament is well imitated. In its present shape the book consists of three parts : (1) The groundwork, i.-xxxvi. and Ixxii.-cv., written, not in the days of Hyrcanus (DiUmann, Ewald, Kostlin, Sohurer), nor of Alexander Jannaus (Hil- genfeld), nor in the time of Bar-cooheba (Volkmar), but in the days of Judas Maocabaeus (Liicke, Laugen, and Schodde, [see pp. 41 sqq.] ) ; (2) The parables, xxxvii.-lxxi. (with the exception of the Noachic fragments), the best part in contents and style, treating of the Messiah and his kingdom, angelology and demonology, and dividing them- selves into three distinct parables — its opposition to the sinful " kings and ruler.s," as well as Ivi. 6 sqq., points to the time of Herod as the probable date of writing ; (3) The IS^'oachic fragments, liv. 7-lv. 2, Ix., Ixv.-lxix. 25, cvi.-cvii., containing revelations to N'oah of uncertain but later date. AH these parts were originally written in Pales- tine, in Hebrew or Aramaic. Nothing in any way shows any Christian influence : it is entirely of and for the Jews. This whole matter is treated in extenso, in Dillmann's Einleitung to his German translation, [and later by Schodde, in his General and Special Introductions, pp. 1-60]. 4. The 'KvalTpiiiQ Muiiofuf (Assumptio Mosis, or Asoensio Mosis). This writing had hitherto been known only from Origen {De princ, 3, 2, 1), where mention is made that Jude 9 was based upon it, and from the references of other Church Fathers, e.g., Clemens Alexandrinus, Didymus, and others (Fabr.^ i. 839 sqq.). Lately the first part was found in an old Latin translation in Milan, by Ceriani, and since then issued by several editors, — by Hilgenfeld (Nov. Testament, extra Can. i., 1866, with a translation back into the Greek, in his Ztschrift., 1868, vol. xi., and in Iless. Jud., pp. 435 sqq., and in dementis Rom. Epistulce, 1876), Volknjar (Mose, Prophetie und Himmelfahrt, Lips., 1867), 51. Schmidt and Merx (in Merx: Archiv, 1868, i. Ill sqq.), and Fritzsche (pp. 700 sqq.). It is discussed by Ewald (Gesch. Isr.', v. 73 sqq.), Langen (p. 102), and in Eeusch {Theol. Lit. BL, 1871, No. 3), F. Philippi (Das Buch Henoch, pp. 166 sqq.), Wieseler (Jahrb. d. D. Th., 1868, pp. 622 sqq.), A. Geiger (Jlid. Ztschrft., 1888, pp. 41 sqq.), Heidenheim (Vierteljahrschrift. f. Theol., Forsch. 4, 1869), Colani and Carriere (in Revue de Theol., 1868, 2 livr.), Rbnsch (Ztschrift. f loissen. Theol., 1868, 1869, 1871), Schurer, I.e. pp. 536 sqq.). The book claims that Moses, in his hundred and twentieth year, and the twenty- five hundredth of the ci-eation, handed it, together with the Pentateuch, to Joshua, and in it prophe- sied the course of Israel's history, to the establish- ment of the messianic kingdom. The conclusion of the book is wanting. The book clearly speaks of John Hyrcanus, Herod in the thirty-fourth year of his reign, the invasion of Varus (c. 7), and was evidently written soon after this last event (4 A.D.). hi the parts preserved, no mention is made of a IMessiah ; though the author is a mem- ber of the party of the Zealots, an enemy of the Asmoneans, Herodians, Sadducees, and even of the Pharisees (o. 7). Although originally a He- brew work, the Latin has been translated from a Greek version. 5. The Fourth Book of Ezra, according to the method of numbering the Ezra books in the Latin Church, originally "EtreSpnf o Ilpo^^rj^f (Hilgenfeld : Mess. Jud., pp. xviii. sq.). The original Greek text, with the exception of very few small frag- ments, has been lost; but in its room we have a Latin and four Oriental versions. The Latin text in the Vulgate, a very corrupt one, has been much improved by Volkmar (Handb. der Einleit. in d. Apokr., vol. ii. ; Das Jf. Buch Ezra, Tlibingen, 1863), by Hilgenfeld and Fritzsche, ll.c. The large la- cuna, which, owing to a loss of a leaf in the Cod. Sangermanensis, had existed between vii. 35 and 36, has been filled by the discovery of an old manuscript in Amiens, by R. Bensly (IVie Missing Fragment of the Latin Translation of the IV. Book of Ezra, Camb]-idge, 1875). The Syriac version, together with a Latin translation, has been pub- lished by Ceriani, 1866 ; the Ethiopic, by R. Lau- rence, 1820, from a good manuscript, but with a poor English and Latin translation. In addition to these three versions from the Greek, we have the inaccurate Armenian translation into Latin by Petermann, in Hilgenfeld, pp. 378 sqq., and two somewhat free Arabic versions, one of which, on the basis of a manuscript in the Bodleian PSBUDBPIGRAPHA. 1965 PSBUDBPIGRAPHA. Library, was published in an English translation of S. Ockley, by W. Whiston (^Primitive Christian- ity, London, 1711, t. 4), and in Arabic by Ewald {Abh. d. G. G. G., vol. xi., 1863); and the other was published complete by Gildemeister (Esrce, liber iv., Arabice, Bonn, 1877, 4to), in Ai-abic and Latin. With the aid of the Oriental versions, we can restore the original book, which provfes to be the production of a Jew'in the last quarter of the first Christian century. The destruction of Jeru- salem by the Jews is both the historical back- ground, as also the occasion, of the book, which seeks, from a Jewish stand-point, to explain the cause and bearing of this terrible calamity, as far as Israel is concerned. The speedy dissolution of the Roman supremacy, and the establishment of a messianic sway, is the buiden of the visions so vividly and dramatically portrayed. It is written iu Hebraizing Greek and in the spirit of Pales- tinian Judaism. Internal indices point to the existence and influence of Christianity. The fa^ nious eagle-vision, in which plumes and wings must be taken in pairs and be referred to the Koman emperors, decides the date of the book. 6. The present Jewish Ezra revelation found an entrance into the church, but usually with some modifications. In the editions of the Vul- gate it has, beside these, long additions in front and at the close. These in the manuscripts are written as separate Ezra books, one of which, at least (i. sq.), is of Christian origin, to impress the importance of Chi-istianity upon the stubborn Jews ; the other, probably a portion of an inde- pendent Jewish work. Both are translations from the Greek. 7. The ^oyog KOL tmOKiiXviliiQ Tov dyiov irpo^TjTOv 'EpSpu/i, published by Tischendorf, in Apocal. apocr. (Lips., 1866), from a Paris manuscript, has little or no merit. On other Ezra literature, cf. LiJCKE^, p. 150 ; Tischendorf : Sludien und Kri- tiken, 1851, Heft. 2. 8. Closely related to the Ezra prophecies is the Apocalypse of Baruch, published in a Latin trans- lation from a Syriac original in the Ambrosiana at Milan, by Ceriani {Monumen. Sacr., i. 2, pp. 73 sq.), 1866, and by Fritzsche (pp. 654^699), and in Syriac, by the former, in 1871. Cf. Ewald : Gott. Gel. A., 1867, pp. 1706 sqq. ; Gesch.\ vii. 83 sqq. ; Langen : De Apoc. Baruch comment., Frib., 1867, 4to; Hilgenfeld: Mess. Jud., pp. Ixiii. sq. ; Fritzsche, p. xxx. sq. ; Schurek, 542 sqq. ; Re- nan, in Journ. des Savants, 1877, pp. 222 sq. ; Kneuckeb : DasB. Baruch, Lips., 1879, pp. 190 sqq. It is a revelation to Baruch concerning the destruc- tion of Jerusalem, the following captivity, and the second destruction, to which are added visions of the messianic future. It is allied in contents and style to 4 Ezra, and called forth by the same historical events, but is a later production. The original language is Greek. 9. Whether the Pseudepigraphon Baruchi, men- tioned in the Synopsis Psalmi Athanasii, is the same as above, is uncertain. We still, however, possess a Christian Baruch Book, published (in Ethiopic), by Dillmann, in Chrest. JEthiop., pp. 1-15 (Greek), in the Menceum Grmcorum, Venet., 1609, and by Ceriani (Mon. Sacr., v. i. pp. 9 sqq.), 1868 ; translated into German by Prsetorius, in Ztschrift. f. wiss. Theol. (1872, pp. 230 sijq.), and by E. Konig, in Stud. u. Krit. (1877, p. 318) ; [and into English by Schodde, in Lutheran Quarterly, Get- tysburg, Penu., July, lb7y], with the title in both Greek and Ethiopic, ra Trapa^mofieva 'Upe/iiov Toii irpo^f/Tov, only that the latter substitutes Baruch for Jeremiah. It, too, treats of the captivity, and shows, strong Christian influence. 10. A 'H;U'af TipocjniTTjQ is mentioned in Psalm Athanasii and in Nicephorus, and a Elite revelaiio et visio, in the catalogue of Apocrypha of Cotelier (Patres Apostol., i. p. 197) and Montfaucon {Bibl. Coislin. p. 194). 11. Ascensio et Visio Isaice. The existence of au 'Aizoupvipuv and 'Ava^armov (or 'Opamf) 'Haatou was known for a long time. (Cf. Fabr.^, i. pp. 1086 sqq.). In 1819 Laurence published au Ethi- opic text (Ascensio Isaice vatis) with poor Latin and English translations. Dillmann published a splendid text in his Ascensio Isaice, JEthiopice et Latine, cum proleg. et annot. (Lips., 1877) [from which Schodde made an English translation in the October number of the Lutheran Quarterly, 1878] ; soon after which the Greek Upoipjj'eia, uttoku- Xmpig Kai fiaprvpuiv 'Haatov was discovered in Paris by Gebhardt, and printed in Hilgenfeld : Ztschrift., xxi., 330 sqq. It is virtually an extract from the Ethiopic. The book is composed of Jewish and Christian docmnents, combined by a Christian hand, not later than the second half of the second century. 12. An Apocalypse, or Prophecy of Zephaniah, in imitation of the Ascensio Isaice, is not only mentioned in the four catalogues of Apocrypha, but a fragment is also quoted by Clemens Alex- audrinus, Strom. 5, 11, § 78. 1-3. An Apocryphon of Jeremiah, in Hebrew, used by the Nazarenes, is mentioned by Jerome (Fabr.2, i. 1102 sqq.) as the source of the quota- tion in Matt, xxvii. 9 ; but this is improbable. Concerning the Apocalypses of (14) Habakkuk, (15) Ezekiel, (16) Daniel, and (17), Zechariah, the father of John the Baptist, we have no further information. 18. An Apocalypse of Moses, distinct from the Book of Jubilees (cf. No. 31) and the Assumptio Mosis, we know only from Syncellus, Photius amphil., and others (Fabr.^, i. 838), who mention it as the source of Gal. vi. 15. 19. A Lamech Book is mentioned in the Cata- logues of Cotelier and Montfaucon ; and — (20) The Gnostic Sethites possessed an dvro/ca- Ivtpii 'kjipaufi, Traaric aaduc l/iK^ai (Epiph. Hcer., 39, 5). (b) Testaments. 21. A Aiae^HTj Tuv UpaTOTrTLaoTuv, according to Fabr.2, ii. 83, contained the mention that Adam was taken into Paradise when forty days old. It is probably a portion of the Vila Adami (No. 35). 22. kl 6uidrjKcu tCw SdSeKa TiarpiapxHv (Testamenta XII., Patriarcharum), mentioned first by Tertul- lian and Origen. [The original Greek text has often been issued ; cf . in The Presbyterian Review, January, 1880.] The book is a Jewish-Christian work, in the garb of addresses made by the twelve sons of Jacob at their death, of a practical and ethical character, in the spirit of the Epistle of James. The work was probably written about the close of the first Christian century. 23. An Apocryphon, rav ipiuv narpiapxiJv, is men- tioned in the Const. Apost., vi. 16 ; and (24) an PSEUDBPIGRAPHA. 1966 PSBUDO-ISID. DECRETALS. Apocryphal Testament of Jacob, in the Decretum Gelasii (Fabr.^, i. 437, 799). 25. A -npoaevxii '\ua!i against a bishop. But, while all episcopal !S are exempted from the jurisdiction of the dar courts, all secular cases may be taken to episcopal court, say Anacletus (Ep. 1, c. 16) Marcellinus {Ep. 2, c. 3). The second aim Pseudo-Isidore was to emancipate the episco- j from the authority of the metropolitans the provincial synods. He accepts the exist- hierarchical organization, and he adds even a ' link to the chain ; but he tries to weaken the power of the metropolitans and the provincial synods, so as to make them completely innocuous, even to a criminal bishop. The proper court before which a bishop qould be cited was the provincial synod, convened and presided over by the metropolitan ; but, in order to be competent, the synod must be legitime convened, that is, auc- toritate sedis apostoUcce. The decisions of a synod convened without the consent of the Pope were null and void. It might thus prove difficult enough to establish a competent court, and still more so to procure a competent accuser ; for not only were all laymen and members of the lower clergy excluded, but also a member of the higher clergy, if in any way he seemed to be inimicus, offensus, iratus, suspectus, etc. Furthermore : the accuser should be accompanied by seventy-two witnesses, each of whom should be qualified to be an accuser himself : and, finally, the bishop had the right to break ofi the proceedings at any stage of their development, and appeal directly to the Pope ; that is, it was next to impossible to have a criminal bishop punished, unless the Pope him- self consented and interfered. The principal sources from which Pseudo-Isi- dore drew his materials were the works of Cassio- dorus and Rufinus, the Liber pontijicalis and the Vulgate, the writings of the Fathers, and the theological literature generally down to the ninth century, the correspondence of Archbishop Boni- face of Mayence, the genuine decretals and canons, various collections of laws, — such as the Bre- viarium Alaricianum, the Lex Visigothorum, the Fjankish capitularies, etc. These materials seem to indicate that the collection was made in Gaul, and the indication is strongly con-oborated by the circumstance that the language swarms with Gal- licisms; the style, with phrases and expressions from the juridical terminology of the Frankish Empire; and the contents, with references to the actual state of the Frankish Church at that time. At all events, those who have fixed the birthplace of the collection at Rome — Febronius, Theiner, Eichhorn, and others — have not succeeded in adducing equally strong reasons for their suppo- sition. The frequent use made of the corre- spondence of Boniface shows that the archives of Mayence were at the disposal of the compiler ; and Mayence was, down to very recent times, generally considered as the place of fabrication. This seems true, however, only so far as regards the older and minor collection ; while the later and larger seems to have been made at Rheims. Only of the former are the oldest manuscripts (those of St. Gall and Cologne) of German origin; while of the latter, not only the oldest, but also by far the most numerous, manuscripts are French. In Ger- many the collection did not come into general use until the eleventh century. AVith respect to the time of the authorship, the period within which it must have taken place is determined by the two facts that Pseudo-Isidore used the canons of the Council of Paris (829), while his own collec- tion was used by the synod of Chiersy (857). Since the researches of the Ballerinis and Blon- del (Pseudo-Liidorus et Turrianus vapidates, Gaueva, 1728), it has also been generally accepted that the collection was made in the fourth or fifth decade of the ninth century. But attempts have been made to arrive at a closer determination of the 18 -III PSEUDO-ISID. DECRETALS. 1968 PTOLEM^US PTOLEMY. period. There is, indeed, a direct connection between the false decretals and the ecclesiastical conflicts arising out of the civil wars between Lewis the Pious and his sons ; and it is more than probable that the decretals were manufactured by the party of Lothair — move especially by Autgar of Mayence, and Ebbo of Rheims — in order to prevent the metropolitans and the pro- vincial synods of the party of Lewis from in- flicting any punishment on the bishops of the defeated party. Antgar was an outspoken adher- ent of Lothair, and Ebbo was his intimate friend. Now many tracks lead from the false decretals to Mayence. One has already been mentioned, here is another : the decretals speak much of primates and vicarii apostolici, who should form an interme- diate link between the Pope and the metropoli- tans, and under whose authority all causes majores and episcoporum negotia should assort. Boniface had held such a position as Archbishop of May- ence, and it was one of the greatest desires of Autgar to have this authority restored to his see. The decretals also contain references to the depo- sition of Ebbo by the synod of Didenhofen (835), his restoration (840), and his transferrence to Hil- desheim (844). Now, since Ebbo on those occa- sions made no appeal to the decretals, it is fair to infer that they did not yet exist; but there is a trace of them at the synod of Soissons (857), in the so-called narratio, by the clergy ordained by Ebbo. The history of the Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals presents the curious phenomenon, that, instead of achieving the purpose for which they were origi- nally made, they finally came to serve the almost opposite interest. They were intended to pro- tect the bishops against the metropolitans ; but they became the means by which the Pope crushed, not only the metropolitans, but also the bishops. The Prankish clergy saw the danger, and made from time to time considerable opposition. The first pope who directly appealed to them was Nicholas I. In a brief of 863, addi-essed to Hinc- mar of Rheims, he mentions the collection of Adrian as the proper authority, without making any reference to them : but shortly after he must have become acquainted with them, probably through Rothad ; for, in the controversy between the latter and Ilincmai', he makes copious use of them. Hincmar protested; but, from many of his utterances, it is apparent that he considered them spurious, though he did not hesitate to use them himself when they answered his purpose. See Weizsacker : Hlnkmar unci Pseudo-isidor, in Zeilschriftf. hist. Theoioyie, 1858, p. 327. Indeed, it was the demoralization of the bishops, their religious indifferentism, and their political ambi- tion, which finally made the Pseudo-Isidorian fraud triumph, and delivered up the church, with- out power of resistance or self-defence, into the hands of the Pope. From the end of the ninth cen- tury numerous extracts were made from the false decretals, the most remarkable of which was the so-called Capilula Remedii Ciiriensis. Nothing, however, contributed moi'e to spread them about, and secure their influence, than their incorpora- tion with the great systematical collections of canons made at that time ; as, for instance, with the Collectio Anselmo dedicata, the decree of Bur- chard, the two works of Ivo, the collection of An- selm of Lucca, the Collectio trium partium, etc. • and, as those collections were the sources from which Gratian drew his materials, the Pseudo- Isidorian Decretals thus became part and parcel of the Corpus juris canonici. Down to the fifteenth century the genuineness of the decretals was, as above mentioned, never openly assailed. The first who profiiered some doubts were Nicholas of Cusa (De concordia catliol., iii. 2) and Johannes Turrecremata {Sum- ma eccles., ii. 101). But, when the work became more easily accessible by the Merlin edition, it proved an easy task for the authors of the Madge- burg Centuries, and the French critics, Dumoulin and Le Conte, to lay bare the fraud. An attempt at defence by the Jesuit (Torres: Adv. Magd. centuriatores, Florence, 1572) was completely re- futed by Blondel ; and later attempts — Bona- VENTURA Malvasia (Nuntius veritatis, Rome, 1635) and Eduard Dumond (Lesfausses decrila- les), in Revue des questions historiques, i. and ii. — have failed as signally. WASSEESCHLEBEN. PTOLEM/E'US, PTOL'EMY (JlTolcumo^, "the warlike"), the dynastic name of the thirteen Macedonian kings of Egypt who held the throne from the death of Alexander the Great down to B.C. 43. Those who have religious interest, because of their mention in Josephus, the Macca- bees (1 and 2), and prophetically in the Book of Daniel, are (1) Ptolemy I., Soter(" savior"), B.C. 323-285; the founder of the dynasty. He was one of Alexander's generals, and seized Egypt as his portion of Alexander's domain. In 320 he invaded Syria, and availed himself of Jewish cus- toms to occupy Jerusalem on the sabbath, when he knew the jews would not fight. The Jews and Samaritans taken captive in this campaign he placed in Alexandria, but treated them liber- ally. He is supposed to be alluded to in Dan. xi. 5, "the king of the south." — (2) Ptolemy II., Philadelphus ("brother-loving"), B.C. 285-247; son of the preceding; alluded to in Dan xi. 6; illustrious as the founder of the Alexandrian li- brary and museum, the patron of arts and letters, the instigator to the Septuagint (see Bible Ver- sions, p. 279), and the prince under whom the Alexandrian Jews developed into citizens of the world, since Jewish wisdom met in Alexandria Greek philosophy. His reign marks an epoch in Jewish history. — (3) Ptolemy III., Euergetes ("well-doer"), B.C. 247-222; alluded to in Dan. xi. 7-9 ; invaded Syria in 246, to avenge the repu- diation and murder of his sister Berenice (see An' TiocHus II., p. 95), and had conquered it as £?t north as Antioch, and was moving eastward to' wards Babylon, when he was recalled by troubles at home. His policy towards the Jews in Egypt was generous ; while, in token of his victories, he sacrificed in the temple at Jerusalem " after the custom of the law " (Joseph. : C.Ap., ii. 5). He brought back to Memphis the gods taken from Egypt by Cambyses. It was for this he received his epithet, " well-doer. — (4) Ptolemy IV., Phi- lopator ("father-loving"), B.C. 222-205; alluded" to in Dan. xi. 10-12 ; defeated Antiochus the Great at Raphia, near Gaza (B.C. 217); sacrificed in the temple, and attempted to enter the sacred precincts, when a shock of paralysis stopped him. He was indolent, effeminate, and licentious, but capable, on occasion, of splendid and vigorous PUBLICAN. 1969 PULLEYN. ieds. — (5) Ptolemy V., Epiphanes ("illustri- is"), B.C. 205-181; alluded to in Dan. xi. 13- ' ; succeeded his father when only five years old. uring his minority Antiochus the Great con- lered Coelesyria, Phoenicia, and Judsea, out of hich the Jews who were loyal fled to Egypt, he Romans compelled him to surrender these ■ovinces. Antiochus apparently did this when i married his daughter Cleopatra to Ptolemy i.e. 193), although they really remained under !s authority. He was, however, foiled in his f ur- ter designs by Cleopatra's unexpected advocacy : her husband's interests. Ptolemy was poisoned i he was on the eve of an attempt to recover the rovinces from Seleucus, Antiochus' successor. -(6) Ptolemy VI., Philometor ("mother-loving"), .C. 181-146; alluded to in Dan. xi. 25-30. So ng as his mother lived (i.e., until 173), peace as preserved with Syria ; but three years later gypt had been overrun by Antiochus Epiphanes, id Ptolemy taken prisoner. The Romans again iterfered, and compelled Antiochus to leave the )untry (168). Ptolemy then turned his atten- on to his brother, Euergetes II., whose seditious ;tempts he suppressed, and to Syrian intrigues, Y which he accomplished the ruin of Alexander alas (see art.). It was under Ptolemy that the swish temple at Leontopolis was built. He marks le transition of the kingdom of Egypt into a Oman province. Cf . art. Ptolemceus, in Smith's dictionary of Biography and Dictionary of the Bible. GEfTEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE PTOLEMIES. Ptolemy L, Soter. I I Arsinoe = Ptol, 11., Philadelphus = Arsinoe. I ;ol. m., Euergetes L Berenice = Autiochus n. I Ptol. IV., Philopator = Arsinoe. I ;ol. v., Epiphanes = Cleopatra (d. of Antiochus M.) I ' \ 1 Ptol. VI., Philometor \ Ptol. VII., j = Cleopatra. = Cleopatra. ( Euergetes II. ) = (2) Cleopatra. ! , I \ 1 eopatra. Ptol. Eupator. Cleopatra. — Alexander Balas. = Demetrius n. Ptol. VIII., Soter n. PUBLICAN, an under collector of the Roman ibute (Matt, xviii. 17). It was an office which 3 patriotic Jew could hold, because it implied 1 the most offensive way the recognition of Ro- lan supremacy. Publicans, being thus despised, snerally revenged their insidts by extortionate ;mands under color of law. It is remarkable, lat, out of this despicable class, our Lord chose le of his apostles (Levi, or Matthew), who be- ime his biographer (Luke v. 27), and one of his lief converts, Zacchseus of Jericho (Luke xix. 2). ur Lord's association with publicans was one of le commonest taunts he received (Luke vii. 34). he system of farming the revenue then practised d directly and naturally to fraud and cruelty, om the chief farmer to the meanest placeman. PUBLICANI (a corruption of Paidiciani) was le name given by the French and English cru- iders of the middle of the twelfth century to the Cathari of the West, because, like the Pauli- cians of the East, they were dualists. Several French writers of that time call the Paulicians simply Poplicans. PUFENDORF, Samuel, b. at Chemnitz in Sax- ony, 1632 ; d. at Berlin, 1694 ; lectured on juris- prudence at Pleidelberg and Lund in Sweden, and finally settled at Berlin, as historiographer to the elector of Brandenburg. His principal work is De Jure natura et gentium (Lund, 1672 ; also Frank- fort, 1684 ; Amsterdam, 1715, etc.), translated into German, English, and French. Though essen- tially only an elaboration and system atization of the ideas of Grotius, it forms the foundation of the modern conception of the doctrine of natural and international rights. Previously that doctrine had been based on the Decalogue, and developed in accordance with the idea of the justice of God. Grotius was the first who completely severed it from theology, based it on the instinct of socia^ bility inherent in human nature, and derived it directly from human reason. In the systematic exposition which it received from Pufendorf, it attracted great attention, but also met with great opposition : indeed, Buddseus and ^Volff were the first who fully recognized it. Among Pufendorf 's other works, his De habilu religionis christiance ad vitam cicilem (Bremen, 1687) has also theological interest as a defence of the coUegial system. After his death appeared his Jusfeciale divinum, a demon- stration of the impossibility of bringing about a union between the Lutheran and Reformed creed, as long as the latter retains the doctrine of pre- destination. G. FRAN^K. PUL. See Tiglath-pileser. PULCHERIA, a daughter of Arcadius, and older sister of Theodosius II. ; was in 414, though only sixteen years old, intrusted by the Senate with the title of Augusta and the giiardianship of her weak-minded brother. For ten years she gov- erned the empire with great authority, though in a narrow, monastic spirit : she actually transformed the palace into a monastery. She then married her brother to Eudoxia-Athenais, a daughter of an Athenian philosopher ; but bitter jealousy soon sprang up between the two sisters-in-law. In the Nestorian controversy Eudoxia sided with If esto- rius, while Pulcheria took the part of C^Til of Alex- andria. Pulcheria was banished from the court ; and, by the support of Eudoxia, Euytches and Dioscuros triumphed at the synod of Ephesus. Pulcheria, however, returned before her brother's death, and regained her influence. Eudoxia was banished to Jerusalem ; and orthodoxy was re- stored by the Council of Chalcedon,at whose sixth session (Oct. 25, 451) Pulcheria herself was pres- ent. After her return she married the general Marcianus, but died shortly after, Sept. 11, 453. She is revered by the Greek Church as a saint. See Act. Sanct., Sept. 3, and Gregorius : Atkcenais, Leipzig, 1881. zockler. PULLEYN, Robert, an English scholastic and Roman cardinal ; b. in England towards the close of the eleventh century, but the exact date and place are unknown ; d. in Rome between 1147 and 1154. He studied in Paris, where the dia- lectical treatment of theology just at that time stood in its first bloom (AVilliam of Champeaux, Abelard, Gilbert de la Porree). In 1130 he re- turned to England, was made archdeacon of Roch- PDLPIT. 1970 PUNISHMENT. ester, and opened a theological school in Oxford, which he soon brought to a very flourishing con- dition. But in 1135 he again left his native country, probably on account of the internal dis- turbances which broke out after the death of Henry I. He settled in Paris, and taught the- ology with great success. Bernard of Clairveaux recommended him on account of his orthodoxy. John of Salisbury and William of St. Thierry were among his pupils. An attempt of his bishop to compel him to return to England, by withhold- ing the revenues of his benefice, brought him to Rome, where he was received with great honor, made a cardinal, and chancellor of the apostolic see. Many of his writings are still unprinted, — a Commentary on the Revelation, a Commentary on the Psalms, a treatise De contemlu mundi, etc. ; but his principal work, Sententiarum Libri VIII., was edited by Hugo ]Mathoud of St. Maur, Paris, 1655, and reprinted in Migne, Patrol. Lett., vol. 186. It combines the dialectics of Abelard with the dogmatism of Bernard. It originated under the influence of Abelard's Sic el non, and it became the principal source from which the Lombard drew his Sentences. The dialectical method is employed solely for the purpose of demonstrating and prov- ing the traditional faith of the church ; and, in cases in which occurring contradictions cannot be logically solved, all donbt is crushed by the au- thoritj' of the Bible and the Fathers. See Hau- KE.4U : Hlsloire de la pMlosophie scolaslique, Paris, 1872, vol. i. WAGENMANN. PULPIT (from the Latin pulpitmn), the foremost point of the Roman stage, where the actor stood while reciting his part, denotes, in the Christian Church, an enclosed desk from which the sermon is delivered. In the oldest times the deacon preached from the ambo, and the bishop from his throne. Later on, however, movable pulpits, of which a specimen has been presei'ved at Hereford in England, were employed in the large churches, and placed, when used, whei-e most convenient. The stationary pulpit of a still later date was gen- erally placed between two pillars, in front of a screen, or fastened to a pillar, generally in the middle of the nave. Pulpits were also erected in the refectories of monasteries, in cemeteries (as was often the case in France), or even in a public thoroughfare. They were of stone or of wood, hexagonal or octagonal, often very large, and always highly ornamented. Pulpits of the great- est artistic interest, from the thirteenth and four- teenth centuries, have been preserved both in England and on the European continent : among the most noticeable are those of Pisa, Milan, Strassburg, Canterbury, etc. In the Pi'otestant churches the pulpit has generally a more con- spicuous place than in the Roman-Catholic; and in the modern American meeting-house it forms, so to speak, the centime of the whole buildino-. PULPIT-ELOOUENCE. See Homilktics, Preaching. PUNISHMENT AMONG THE HEBREWS. The penal code, which tended towards a restora- tion of the order of law wliich had been disturbed, to uphold the authority of the law, and protect it against future infringements (Deut. xvii. 13, xix. 20), thus destroying the evil from the midst of the land and of the people of Israel, was among HebrewS) as well as among other nations, origi- nally and naturally based on the principle of re- taliation. This is clearly expressed on several occasions, as Exod. xxi. 23 sq.. Lev. xxiv. 19 sq., Beut. xix. 21. But this principle is restricted in Israel by the law : a legally regulated and miti- gated righteous compensation takes its place. The vengeance belongeth to God (Deut. xxxii. 35 ; comp. Rom. xii. 19). Although acknowledged as the legal basis, yet the law of retaliation was more a principle than a strict law; and in fact M'e find not one instance in the Bible which would prove the literal application of the jus tnlionis, for which Christ substituted the very opposite, the evangeli- cal rule (Matt. v. 38 sq.). The most common punishment was that with the stick, which was applied not only to children and slaves (Prov. xiii. 24, xxiii. 13 sq., xxix. 15), but also to the offender, lying on the ground, in the presence of a judge (Lev. xix. 20 ; Deut. xxiii. 18). In later times stripes were inflicted, whose number was not to exceed forty (Deut. xxv. 3) : whence the Jews took care not to exceed (hirty- nine (2 Cor. xi. 24 ; Josephus, A nt., iv. 8, 21). In the synagogue this punishment was inflicted at the appointment of the Sanhedrin (Matt. x. 17, xxiii. 34 ; Acts v. 40, xxii. 19) for ecclesiastical offences. Capital punishments were of two kinds, — ston- inff, and dcatli by the sword. Stoning was applied for idolatry in any shape, be it actual or virtual (Lev. XX. 2; Deut. xiii. 6, 10, xvii. 2-7), blasphemy (Lev. xxiv. 14, 16, 23; 1 Kings xxi. 10 sq.), witch- craft, etc. (Lev. xx. 27), sabbath-breaking (JS^um. XV. 32-36 ; Exod. xxxi. 14), taking something of banned things (Josh. vii. 25), ascending Mount Sinai while the law was given (Exod. xix. 13, where death by the spear is also mentioned), ob- stinate disobedience of sons (Deut. xxi. 18 sq.), unchastity — previous to maiTiage, but afterwards detected — (Deut. xxii. 21) in a betrothed woman with some one not aflnanced to her (Deut. xxii. 23, 24), adultery (Lev. xx. 10 ; John viii. 5), and rape (Deut. xxii. 25) : even the offending animal was to be stoned (Exod. xxi. 29). Stoning, not un- known among the Egyptians, took place outside of the camp or city (Lev. xxiv. 14 ; jS^'um. xv. 36), in the presence of the witnesses who had wit- nessed against' him, and who were required to cast the first stone (Deut. xiii. 9, xvii. 7 ; John viii. 7; Acts vii. 58). Death bij the swurd was applied rather for political and civil ci-imes, as murder and man-slaughter (Exod. xxi. 14 ; Lev. xxiv. 17, 21 ; Num. xxxv. 16, 21, 31 ; Deut. xix. 11); also for death caused by a goring ox, in which case a compensation was allowed (Exod. xxi. 28), disobedience to the magistrate (Deut. xvii. 12; Josh. i. 18), and man-stealing (Exod. xxi. 16; Deut. xxiv. 7). In all these cases the law speaks of capital punishment, without exactly stating wliich : the same is the case with wilful sins in general (Num. xv. 30 sq.), and with many cases touching the ritual. The I'ahnud applies in general the punishment of strangling, but ston- ing for such cuimes as smiting and cursing of parents (Exod. xxi. 15, 17 ; Lev. xx. 9), incestuous and unnatural connections. Death by the sword is not seldom mentioned in the historical books- (2 Sam. i. 15; 1 Kings ii. 25-34; 2 Kings x._7; 2 Chron. xxi. 4; Jer. xxvi. 23). The execution was performed by persons appointed by the king PUNISHMENT. 1971 PUNISHMENT. (1 Kings ii. 29), in case of murder by the nearest relatives as the avengers of blood (Num. xxxv. 19,21,27; Deut. six. 12). Capital punishment could only be inflicted after a careful trial, and at the mouth of two or three witnesses (Deut. xvii. 4 sq., xix. 15) : both kinds of capital punishment could be made more igno- minious by hanging up the bodies against the sun, — which, however, was not to last over night (Num. XXV. 4; Deut. xxi. 22 sq. ; Josh. x. 26 ; 2 Sam. xxi. 6, 9), — or by mutilating (2 Sam. iv. 12), or bjr burning the same (Lev. xx. 14, xxi. 9 ; Josh. vii. 15, 25), or by heaping up stones over the body (Josh. vii. 25 sq.,viii. 29). Comp. J. H. Otho: Lexicon rabbinico-philologicum, Basel, 1675, pp. 618 sq. ; RosKOFF, in Schenkel's Bibellexicon, v. 420 sq.; Saalschijtz : Mosaisches Recht (1853), pp. 448 sq. RUETSCm. PUNISHMENT, Future. Belief in a future state of retribution implies belief in the person- ality of God, a moral government, the ill-desert of sin, and the continuation of life beyond the grave. There may be great differences of view in regard to each of these points ; but, where any of them is denied, the doctrine of a future retri- bution is not likely to be entertained. The fact of future retribution cannot reasonably be denied by any except those who hold a pantlfieistic or a materialistic theory of the universe. Differences of opinion upon this subject among those who profess to believe in God, and particularly to be- lieve in Christianity, have pertained to the mode and duration of future retribution, and not to the fact. Natural religion, as has been suggested, will suffice to create the expectation and belief in a retribution of some kind in the next life; but, for any definite belief, we are, of course, depend- ent upon revelation. The authority of the Bible is therefore the postulate of the Christian dogma of retribution. There has not been an absolute agreement among the students of Scripture in re- gard to what its teaching is. What the differ- ences are, and what we regard as the true view, can be best exhibited, perhaps, if we deal with the subject by considering, (1) its history, (2) the church doctrine, (3) the departures from the church doctrine. I. History. — So widespread has been the be- lief in a future state of rewards and punishments, that Warburton founded his great apologetic, The Divine Legation of Moses, on the absence of any appeal in the Mosaic legislation to the sanc- tions of reward and punishment in the next life. The absence of such appeals has been taken by some to imply ignorance, on the part of the Jews, of a future state. This is a great mistake, for the doctrine of future retribution is unmistaka- bly present in the Old Testament. Before Christ and in the time of the Maccabees, belief in eter- nal punishment was entertained. At the time of our Lord, belief in everlasting punishment was held (perhaps not universally) by the Pharisees, as we know from Josephus. Philo, however, of the same period, is cited as an annihilationist. The Fathers of the first six centuries believed, for the most part, in the eternity of hell-torment. The early Fathers universally held this belief ; though Justin Martyr and Irenaeus have been claimed, but on insufficient grounds, as annihila- tionists. Clement and Origen were restoration- istsl So were Gregoiy of Nyssa and Gregory Nazianzen, together with Theodore of Mopsuestia. Augustine defended the generally received doc- trine of endless punishment. This Father held, however, that Christians not perfect at death undergo purification in the intermediate state. In this way he contributed to the development of what was subsequently known as the doctrine of purgatory, — a doctrine which Cyprian (according to Neander) first promulgated as to its germinal idea, and which Gregory the Great was the first to make an article of faith. The scholastics held that all heretics, infidels, and those who die in mortal sin, go immediately to hell ; that those who die in the peace of the church, but imper- fect, experience the purifying pains of purgatoiy ; and, finally, that the souls of all unbaptized in- fants go to the limbus infantum, a, place distinct from the limbus patrum, which was the abode of the Old-Testament saints. Protestants and Roman Catholics agree re- specting the doctrine of hell. The points of dif- ference between them, so far as eschatology is concerned, grow out of an attempt to answer the question, What is the condition of the redeemed during the period between death and the resurrec- tion ? Some taught that the soul was uncon- scious; some, the doctrine still held by many, which is known as that of the intermediate state. Roman Catholics believed in purgatory. The Reformers denied the doctrine of purgatory, and affirmed that all men at death go either to heaven or hell. They differed respecting the salvation of infants. The Augsburg Confession makes bap- tism essential to salvation. This Calvinists de- nied. They held to the guilt of original sin, to the ill-desert of infants, to the doctrine that the area of the saved is defined by that of sovereign election, and that regeneration is not conditioned by ordinances. Elect infants dying in infancy were saved, whether they were baptized or not. Calvinistic theologians did not say that there were no non-elect infants who died in infancy : indeed, they commonly believed that there were. Whether this common belief shall govern the construction of the Westminster Confession, or whether the cautious words in which the subject of elect infants is expressed shall lead us to be- lieve that the Assembly declined to say dogmat- ically that there were non-elect infants, is a question that cannot be discussed here. See In- fant Salvation. Those who now subscribe to the Westminster Confession of Faith do not believe that any in- fants dying in infancy are lost. Some dislike the phraseology employed regarding the subject; while others see in it no necessary implications regarding non-elect infants. The Confession says that the saved are the elect. It tells how the elect are saved. Those elect who are capable of being outwardly called are required to repent, and exer- cise faith. Elect infants dying in infancy, and other elect persons incapable of being outwardly called, are regenerated by the sovereign exercise of' the power of the Holy Ghost, who worketh when and where and how he pleaseth. The an- tithesis is not between elect and non-elect infants, but between elect persons who can, and who can not, exercise faith. Infants dying in infancy fall into the latter category. That all such infants PUNISHMENT. 1972 PUNISHMENT. ■were elect, the writers of the Confession did not know, whatever they might hope and believe ; but neither did they say that some such infants were non-elect. It is not strange that a doctrine which puts such a strain upon our sympathies as that of ever- lasting punishment should meet with opposition. In modern, as in ancient times, therefore, we find representative men who are at variance with the orthodox belief. Locke taught the doctrine of conditional immortality, which has been favored by Watts, Whately, and Isaac Taylor. Eothe also held this view, though restorationism is more in favor with the German theologians who diverge fi'om confessional orthodoxy. Nitzsch and Miiller show their strong leanings toward restorationism by affirming the possibility of eternal damnation as the result of persistent obduracy in the future state. Tillotson hoped for an ultimate restora^ tion of all men, and John Foster confidently be- lieved in it. Oi'ganized opposition to the doctrine of eternal punishment, at the beginning of this century, consisted, for the most part (in this coun- try), of a denial of all post mortem punishment for sin. This extreme type of Universalism (that of Ballou), however, has few representatives at the present day. It has succumbed to the merciless criticism to which it was subjected. But it is to be feared that belief in restorationism and annihilationism is increasing within orthodox communions. This is evident in the increase of the literature advocating one or the other view, and in the fact that either view is being freely tolerated in some denominations. That subscrip- tion to the Thirty-nine Articles does not bind Anglicans to hold the doctrine of eternal punish- ment was decided by the Privy Council (1863- 64), in the case of Fendall vs. Wilson. A less serious departure from the Protestant position regarding retribution is found in the dis- position of some leading divines, like Doi'uer and Martensen, to hold that the period between death and the resurrection may be a probationary peri- od for those who did not embrace the gospel in this life, and especially for those who were in- capable of embracing it (infants and heathen). II. Church Doctrine. — There is a general agreement among the confessions of Christendom, that after the judgment all men go either to heaven or hell, and that the punishments of hell are end- less. Confessional differences concern the condi- tion of the dead during the period between death and the resurrection. Roman Catholics teach that the atonement of Christ only delivers men from eternal punishment, and that temporal punish- ments, especially the pains of purgatory in the next world, remain to be endured as satisfaction for sin. Protestants reject the doctrine of purga- tory, because it is not taught in Scripture. It is true that nothing that defileth can enter heaven: it is also true that men are not perfectly sancti- fied in this life. But this, though it is the ground of the inference, does not justify the inference, that there must be a period of purgation in the next life. The doctrine of purgatory is rejected also, because it rests upon the false assumption that Christ has not made a complete satisfaction for sin. It contradicts, moreover, the distinct statement of Scripture, that there is now no con- demnation to those who are in Christ Jesus. Some Protestants teach what is known as the doctrine of the intermediate state. This is a harmless doctrine, however, and consists mainly in the emphasis given to what all Christians believe ; namely, that the state of the blessed dead, though one of complete happiness during the period after death, prior to the resurrection, is yet inferior to that upon which they are to enter after the resurrection. The advocates of this view will not say that the righteous go to heaven when they die : they go to paradise. The West- minster divines rejected purgatory, and refused to assign a locality and a name to the interme- diate state. The Protestant doctrine is, (1) that there is no probation after death ; (2) that no personal satisfaction for sins is demanded, either in this life or the next, fi'om those who believe in Christ ; (3) that the punishment of hell is ever- lasting. The punishments of hell are set forth in Scrip- ture under the strong imagery of fire and brim- stone. It is not necessary to interpret these passages literally, yet care must be taken not to empty them of their terrible meaning. What- ever the nature of hell-torment may be, it is something so terrible that only the strong lan- guage of the Saviour's description will represent it. The punishments of hell anust not be re- garded as merely the natural consequences of wrong-doing ; though these are serious enough, and they constitute a strong argument in support of the doctrine of eternal punishment. We see the natural segregations of men in this world according to character, the hardening effect of sin, and the suffering that always associates itself with persistent wrong-doing. It is therefore fair to suppose that the sinner's separation from God and the suffering consequent thel-efrom will be eternal. These considerations, together with the view of some, that sin is an infinite evil and demands a punishment of infinite duration, and the view of others, that eternal suffering is the result of eternal sinning, constitute what may be called the rational argument for eternal retribution. The great reason for believing the doctrine, how- ever, is the fact that it is taught with such terri- ble plainness in Scripture. III. Departures from Church Doctrine. — Those who deny the orthodox doctrine as to the eternity of hell-torment agree in the use of the following general arguments: — (1) Eternal punishment is said to be unjust. To this it is answered, that the justice of God can only mean conformity to the nature of God, and this can best be deternuned by an exegetical study of what the Scriptures teach. Objections on the score of justice must affirm, (a) that men deserve lenient treatment because of their disadvantages, — which would be an argument against any if against eternal punishment; or (i) that sins do not deserve eternal punishment, — which is assum- ing that we can measure the turpitude of sin. (2) Eternal punishment is said to conflict with God's infinite goodness. To which we reply : God may be infinitely benevolent, yet discriminating in the exercise of his benevolence ; and the area of benevolence must always be limited by the demands of justice. (3) Eternal punishment is said to conflict with God's design in governing the world. We deny PUNISHMENT. 1973 PUNISHMENT. that the end of God's government is the promo- tion of happiness; but, if it were, we do not know that in such a world the conditions neces- sary to the promotion of the greatest happiness do not make the eternal misery of some antece- dently possible. (4) Eternal punishment is said to militate against the end of punishment. But this is based on the belief that all punishment is intend- ed to be reformatory; whereas every true philoso- phy of punishment must recognize the deterrent, and especially the vindicatory element, as well as the reformatory element, in the infliction of penal suffering. (5) And it is finally said that the eternal dualism of good and evil which the orthodox doctrine im- plies is contrary to the use of the universal terms of Scripture respecting the putting away of evil, the reconciliation of all things in Christ, the sub- jugation of every thing in heaven and earth, and under the earth, to him. But again, it is urged in reply, that the general must be defined by the specific, the vague by the more distinct ; and that, while these passages might have the meaning put upon them by those who deny the orthodox doctrine, if they stood alone, they cannot bear it when interpreted in the light of the specific state- ments regarding the fate of the wicked. The specific arguments against the orthodox doctrine diifer according to the different forms which the divergence from the symbolical state- ment of the doctrine has assumed. 1. Unwersalism Proper. — The old form of Uni- versalism in this country (that of Ballou) taught that there is no punishment in the next life. The general principle contended for was, that this life is not one of probation, but of retribu- tion ; and that sin receives its full punishment in this world. The proof of this was supposed to rest upon the following gTounds : (a) the rational character of this view, (6) the absence of all refer- ence to future punishment in the Mosaic code, and (c) the claim that the passages supposed to teach future punishment do not have this mean- ing. This form of Universalism was proved, (1) to be immoral in its tendency (this has been admitted by leading Universalists ; see Brooks's New Departure") ; (2) to be inconsistent with the infliction of the death-penalty in the Old Testa- ment; and (3) to be contraiy to the unmistakable teaching of three classes of passages : to wit, (a) those which speak of a place of punishment, (i) those which mark an antithesis between the present life and the life to come in respect to punishment, and (e) those which associate punish- ment with the final judgment. 2. llestorationism. — It is affirmed by some that the punishment of the impenitent is limited, and that eventually all will be saved. In addition to the rational arguments already referred to, reli- ance is also placed upon certain considerations based upon the treatment of texts of Scripture. These considerations may be grouped under the following heads : — (1) It is said that there are promises teaching directly or by implication the ultimate salvation of all men. These embrace the following points: (a) the statement that God is the Saviour of all men, (6) the promise that God will reconcile all things to himself, (c) the prophecy regarding the universal reign of Christ, (d) the apohataslasis, (e) the casting of death and hades " into the lake of fire." In no one of these passages, however, is there any warrant for the belief that all men, in the sense of " every man," will be saved, or any thing to contradict the plain teaching of Matt. xxv. (2) It is said that the passages relied upon to prove eternal punishment do not teach it. Thus it is said that the word nolaai^ ("a pruning") points in the direction of ultimate restoration, and that aiuvtoc means " age-long," if it is not better to regard it as having a non-temporal signifi- cance, and as indicative of the quality of the pun- ishment, — seonian punishment. But whatever these words, when put together, may be made to mean under the stress of a theory, the plain mean- ing which they carry upon their face is that which the church has always put upon them. This is what Meyer, not to mention other exegetes, thinks they teach, and what harmonizes with the strong passage in the Apocalypse (xx. 10), Kal iSaaavictiri- aovrai ijnepa^ kol wktu^ si^ Tovg aiuva^ tuv cuuvuv. (3) The third mode of defending restorationism consists in the endeavor to reconcile the passages that teach eternal punishment with those that ai-e alleged to teach universal restoration. This assumes several forms ; one of the principal being the allegation that the doctrine of eternal pun- ishment is only regulaike, and that God has not made plain his purpose to save all men ultimately, because he wishes men to feel the legitimate influ- ence of the doctrine of eternal punishment. This raises the question, which it ought not to be hard to answer, whether a belief can be regulatively true, but really false. But, if this be the true view of the matter, it is certainly presumptuous to undertake to deliver men from the influence of this salutary belief, by holding out the hope of an unrevealed salvation. Aside, however, from the special exegetical diffi- culties of restorationism, it is contiary to the whole analogy of faith, if it be taught on any other basis than that the oft'ers of salvation conditioned only by faith and repentance are made to those who have not embraced the gospel in this life. The objections to the doctrine of a second proba^ tion rest upon other grounds. But every doctrine of restorationism which teaches that believers must suffer for sin in the next life, before being admitted to heaven, or that any punishment of finite duration will pay the penalty of sin, is irre- concilably opposed to the teaching of Scripture regarding the satisfaction of Christ, the exemp- tion of all believers from the condemnation of the law, and the necessity of an atonement. 3. Annihilationism, or, as some prefer to call it, Conditional Immortality. — It is said by yet another class that eternal life is the lot of Christians only, and that eternal punishment means a punishment consisting of, or at least ending in, extinction of being. Some have held that there is no suiTer- ing after death, but this view is too glaringly in conflict with Scripture to find many supporters. More plausible is Constable's position, which was substantially Rothe's, that the wicked suffer after death, but that the sufferings finally wear out the subject: the fire consumes the sinner, and extinction of being is the result. The arguments in support of it are : — PUNISHMENT. 1974 PURCELL. (1) Rational. It is said (a) that this view ac- counts for the statement, " narrow is the gate that leadeth unto life," and that there is no difficulty in believing that only a few are saved, if the wicked are blotted' out ; (6) that it harmonizes with the analogy of God's providence generally ; (c) that it removes the difficulty presented by the idea of the eternal presence of evil in the uni- verse ; {d) that it harmonizes with the idea that God's glory in the salvation of an elect people is the end of his moral government among men, without necessitating the conception of a suffer- ing and surviving race of reprobates. (2) Scriptural. It is said that life and death in Scriptm-e stand respectively for existence and non-existence under conscious conditions. But this is not true. Life is used, and so is death, in many cases where the ideas of conscious and unconscious existence are not involved. It is said that the word "destroy" and its cognates imply the idea of terminating existence. It is also said that Paul hoped for the resurrection of the dead, and that this implies that resurrection was a boon that only a limited number would enjoy. To these arguments it is common to oppose the instinctive impulse to believe in im- mortality, and the indubitable teaching of the New Testament, that the wicked, sharing the fate of the fallen angels, suffer pain, being tormented, e/f Totif aluva^ tCjv aluvuv. It must be admitted that the most plausible form of opposition to the orthodox doctrine is that presented by Rothe, above referred to. The strength of the position is, that it does least vio- lence to the plain meaning of Scripture in the attempt to get rid of the eternal dualism of good and evil. But the plain meaning of Scripture, after all, is the old doctrine of the ecclesiastical symbols. It was our Lord himself who said, " These shall go away into everlasting punish- ment." These words cannot be explained away by speculation, or deprived of their obvious meaning by exegesis. Besides those who deny the doctrine of the symbols in regard to eternal punishment, there are those who prefer to take an agnostic position in regard to the matter. Some would say, with Julius Muller, that while it may be open to the sinner in the next world, as in this, to turn to God by a free act of will, it is nevertheless true that the tendency of sin is to perpetuate itself, and therefore that eternal punishment is possible. Others hold, that, while the fact of future punish- ment is taught in Scripture, there is room for reas- onable doubt as to the duration of the punishment. IV. Lit. — CoTTA : Historia succincia dogmaiis de pcenarum infernalium duralione ; Gfeorer : Das Jahrh. d. He'ds ; Schjleieemacher : Christ. Glaube; Nitzsch : Syst. d. Clirisil. Lelire ; Julius MiJLLER : The Doctrine of Sin ; Rothe : Dog- matik; Martensen: Christian Dogmatics; Dou- NER : System of Christian Doctrine (the eschato- logical portion was separately issued, Dorner on the Future State, edited by Newman Smyth) ; Hodge: Systematic Theology; Edwards: The Sal- vation of All Men strictly examined, etc.; Alger: The Doctrine of a Future Life ; Fisher : Discus- sions, etc. ; Barrows : Purgatory ; Ballou : Lecture Sermons; Whittemore : Hist, of Univer- salism ; Edward Beecher; The Doctrine of Scrip- tural Retribution : Dean : Final Restoration ; Moses Stuart: Future Punishment; Mead: The Soul here and hereafter; Cox: Salvator mundi; White: Life in Christ ; Bartlett : Life and Death Eternal ; Jukes : Restitution of All Things , Oxenham : Catholic Eschatology ; Clemance : Future Punish- ment , MiNTON : Glory of Christ ; Constable : Duration of Fxdure Punishment . Townsend: Lost forever; Farrar : Eternal Hope and Mercy and Judgment; E. B. Pusey: What is of Faith as to Everlasting Punishment : Birks : Difficulties of Belief, Whately : Future Stale : Goulburn ; Everlasting Punishment : W. Jackson : The Doc- trine of Retribution ; W. H. McKiM : Future Punishment ; Bartle : Hades and the Atone- ment ; Huntington : Conditional Immortality ; RiNCK : Zustand nach dem Tode ; GiJDER (art. in Herzog and Plitt, Real-Encycl.) : Hollen- strafen. FRANCIS L. PATTON. PUNSHON, William MoHey, LL.D., Wesleyan; b. at Doncaster, May 29, 1824 ; d. in London (Brixton Rise), Thursday, April 14, 1881. He was educated in his native town ; at fourteen went into the lumber-business at Hull and Sun- derland, with his grandfather ; but in 1842 be- came a local preacher, and (1844) entered the Wesleyan College at Richmond, and the nexl; year was stationed at Marden, Kent, and there, although but twenty years old, he won an imme- diate recognition. His fame rapidly spread, and he was justly accounted one of the most eloquent men in the denomination. On July 30, 1849, he was ordained at Manchester, and preached on several circuits. On April 11, 1868, he left for America, as representative of Conference at Chi- cago. He then went to Canada, and entered the Canadian Conference, of which he was five times elected president. He preached and lectured throughout the Dominion and the United States, always attended by large and enthusiastic crowds. In 1873 he returned to England ; the next year was elected president of the Wesleyan Conference, and in February, 1875, was appointed one of the secretaries of the Wesleyan Missionary Society, and continued in its service till death. He was honored in every way. In 1859, as soon as he was eligible, he was made a member of the " Legal Hundred; " in 1873 he was made LL.D. by Vic- toria University, Coburg, Canada. His eloquence, his enthusiasm, his wisdom, his administrative ability, which was of a high order, were all freely given to the cause of Christ. He was extraordi- narily successful in raising money for benevolent purposes. He published Select Lectures and Ser- mons, London, ISQO, ith ed., 1877; Life Thoughts (sermons), 1863; Sabbath Chimes (verses), 1867, new ed., 1880; The Prodigal Son, 1868; Sermons, Lectures, and Literary Remains, 1881 ; Sermons, 1882 sq. See William Morley Punshon, Preacher and Orator, London, 1881. PURCELL, Henry, musician; b. at Westmin- ster (London), Eng., 1658; d. in London, Nov. 21, 1695. He was successively organist of West- minster Abbey (1676) and of Chapel Royal (1682). He occupied a place in the first rank of English sacred composers. His Sacred Music (including fifty anthems), his Te Deum and Jubilate, and a number of minor pieces, were collected and edited by Vincent Novello, and prefaced with a notice of his life and works, London, 1826-36. PDRCBLL. 1975 PURGATORY. PURCELL, John Baptist, D.D., Roman-Catho- lic prelate ; b. at IMallow, County Cork, Ireland, Feb. 26, 1800; d. at St. Martins,"Crown County, O., July 4,1883. He emigrated to America in 1818 ; studied theology in America and France ; in 1826, at Paris, was ordained priest ; returned to America, and was a professor, and afterwards president, of Mount St. Mary's College, Emniitts- burg, Md. In 1833 he was consecrated bishop, and in 1850 archbishop, of Cincinnati. When he came to his see, there were only 16 Roman-Catho- lic churches in all Ohio, and many of- these were mere sheds. In 1876 there were 460 churches, 100 chapels, 3 theological seminaries, 3 colleges, 6 hospitals, and 22 orphan-asylums. For many years Archbishop Pui-cell consented to receive the savings of his parishioners, spent them upon ecclesiastical buildings of various kinds, and in 1876 failed for $4,000,000, whereupon he retired permanently to a monastery. He was the author of Lectures and Pastoral Letters, a series of school- books, a Life of X. D. McLeod (New York, 1866), and held public debates (afterwards pub- lished) with Alexander Campbell (1838), Thomas Vickers (1868), and others. In the Vatican Coun- cil he spoke and voted against -the infallibility dogma, though he accepted it. See Gilmouk : Funeral Oration on Archbishop J. B. Purcell, New York, 1883. PURGATORY. The doctrine of purgatory, which the Roman-Catholic Church has fully elab- orated, strikes its roots in the early Christian centuries. It is connected with the doctrine of an intermediate state, where the imperfect are made fit for paradise by a system of punitive and refining sufierings. This process of refining was not always ascribed to fire. The later rabbins held to a purification by water (Eisenmengek : Entdecktes Judentum, ii. 337). The general view, however, was, that paradise was encompassed by a sea of fire, in which the blemishes of souls were consumed before their admission to heaven. The Mohammedans held that a wall (Koran, sura vii.) is built between heaven and hell, to the top of which all are assigned whose good works and evil works are equal, and from which they can look both into heaven and hell. The doctrine of purgatorial fire was developed from texts of Scrip- ture and the church's teaching concerning pen- ance. Fire is frequently referred to in the Bible as a symbol of purification (Mai. iii. 2 ; Matt. iii. 11; 1 Pet. i. 7, etc.), as well as a symbol of pun- ishment and danmation (Matt. xxv. 4 ; Mark ix. 44, 49, etc.). There is no allusion to any process of purification in the period intervening between the death of the individual and the general resur- rection. The doctrine of purgatorial purification first began to be bi-oached in the third century. Clement of Alexandria (Peed. 3, Sirovi. 7) speaks of a spiritual fire in this world ; and Origen held that it continues .beyond the grave (Horn, in Num. XXV.), and says that even Paul and Peter must pass through it in order to be purified from all sin (Horn. inPs. xxxvi.). Augustine, relying on Matt. xii. 32, regarded the doctrine of purga- torial fire for the cleansing away of the remainders of sin as not incredible ; and Gregory the Great established the doctrine. Its further history is associated with the doctrine of masses for the dead, and penance in this life. Thomas Aquinas (qu. 70, 3), Bonaventura (Comp. theol. verit., 7, 2), Gerson (Serm. 2. De Defunctis), and other great men of the middle ages, held that the fires of purgatory were material. The Greek Church, refusing to go as far as the Latin, laid down the doctrine of purgatorial fire as one of the irrecon- cilable differences between them at the Council of Florence, 1439. The Cathari, Waldenses, and Wiclif opposed the doctrine. The Reformers raised their voices against the whole theory of purgatory. The Council of Trent, on the other hand, pronounced an anathema against those who reject the dogma. Bellarmin elaborated the doc- trine in his extensive work on purgatory (JDe Purgatorio), proves it from the Old Testament (1 Kings xxxi. 13; 2 Kings i., iii., etc.), the Apocrypha (2 Mace. xii. 40 sq. ; Tob. iv. 18), the New Testament (Matt. xii. 32; 1 Cor. iii. 11 sq., etc.), the Fathers, the councils, and reason, and comes to the conclusion that the fire of pur- gatory is material (ignem purgalorii esse corpore- urri). RDD. HOFMAliTN. The doctrine of purgatory in the Greek-Catho- lic Church is thus stated in the Longer Catechism of the Eastern Church : — " Q 376. —What is to be remarked of such souls as have departed with faith, but without having had time to bring forth fruits worthy of repentance ? This, that they may be aided towards the attainment of a blessed resurrection by prayers offered in their behalf, especially such as are offered In union with the oblation of the bloodless sacrifice of the Body and Blood of Christ, and by works of mercy done in faith for their memory. Q. 377. — On what is this doctrine grounded ? On the constant tradition of the Catholic Church, the sources of which may be seen even in the Church of the Old Testament. Judas Maccabseus offered sacrifices for his men that had fallen (2 Mace. xii. 43). Prayer for the departed has ever formed a fixed part of the divine Liturgy, from the first Liturgy of the apostle James. St. Cyril of Jerusalem says, ' Very great will be the benefit' to those souls for which prayer is offered at the moment when the holy and tremendous sacrifice is lying in view' (Lect. Mys., v. 9). St. Basil the Great, in his I?rayers for Pentecost, says that ' the Lord vouchsafes to receive from us propitiatory prayers and sacrifices for those that are kept in Hades, and allows us the hope of obtaining for them peace, relief, and free- dom.' " Compare the Orthodox Confession of the Eastern Church, qu. Ixvi. See Schaff : Creeds, vol. ii. pp. 345, 346, 504. The Roman-Catholic doctrine of purgatory is stated in the eighth article of the Profession of the Tridenline Faith (see art. Tkidentine), and also thus in the Canons and Decrees of the Coun- cil of Trent: — " "Whereas the Catholic Church, instructed by the Holy Ghost, has, from the Sacred "Writings and the ancient tradition of the Fathers, taught in sacred councils, and very recently in this oecumenical Syn- od, that there is a purgatory, and that the souls there detained are helped by the suffrages of the faithful, but principally by the acceptable sacrifice of the altar: the holy Synod enjoins on bishops that they diligently endeavor that the sound doctrine concern- ing purgatory ... be believed, maintained, taught, and everywhere proclaimed by the faithful of Christ." — Sessio'xxv.; cf Schaff: Creeds, ii. p. 198. " Catholics hold that there is a purgatory, i.e., a place or state where souls departing this life with remission of their sins as to the guilt or eternal pain, but yet liable to some temporary punishment still re- maining due, or not perfectly freed from the blemish of some defects which we call venial sins, are purged PURIFICATIONS. 1976 PURIFICATIONS. before their admittance into heaven, where nothing that is defiled can enter. We also lielieve that such souls so (latained in purgatory, being the living mem- bers of Christ Jesus, are relieved by the prayers and suffrages of their fellow-members here on earth. But where this place be, of what nature or quality the pains be, how long souls may be there detained, in what manner the suffrages made on their behalf be applied, — whether by way of satisfaction, interces- sion, etc., — are questions superfluous, and imperti- nent as to faith." — Bf.riji'gtox axd Kirk: Faith of Cal/ioliis, London, ISWi, vol. 3, :3d ed., pp. 140-207, where the appropriate passages from the Fathers, Liturgies, etc., are given at length. See Louvet: Le ptirrjatoire d'apres les vei-elutlona des saints, Paris, 1880. PURIFICATIONS. I. 1. What d'-Jiles, accord- infj to the Old Testament .<■ how, whom, how much, and how long, does it defile f A. Certain animals, whan eaten by men, defile. B. The woman, after childbirth. The defiling element in her is not the giving birth to a child, or the fact that she gave birth, but her condition, which is like tlie " uncleanness of her being unwell" (Lev. xii. 2); i.e., the impurity of her monthly illness. C. L':prosy. It defiles not only the person afflicted with it, and his dress, but also every other person witli whom he comes in contact dur- ing the time of the disease (Lev. xiii. 46). Every one who enters a house which the priest has pro- nounced as leprous becomes unclean for one day (Lev. xiv. 40). D. Certain secretions of the human hodij (Lev. xv.). (a) In a man. (a) Gonorrhosa venders unclean not only the patient himself, but every couch, seat, or object on which he lies or sits ; and all persons he spits upon, or touches with his body, are unclean till the evening (l-12j. (ji) Xoclumal emissions of a man render him unclean 'till the evening, and 60 all stained garments, and his wife, in case she lies at his side. It is important to know, that, according to the context in verse 18, the nocturnal accident is the primary object of dLscussion in the section : whereas the fact that he lies by a woman is secondary, just as accidental as the gar- ment or skin which happens to be near the man having a discharge. It must also be noticed, that, concerning the garment or skin, it is said, " where- on is the discharge of seed " (17) ; whereas of the woman (IS), nothing is said in connection with the discharge. Thus garment or skin becomes unclean, when coming in immediate contact with the discharge of seed ; w hereas a human being becomes unclean, if he only comes in immediate contact with the man having the discharge. The possibility that a man may have a noctui'nal enii,s- sion w ithout having any sexual intercourse with the wife lying at his side, must be regarded as known to the lawgiver. And the possibility be- comes a reality, when we consider that the same phrase, " to lie with " (HN 2D!y), is also used in verse il, where a man lies by the side of his wife being in her monthly impiuity, and where it can- not have the meaning of sexual intercourse, since the intercourse with such a woman did not render the man unclean for seven days, but was a crime punished with death (Lev. xx. 18). We thus see that from Lev. xv. 18 it cannot he inferred that conjugal intercourse rendered unclean ; and that our pa,ssage * The author's uee of compouod epithets, e g., " religio- ethieo-aeathetic ** baa been retained Id order to avoid circum- lOCUtiODB. treats only of involuntary emission of semen has already been indicated by the Alassoretes. (It) In a wotnan. (a) Her courses, which render her unclean seven days, and so all things which she touches, and which, on their part, defile any object that happens to be upon them : touchiiig such object causes uncleanness till the evening, and .so does any personal contact with the woman. The man who lies with her is unclean for seven days (Lev. XV. 19-24). (/i) Prolonged issue of blood, which defiles as much as menstruation (Lev. xv. 2.5-27). E. A dead bodg defiles, (a) Touching the car- casses of unclean beasts renders unclean for one day (Lev. xi. 8, 24, 2.5, 28 ; Xum. xix. 22). (//) The car- casses of such clean beasts as had not been regu- larly slaughtered, or had died of themselces, when eaten, or even touched, make unclean for one day (Lev. xi. -39 sq., xxii. 8). (c) A human corpse when touched makes unclean for seven days (Xurn. xix. 11) ; and it imparts its uncleanness to the tent, and this again to all persons entering the same, and to every uncovered vessel (14. sq.). To touch one that is slain with a sword in the open field, or a dead body, or a bone of a man, or a grave, makes also unclean for seven days (16). 2. What is the nature of the impurity of the un- clean phenomena enumerated above ? Is it a physico- cesthetic, or a religio-ethical, or both ? And what is the source of perception that such impurity exists ? A. In defining the character of the impurities treated above, we have to consider, (a) The etymology of the Hebrew word /ame/i ("unclean "), which, whatever signification we attach to the word, denotes from the very beginning an external, testhetical impurity ; (h) The usage of tameh — this denotes, on the one hand, physico-KSthetic impu- rity (Ezek. iv. 12-14 ; Deut. xxiii. 12-14), on the other hand, an ethical impurity (Lev. xxii. 4; Isa. vi. .5 ; Ezek. xxii. 5 ; Zech. xiii. 2) ; and even if we take the word in its wider sense, as denoting " abomination " or " immorality " (in the highest sense), we have not yet the character of all impu- rity; (c) The synonymes of Tameh, but these do not help us in deciding the character of the impurity in question ; (r/) The means used in removing the impurities. These also are indecisive. The result is, that the phenomena enumerated under I. 1 have not been pronounced as impure because of physical or festhetic impurity, but on account of another quality, because to them was attached an abnormity of a higher, non-percepti- ble nature; that is, because in tho.se "impure" phenomena a disturbance of the normal psycho- logical relation of man to God, of the true religio- moral connection with the divine, is supposed. Thus the impurity in question has in the first place a religio-ethical character. But, since an external iinpuriiij is the secondary factor of the abnormity which is supposed in the " impure " phenomena, a religio-ethico-cesthetic impurity is attached to them, which is not in opposition to Heb. ix. 13 sq., rightly understood. B. What is the source of perception, that to the things mentioned (I. 1) belongs an ethico-cesthetic im- purity ? (a) The direct source of this perception. We have no direct indication, and we can only arrive at a result by examining indirectly what the Old Testament understands by an " ethico-aesthetic impurity." The following possibilities have been PURIFICATIONS. 1977 PURIFICATIONS. 3d. (1) The impurity in question is a common sical one, intended to prevent persons afflicted 1 it from visiting the temple (Maimonides: ■e nehukhim, iii. 47 ; Hess : GescJiickte Mosis, I, 386 sq.). Others maintained that the puri- tory laws were intended to place a barrier be- en Israel and other nations (Tacitus : Hist., v. Derech erez sulta, III. ; Spencer, i. cap. 8, 2, 2 ; 1 Colin: Bibl. T/teoL, 1836, i. p. 283; Hitzig, 98 sq. ; Ritschl: Rechtfertigunr/, ii.^, 1882, p. Or (2) It is an especial intensively physical one. IS, (aj Those who make them sanitary precau- s (Michaelis, iv. § 207 sq. ; SaalschUtz, i. 217, ; Winer, ii. 319) ; (/3) Those who make dis- t (Winer, ii. 319), or natural aversion (Knobel: J. on Exodus-Leviticus, 1857, on Lev. xi. 15), ov nstinctive horror (cf . Baudissin, p. 101 : Ewald, 92, combines a and ,8), the original source of conception. (3) Religious, ethic, and cesthetic, e "the two factors of the final being, birth and th, procreation and corruption, beginning and , when contrasted with divine infinitude, are ul and impure " (Bahr, ii. 462). But to this ;t be objected, (a) that two objects which serve evelop one and the same phenomenon become ■eby in no way related ; on the contrary, they '•, in spite of this external or formal relation, essentially unlike, yea, oppose each other : h and death, procreation and corruption, be- se presenting the beginning and end of human tence, are therefore not yet materially related. The empiric matter of fact of the Hebrew ificatory laws is also against Bahr's hypothe- since the Hebrews never looked upon the -born child as unclean. These arguments 1 good also against Kurtz (Opfercultus, p. 367), Schultz (pp. 336 sq.), and Oehler (§ 142), who ,he main follow the hypothesis of Bahr. (4) impurity is a religio-ethico-cesthetic one, because as regarded as a more distant or nearer effect of h. thus Sommer, pp. 243 sq. ; Keil, § 57 ; A. hler, i. pp. 409, 412,416 ; Dillmann on Leviti- xi.-xv. ; F. W. Schultz, in Zcickler's Hand- i, i. p. 241 ; Hamburger, i. p. 874. his view can not only be established by the Testament in general , but can also be applied he single impurities. This direct source of Old-Testament conception of an ethico-ses- ic impurity is also not put aside by a direct ce of this conception outside of the Old Tes- ent, because there is ) No indirect source of the Israelitish conception e ethico-cesthetic impurity outside of the Old Tes- •nt. To make this assertion good, we must ) Show since when the conception of an ethico- elic impurity existed in Israel. From those )hetical writings the date of which is given I certainty, we learn the following, putting, ever, those passages where unclean (i.e., abom- ile) is taken in a mere religio-ethical sense, and lot immediately belonging here, in brackets. i.os : unclean is the land outside of Palestine 17)]. Hosea : Israel shall eat unclean things .ssyria (ix. 3 sq.) ; [Israel is defiled on account rreligion and immorality (3)]. [Micdh: un- nness (i.e., abomination) causes destruction .3). Isaiah : the Israel of the time of salvation defile his former idols (xxx. 22)]. Jeremiah: houses of Jerusalem shall be defiled as the e of Tophet (xix. 13). This defilement was probably brought about by Josiah (2 Kings xxiii, 10), since he defiled the high places in the cities of Judah in general (8), not by physical defilement (as 2 Kings x. 27), but as, in the case of the altar at Bethel (2 Kings xxiii. 15 sq.), by bones out of the sepulchres [Israel has polluted himself by idolatry (Jer. ii. 23), and his land (ii. 7, vii. 30, xxxii. 34. Lamentations: polluted with blood (iv> 14 sq.)]. In Ezekiel we have parallels to I. 1 : food baked with dung that cometh out of man is un- clean (iv. 12 sq.) ; the menstruating woman with her pollution is mentioned (xxii. 10) ; the defiled land is compared to her uncleanness (xxxvi. 17) ; that which dieth of itself, or is torn in pieces, is unclean (iv. 14) ; Jahve's house is defiled by bones- out of the sepulchres (ix. 7, xliii. 7) ; priests can only defile themselves for five dead persons (xliv.. 25) ; [the sanctuary and Jerusalem are defiled by the presence of idols (v. 11, xiv. 11, xx. 7, 18, 30 sq., 43, xxii. 3 sq., 15, xxiii. 7, 30, 38, xxxvi. 17 sq., xliii. 7) ; ancient Jerusalem is defiled by blood (xxiv. 9, 11) ; uncleanness and apostasy to- gether (xxxix. 24) ; to defile the neighbor's wife by adultery (xviii. 6, 11, 15, xxii. 11) ; God pro- nounces Israel unclean because of his sins (xx. 26) ; but God will cleanse Israel (xxxvi. 25, 29, xxxvii. 23) ; finally, it is worthy of notice that the soul becomes polluted by uncleanness (iv. 14)]. Ezekiel laments also over the priests who- hitherto made no difference between the unclean and the clean (xxii. 26), and puts it down as a special duty of the priests to teach this differ- ence (xliv. 23). Deutero-Isaiah : the uncircum- cised and unclean shall henceforth come no more into Jerusalem (Isa. Iii. 1) ; " touch no imclean thing" (11) ; the unclean shall not be in the land in the messianic time (xxxv. 8). Uaggai: a dead body defiles according to the dictum of the priests (ii. 13). Since in the non-disputed oldest literary monuments of Israel we have essentially the same laws of uncleanness as contained in Lev. xi.—xv.. Num. xix., it can be no question that Israel's views con- cerning purifications are, for the most part, very old. When, nevertheless, Israel is sqid to have taken those ideas from another source, this can only be supposed to be found in the perceptions of those nations with whom Israel at a very early period is said to have come in contact, or, in fact, has been in contact, — Aryans, ancient Babyloni- ans, Egyptians ; but (/3) A foreign origin of the idea in question could only be supposed on the ground that a nation being in a more distant or nearer relation to Israel could shorn a purificatory law lohich agreed in principle and de- tail with that of the Old Testament. From what we know, this is not the case. When, concerning the outward origin of the Old-Testament ideas of purifi- cation, it must be supposed tliat in them, partly, very ancient material has been spiritualized and stipple- mented according to a principle offered by an espe- cial revelation, the question is still to be answered, why Ezekiel has made the ideas of uncleanness more prominent than the. former. When, however, the given notices show, that, in the prophetical writ- ings, references to the idea of uncleanness are more and more increasing, it will be admitted that the same cause (viz., the growing seriousness of God's governing the world since the appear- ance of Isaiah) which led to a deeper knowledge of sin and a stronger accentuation of expiatory PURIFICATIONS. 1978 PURIFICATIONS. sacrifices, has also brought the ideas of unclean- ness, as being connected with sin and death, in the foreground of the thinking of the Jsraelitish congi'egation in general, and also especially of that of Ezekiel, whom God had taken from among the priests to be a prophet. Comp. Koenig : Offen- harungshegriff, i. pp. 148 sq. ; Dillniann : Ueher die Herkunfl der urgeschiclidichen Sagen der Hehraer (Berichte der Academie zu Berlin, 1882), p. 3. n. 1. What Purifications were enjoined for re- moving the enumerated impurities f — For A is no purification. For B — For seven or fourteen days respectively (i.e., after the birth of a boy or a girl) the woman is as thoroughly unclean as in the time of her menstruation ; and, after washing her- self and her clothes, she is clean from her positive impurity, but not from her negative impurity (i.e., her keeping aloof from holy things and from the sanctuary), which can only be removed by pre- senting a lamb one year old as a burnt offering, and a young pigeon or a turtle-dove as a sin offer- ing (Lev. xii. 6 sq.) ; but, if she be poor, a pigeon or a turtle-dove suffices for the burnt offering also (8). For C — He who has shown a doubt- ful symptom of leprosy on his body has only to wash his garments (Lev. xiii. 6, 34) ; garments affected with leprosy must be burnt (52, 55, 57) ; garments or stuffs which only showed doubt- ful signs of leprosy are to he icashed (54, 58). At the purification of the leper, one of the two clean live birds is to killed over a vessel containing spring water : the other is to be dipped in the mixed blood and water, together with cedar-wood, hyssop, and a crimson thread or band. The fluid is then sprinkled upon the convalescent seven times, and the living bird is allowed to fly away over the fields (Lev. xiv. 4-7). The con- valescent then washes his garments, shaves off all his hair, bathes in water, as he is to do again on the seventh day (8 sq.). Of the blood of the lamb killed as trespass-offering, the priest sprinkles upon the top of his right ear, upon the thumb of his right hand, and upon the great toe of his right foot ; then some of the oil is sprinkled seven times towards the holy place of the sanctuary (10-18). Next the ewe-lamb is presented as a sin-offering, and the second he-lamb as a holo- caust, accompanied by the usual bloodless oblation of the flour (If) sq.). In case of poverty, for the sin-offering and holocaust two turtle-doves or two young pigeons are accepted (21-32). A leprous house is to be broken down (45), and he who did sleep or eat in it must wash his garments (47). But, if the house is declared clean, its purification is effected as described above (4-7, 48-53). For D, (a), (a) — When the discharge of semen has ceased, he nmst wash his garments, and bathe in running water; he presents two turtle-doves or two young pigeons, one for a sin-offering and the ether for a holocaust (Lev. xv. 13-15). Persons defiled directly or indirectly by such a person have only to wash their garments, and bathe their bodies (5-11). Earthen vessels touched by the patient must be broken ; wooden ones, rinsed with water (12). For D, (a), (/3) — Nocturnal accidents render the persons unclean till the evening, when they must bathe, while all stained garments re- quire washing (16-18). For D, (A), (a) — In case of the menstruating woman, no purification is indi- cated ; but the persons indirectly defiled by her must wash garments and bodies (21 sq.). Since, however, the irregular issue of blood on the part of the woman {D, b, /5) is only regarded as tem- porary, different from the regular issue, having the same defiling qualifications (25 sq.), we may take it for granted that the lawgiver intended the same purificatory laws for the menstruating woman as for the one afflicted with an irregular is^ue of blood (29 sq. ) . For E, (a) — Whoever carries the carcass of unclean animals must wash his gar- ments (Lev. xi. 21, 28); the objects upon which a carcass accidentally falls, such as utensils of wood, garments, or skins, require cleansing by being left in water till the evening (32) ; earthen vessels, ovens, and _ stoves must be broken (33, 35). For E, (b) — Carrying the carcass of a clean animal requires washing of garments (40). For E, (e) — Defilement at a dead person requires a red heifer without spot, and upon which never came yoke, etc. (Num. xix. 1-6). The ashes of the burnt heifer are put into running water (17), which becomes the luater of abomination, i.e., the water appointed for the purification of uncleaimess : in this sense the word iTlJ '0 Qnay niddah) is to be taken. With this water, those who have become defiled directly or indirectly for a dead person, as well as the house of the dead and its vessels, are to be sprinkled, by means of hyssop, on the third and seventh day after the defilement ; and on the seventh day the person shall purify himself, and wash his clothes (12 sq., 17-19). The latter must also be done by him who prepares, keeps, and uses the ashes (7 sq., 10, 21). The officiating priest, as well as' the man who burnt the red heifer, have, besides, to bathe their flesh in water (7 sq.). As for the Nazarite who defiled himself by a sudden death, see Num. vi. 9-12. Of the booty taken from heathenish nations, every thing that may abide the fire is to go through it, and must be purified with the water of separation : all that abideth not the fire is to go through the water; and a person touching such booty must wash his clothes on the seventh day. 2. Upon lohat perceptions is the purifying power of the objects used, and actions performed, at the purifications, based ? (a) The destructio.t of un- clean things, in whatever form or manner, needs no explanation, (b) Going through f re is easily to be understood, since fire is often mentioned in the Old Testament as a purifying means (Ps. xii. 6). (c) That ivater should be used for removing the ethico-sesthetic impurity is a matter of course; and it is possible that " living " water, even where it is not expressly stated, is meant, (rf) The sin and burnt sacrifices required of the woman after Childbirth, the' leper, the man having a running issue, and the woman having an issue of blood, have their usual signification, (c) In the purifi- cation of the leper, all materials and actions show the great step which the person to be purified took from the awful nearness of death to the gladsome communion of untroubled life. (/) In removing the impurity caused by the touch of a dead person, the red color of the cow, as symbol of the source of life, being in the blood, must be considered. As a yoke had never come upon her, she was the emblem of virgin energy. Cedar-wood, crimson thread, a.nd hyssop, which were also used, represent efnblems of incorruptibility, medicine against im- purity, and symbol of life. PURIFICATIONS. 1979 PURITAN. m. Post-canonical Development, and Time of Validity, of the Old-Testament ideas of impurity and purificatory ceremonies. — 1. Later Develop- ment. When, in tlie time of Ezra, Israel took upon himself to observe even the laws concerning clean and unclean according to the Pentateuch, the scribes took it upon themselves to clearly de- fine, not only the laws laid down in the canon, but also those inferences which were deduced from them. These rules and regulations are found in' the treatises, Chullin, Niddali, Tehidjom, Ohalotli, Ahodali zarah (ii. 6), Mikvaotli, Yadailm (comp. the art. Talmud). But not all Israelites took pari in these rigorous purificatory efforts. Re- ligious indiiference led on the one hand to lax- ness (Job i. 10 sq.) ; while over-scrupulousness on the other hand led to the formation of special societies, the most rigorous of which was that of the Chasidim (q. v.). 2. Time of Validity. .That the Old- Testament ideas of impurities and puri- fications existed before and after the time of Christ, we see from 1 Mace. i. 62 sq. ; 2 Mace. vi. 18, vii. 1 sq., xi. 31 ; Tacitus : Hist., v. 4, 5. The sixth part, or seder, of the Mishna (compiled about 180 A.D.), show.s a development of the Old-Testament purificatory laws. But it is very significant, that of the sixth seder only the sev- enth treatise has been supplied with a gamara [i.e., exposition]. But partly in consequence of the declarations of Christ — though he did not abolish the ideas of his times concerning clean and unclean (Matt. viii. 4 ; Luke xvii. 14) when dealing with unconverted persons — concerning the spirituality of the Old-Testament religion and morals (Matt. v. 17, 21 sq.-vii. 12, xi. 30, xii. 8, XV. 11) ; partly in consequence of the work of the Holy Ghost, who reminded the disciples of the new spiritual foundation of the Christian religion (John xiv. 26), and showed to Peter in a vision that the difference of food has lost its authority in the Christian reon of history of salvation (Acts X. 15), — Jewish Christians were already at a very earlj' period converted to eat with Gentile Chris- tians, by receiving Christ as the new living law- giver into their souls (Gal. ii. 20). The departure of this Jewish-Christian part of the first Chris- tians from Jerusalem, and the destruction of the temple, became, at least to the less rigorous among them, a guide to regard the lex cceremonialis of the Old Testament with the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews (ix. 1 sq.), as perfected, i.e., spirit- ualized, in Christianity. The Church of Chri,st knows, it is true, that death is the wages of sni (Rom. vi. 23), and groans to be relieved from the body of this death (vii. 24); but she does not re- gard the death of the body, and all like symptoms of the life of the body, as the evil from which we should flee the most, "but the spiritual and ever- lasting death (Matt. viii. 22 ; Luke ix. 60). " Let the dead bury their dead : but go thou and preach the kingdom of God." Lit. — The Commentaries on Leviticus and Numbers; J.Spencer: De leqibus Hehrceorum ri- tualibus (1685), ed. Pfaff, Tubingee, 1732, pp. 182 sq., 482 sq., 773 sq., 1174 sq. ; also m Ugolini's Thesaurus Anliqq. Scicrarum, xxii. 929 sq., and the rejoinder of J. H. Maii, Dissent, de lustrat et purif. Hebr., Ihid., p. 931 ; Lund : Die altenjud. Hedig- thiimer, Hamburg, 1695; J. D. Michaelis : Mos. Recht, iv. pp. 220 sq. ; Saalschutz : Mos. Recht, 1846, 1848 (2d ed., ,1853, cap. 22-32); Weber: System der altsynagogaien Theulogie [Leipzig], 1880, pp. 61 sq., 267 sq. ; Bodenschatz : Kirchl. Ver- fassung der heutigen Juden, Erlangen, 1748, part 4 ; Bahk: Symbolik des Mosaische Cullus, ii. 1839, pp. 454-522 ; De Wette : Archdologie (4th ed., 1864), § 188 sq.; Keil: Handbuch derbibl. Arch. (2d ed., 1875), § 56 sq. ; Ewald : AlterlhUmer des Volkes Israel (3d ed., 1866), pp. 192 sq.; F. W. ScHULTZ, in ZiJCKLEu's Handbuch der theol. Wis- senschaften, i. (1882), pp. 229 sq. ; A. Kohler : Lehrbuch der bibl. Gesch., i. (1875), pp. 409 sq. ; the Old-Testament theology of Oehleu (2d ed., 1882),§ 142 sq., H. Scholtz (2d ed., 1878), chap, xxiii., HiTziG (ed. Kneuker, 1880), pp. 98 sq. ; the monographs of Sommer (in his Bibl. A bhand- lungen, 1846), pp. 183-367 ; Kurtz, in Theolog. Studien u. Kritiken, 1846, pp. 629 sq. ; Count Baudissin, in his Studien, 2d part (1878), pp. 90 sq. ; RiTSCHL : Die christl. Lehre von der Rechtferti- gung, ii. (2d ed., 1882), pp. 91 sq. ; finally the articles of Winer, in his Realworterbuch (3d ed., 1847), of Schenkel, in his Bibellexikon (1875, 5 vols.), of Kamphausen, in Riehm's HandwiJrter- buch (14th part, 1880), and by Riehm {Ibid.) art. " Strafrecht," Nos. 3, 4 (1882), of Hambukgeb, in his Real-encyclopddie fur Bibel und Talmud, 1870-83, 2 vols. fr. ed. konig. (B. pick.) PU'RIM (for the meaning of the nara-e, see Esth. ix. 24-26 ; cf . iii. 7). The Book of Esther gives us our information respecting the origin of this Jewish festival. It encountered opposition on its introduction, according to the Jerusalem Talmud; for eighty-five elders, including thirty prophets, ridiculed the idea (cf. Lightfoot on John X. 21). But by Josephus' time (cf. Ant. XI. 6, 13), it was universally observed. It is observed on the 14th and 15th Adar, i.e., exactly a month be- fore passover, preceded by the " fast of Esther " on the 13th, which was the actual day of the delivery. It was not a temple, but a synagogue festival, and observed in public by the reading of the entire Book of Esther — called Megillah ("the roll ") par excellence — on the appearance of star- light the 14th of Adar, during which, at every mention of Haman, the audience shouts, " Let his name be blotted out. The name of the wicked shall rot." On the next morning (still the 14th of Adar) another synagogue service is held, and the Megillah read ; but the rest of the day and the next are given up to merriment and gift-making. In leap-year, Purim is celebrated in the interca- lary month (Veadar) ; but formerly it was twice celebrated, — both in Adar and Veadar. If the 14th of Adar falls on a Sunday, then, since there can be no fasting on sabbath, the " Esther fast " falls on Thursday. Ewald conjectured, that origi- nally Purim could be celebrated on the 13th of any month ; but, by connecting it with the delivery from Egyptian bondage, it was put before the pass- over, as a sort of preparatory festival. OEHLER. PURITAN, PURITANISIVI. The Reformation in England was begun by Henry VIII., and con- solidated by Elizabeth. It was an unhappy thing for the interests of religion and the church, that from the first, the movement was in the hands of those who subordinated it to personal caprice and state policy. Most of the principal agents em- ployed to e'ffect it were animated by strong Prot- estant principle, and desired that it should be PURITANISM. 1980 PURITANISM. thorough ; and though, at first, they were not able to do all they desired, they rejoiced in what they had been permitted to accomplish, and hoped the work would continue to advance. With regard to this advance, they were doomed to disappoint- ment, and in the end submitted to what appeared to them to be ''the inevitable." The first Puritans were men who could not accept the work as complete, nor rest satisfied with it in its imperfection. They wished to make the church as perfect an instrument as possible for subserving the ends of true religion, and therefore urged the utter rejection of every thing that countenanced Eoman error and superstition. They had no objection to the connection of the Church with the State, nor to some regulation of it by the civil authorities. They submitted to those regulations which they approved ; but, whether consistently or inconsistently we do not now inquire, they resisted those which appeared to them inexpedient, or contrary to the interests of Protestant truth. The spirit of Puritanism had appeared in the reign of Edward VI. Bishop Hooper refused to be consecrated in the papal vestments and to take the papal oath. The latter was altered, but the former could not be dispensed with. For his refusal he was imprisoned, but eventually compromised matters by consenting to wear the vestments, on high occasions only. During the Marian persecution, many English divines fled to the Continent, and several of them found an asylum in Frankfort, where, having obtained the use of a church, on condition that they should subscribe the French confession of faith, they formed themselves into a society, chose John Knox and Thomas Leaver as their minis- ters, drew up a service-book for themselves, and proceeded in the path of reformation farther than it had yet been possible to do in England. Here they met with opposition from other exiles who had been invited to join them, who insisted on using the English Liturgy, and on conforming to the rites of the English Church as ordered in the reign of Edward VI. Troubles consequently arose, which disquieted the original company, and finally caused them to remove to Geneva. The treatment these brethren met with at Frankfort was only an earnest of what they would experi- ence in England in the ensuing reign. When Elizabeth ascended the throne, the exiles returned to their native land ; but, much to their sorrow, the Puritans found the queen disposed to retrograde rather than to advance. Fond of pomp, she determined on preserving the vestments and some of the symbols of Popery, her plea being a desire to retaiii the Roman Catholics in the church; and, further to secure this object, some passages in the service-book which would be offensive to them were removed, and ceremonies which favored their opinions were retained. She did not like the Puritans, she hated them ; and hence it was that such men as Miles Coverdale and John Fox were treated with neglect. In the first year of her reign the Act of Supremacy and the Act of Uniformity were passed, the latter of which pi-essed very heavily upon the Puritans, who had scruples respecting the conformity re- quired of them in vestments and forms. They held that the vestments, having been used by the idolatrous priests of Rome, defiled and obscured the priesthood of Christ, that they increased hypocrisy and pride, that they were conti-ary to Scripture, and that the enforcement of them was tyranny. Many of the bishops would have been glad to dispense with them; but the queen in- sisted upon retaining them, and, as Hallam says, " Had her influence been withdrawn, surplices and square caps would have lost their steadiest friend, and several other little accommodations to the prevalent dispositions of Protestants would have taken place." — Constitutional History, chap, iv. There is no doubt that Elizabeth, feeling the in- security of her position and the magnitude of the dangers which encompassed her in the beginning of her reign, acted from policy, and endeavored to mark out a via media between Protestantism' and Popery. This may partly account for her severities towards the Puritans, who strongly op- posed this course, but cannot excuse them. The Puritans, on the other hand, were jealous for the honor of Christ, the true Head of the Church, and would conform to nothing which tended to endanger Protestant truth. They acted, more- over, under the advice of the Continental Re- formers, who urged them " not to hearken to the counsels of those men, who, when they saw that Popery could not be honestly defended nor en- tirely restrained, would use all artifices to have the outward face of reli^rion to remain mixed, un- certain, and doubtful; so that, while an evangelical religion is pretended, those things should be ob- truded on the church which will make the return- ing back to Popery, superstition, and idolatry, easy." Gualter, the writer of the advice, says, " We have had experience of this for some years in Germany, and know what influence such per- sons may have." "I apprehend that in the first beginnings, while men may study to avoid the giving of small offence, many things may be suf- fered under this color for a little while ; and yet it will scarce be possible, by all the endeavors that can be used, to get them removed, at least without great struggles." Our own experience has proved the wisdom of this advice. It is not to be sup- posed that the Puritans refused to use the vest- ments as vestments merely, but as symbols ; and their motto was Ohsta pnncipiis. The parocliial clergy at the commencement of this reign were almost entirely the Marian mass- priests who had conformed to the new order. Not more than three hundred in the ten thousand parishes of England had vacated their livings: the rest had a great influence in the Convocation of 1562, which met to review the doctrine and discipline of the church. Notwithstaudhig this influence, Bishop Sandys introduced a petition for reformation, which went very far to satisfy the demands of the Puritans, and which was only re- jected by the proxies of absentees, and then only by a majority of one. This fact will show the strength of tiie Puritan party at that time. But, though so strong, the queen, and her ecclesiastics determined to suppress them. Tlie Court of High Commission, constituted by virtue of the royal supremacy, was empowered "to visit, reform, redress, order, correct, and amend all errors, heresies, schisms, abuses, con- tempts, offences, and enormities whatsoever," and, PURITANISM. 1981 PURITANISM. with its oath ex officio, was the means of inflicting extreme suffering on the Puritans. In order to insure uniformity, " advertisements " were issued by the bishops in 1564, by which it was ordained that "all licenses for preaching, granted out by the archbishops and bishops with- in the province of Canterbury, bearing date before the first day of March, 1564, be void and of none effect." Thus all preachers were silenced. And, further to complete the work, it was ordained that only " such as shall be thought meet for the office " should receive fresh licenses. Thus only conformable ministers were restored. But, whilst some of the best and most conscientious of the clergy were cast out of their office, thousands of parishes were destitute, and had no ministers to preach to them the word of life : this, however, in the estimation of the queen and her ecclesias- tical advisers, was a less evil than a ministry without the Roman-Catholic vestments. Archbishop Parker seconded the queen in all her severities ; the consequence of which was, that in 1587 some of the laity resolved to meet pri- vately and to worship God, as the Protestants did in Queen Mary's days. About a hundred of them met in Plumbers Hall in London. But they were surprised, some of them apprehended, and im- prisoned for more than a year. These rigorous measures tended rather to the increase of Puri- tanism than to its destruction. The people con- tinued to meet privately; and the clergy began to look beyond the vestments, and to question the constitution of the church itself. Their leader was Thomas Cartwright, who, as Margaret Pro- fessor of divinity at Cambridge, unfolded his views of ecclesiastical order, which were in har- mony with those of the Presbyterian churches on the Continent and in Scotland. A severe contro- versy hereupon arose. Cartwright was deprived of his professorship and fellowship, and was forbidden to teach or to preach. He retired to Geneva, where he was chosen professor of divin- ity ; but he afterwards returned to England. In 1572 John Field and Thomas Wilcox (two minis- ters of the Puritan party) prepared the famous Admonition to Parliament for' the Reformation of Church Discipline. They presented it themselves, and for doing so were committed to prison. Whitgift I'eplied to the admonition, and took the Erastian ground, which Hooker afterwards main- tained, and said that no form of church order is laid down in the New Testament, and that the government in the apostles' days cannot now be exercised. Mr. Cartwright, who had published A Second Admonition, was chosen to reply to Whitgift. Both his books gave such offence to the queen and archbishop, that it was resolved he should be brought to trial ; but he escaped to Heidelberg. During Cartwright's exile, Whit- gift published his Defence of the Ansioer to the Admonition; and Cartwright then published his Second Reply. This exile continued eleven years ; after which he returned home, to experience yet further molestation and suffering. It has been frequently said, that in 1572 a Presbyterian church was formed at Wandsworth ; Field, the lecturer of Wandsworth, being the first minister, and Travers and Wilcox among the founders. The facts are, that the first distinct practical movement to secure a Presbyterian or- ganization began with a secret meeting at that place. Wilcox and Field convened a few of their ministerial brethren and others to sketch an out- line of the ecclesiastical polity they wished to see in operation. Some of their papers fell into the hands of Bancroft ; from which it appears that the only presbytery erected was on paper, and was immediately demolished by Bancroft. Field and Wilcox were thrown into prison. The leaders of the party succumbed, and their meetings were discontinued (Waddixgton's Surrey Congrega- tional Hiitory, p. 5). In 1575 Archbishop Parker died, and was suc- ceeded by Grindal. He found the country mor- ally and religiously in a deplorable condition, in consequence of the ignorance and incapacity of so many of its clergy. This state of things did not distress the queen, for she thought one or two preachers in a diocese was enough ; but the Puri- tans thought otherwise. In the year 1571 these clergy, in some districts, with the permission of the bishop, engaged in religious exercises called " prophesyings," which were meetings at which short sermons were preached on subjects previ- ously fixed. These were good exercises for the clergy, and cultivated the art of preaching. The laity were admitted, and derived instruction and benefit from them. In 1574 Parker told the queen that they were only auxiliaries to Puritan- ism and Nonconformity, whereupon she gave him private orders to suppress them. When Grindal became Archbishop of Canterbuiy, he not only inherited the office, but also the task of suppress- ing the prophesyings ; but, approving of them, he set himself rather to redress any irregularities, and to guard them against abuse. The queen, on the other hand, disliked them, and determined that they should be suppressed. On Dec. 20, 1576, Grindal wrote a very respectful but very faithful letter to the queen, in which he said, " I am forced with all humility, and yet plainly, to profess that I cannot with safe conscience, and without the offence of the majesty of God, give my assent to the suppressing of the said exercises : much less can I send out any injunction for the utter and universal subversion of the same." For this boldness, Grindal was suspended from his office ; his see was placed under sequestration for six months ; and he was confined a prisoner in his own house. Grindal died in 1583, and was succeeded by Whitgift, who, during the first week of his archi- episcopal rule, issued his famous articles : — " (1) That all preaching, catechising, and praying in any private house, wliere any are present besides the family, be utterly extinguished. (2) That none do preach or catechise, except also he will read the whole service, and administer' the sacraments four times a year. (3) That all preachers, and others in ecclesiastical orders, do at all times wear the habits prescribed. (4) That none be admitted to preach, unless he be ordained according to the manner of the Church of England. (5) That none be admitted to preach, or execute any part of the ecclesiastical func- tion, unless he subscribe the following articles: (a) That the queen hath, and ought to have, the sover- eignty and rule over all manner of persons born within her dominions, of what condition soever they be; and that none other power or potentate hath, or ought to have, any power, ecclesia-stical or civil, within her realms or dominions. (6) That the Book of Common Prayer, and of ordei-ing bishops, priests, and deacous, containeth in it nothing contrary to the PURITANISM. 1982 PURITANISM. word of God, but maj' be lawfully used; and that he himself will use the same, and none other, in public prayer, and administration of the sacraments, (c) That he alloweth the Book of Articles agreed upon in the Convocation holden in London in 1562, and set forth by her Majesty's authority; and he believe all the articles therein contained to be agreeable to the word of God." Wielding almost absolute power with a des- potic severity, we al-e not surprised to find that he suspended many hundreds of the clergy from their ministry. Petitions and remonstrances were in vain : Whitgift could not yield. And for twen- ty years this man guided the affairs of the Estab- lished Church. Only the records of the High Commission Court can tell the havoc he made, and the misery he inflicted on some of the holiest of the clergy and the people of their charge. A new commission was issued at Whitgift's instiga- tion : its jurisdiction was almost universal, em- bracing heretical opinions, seditious books, false rumors, slanderous words, abstaining from divine service, etc. A jury might be dispensed with, and the court might convict by witnesses alone : if they were wanting, "by all other means and ways they could devise," — by the rack and ex- officio oath, etc. ; and, if the oath was declined, then the court might inflict " fine or imprison- ment according to its discretion." (By the ex- officio oath a man was compelled to bear testimony against himself, and to tell what he knew of others.) Whitgift drew up twenty-four articles to guide the commissioners when examining de- linquent clergymen. The privy council remon- strated with him; and Lord Burleigh described the articles thus : " I find them so curiously penned, so full of branches and circumstances, that I think the Inquisition of Spain use not so many questions to comprehend and entrap their preys." Whitgift's reply to remonstrances was, that he had undertaken the defence of the rights of the Church of England, to appease the sects and schisms therein, and to reduce all the minis- ters thereof to uniformity and due obedience. " And herein," said he, " I intend to be constant, and not to waver with every wind." And so true to his determination was he, that at one time, towards the close of Elizabeth's reign and of his life, no less than a third of the whole beneficed clergy of England were suspended ; and this in- volved at least destitution and penury. Tlie story of Cartwright's troubles given in more extended histories is a sad illustration of the spirit of Whit-» gift's rule. Cartwright died Deo. 27, 1603, and Whitgift within three months after. The Parliament on several occasions manifested a disposition to legislate for the relief of the Puritans. In 1570 they enacted that ministers who had received a Presbyterian ordination might qualify for service in the English Church by de- claring before the bishop, and subscribing their assent "to all articles of religion which only con- cern the confession of the true Christian faith and the doctrine of the sacraments contained in the Book of Articles, 1562." Many of the Puri- tans attempted to shelter themselves wider this act; but in vain. When, in 1572, Field and AVilcox presented their Admonition, and the Par- liament lent an ear, the queen issued a procla- ination against it, and forbade the Parliament to discuss such questious as were mooted in it. Again, in 1584, 1587, and 1592, the queen inter- fered, and at length charged the speaker "that henceforth no bills concerning religion should be received into the House of Commons, unless the same should be first considered and approved of by the clergy ; " well knowing that the clergy would only act in such a matter under, her direc- tion. Peter Wentworth remonstrated in the House against this dictation, but only to be com- mitted to prison. In 1592 an act was passed, entitled "An Act for the Punishment of Persons obstinately Refus- ing to Come to Church." It was decreed that " all persons above the age of sixteen, refusing to come to church, or persuading others to deny her Majesty's authority in causes ecclesiastical, or dissuading them from coming to church, or being found present at any conventicle or meeting, under pretence of religion, shall, upon conviction, be committed to prison without bail till they shall conform, and come to church ; " and that, should they refuse to recant, " within three months, they shall abjure the realm, and go into perpetual banishment ; and that if they do not depart within the time appointed, or if they ever return without the queen's license, they shall suffer death without benefit of clergy." Under the provisions of this cruel act, Barrow, Greenwood, Peury, and others suffered death, and many of the Brownists left the kingdom. It is not pretended that all the Puritans were always wise, or always moderate in the expression of their sentiments. The oppression to which they were subjected was severe enough to goad them on to the use of strong language, which some of them sometimes employed. But in 1588 a series of tracts was issued from a secret pi-ess, by an unknown writer who called himself Mar- tin Marprelate. (Dr. Dexter, in his Congrega- tionalism, has devoted a lecture to the contro- versy connected with these tracts, to which the reader is referred.) They were bitter and caus- tic enough, and unquestionably excited the wi'ath of the bishops, and brought down further afflic- tions upon the heads of the Puritans; though it is probable that the Puritans properly so called had nothing to do with their production or pub- lication. On the other hand, many of them greatly disapproved of the tracts, and regretted their publication. They most likely had their origin among the Brownists, whose opinions and practices were even more obnoxious to the bish- ops than those of the Puritans themselves. These Brownists may be classed among the Puritans, and by many persons are confounded with them ; but they were a distinct species of the order, and, dui-ing the latter part of the reign of Elizabeth, suffered the severest afflictions. Elizabeth died in 1602, and James VI. of Soot- land succeeded her. The Puritans hoped that from him they would receive a jiiilder treatment than they had experienced from his predecessor. He had praised the Scottish Kirk, and disparaged the Church of England, saying that "its service was but an evil-said mass in English, wanting nothing but the liftings." But Whitgift had sent agents to Scotland to assure the king of the de- votion of the English ecclesiastics to his inter- ests ; and he, in return, gave them entirely his patronage. The Puritans presented a petition to PURITANISM. 1983 PURVEY. , when on his way to London, signed by about lousand clerg-ymen, and therefore called the Uenary Petition. " In it they .set forth in mod- e language their desires. And now a fair jrtunity presented itself for conciliation. A !erence was resolved upon, which assembled lampton Court, Jan. 14, 1603-04, professedly ive due consideration to these matters. On first day the king and the episcopal party e went over the ground, and settled what was e done. The next day four Puritan ministers >r. Rainolds, Dr. Sparke, Mr. Chadderton, and Knewstubs — were called into the privy coun- 3hamber, where they expressed their desires, explained and enforced the Puritan objec- s. On the third day the king and the bishops the conference, at first to themselves ; and, r they had settled matters, the four Puritans 3 again called in, and told what had been ded. The king said that he expected of n obedience and humility, and "if this be rour party have to say, I will make them con- II, or I will harry them out of the land, or do worse." And so the opportunity for con- ition was lost, and then severities were re- ed. 1 1604 the constitutions and canons 'of the rch were settled in convocation, and, without ivin^ the assent of Parliament, were issued the strength alone of the royal supi-emacy. y were conceived in a rigorous spirit, and t freely in excommunication, which at that J was not a mere hrutmn fulmen. Bancroft, op of London, presided at this convocation, rVhitgift was now dead ; and he was after- ds raised to the archbishopric of Canterbury, lis new ofiice he even surpassed Whitgift in severities. Three hundred Puritan ministers, had not separated from the Established rch, were silenced, imprisoned, or exiled in t. " But, the more they afflicted them, the e they multiplied and grew." And now the lecuted pastors and people began to think of grating. The Separatists went to Holland, myth to Amsterdam in 1606, and John Robin- with the Scrooby church to Leyden in 1608- Some of the Puritans also sailed for Virginia, reupon the archbishop obtained a proclama- forbidding others to depart without the king's ise. And so severe was the persecution they Lu-ed, that the Parliament in 1610 endeavored elieve them, but with little success. Ban- t died this year, and was succeeded by Dr. rge Abbot; and still persecution continued. 1618 the king published his Declaration for rls on the Lord's Day. The controversy on observance of the sabbath began in the latter . of Elizabeth's reign. Dr. Nicholas Bound lished his True Doctrine of the Sabbath, con- ling for a strict observance of the day; and itgift opposed it. The Puritans adopted its tions, the court clergy rejected them ; and the Book of Sports became the shibboleth of party. All ministers were enjoined to read 1 their congregations, and those who refused 3 suspended and imprisoned, he doctrines of the Reformers and of their lessors. Conformists and Puritans alike, had 1 hitherto Calvinistic. Whitgift was a High ?iiiist; the king, who prided himself on his 19 — III theology, had maintained Calvinism ; and the representatives of England at the synod of Dort were of the same opinions. But a change came over the Established clergy, and many began to set forth Arminianism. 'The Puritans held fast to the old faith, and now in 1620 were forbidden to preach it. And from this time, alid through the primacy of Laud, Puritan doctrine, as well as Puritan practice, was obnoxious to those in power. James died in 1625, and was succeeded by Charles L Under thi^ monarch "the unjust and inhuman proceedings of the Council Table, the Star Chamber, and the High Commission, are unparalleled." Xonconforraists were exceedingly harassed and persecuted in every corner of the land. These severities were instigated by Laud, soon after made bishop of London, and prime- minister to the king. Lecturers were put down, and such as preached against Arminianism and the Popish ceremonies Mere suspended ; the Pmi- tans were driven from one diocese to another, and many were obliged to leave the kingdom. In 1633 Laud succeeded to the archbishopric of Canterbury, on the death of Abbot, when the Puritans felt the whole force of his fiery zeal ; and during the next seven years multitudes of them, ministers and laymen, were driven to Hol- land and America. The Book' of Sports was re- published, with like consequences as at the first publication. Pryuue, Burton, and Bastwick suf- fered their horrible punishments. Ruinous fines were imposed, superstitious rites and ceremonies were practised and enjoined, and the whole church appeared to be going headlong to Rome. In 164i) the Convocation adopted new constitutions and canons, extremely superstitious and tyrannical, which the Long Parliament condemned as being " contrai-y to the fundamental laws of the realm and to the liberty and property of the subject, and as containing things tending to sedition and dangerous consequence." The nation could bear the unmitigated political and ecclesiastical tyran- ny no longer. Those who had suffered from the king's arbitrary rule joined with those who were groaning under the despotism of the bishops, and with one vast effort overthrew absolute monarchy and Anglican Popery together. A new era now commenced. [Puritanism properly so called had ended ; for the Puritans split into two parties, Independents and Presbyterians. For further information upon the Puritans, see Congrega- tionalism ( English ), Cromwell, Milton. Presbyterian Churches, AVestminstek As- sembly, and the sketches of the ministers men- tioned in this art.] Lit. — Xeal : History of the Puritans, best edi- tion edited by Toulmin, London, 1822, 5 vols., [and by Choules, New York, 1844, 2 .vols.]; Brook: Lives of t!ie Puritans, London, 1813, 3 vols. ; Edwin Hall : The Puritans and their Prin- ciples, New York, 1847 ; Stowell : History of the Puritans in England, London, 1849, new ed., 1878 ; ^AIaksden : History of the Early Puritans, London, 1850; [Bacon: The Genesis of the New-England Churches, N.Y., 1874]. JOHN BROWNE, ENG. PURVEY, John, AViclif's fellow-translator; d. after 1427. After AA'iclif's death he became a leader of the Lollard party. He then preached at Bristol, but was silenced in August, 1387, by PUSBY. 1984 PYM. the Bishop of Worcester. In 1390 he was in prison, and while there compiled from Wiclif s writings a Commentary on Revelation. In 1400 he recanted his Lollardy, at St. Paul's Cross, London ; was by the Archdeacon of Canterbmy admitted to the vicarage of 'Westhithe, Kent, but resigned Oct. 8, 1403, and was again in prison in 1421. He is chiefly remembered for his share in Wiclif's version of the Scriptures, and for his revision of the same (1388). To this revision he wrote a Prologue of great length and interest. See FoRSHALL and Madden's edition of Wic- lif's Bible, Oxford, 1850, 4 vols., vol. i. ; Mom- BERT : The Enijlisli Versions, chap. iii. ; and art. Wiclif. PUSEY, Edward Bouverie, D.D., Church of England ; b. 1800 ; d. at Ascot Priory, Oxford, Sept. 16, 1882. He was graduated 1822, with high honors in classics, in 1823 elected fellow of Oriel College, Oxford; during 1826 and 1827 he studied languages and theology in Germany, under the direction of Dr. Tholuck in Halle, and his first book was on German rationalism. In 1828 he was appointed Ilegius-professor of Hebrew, and canon of Christ Church. In 1833 the IVacls for the Times were started. Pusey sympathized with this Anglo-Catholic movement, and wrote the eigh- teenth tract, entitled Thoughts on the Benejits of the System of Fasting enjoined by our Church, the fortieth. Baptism ; and the sixty-seventh, Scriptural Views of Holy Baptism. In 1843 he delivered a sermon Ofi Matt. xxvi. 28, entitled The Holy Eu- charist a Comfort to the Penitent, which caused his suspension by the vice-chancellor from preaching in the University pulpit for three years. In 1845 Newman joined the Roman Church ; but Pusey remained, and for the rest of his days was the recognized head of the High-Church party. He resided almost constantly at Oxford. Those who held his views were styled " Puseyites," an epithet he earnestly repudiated, insisting that lie and they merely followed the Primitive Church, and it was wrong, therefore, to attach his name to doctrines which had been taught in the church centuries before. He was a voluminous author. Among his works maybe mentioned: An Historical In- quiry into the Probable Causes of the Rationalistic Character lately Predominant in the Theology of Germany, London, 1828-30, 2 parts ; A Course of Sermons on Solemn Subjects, Oxford, 1845 ; Paro- chial Sermons, London, 1848-69, 3 vols. ; The Doc- trine of the Real Presence as contained in the Fathers of the Church, Oxtord, 1855; The Real Presence of the Body and Blood of Christ the Doctrine of the English Church, 1857 ; The Councils of the Church (51-381 A.D.), 1857, new ed., 1878; Nine Sermons preached before the University of Oxford IS^S-BS, 1859, new ed., 1879 ; God's Prohibition of the Mar- riage loilh a Deceased Wife's Sister, 1800 (also 1849); The Minor Prophets, loith a Commentary Explana- tory and Practical, and Introductions to the Several Books, 1860-77 (the best of his theological works) ; Daniel the Prophet, Nine Lectures, 1864, 4th thou- sand, 1868; 27ie Church of England a Portion of Christ's One Holy Catholic Church — an Eirenicon, 1865; What is of Faith as to Everlasting Punish- ment f 1880 (against Canon Farrar) ; Parochial and Cathedral Sermons, 1882. He was one of the origi- nators, with John Keble and Charles Marriott, of the " Library of the Fathers of the Holy Catholic Church " (see Patristics), for which he edited the opening volume, St. Augustine's Confessions, 1840, 4th ed., 1853, and of the " Library of Anglo- Catholic Theology." See B. W. Savile; Dr. Pusey, an Historic Sketch, with Some Account of the Oxford Morement during the Nineteenth Cen- tury, London, 1883 (a sharp criticism, from an evangelical stand-point, of l)r. Pusey's doctrines on the Lord's Supper, baptism, justification by faith, and confession) ; J. Rigg : The Character and Life- Work of Dr. Pusey, a Sketch and Study, 1883 (94 pp.); his Life, by Canon H. P. Liddon, in preparation ; also arts. Ritualism, Tracta- uianism. Dr. Pusey was personally a pure, humble, and devout man. His piety was of the ascetic or mo- nastic type, and corresponded to his theology, which was essentially Catholic, although opposed to Romanism on the subject of Mariolatry and the authority of the Pope. He was the moral, as J. li. Newman was the intellectual, and Keble the poetic, leader of the Anglo-Catholic movement which has agitated the Church of England and all her branches for the last fifty years, and ex- erted as much influence as the Wesleyau move- ment, which sprang from the same university a hundred years before, although in the opposite direction. Methodism strengthened the cause of Protestantism, and revived practical religion among the lower classes of the people. Oxford Tractarianism undermined Protestantism, and de- veloped a Romanizing tendency among the clergy and higher classes. Newman followed the logi- cal consequences of the system, and submitted his powerful intellect, weary of freedom, and anx- ious for rest, to the infallible authority of the Pope, and drew several hundred of the clergy and nobility after him. Pusey and Keble died in the Church of England, and kept a larger number of their followers from secession. Apparently the Oxford theology is a re-action and a backward movement ; but it has excited a vast churohly ac- tivity in every direction, and there is now more life and energy in the Church of England than ever before. 'The future must decide the providen- tial aim and true value of that revival of Anglo- Catholicism with which the name of Dr. Pusey is so prominently connected. PYM, John, the great leader of the Parliament party at the commencement of the civil wars; b. of a Somersetshire family in 1584 ; d. in Lon- don, Dec. 8, 1643. During the latter part of the reign of James I. he vigorously opposed the measures of the court, and, after the accession of Charles I., came further into public notice through the prominent part he took in impeaching the Duke of Buckingham. At the opening of the Long Parliament, by common consent he assumed the leadership of the popular party ; and his at- tack on the Earl of Strafford, once his friend, can never be forgotten. It was a sort of political duel, in which one of the antagonists was sure to fall ; and, if Pym had not conquered him whom he denounced as " the great promoter of tyranny," the " promoter of tyranny " would have crushed him, and arrested the movement of the age. The impeachment of Strafford has been pronounced "a masterstroke of policy," as it deprived the king of his right hand, and opened the door to a suc- cessful resistance of encroaching prerogatives. PYNCHON. 1985 PYX, The biography of Pym includes the history of the Long Parliament down to the end of 1643. He was ever at his post in the House of Commons, swaying the members in the main particulars of his policy. He was not a republican : he preferred a limited monarchy, and was moderate in many of his counsels. He was the Mirabeau of the great English Revolution which led to the execu- tion of Charles ; but, if he had lived, perhaps the issue would have been different. But he died in the midst of his days, and was buried, with something like royal pomp, in the Abbey of Westminster. JOHN STOUGHTON. PYNCHON, William, b. in Essex, Eng., about 1590 ; d. at Wraisbury, Buckinghamshire, oppo- site Magna Charta Island in the Thames, near Windsor, Oct. 22, 1662. He was one of the origi- nal patentees of the Massachusetts Bay Company; came to America, 1630 ; settled at Roxbury, Mass. ; founded Springfield on the Connecticut River, 1636, naming it for his English home. In 1650, at London, he published The meritorious price of our redemption, justification, etc., cleering (sic) it of some common errors (4to, pp. xii. 152, 2d ed., 1855). Scarcely were copies of it breught to Bos- ton, in October, 1650, than heresies it contained attracted attention ; and the General Court then assembled quickly took action upon such a fla- grant violation of the law passed in Massachu- setts (1616), which forbade such erroneous teach- ing, and banished perpetually such teachers. The " heresies " were, (1) That Christ did not sufEer for us the torments of hell ; (2) That Christ did not bear our sins by God's imputation, and there- fore did not bear the curse of the law for them ; (3) That Christ hath not redeemed us from the curse of the law by sufEering that curse for us. The third heresy had been expressly forbidden. The court directed that Mr. John Norton should answer the book, and that it should be bui-ned by the executioner in the market-place in Boston. In May, 1651, Pynchon appeared before the court with a partial recantation, which, however, was not satisfactory, and he was cited to appear the next session, in October. Not coming, he was, under penalty of a hundred pounds, enjoined to appear before it the following May, but, to the relief of all, went back to England ere the set day came. Mr. John Norton's answer was entitled A discussion of that great point in divinity, the suffer- ings of Christ ; and the questions about his righteous- nesse, active, passive, and the imputation thereof, London, 1653, 8vo, pp. xiv. 270. In 1655, in Lon- don, Pynchon published his answer to Norton, A further discussion of that great point in divinity, the sufferings of Christ, and the questions about his right- eousnesse, 4to, pp. lii. 439. Besides these volumes, Pynchon wrote. The Jewes synagogue, 1652, and (1) The time when the first sabbath was ordained; (2) the manner how the first sabbath was ordained, pt. ii., A treatise of holy time, 4to, pp. xvi. 143, xvii. 120. See J. G. Palfkey : Hist. N. E., vol. ii. pp. 395, 396 ; Mass. Hist. Soc. Coll., viii. 2d series ; Dexter : Congregationalism, Appendix, Nos. 1552, 1638, 1642, 1705. PYX (from -miiig " a box ") denotes, iu the termi- nology of the Roman-Catholic Church, the box or vessel, of various but often very elaborate form, in which the consecrated elements of the Eucharist are preserved. Its use was prescribed by Inno- cent III. in 1215. See Augusti: Christ. Arch., iii. 522, and Smith and Cheetham, ii. 1756. QUADRAGESIMA. 1986 QUBTIF. Q- QUADRAGESIMA. See Lent. QUADRATUS. In the second century of our era there were three persons of the name Quad- ratus. One was the apologist. He presented his work to the Emperor Hadrian in 125, and it seems to have been in existence in the seventh century (Photius : Cod., 162) ; but it afterwards perished. Eusebius gives a fragment of it (Hist. EccL, IV. 3), in which Quadratus appeals to the miraculous healings of Christ, and mentions that persons healed by him were still living. — Another Quad- ratus is mentioned, in the Epistle of Dionysius of Corinth to the Athenians, as the successor of Bishop Publius, as a man of great merits with respect to the re-organization of his congregation, and as having suffered martyrdom under Marcus Aurelius. An extract from the epistle is found in Eusebius (Hist. EccL, TV. 23). Jerome (De script, eccl. 19, and Ep. ad. Magn.) identifies him with the apologist, but without sufficient reason. — -Athii'd Quadratus is mentioned in Eusebius (Hist. EccL, V. 17), as a prophet beside Agabus, .fudas, Silas, and others. He, too, has been identified with the apologist. See A. Harnack : Die Ueherlieferung d. christl. Apologeten, Leipzig, 1882, pp. 100 sqq. HAUCK. QUAKERS. See Friends. QUARLES, Francis, b. at Stewards, Essex, 1592; d. in London, Sept. 8, 1644 ; ranks next to Herbert among the. sacred poets of the reign of Charles I. He was educated at Cambridge ; studied law at Lincoln's Inn ; was a servant of the Queen of Bohemia, and secretary to Archbishop Ussher; followed the royal cause, and lost every thing for it. He wrote in prose The Enchiridion, 1641, and The Loyal Convert, 1644, and in verse sundry Bible histories, elegies, etc., 1620 and later, gathered in a thick volume of Divine Poems, 1630, whereof the fifth edition appeared 1717, besides Emblems, Divine and Moral, 1635, School of the Heart, Hiero- glyphics of the Life of Man, 1638, and some others. These fell into long and undeserved contempt among the critics, though cherished by another class of readers for their piety. The Emblems were seldom out of print, and were " of much .spiritual use " to Toplady, who considered them " a very ingenious and valuable treasury of Chi-is- tian experience." Their popularity was doubt- less helped by the curious cuts, copied from 11. Hugo's Pia Desideria, 1626 (tr. by Edmund Arwaker, 1686). James Montgomery (1827) and later writers have done partial justice to Quarles, who is now better known ; but even they charge him with " base phraseology, labored faults, and deforming conceits." Really his quips and quaintnesses belong to his age, and are found as abundantly in Geoi-ge Herbert : his wit and elo- quence are his own. If he fails to reach the pathos of Herbert, or the occasional sublimity of Vaughan, he excels in nervous manliness, and at times in spontaneously "pure and felicitous diction." iSIo one else has so rung the changes on the vanity of earthly things, and some of his stanzas and epi- grams are unsurpassed. " He uses language some- times as greatly as Shakspeare," said Thoreau. His purity and sincerity were beyond question. His life, or rather character, was ably, but far too briefly, sketched by his widow. — His son, John Quarles (b. in Essex, 1624; d. of the plague in London, 1665), wrote Fons Lach-ymarum, 1649, Divine Meditations, and other poems, a brilliant fragment from one of which has sometimes been used as a hymn. F. M. bird. QUARTERLY MEETING. See Friends. QUARTODECIMANI. See Paschal Contro- versy. QUEEEN ANNE'S BOUNTY. See Taxes. QUENSTEDT, Andreas, b. at Quedlinburg, 1817; d. at Wittenberg, 1688. He studied at Helmsfadt under Calixtus ; went then to Witten- berg, became a pupil of Calovius, and was in 1649 appointed professor of theology there. His prin- cipal work is his Theologia didactica polemica, which appeared in 1685, and is the last compre- hensive, systematic exposition of Lutheran oitho- doxy, appearing just as the process of dissolution began to take effect. tholuck. QUESNEL, Pasquier (Paschasius), b. in Paris, July 14, 1634; d. in Amsterdam, Dec. 2, 1719. He studied theology at the Sorbonne; entered the Congregation of the Oratory in 1657 ; was ordained a priest in 1659 ; and appointed director of the seminary of the Congregation in Paris, 1662. Shortly after, he began the publication of his celebrated work. Reflexions morales sur le Nouveau Testament, and in 1675 appeared his edition of the works of Leo the Great. As the former proved him to be a Jansenist, and the latter a Gallicanist, a conflict with the Jesuits was unavoidable. lie left Paris, and settled at Orleans ; but, when he refused to sign the famous anti- Jansenist formula in 1685, he was compelled to flee for his life, and went to Brussels. There he continued the publication of his Reflexions, of which the first collected edition appeared in 1687; the second, much augmented, in 1695-99 ; later edition, Amsterdam, 1736, 8 vols. ; [Eng. ti'ans.. The New Testament, with moral reflections upon every verse, London, 1719-25,' 4 vols. There is another translation of a part of this work under the title. The four gospels, with a commentary and reflections, both spiritual and moral ; translated, and the Popish errors expunged, by a Presbyter of the Church of England, Bath, 1790, 2 vols. ; new ed., revised by Rev. H. A. Boardman, D.D., N.Y., 1867, 2 vols.]. In 1703, however, he was arrested, and put into the dungeon of the arohiepiscopal palace ; but he escaped, and fled to Holland, out of the reach of the Jesuits. Among his other works are. Tradition de I'lSglise romaine, 1687 ; La disci- pline de I'Eglise, 1689 ; La vie de M. Arnauld, 1095, etc. His 'letters were edited by Le Courayer, Paris, 1721-23, 3 vols. C. pfender. QUETIF, Jacques, b. in Paris, Aug. 6, 1618; d. there March 2, 1698. He entered the Domini- can order; studied at Bordeaux ; was ordained a priest in 1642, and in 1052 appointed librarian in the Jacobin convent in Paris. He published Con- QUIETISM. 1987 QUIRINIUS, cilii Trid. Canones, Paris, 1666 ; Vita Savonarolm (by Picus de Mirandola, with valuable additions), Paris, 1674, 3 vols. ; Scriptores Ordinis Prcedica- torum, Paris, 171^, unfinished, but nevertheless his chief work. QUIETISM. SeeMoLiNOs; Guyox. QUINISEXTUM CONCILIUM, held in Con- stantLuople, 692, is thus called because it forms a kind of supplement to the fifth {quintum) and sixth oecumenical councils of 55.5 and 680. It is also called the Trullan Council, on account of its being held in the imperial palace called Trullus. See Trullan Councils. QUIRINIUS (Kvfnjvioc), the governor of Syria at the time of Christ's birth (according to Luke ii. 2, "this was the first enrolment made when Qui- rinius was governor of Syria"). His full name was Publius Sulpicius Quirinius. He is the second of that name mentioned in Roman his- tory. He was made consul 12 B.C., and was probably twice governor of Syi-ia and Cilicia, — from 4 to 1 B.C., and from 6 to 11 A.D. Tacitus (^Annals, iii. 48) supplies us with most of our knowledge of the man. " About this time he (Tiberius) asked of the Senate that the death [21 A.D.] of Sulpicius Quirinius might be celebrated with public obsequies. Quirinius was in no way related to the old and patrician family of the Sulpicii, but was born at Lanuvium, a municipal town. In recognition of his military and adminis- trative ability, Augustus made him a consul [with M. Valerius Messala 742 A.TJ.C, 12 B.C.]. Soon afterwards he obtained the honor of a triumph for having taken the stronghold of the Homonadenses in Cilicia. While attending Gaius Csesar as rector, when the former was campaigning in Armenia, he secretly cultivated Tiberius, who was then at Rhodes. Tiberius mentioned the fact in this letter, praised him for his good offices, and found fault with Marcus LoUinus for sowing dissensions between himself and Gaius Ctesar. But to other people the memory of Quirinius was by no means dear, because of his per- sistence in the trial of Lepida [his wife, whom he had convicted of adultery, attempted murder, and other crimes, but who yet succeeded in gaining the people to her side; cf. Annals, iii. 22], and also of his sordid avarice in his old age, although very powerful." He is mentioned also in Dion Cassius (liv. 28), Strabo (sdi.), Suetonius {Tiberius, 49), and Josephus (xviii. 1, 1 sqq.). Putting all these statements together, the relations of Quirinius to Palestine and Syria may be thus determined. Quirinius headed an army in Africa, perhaps as proconsul of that province, in 7 B.C., and was in the East between 2 B.C. and 2 A.D., because Gaius Csesar went thither late in 2 B.C. or early in 1 B.C., and Tiberius returned to Rome 2 A.D. His position as head of an army in Cilicia proves that he must have been a governor of a province, or a legate of the emperor's legate. But Cilicia was probably under the jurisdiction of the legate in Syria. There is a break in our list of governors of Syria from P. Quintilius Varus (B.C. 6-4) to C. Sentius Satui'ninus (4 A.D.). Quirinius may therefore, chronologically speaking, have been governor in 4 B.C., the year of our Lord's birth. If so, he was governor again 6-11 A.D. Much support of the supposition of a double governor- ship has been derived from the mutUated inscrip- tion, first published in 1765, to the effect that some one (name missing) was governor of Syria twice. But, even if Quirinius be assumed to be the one intended, he was not governor until autumn 4 B.C., or after Christ's bu-th. Luke probably mentions Quirinius in connection with the census, because it was completed by him, and therefore bore his name. The problem in the passage in question is not yet solved ; but by the hypothesis of a double governorship its solution is measm'ably approached. The census, first con- ducted by Quirinius, was accompanied with a registration of property, for the object was taxa- tion. A census of the Roman Empire has been reasonably inferred from the known fact that Augustus prepared a list of all the resources of his empire, which was read in the Senate after his death. Herod could not resist the execu- tion of the emperor's order, because he was a tributary king ; besides, if the census was made by Jewish officers, it would not greatly differ from a similar registration made by Herod, and need not have alarmed the Jews if proper care was taken. Because of Quirinius' experience in such matters, he was sent into Syria 6 A.D., to superintend an assessment ; and it was then the rising under Judas of Galilee (Acts v. 37) took place. His vigorous efforts brought it to an end. Cf., besides the commentaries upon Luke ii. 2, the art. " Cyrenius," in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible ; by Schurer, in Ribhm's Hnb. d. bib. Alt. ; and especially A. W. Zumpt : Das Geburtsjahr Christi, Leipzig, 1869 ; and Schaff : Hist. Christ. Ch., vol. i., rev. ed., 1882, pp. 121-125. RAB^NUS MAURUS. 1988 RABBINISM. R. RABANUS MAURUS, b. at Mayence about 776 ; d. there Feb. 4, 856. He was educated in the cloister-school of Fulda, and afterwards in the school of Tours, under the tutelage of Alcuin, who gave him the surname Maurus, after the friend of St. Benedict. Recalled from Tours, he was put at the head of the school in Fulda, which he soon brought to a very flourishing condition, and in 822 he was elected abbot of the monas- tery. Political circumstances, it would seem, induced him to resign his position as abbot in 842, and to retire to the neighboring Petersberg ; but in 847 he was made archbishop of Mayence, and thus once more called to take active part in public life. An excellent teacher, he was also an excellent administrator. Under his government, his monastery and his diocese flourished. His fame, however, he owes chiefly to his literary activity. He wrote Commentaries on the Old Testament, on the Gospels of St. Matthew and St. John, and on the Pauline Epistles ; devotional books; two collections of homilies; hymns (De vi- dendo Deo, De modo pmnilenticE, etc.) ; text-books for his school {De clericorum instilutione, De com- puto, De universo, etc.) ; polemics (De ohlat. pue- roruni) against the synod of Mayence, which permitted Gottschalk to leave his order (Ep. ad Egil. de eucharistia) in the controversy caused by Eadbertus Paschasius, etc. There is a collected edition of his works by Colvenerius, Cologne, 1627, reprinted by Migne, vols. 107-112 ; but it is not complete. See his life by the monk Rudolf; KuNSTMANN : Hrabanus M., Mayence, 1841 ; Spingler : Rob. M., Ratisbon, 1856. HAUCK. RABAUT, Paul, b. at Bedarieux, in the depart- ment of the Herault, Jan. 9, 1718; d. at Nlmes, Sept. 25, 1794 ; one of the most celebrated preach- ers of the Church of the Desert. He went in 1740 to study theology in the seminary of Lau- sanne, and was in 1744, by the General Synod, made pastor of Nimes. The Protestant Church in France, after the fearful calamities which had overtaken her by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, the wars of the Camisards, and the horri- ble edicts of March 8, 1715, and May 14, 1724, was again rallying. Persecutions continued. The decrees of Feb. 1 and 16, 1745, punished partici- pation in the assemblies with the galleys, and imposed heavy fines on the congregations in which a minister was found. In 1752 a price of a thousand livres was set on the head of Rabaut; and as he always escaped, often in a miraculous manner, his wife and children were for some time imprisoned, and otherwise annoyed. Neverthe- less, lulls of peace and quiet occm-red. When the Prince of Conti, in 1755, retired from the court to his estates in Provence, Rabaut presented to him a memorial setting forth the demands of the Protestants ^ namely, the release of those sent to the galleys, restoration of the children sent to the monasteries, legal recognition of their baptism and marriage, etc. When, in 1761, the Governor of Guienne proposed to compel by force the Prot- estants to have their children baptized, and their marriages consecrated by a Roman-Catholic priest, and Rabaut published his Lettre pastorale, in which he advised his flock to emigrate rather than sub- mit to such tyranny, the government, remem- bering the financial difficulties caused by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, dropped the matter. Meanwhile the execution of Rochette, of the three brothers Grenier, of Jean Galas, La calomnie confondue of Rabaut, and, more than any thing else, the denunciations of Voltaire, drew the attention and the sympathy of the public to the condition of the Protestants; and with the accession of Louis XVI. in 1774 a milder prac- tice became prevalent, though the Edict of Tolera- tion was not issued until 1787. The last part of his life Rabaut spent in peace, at Nimes. Two of his sons, St. Etienne (b. at Nimes, in April, 1743; executed in Paris during the reign of terror, Dec. 5, 1793) and Pommier (b. at Nimes, Oct. 24,1744; d. in Paris, March 16, 1820), were also ministers of the Reformed Church. See Borrel : Biog- rapliie de Paul Rabaut et de ses trois fils, 1854, and liistoire de I'efjlise refoi-m.ee de Nimes, 1856; [Maccracken : Lives of the Leaders of our Church Universal, 1879, pp. 486-492]. TH. SCHOTT. RAB'BAH. See Ammonites. RABBINISM denotes that form of Judaism which developed after the return from the Baby- lonian captivity. It falls into two great divisions, — from the fifth century before Christ to the fifth century after Christ, and from the fifth century after Christ to the present time, each of which comprises several subdivisions ; the former, four, — from Ezra to Simeon the Just (the period of the Sopherim), from Simeon the Just to Hillel I. (the period of the Chachamim), from Hillel I. to Jehudah the Saint (the period of the Tanaim), from Jehudah the Saint to Ashe (the period of the Amoraim) ; the latter, three, — from the con- clusion of the Babylonian Talmud to the victory of Islam, from the victory of Islam to the destruc- tion of the rabbinical schools in the East (1040) and in the West (in the thirteenth century), from that point of suppression to the beginning of the emancipation in the eighteenth century, to which may be added a survey of the present state. VVhen the Jews returned from the Babylonian captivity, they felt that they were not a Mosaic people, but had, in order to become one, first, to learn what Mosaic law was, and, next, to re-organ- ize their social, moral, and religious life in accord- ance with its prescripts. The problem thus set before them demanded a union between school and government, and that union forms the very characteristic of rabbinism. In the schools the Mosaic law was rendered into the popular Chal- dean tongue either by literal translation or by more copious paraphrasing, and to this rendering were added explanations, illustrations, admoni- tions, etc. But the transition from a purely theoretical teaching of the law to a practical ap- plication of it was, of course, easy to make; and soon the teachers formed, in Jerusalem and other great cities, courts, into which all cases of litiga- BABBINISM. 1989 RABBINISM. were brought for adjudication. It is proba- that at first the teachers were priests; but, here was no necessity for combining those two ;tions,the teaching of the law, and its judicial lication, gradually fell into the hands of the jr, and, as one of the principal duties of those ihers was to copy the sacred books, they re- ed the name of Sopherim ( D'"ii)b, "scribes"). he time of Simeon the Just, who lived under xander the Great, or a little later, the institu- i attained its perfection and final establish- it. With Simeon the Just, however, begins second stage in the development of rabbin- . It was quite natural, that, in the interpreta- L of the law, a tradition should be formed, iprising the opinions of the oldest and wisest rpreters, the Chachamim; and soon this tradi- 1 was dated back beyond the Babylonian cap- ty, even up to Moses. But where there is lition, there will come schools. Antigonus, a il of Simeon the Just, formed the first school, fi'om that branched off afterwards the school the Sadducees; for the Sadducees were a Dol before they became a sect. About the le time a circle of men gathered from among mass of the people, and pledged themselves he strictest observance, even of the most mi- e prescripts of the law ; and from this circle men, the Chassidim, afterwards developed the ; of the Pharisees. Of still gTeater importance n the formation of schools was the transfor- ;ion of the whole class of law-teachers into a Deration, which also took place in this period, ng to the introduction of the semichah,"or ination by the laying-on of hands. Though semichah was not legally established until ut eighty years before Christ, it, too, was dated k to Moses. Its final form it received from lei I. : it could be given only within the boun- ies of Palestine, and only with the consent of president of the sanhedrin, and any one who . received it was eligible to that assembly. 'he principal event of the third period was the ;ing of the Mishna. It was begun by Hillel he opening of the period, and finished by Jehu- at its close. Previously the Mosaic law had a treated by the rabbins under six hundred . thirteen different heads, — two hundred and ;y-eight commandments and three hundred , sixty-five prohibitions, two symbolical num- 3; the former referring to the parts of the nan body, the latter, to the days of the year, lei reduced the heads to eighteen, and Jehu- to six ; namely, on seeds, women, festivals, perty, sanctuaries, and clean and unclean, lei also established certain rules for the in- )retation of the law : for these, his gxeat ser- is, he was by the Talmud styled " the restorer ;he law after Ezra." When the Jewish state 1 dissolved, and the priesthood abolished, after destruction of the temple, rabbinism was Bed the only bond which still held the Jewish ion together. After the destruction of Jeru- !m, the sanhedrin moved to Jamnia, and after- ■ds, in the middle of the second century, to lerias, where for several centuries it continued jxercise its double function of a court and a 3ol. Under Jehudah a great number of stu- ts gathered there, and returned, when their studies were finished, to their native places with their written certificates as the teachers and judges of their people. ^Meanwhile a sharp rivalry sprang up between the school of Tiberias and the Baby- lonian schools. During the third century, rabbini- cal academies had been founded at Nahardea near Nisibis, at Sura on the Euphrates, and at Puni- beditha on the left bank of the Lower Euphrates ; and so richly were those academies donated, that Sura could supi^ort and instruct eight hundred pupils at a time. Gradually the Babylonian acad- emies assumed the same rights and the same au- thority as the school of Tiberias, and, during the latter part of the fourth century. Rabbi Ashe actu- ally stood as the centre of the whole rabbinical world. His greatest service was the final redac- tion of the Babylonian Talmud, — a work which occupied fully sixty j'ears of his life. Thirty years he sjjent in collecting the materials ; thirty others, in sifting and arranging them. For the first purpose he used his pupils. Xot only had gTeat differences developed in the exposition of the ilishnah, especially in the different schools, but variations had crept into the very text. All these were carefully collected ; each pupil bringing along from his native place what was found there of interpretation of the text, of recollections from the past, and expectations with respect to the future, of rules, maxims, parables, etc. The ma- terial thus collected was then critically sifted and revised by Ashe, and arranged into sixty-one treatises. The story that the woi-k, when com- pleted, was accepted and sanctioned by a synod, is probably a fable; but the circumstance that the rabbinical schools were closed shortly after thi-oughout the Persian realm gave to the Baby- lonian Talmud the character of being something- final and perfect, which it would be sacrilegious to meddle with. The second epoch of the history of rabbinism, from the fifth century of our era to the present times, has less interest to Christian theology than the first, and is partially treated under other heads, — Cabala, Midrash, Abrabaxkl, Aben- EzRA, Maimonides, etc. In the fifth century the rabbinical schools were closed, not only in Persia, but also in the Byzantine Empire, and as yet no schools had been fomided in the West. It was the suppression of the Visigoth rule, and the establishment of the Arab dominion in Europe, which first called forth the literary and scientific activity of the Jews in Europe. They studied Arabic with great eagerness, and, having mastered the language, they were not slow in taking pos- session of the great literary and scientific treasures to which it opened the way. They studied Ara- bic medicine, natural science, mathematics, and astronomy, and began to translate, not only from Arabic into Hebrew and Latin, but also from Hebrew into Arabic. Meanwhile the Babylonian Talmud was brought to Europe, and its study was taken up with great zeal, and it was translated into Arabic. But while, under the influence of Arabic civilization, there developed a liberal form of rabbinism in Spain, in the schools of Cordova, Granada, and Lucena, a strictly orthodox form was developed in Gaul and Italy. In the schools of Narbonne, Toulouse, Bari, Otranto, and Mayence, philosophy was looked upon as something danger- ous, and the study of the Talmud was pursued RABBULA. 1990 RADBERTUS. with an indescribable pedantry. It was the great problem of Maimonides to reconcile these two tendencies; and he succeeded, though it became a rule that no Jewish student was allowed to study philosophy until he had filled his twenty-fifth year. In the thirteenth century the persecutions of the Inquisition began to tell on the character of rabbinisra. The schools were closed, and only the study of the Cabala flourislied. No doubt the roots of the Cabala were as old as rabbinism itself ; but, while the Cabala had hitherto existed as a branch only, it now became the principal stem. To some it was a Christian garment, be- neath which they concealed the genuinely Jewish ideas ; to others, it became the bridge which led them into the JMohammedau mosque or into the Christian Church; others, again, used it as a means of magic and fraud. An influence of an opposite character was derived from the invention of the printing-press, which once more brought rabbinism into living contact with the general stream of civilization. The Talmud was printed in Venice, 15"20 ; the works of Rabbi Jacob ben Chajim of Tunis, in the edition of the second Bomberg Bible, Venice, 1526 ; the works of Elias Levita, in Venice, 1538; and schools were opened in Venice, Amsterdam, Brody, Leraberg, Lublin, Ci'aoow, Prague, Fiirth, and Francfort. In these schools the two different tendencies, the liberal and the orthodox, could still be observed, and were known under the names of the Portuguese-Italian and the Polish-German. But there was no dii'ect contest between them ; and in many places, as, for instance, in Amsterdam, they existed peaceably beside each other, until in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries the opposition disappeared altogether, and gave room for the development of other school-differences. See the art. Israel, and for literature, besides that article, those men- tioned above. pressel. RABBULA. See Rabulas. RAB'SARIS. Not a proper name, but the title of an Assyrian mentioned in 2 Kings xviii. 17, Jer. xxxix. 3, 13. The meaning is commonly given as " chief eunuch ; " but Schrader questions whether saris, which in Hebrew means "eunuch," has this sense in Assyrian, and thinks, that, if the name in the Hebrew Bible were a translation, it would be in the plural (rabsarmm). See Riehm's Worterhuch in loco. RAB'SHAKEH, the title of an Assyrian oflicer who was sent by Sennacherib to Hezekiah to demand the surrender of Jerusalem. According to the Hebrew form, the title would mean " chief cup-bearer ; " but, as it is a transliteration of the Assyrian title rab-sak, it means "chief officer." In the inscriptions the title rab-sak is used par- ticularly in connection with a military oflicer sent by Tiglath-pileser II. to Tyre. See Schrader: Die KeiUnschrlften unci das Alte Testament, 2d ed., 1882. RABULAS, more correctly Rabbula, Bishop of Edessa, the predecessor of Ibas ; d. Aug. 8, 435. He governed his diocese with great authority, and successfully kept down the various heretical sects until the Nestorian controversy began. Some of his letters, some rules for monks, some hymns, and a sermon delivered in Constantinople, are still extant. See J. J. Overbeck : Ephraemi Syri, Jtiilndm Edesseni, aliorumque Opera Selecla, Oxford, 1865. His prose works were translated into Ger- man by Bickell for the Kempten Bibliothek of church fathers, 1874. E. nestle. RA'CA (Matt. v. 22), a term of contempt fre- quent among the Jews in Christ's time and since. It is the Aramaic reka (" empty "), and expresses therefore, folly, but is not so opprobrious a term as " fool," which brands one as wicked and blas- phemous. RACOVIAN CATECHISM. See Socinianism. RA'CHEL. See Jacob. RADBERTUS, Paschasius, Abbot of Corbie in Picardy, and one of the most prominent ecclesi- astical writers of the Carolingian age. Of his personal life, only very little is known ; and that little is gleaned exclusively from scattered notices in his own works, and from the panegyrics of Engelmodus, bishop of Soissons, printed in Migne, Pair. Lat., vol. 120. The vita found in Mabillon {Act. Sanct., IV. 2) dates from the end of the eleventh or the beginning of the liwelfth century, and has no independent value. He was born towards the close of the eighth century, in Sois- sons or near by, and, as his mother died soon after his birth, he was brought up by the Bene- dictine nuns of the place. In 814 he entered the monastery of Corbie, and became one of the most intimate pupils of the Abbot Adalhard, a rela- tive of Charlemagne. In due time he advanced to the teachership (among his pupils were the younger Adalhard, Ansgarius, Plildemann, Odo, Warinus, and others) ; and in 844, after the death of Abbot Isaac, he was himself elected abbot. As such he was present at the synod of Paris (846) and of that of Chiersy (849) ; but the gradual collapse of discipline which had begun immedi- ately after the death of Adalhard, and his own inability to restore order, led him to resign his position in 851.' Pie lived long enough after that time to write several important works ; but, with the exception of this one fact, nothing is known of his life in retirement. Ten works by him have come down to us; namely, Expositio in Matthceum, of which the first four books were written before he became abbot, while the rest, like the Expositio in Psalmum XLIV. and Expositio in lamentationes Jeremice, date from after his abdication. De Fide, Spe, et Charitate belongs to the earlier part of his life. De vita Adalhardi was written in 826; De corpore et sanguine Christi, in 831 ; Epitaphium Arsenii, in 836 ; De parlv, virginis, on the contrary, he wrote as an old man. De passione S. Rujini el Valerii, was written while abbot ; and Epislola ad Frrtdec/ar- dum, after his retirement. A complete and criti- cal edition of his collected works does not exist. The best is that by Sirmond, Paris, 1618, which has been reprinted in Bibl. Pair. Max., vol. xiv., Lyons, and in Migne, Patl. Latin, vol. 120, in a revised and augmented form. The most important of the writings of Rad- bertus is his De corpore et sanfjuine Domini, the first comprehensive treatise produced in the Chi'is- tian Church on the Lord's Supper, and also the first to call forth a controversy concerning that doctrine. Previously two almost diametrically opposite or at all events contradictory views had run peaceably beside each other; one considering the consecrated elements of the Lord's Supper as mere symbols, or token of the body and blood of RAFFLES. 1991 RAINBRIO SACCHONI. irist, while the other saw in the bread and wine physical transformation of the actual body and ood of Christ, — a transubstantiation. Eadber- s gives an account of both these views : and the dy thing really new in his book is his attempt combine them. In the combination or recon- liation, however, the symbolical or Augustinian ew is in reality absorbed by the traditional or ansubstantiation view ; and, to the eyes of the ter Roman-Catholic Church, Radbertus stands the champion of true Catholicism. liis book us attacked, however, both by Ratramnus and T Rabanus Maurus. In another of his works 5e partu virginis) he also sided with those ten- iucies of coarse and sensuous mysticism which that time were spreading in the church, antici- iting the declaration of the dogma of the im- aculate conception by more than ten centuries, se Ebrakd : Das Dogma voni heil. Abendmahl, p. 406 ; Thomasius : DogmengeschicTile, ii. p. 20 ; Sbert : Gesch. d. lat. Lit. d. Mittelalters, ii. 230. ;e also art. Traxsubstantiatiox]. Steitz. RAFFLES, Thomas, D.D., LL.D., a distin- lished Cougregationalist ; was b. in London, ay 17, 1788 ; and from 1812 till liis death, Aug. 1, 1863, was pastor in Liverpool. He published 'fe and Minislrij of Thomas Spencer, 1813, A our on the Continent, 1817, Lectures on Christian lith and Practice, 1820, and some poems.. Eight his hymns were printed by Dr. Collyer in H2, though most of them were written in later lars. A few of them have been widely used, is memoir, by his son, T. S. Raffles, appeared, 164. F. if. BIRD. RAGGED SCHOOLS, the term for those schools which vagrant children are taught, and thus, many cases, kept from a criminal career. The rliest such school is said to have been started Rome, towards the close of the last century, by I illiterate mason, Giovanni Borgia. In 1819 ihn Pounds, an uneducated cobbler of Ports- outh, began a similar work, and kept it up until s death, in 1839. His was the first Ragged School England. In 1838 a Ragged Sunday School IS started in London. In 1864 the Ragged- ihool Union of London reported 201 day schools ith 17,983 scholars, 180 Sunday schools with ,360 scholars, and 205 night schools with 8,325 liolars. The great name connected with the rmation of such schools is Thomas Guthiie (see t.). He issued his first pamphlet on the subject I Plea for Ragged Schools) in 1847, and devoted mself henceforwards to the work. His school . the Castle HiU, Edinburgh, became the parent many elsewhere. RA'HAB (3n-;, "breadth "), the harlot of Jericho, lo received and protected the Israelitish spies, d was rewarded by deliverance for herself and mily when Jericho was subsequently destroyed )sh. ii., vi. 22-25). Her act has won for her rec- nition and praise from Jew and Christian alike, jcording to the rabbins, she married Joshua, d was the ancestress of eight prophets ; viz., remiah, Maaseiah, Hanameel, Shallum, Barnch, iriah, Seriah, and Huldah the prophetess iiGHTFOOT : Horce heb. ad Matt., 1, 5). But ac- rding to 1 Chron. ii. 4 compared with Matt. i. 4, s married Salmon, " prince " of Judah, and thus came the ancestress of David and of Jesus irist. In the Epistle to the Hebrews she is upon the roll of the heroes of faith (xi.) : in James ii. 25 she is quoted as being justified by works. Clement of Rome says she was saved on account of her faith and hospitality, and her use of the scarlet line was prophetic of redemption through the blood of Christ {Ad Cor., i. 12). This latter idea became a favorite one, and occurs in Justin Martyr, Origen, and many later writers. ^ Rahab (DH^, "tumult") appears as the poetic and sym- bolical name for Egypt (Ps. Ixxxvii. 4, Ixxxix. 10; Isa. Ii. 9). The reference seems to be to the confusion attendant upon the overthrow of Pha- raoh in the Red Sea. euetschi. RAIKES, Robert, founder of Sunday schools; b. at Gloucester, Sept. 14, 1735; d. there April 5, 1811. His father was a printer, and also pub- lisher of the Gloucester Journal, " scarcely larger than a sheet of foolscap." Robert, as a youth, manifested a benevolent disposition, and used to visit the jail of the city, not only from pity to the prisoners, but from a desire for prison reform, — - a department of usefulness in which John Howard became so conspicuous. But to prepare far the establishment of Sunday schools in Eng- land and America was the great work to which he was destined by Divine Providence. When this kind of agency became popular, curiosity was excited respecting one, who, if not the onlj-, was certainly the chief, author of modern Sunday schools. He was asked about the manner in which he commenced his enterprise; and anec- dotes respecting it, derived from his contempo- raries, were carefully treasured up. He wrote a letter relating how he was struck with the misera- ble state of children in his native city ; and that, hearing of a clergyman who had sent some out- casts to school, he employed " four decent, well- disposed women " to gather round them boys and girls, that they might teach them to read, and re- peat the Catechism ; for which each of the instruct- ors was to receive a shilling a week. This was something very different fi'om our present Sunday- school sy.stem, as elaborate as it is voluntary ; but it was the seed out of which sprung the goodly tree which now spreads its branches over the world. This simple, unostentatious act hals made Robert Raikes a hero, and his name a household word throughout Chi'istendom. A letter is pre- served, bearing date June 27, 1788, in which he says ladies of fashion at Windsor passed their Sundays in teaching poor children. The Queen sent for him, saying she envied those who had the power of doing such good. Raikes died suddenly, in his seventy-sixth year, and was buried in the church of L'Mary de Crypt, Gloucester; his funeral being attended by his Sunday-school children, each of whom, by his direction, received a shillmg and a plum-cake. See A. Gregory: Robert Raikes, new ed., London, 1881. .TOHX stoughton. RAINERIO SACCHONI, b. at Piacenza; d. in 1259; was for seventeen years one of the most active preachers of the Cathari in Lombardy, but was converted, entered the Dominican order, and became one of the most zealous adversaries of his former co-religionists. The Pope made him in- quisitor of Lombardy. In 1250 he wrote a Summa de Catharis el Leonistis, not polemical, but probably intended only for the inquisitors, and full of his- torical and statistical notices of great interest. Copies were made of it in Italy, France, Ger- RALE. 1992 RAMBACH. many, and England, and in each country perti- nent additions were made. The original text was edited by Martene and Ddrand (Thes. novus anecd., v.) and by D'Akgentrk (Collectio judiciorum, i.). A text interpolated in Germany was edited by Gretser : Liher contra Waldenses, Ingolstadt, 1613. See Gieskler : De Ramerli summa, Gottingen, 1834. C. SCHMIDT. RALE (RASLES, RASLE, RALLE), Sebastien, French Jesuit missionary to the North- American Indians; b. in Franche-Comte 1657 or 1658; d. at Norridgewock, Me., Aug. 12 (23 N.S.), 1724. He arrived in Quebec, Oct. 13, 1689, and after laboring in the Abnaki (" men of the East ") mission of St. Francis, near the Falls of the Chaudiere, seven miles above Quebec, and in the Illinois country, among the Algonquins (1691 or 1692), he returned to the Abnakis (1693 or 1694), and finally settled at Norridgewock on the Kenne- bec. There he built a chapel (1698), and acquired so much influence among the Abnakis, that he was popularly believed to have incited them to attack the Protestant settlers on the coast. A price was set upon his head. In 1705, 1722, and 1724 Nor- ridgewock was attacked by the settlers, with the result, that the first time the chapel was burnt ; the second time the rebuilt chapel and Rale's house were pillaged, and his papers carried off, among them a manuscript dictionary of Abnaki, now in Harvard College library, printed in the Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, edited by John Pickering (Cambridge, 1883) ; and, the third time, he and seven Indians who had undertaken to defend him were killed. See his Memoir by Convers Francis, in Sparks's American Biography, 2d series, vol. vji. RALEIGH, Alexander, D.D., Independent, b. in Kirkcudbright, Scotland, Jan. 3, 1817 ; d. in London, Monday, April 19, 1880. After a village- school education and a brief business experience in Liverpool (1835-40), he studied theology in Blackburn College, and was ordained pastor of the Independent Chapel at Greenock, Scotland, 1844. Ill health compelled his resignation in 1848 ; from 1850 to 1855 he was settled at Rother- ham, Eng. ; from 1855 to 1859, in Glasgow ; and from 1859 to his death, in London. He was twice chairman of the Congregational Union. He was eminently a spiritually minded man, and his works — Quiet Restiny-places, and Otlier Ser- mons (Edinburgh, 1863, 10th ed., 1880), The Story of Jonah the Prophet (1866, 2d ed., 1875), The Little Sanctuary, and Other Meditations (1872, 3d ed., 1880), Sermons (1876), The Book of Esther (1880), The Way to the City, and Other Sermons (1880, 2d ed., 1881), Thoughts for the Weary and the Sorrow- ful (1883) — have been greatly blessed. See his Biography by his widow, Edinburgh, 1881. RALEIGH, Sir Walter, b. at Hayes Farm, Devonshire, 1552; executed at Westminster, Oct., 29, 1618, on a sentence passed 1603 ; wrote not only The Discovery of Guiana (1596) and History of the World (1614), but verses enough (though some attributed to him are of uncertain origin) to show that he might have excelled in sacred poetry as in active enterprise. His splendid talents, heroic character, adventurous life, im- mense services to civilization, and flagrantly un- just condemnation, are abundantly known. At least five biographies of him have appeared ; e.g., by Edward Edwards, London, 1868. His Poems were collected by Sir Egeeton Beydges, 1814; and his Complete Works, in 8 vols., at Oxford, 1829. F. M. bird. RA'MAH {high place), the name of several Pal- estinian towns. (1) In Benjamin, near Gibeah (Josh, xviii. 25; Judg. xix. 13), taken by Saul (1 Sam. xxii. 6). Captives of Nebuchadnezzar, among them Jeremiah, were placed there (Jer. xxxi. 15, xxxix. 8-12, xl. 1) ; re-occupied afterthe captivity (Ez. ii. 26 ; Neh. vii. 30). It is identified with er-Ram, five miles north of Jerusalem. (2) In Asher (Josh. xix. 29), identified by Robinson with Rameh, thirteen miles south-east of Tyre. (3) In Naphtali (Josh. xix. 36), identified with Rameh, ten miles north-west of the Sea of Galilee. (4) A name for Ramoth-gilead (2 Kings viii. 29 ; 2 Chron. xxii. 6) ; a city of the Amorites (Deut. iv. 43), then of Gad, and a city of refuge (Josh. XX. 8), commonly identified with Es-Salt. (5) A place inhabited by Benjamites after the captivity (Neh. xi. 33). (6) The place of birth, home, death, and burial of the prophet Samuel (1 Sam. i. 1, ii. 11, vii. 17, viii. 4, xv. 34, xvi. 13, xix. 18, xxv. 1, xxviii. 3). In full the name was Ramatlniim- zdphim {double height of the watchers'). Its loca- tion has been pronounced " the most complicated and disputed problem of sacred topography." What is known about it is that it was on a height south of Gibeah, and in the undefined district called "Mount Ephraim." No certain identifi- cation can yet be given. RAMADAN (from ramida, "to glow'with heat"), the ninth month of the Mohammedan (lunar) year, observed as a fast. In the 'Koran Surah ii. {The Cow), §180, it is written: — " As to the inontli Eamadan, in which the Koran was sent down to be man's guidance, and an expla^ nation of that guidance, and an illumination, as soon as any o( you observeth the moon, let him set about the fast; but he who is sick, or upon a journey, shall fast a like number of days, and tliat you glorify God for his guidance; and haply you will be thankful. You are allowed on the night of the fast to . . . eat and drink until ye can discern a white thread from a black thread by the daybreak : afterwards fast strictly till night, and . . . pass the time in the mosques." — Eodwell's Translation, 2d ed., p. 389. When Ramadan comes in midsummer, the long fast is severe. It is usual to turn the nights during the fast into seasons of feasting, revelry, and dissipation, and the days into sleeping times. The fast celebrates the giving of the Koran. According to Arabic tradition, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus also received their revelations during this month. The month is followed by three days of feasting, called the Little Beiram. Thus Mohammed imitated the Christian Lent and Easter. RAMBACH is the name of several German the- ologians more or less noticeable. — August Jakob Rambach, b. at Quedlinburg, May 28, 1777; d. in Hamburg, Sept. 9, 1851 ; studied at Halle, and was appointed pastor in Hamburg in 1802. He distinguished himself as a hymnologist, and pub- lished Martin Luthers Verdienst um den Kirchen- gesang, Hamburg, 1813; and Anthologie christlicher Gesdnge, Leipzig, 1817-33, 6 vols. — Johann Jakob Rambach, b. at Halle, Feb. 24, 1693 ; d. at Giessen, April 19, 1735 ; studied at Halle ; was appointed professor at Giessen in 1731 ; and exercised a RAMBSES. 1993 RANDOLPH. considerable influence as a mediator between Pie- tism and the Wolffian philosophy. He published Institutiones hemieneuiicK sacrce, 1724 (6th ed., 1764), Wohlunterrichteter Catechet, 1724 (10th ed., 1762), Geislliche Gediclile, 1740, etc. See his Biog- raphy by Daniel Buttner, Leipzig, 1737 ; and Theodor Hansen : Die Familie Ramhach, Gotha, 1875. CARL BERTHEAU. RAME'SES. See Exodus. RAMMOHUN ROY, Rajah, Hindu religious reformer ; b. in the district of Burdwan, prov- ince of Bengal, 1772 ; d. at Stapleton Park, near Bristol, Eng., Sept. 27, 1833. He was a Brahman, and strictly educated; but, tmder the influence of the Koran, he early renounced polytheism. He translated the Vedanta, or tie Resolution of all the Veils, the theology of the Vedas, from Sanscrit into Bengalee and Hindostanee, prepared also an abridgment of it, and in 1816 published an Eng- lish translation of it, the Cena Upanisliad (1816), and the Ishopanislmd. In 1820 he published, at Calcutta and London, selections from the New Testament, The Precepts of Jesus, the Guide to Peace and Happiness, in English, Sanscrit, and Bengalee, reprinted in Boston, 1828. By this latter publication be excited the adverse criticism of Rev. Dr. Joshua Marshman's Friend of India ; to which he replied in the three tracts. An Appeal to the Christian Public in Defence of the " Precepts of Jesus," Second Appeal, Final Appeal. He next issued in Sanscrit, Bengalee, and English, Apology for the Pursuit of Final Beatitude, Independently of Brnhmanical Observances, Calcutta, 1820 ; Expo- sition of the Judicial and Recenue Systems of India, 1832. He believed in the divine mission of Jesus, but considered that a combination of Christianity and Brahmanism was possible. He maintained that the correct interpretation of the Upanishads was monotheistic. On Jan. 23, 1830, he founded in Calcutta the Brahmiya Somaj, from which came the Brahmo Somaj (which see). He strenu- ously advocated through the Bengal Herald, of which he was part proprietor, the abolition of suttee. In 1830 he appeared before the British court in London, as the accredited representative of the sovereign of Delhi, for the purpose of ob- taining from the East-India Company an increase of their annual stipend to him, and successfully performed his mission. While in England he worshipped with the Unitarians. The fiftieth anniversary of his death was celebrated at Bris- tol, Eng., Sept. 27, 1883. The address was de- livered by Prof. Max Miiller. See Carpenter : Last Days of Raja Rammohun Roy in England, with a Biographical Sketch, London, 1866. RAMUS, Petrus (Pierre de la Ramee), b. at Cuth, a village in Vermandois, 1515; d. in Paris, Aug. 26, 1572. When he was twelve years old, he came, walking on his bare feet, to Paris to study ; and he began his career at the university as errand-boy to an older and richer student. Nevertheless, in his twenty-first year he took his degree as Ma,ster of Arts ; and, when he shortly after began to teach, he immediately became the subject of the most intense interest. He was a declared adversary of the Aristotelian logic ; but when, in 1543, he published his Animaduersiones Dialecticce (a criticism of the logic of Aristotle) and his Institutiones Dialecticce (an exposition of his own logical system), he stirred up such a wrath among the philosophers that he was arraigned before a royal court as au impudent seducer of youth, and condemned to perpetual silence on the subject, under pain of "confiscation and bodily punishment." After the accession of Henry 11., however, in 1547, he once more obtained freedom to speak and write through the good offices of the Cardinal of Lorraine; but he was soon again entangled in embroilments of various kinds. He was- a man of reforms ; and his reformatory zeal went far beyond the field of logic, dialectics, and grammar. After the colloquy of Poissy, 1562, he openly embraced Protestantism ; and, though he retained his chair at the Sorbonne as professor of philosophy, he had to flee for his life, whenever the two religious parties took to ai-ms. He finally fell as a victim of the Massacre of St. Bartholo- mew. The logical system which he proposed to substitute for that of Aristotle has not proved of great benefit to mankind ; though it found many illustrious adepts, — Milton, Arminius, Chytrseus, Sturm, and others, — and formed, if not a school, at least a party, the Eamists. But his persistent and passionate opposition to scholasticism took effect not only in Paris, but also in Glasgow, Wit- tenberg, and even in Bologna, and made him the precursor of Descartes and Pascal. Of his numer- ous writings, there is no collected edition. His posthumous work {Commentarii de religione Chris- tiana, Francfort, 1576) was often reprinted, and found much favor in the Reformed Church. His Life was written bj' J. The. Freigius, Basel, 1574, Theophil. Banosius, Francfort, 1576, and NicoLAS^DE Nascel, Paris, 1599. RANGE, Armand Louis le Bouthillier, de, b. in Paris, Jan. 9, 1626 ; d. at Soligny-la-Trappe, Oct. 12, 1700. At ten years of age he was a canon of Notre-Dame de Paris, abbot of La Trappe, and prior of several monasteries; at thir- teen he published a critical edition of Anacreon ; at eighteen he was one of the most conspicuous figures in the gay and sensuous society of Paris ; and at twenty-five he was a debauchee, with only one passion left, that of hunting. Then he was converted. He resigned all his benefices, sold all his property, and distributed the mouev among the poor, and retired to La Trappe, where he spent the rest of his life, and established the severest discipline ever heard of. See Trappists. He was a prolific writer : Traite de la saintete et des devoirs de la vie monastique, 1683, Explication de la regie de saint Benoit, 1689, etc. His Life was written by Lenain de Tillemont, 1719, and Chateaubriand, 1844. RANDALL, Benjamin. See Freewill Bap- tists. RANDOLPH IVIACON COLLEGE, located at Ashland, near Richmond, Va., is under the con- trol of the Methodist-Episcopal Church South. It bears the name of two honored American statesmen, — John Randolph of Roanoke, and Na- thaniel Macon of North Carolina. It enjoys the distinction of being the oldest Methodist college in the United States, having been begun in Feb- ruary, 1830, though it did not commence its actual work of instruction until two years later. It was first located at Boydton, Mecklenbm-g Covmty, Ya., where it remained until 1868, when, on account of the inaccessibility of its location and a change in its patronizing territory, it was removed to its RANTERS. 1994 RATHBRIUS. present location at Ashland. Although it suf- fered heavily by the late war, losing almost its entire endowment, it has yet prospered since its removal to its present commanding location, hav- ing reached a patronage of 235 students. Its moral and religious tone eminently entitles it to be called a Christian institution of learning. It is one of the most widely and favorably known colleges in the South. Among its graduates now living, and filling important positions, are fcfund two bishops (H. N. McTyeire and J. C. Granbery), eight presidents, and twenty-two professors in va- rious institutions of learning, besides many others now filling prominent positions in civil, political, and professional life. The best Southern scholar- ship has always been found in its faculty. The following distinguished men have served as presi- dents: Rev. Stephen Olin, D.D. (1832-38), Landon C. Garland, LL.D. (1838-46, now chancellor of Vanderbilt University), Rev. William A. Smith, D.D. (1846-66), Thomas C. Johnson, A.M. (1866- 68), Rev. James A. Duncan, D.D. (1868-77), and Rev. W. W. Bennett, D.D., the present incum- bent. W. F. TILLETT. RANTERS, an Antinoniian sect of the Com- monwealth period, which Fuller, in his Church History, associates with the Familists. Ross, in his XlnvaeiJEia (p. 287, ed., 1655), describes them as making an open profession of lewdness, practising a community of women, etc. In An Account of the Life and Actions of Mr. John Bunyan (London, 1692, p. 22) they are described as believing them- selves incapable of sinning, and fancying them- selves in Adam's state, as he was in paradise be- fore the fall, of stripping themselves naked (like the Turbulines, etc.) at their public meetings. The name was also at one time applied to the Primitive Methodists, who separated themselves from the main body of Methodists, and were dis- tinguished by their violent bodily manifestations. RA'PHAEL (the (iivine healer), in Jewish angel- ology " one of the seven holy angels who present the prayers of the saints, and who go in and out before the glory of the Holy One " (Tob. xii. 15) ; also said to be one of the four archangels (Michael, Uriel, Gabriel, and Raphael) who stand round the throne of God. In Tobit he plays the part of guide to Tobias, for whom he works miracles. In ecclesiastical tradition he appears as the herald to the shepherds of the world's " great joy." RAPHALL, Morris Jacob, Ph.D., Jewish rabbi; b. at Stockholm, Sweden, September, 1798 ; d. in JTew-York City, June 23, 1868. He studied at the Jewish college in Copenhagen, and at thirteen was a rabbi. The next six years were spent in study in England, and the next six in travel and European study. From 1825 to 1841 he resided in London, where in 1834 he began "the first Jewish publication ever issued in England," the Hebrew Review. From 1841 to 1849 he was the rabbi preacher at Birmingham, Eng., and there played a principal part in the establishment of "the first national school in England for the Jews." From 1849 to his death he was rabbi preacher to an Anglo-German congregation (B'nai Jeshurun) in New- York City. He wrote the Post- biblical History of the Jews, New York, 1866, 2 vols., and translated, with D. A. de Sola, Eighteen treatises of the Miskna, London, 1843, 2d ed., 1845. RAPPISTS, the followers of the weaver George Rapp, who was born at Iptingen, Wiirtemberg, 1770, and died at Economy, Penn., Aug. 7, 1847.' He thought himself called upon to reform society upon the basis of the New Testament as he understood it. He gathered around him a com- pany of persons who had all their property in common ; but by so doing he fell into the dis- favor of the government, and therefore, with a portion of his followers, emigrated to the United States in 1803. They settled first on Coneque- nessing Creek in Butler County, Penn., and called the village Harmony. Prospering through their industry and economy, they were able to pur- chase, in 1815, a tract of twenty-four thousand acres upon the Wabash, Ind., and thither they removed. New Harmony was, however, sold to Robert Owen in 1824 ; and the Rappists emigrat- ed to Economy, seventeen miles noi'th-west of Pittsburg, on the right bank of the Ohio. RASHI, the celebrated Jewish commentator; b. at Troyes in Champagne, France, 1040 ; d. there July 13, 1105. (See De Rossi : Dizionario storico degli autori Ebrei, Parma, 1802.) He is often spoken of simply as YarcM; and how that misunderstanding arose is not known. But he did not belong to that circle of rabbins who assumed the surname of Yarchi from their native place, Lunel in Perpignan ("luna," HT). Hg spent seven years in travelling through italy, Greece, Palestine, Egypt, Persia, and Germany, and was well versed in philology, philosophy, medicine, astronomy, law, etc. Besides commen- taries on twenty-three treatises of the Talmud, commentaries on the Midrash Rabba, a book on medicine, etc., he wrote commentaries on all the books of the Old Testament, giving both the literal sense and the allegorical explanations of the older rabbins. These commentaries, written in Hebi-ew mixed up with Latin, Greek, and Old-French words, and in a condensed, obscure style, attracted, nevertheless, much attention, both among Jews and Christians. The first book 23rinted in Hebrew was his commentary on the Pentateuch, Reggio, 1475. The later editions are quite numerous ; and there is a complete Latin translation by Breithaupt, — Prophets, Psalms, and Job (1713), the historical books (1714), the Pentateuch (1740). See J. Chr. Wolf : BiUioih. Hebraia, 1715-38, 4 vols, quarto; I. M. JoST : Geschichte des Judenthums, 1857 ; Bloch : Lebens- geschichte d. Salomo Jizchaki, 1840. The name Rashi is the combination of the initial letters, 'tyi, of the full name and title, pnx: p riJih^ '21, i.e., Rabbi Shelomoh ben Yitz'haki. De Rossi's Dizionario, referred to above, has been translated into German by Dr. Hamberger, Leipzig, 1839. Rashi's Commentary on the Pentateuch was translated into German by Lucas Prague, 1833-38. wilhelm presskl. RASKOLNIKS. See Russian Sects. RATHERIUS, b. at Liege about 890; d. at Namur, April 25, 974. He was brought up a monk in the monastery of Lobach (German) or Lobbes (French), in the Hainaut, and became possessed of what was still left, from the Carolin- gian age, of education and scholarship. Through his incidental connections with King Hugo of Provence he became bishop of Verona in 931, but was deposed and imprisoned on account of RATHMANN. 1995 RATIONALISM. treason ; and, though he later on succeeded twice in taking possession of the see, he was both times expelled by the clergy. Through his inci- dental connection with King Otho of Germany he became bishop of Liege in 953, but was deposed on account of incapacity ; and even as abbot of Alna, a small branch institution of Lobach, he did not give satisfaction. His life makes the impression of an ambitious adventurer; but his ■works (Prceloquia, De contemlu canpnum, etc.), of which there is a collected edition by Ballerini (Verona, 1765), have considerable interest both historical and psychological. See Vogel: Ratk&- rius of Verona, Jena, 1854, 2 vols. A. VOGEL. RATHMANN, Hermann, b. in Liibeck, 1585; d.'at Dantzic, June 30, 1628. He studied the- ology at Leipzig, Rostock, and Cologne, and was in 1612 appointed pastor at Dantzic. In 1621 he published Jciu Christi Gnadenreich, in which he asserted that God's word has no inherent power to instruct man, and make him better, but must be supported and supplemented by the activity of the Holy Spirit. The book was vehemently denounced , by Johann Corvinus ; and a contro- versy broke out which lasted to the death of Rathmann, and in which many of the first theo- logians of the time took part. See Moller : Cimbria Uterata, iii. p. 563. L. HELLER. RATIONALISM and SUPRANATURALISM, two terms of great prominence in modern theol- ogy, are aptly defined by Fr. V. Reinhard, in his Gestdndnisse, Sulzbach, 1810. He says, — " In rationalism, reason is tlie sole arbiter. What ^reason cannot comprehend and accept can never form part of the rationalist's conviction. His con- sciousuess is homogeneous, and his intellect consis- tent throughout. To him, Scripture is like any other book. He accepts it, orily when it agrees with his opinions, and then only as an illustration and afBrma- tion, not as an authority. The supranaturalist, on the other hand, is no less in harmony with his funda- mental maxim. In matters of religion. Scripture is to him what reason is to the rationalist. Though he, too, employs reason , he employs it only to search and judge those claims to a divine origin which Scripture puts forth; and as soon as that point has been de- cided, and he feels convinced that Scripture contains the direct teachings of God, it becomes his highest, his sole authority. The only office of reason is to search and explain the true meaning of Scripture; but the doctrines themselves, even though they may seem strange and hard, must be recognized, and ac- cepted unconditionally." Of the two terms, rationalism is the older. It was first used by Amos Comenius, in his Theologia naturalis, 1661, where it was applied to the theo- logians of the Socinian school, to naturalists and deists. It is probable, however, that Comenius was not the inventor of the name " ration alista," as the form " rationista " occurs before his time, at the beginning of the seventeenth century, when it was applied to the Aristotelian human- ' ists of the school of Helmstiidt. At its first appearance the. opposite of rationalism was not designated as supranaturalism, but simply as prot- estantism (see Gabler : Neuentes tlieolog. Journal, Nuremberg, 1801). As the champions, however, of protestantism, that is, of the theology based upon Scripture as the divine revelation, generally designated their adversaries, not as rationalists, but as naturalists, it naturally came to pass that their own views were designated as supranatural- ism, and not as suprarationalism, or irrationalism, though the latter designation occurs. When the term " supranaturalism " was brought into use is not known ; but it is found in Gabler. About the middle of the eighteenth century the two opponents stood fully developed, confronting each other, and the contest began. The finish- ing strokes, both types received from the philoso- phy of Wolff ; but long preparations preceded the consummation, and it is interesting to notice the different characteristics whicli the incipient movement exhibits imder the different national conditions. In England the rapidly increasing deism called forth a long series of apologetical writings, though without thereby producing any sharp and decisive contrast. Herbert of Cher- bury (d. 1648) taught that the innate ideas of reason and the general contents of revelation were identical, but that the latter was, nevertheless, necessary in order to restore the original but almost ruined natural religion. Around this idea of a natural religion, deism gathered its cham- pions ; and the prevailing latitudinarianism, em- phasizing that which is common to all confessions, and willing to sacrifice that which is specifically Christian for that which is common to all reli- gions, almost bowed to the same standard. Hobbes (d. 1679) disgusted people by representing the absolute authority of the king as the sole foun- dation of positive Christianity, while Locke (d. 1704) charmed them by his demonstration of the reasonableness of Christianity ; but both contrib- uted, each in his way, to strengthen the dominion of that common sense in accordance with which Toland (d. 1722) could proclaim that Christianity contains no mystery, and Tindal (d. 1733), that the Gospels are simply a republication of the reli- gion of nature. But the curious fact is, that this relation between Christianity and natural religion was recognized by the apologists : yea, Butler (d. 1751) even accepted Tindal's proposition concerning the republication of the religion of nature. Indeed, by accommodating themselves to the views of their adversaries, and confining their defence of the authority of Scripture to a strictly scientific demonstration, the English apologists came to point nearly in the same dii-ection as their antagonists ; and the representatives of the type of supranaturalism must be sought for among the dissenters. In the Netherlands two currents may be observed ; one issuing from a purely philo- sophical, and the other from a pietistic, religious principle, but both setting directly and with vigor against orthodox Calvinism. From the first propo- sition of Descartes (d. 1650), De omnibus dubitan- dum est (" every thing must be doubled "), even the confession of the Established Church could not hope to vindicate itself as an exception ; and his second proposition, cogito ergo sum (" I think, con- sequently I am "), gave to all speculation a merely subjective basis, from which the objectivity of a denominational creed could never be reached, except by a leap, or surreptitiously. Still worse, in his Traclalus iheologico-poUdcus .Spinoza openly attacked the authority of Scripture, and demanded the whole question transferred from a religious to a historical court. No wonder, therefore, that, towards the close of the seventeenth century, the Netherlands swarmed with atheists, and critical questions rose to the surface even within theologi- cal circles, especially since the other current, the RATIONALISM. 1996 RATIONALISM. Dutch pietism, — rapidly developing from a cau- tious emphasis on lite as against doctrine (Cocce- jus, d. 1669), into an open tendency of separation from the Established Church (Labadie, d. 1674), — ran in an almost parallel direction. Pietism gen- erally takes a much greater interest in life than in science, the result of which is, that it often allows science to shrivel into a mere formal dem- onstration. On account of this indifferentism to the extension of truth for truth's own sake, pietism may come to consider Scripture simply a practical means to a practical end, and not keep the source of all truth ever flowing, and ever re- newing and refreshing life ; the practical end of pietist life so often shrinks into a narrow broth- erhood of the faithful, with no interest for, but perhaps even antipathy against, the chui'oh uni- versal. Thus pietism is never well fitted to take up arms in defence of supranaturalism : on the contrary, in its farther development it generally shows a tendency towards rationalism. But in France, in the middle of the eighteenth century, even this semblance of an opposition to ration- alism disappeared, and the whole movement was directed by the encyclopedists. Pascal's influ- ence had died out ; and the adversaries of the ency- clopedists were either petrified in mere externals, or lost in indifferentism. But the finest fruits, in a religious aspect, which the encyclopedists produced, were the very affected enthusiasm of Rousseau for Christ and the Gospels, and Vol- taire's very natural passion for toleration. What has been said of pietism in the Nether- lands is true also of pietism in Germany. Though it was only the eccentricities and excesses of some enthusiasts which actually led into apostasy and free-thinking, even in its noblest form pietism could not help acting on orthodoxy as a dissolvent. It was adverse to the scholastic foi-m in which the orthodox system was presented; it was lukewarm to the idea of pure doctrine for purity's own sake ; it was well disposed to those who labored for a union between the Lutheran and the Re- formed churches; and it was firmly determined to make religion, first and foremost, a practical issue : that is to say, pietism was indifferent where orthodoxy was passionate, and passionate where orthodoxy was indifferent. At the same time, or- thodoxy underwent certain changes which actu- ally weakened it. It is true that Georg Calixtus (d. 1656) occupied a somewhat insulated position. It is also true that IMusfeus (d. 1681), so famous for his attack upon Herbert of Cherbury and Spinoza, was compelled to abjure all syncretism. But the Carpzovs and the Calovs, nevertheless, soon ceased to sound the keynote. Distinctions were adopted between "against" and "above" reason {non contra, sed supra ralioiiem), between regenerated and unregenerated reason (ratio re.na- ta and ratio irrecjenita), between a mechanical and a normal use of reason {usus organicus and usus normatii-wi) ; and, though these distinctions did not actually shake the authority of Scripture, they cer- tainly moved the centre of gravitation on which that authority rested. The old professors fought valiantly against the approaching danger; but they saw with regi-et and anxiety how the young students dropped off, and fell into pietism, or dis- beliefs of various kinds. Such was the state of German theology when the period of enlighten- ment (Aufkldrvng) dawned upon it. It was double-faced, — at once popular and philosophi- cal. The popular light was at first introduced from England, France, and the Netherlands ; but it soon found in Friedrich II. of Prussia its social guaranty, in Christian Thomasius (d. 1728) its theological exponent, and in Gellert and a swarm of co-workers its literary propagators, who in a light, genteel, half-satirical manner, swept away all pedantry, scholasticism, and other forms of old-fogyism. Wolff was the bi-inger of the philo- sophical light. He established a sharp distinction between theologia naturaiis and theologia revelata. In the former, nothing is admitted but that which can be logically demonstrated and scientifically proved i in the latter any thing is accepted which is taught in Scripture. And the relation between those two dominions is this : all that is valid in theologia naturaiis must be found in theologia reve- lata, but not all that is found in theologia revelata is valid in theologia naturaiis. To this distinction corresponds that between rationalism and supra- naturalism ; and the contest between the two latter is, so to speak, symbolized by AVolff' s own life. In 1723 he was driven away from Halle with threats of the gibbet : in 1740 he was brought back in a triumphal chariot. In the group of supranaturalists which formed under the direct influence of the philosophy of Wolff, S. J. Baumgarten (d. 1757) occupies the most prominent place, and by his side J. D. JMichaelis (d. 1791). In Germany as in England the relation in which supranaturalism placed itself to the advancing rationalism was apologetical ; and it cannot be denied that the Wolffian school, with its elaborate method of demonstration, its many new cosmological and anthropological ideas, and its bright, ethical optimism, furnished the apologists with much excellent material ; though, on the other hand, it is evident, that, by its per- petual harping on the principium rationis suffici- entis, it often drew the whole subject down into a lower sphere by teaching people to content themselves with tne probable and the useful, in- stead of demanding truth and goodness. (See Zorn : Petinotheologie, 1742.) More independent of Wolff are Mosheim (d. 1755) and the Wiirtem- berg school of theology, Matthaus Pfaff (d. 1760), Otingsr (d. 1782), and others. The WUrtemberg school is thoroughly biblical in its character, and its work was principally exegetical. Pfaff con- cedes that natural religion is held in high esteem by Scripture; but he adds that it is utterly insuf- ficient to salvation, because it knows nothing of Christ: it has only a usus px-dagogicus. Exegesis, he asserts, is the only foundation on which true theology can be built up; and he laments, when seeing how people's hearts have been turned away from Scripture " since theology put on the cloak of philosophy." Otinger brought into the school a mystico-theosophical element; and he, too, com- plained of the meagre reasonableness of the Wolffian demonstrations. Entirely without any connection with, but still belonging to, the supra- naturalist group, stand the two great apologists of the period, — Bonnet (d. 1793) and Haller _(d. 1777). Between supranaturalism and i-ationalism, Les- sing (d. 1781) forms tlie transition. His funda- mental idea, that God educates the human race by revelations, every supranaturalist will accept. RATIONALISM. 1997 RATIONALISM. But when he adds that the contents of the divine revelations are essentially identical with the con- tents of human reason, and would easily be rec- ognized as such but for the peculiar form which has been given to it for the sake of greater im- pressiveness, hesitation begins. And when he goes on, and declares that none of the historically given religions is or can be the absolute religion, because its dogmas, though they may contain eternal truth, must be set forth in expressions be- longing to a certain time and place, and conse- quently transitory, he has arrived at the threshold of rationalism. By the decisive distinction he makes between that which is eternal in a religion and that which is historical, he is connected di- rectly with J. S. Semler (d. 1791), the father of modem biblical criticism, and the representative of rationalism in its first stage. In his critical exhi- bitions of the transient features of the Chi-istian revelation, Semler entirely lost sight of the eternal kernel, which he replaced with a somewhat vague idea of a sublime teaching, conducive, if not in- dispensable, to the social and moral development of mankind. Personally, however, he was not without piety, and in all practical relations he was quite conservative. He attacked Basedow, the WolfenbiiUel Fragments, and Bahrdt, though, per- haps, not without a feeling that he fought against disagreeable consequences drawn from his own premises ; and he held that the State had a right to decide what should be taught in the school and in the pulpit, and what not. It was only in the theoretical questions of theology that he was liberal in the application of the principle of "accommodation," his own invention, according to which any idea set forth in Scripture could be put quietly out of the way as a mere accommo- dation, from the side of the author or of Christ, to reigning circumstances. There was a long dis- tance between him and the WolfenbiiUel Fragments, whose publication began in 1774, and, again, be- tween the Wolfenbiittd Fragments and Bahrdt (d. 1792). Semler never criticised the moral char- acter of Jesus and the apostles? It was the Wolf- enbiitlel Fragments which led the way in that field, representing Christ as simply a reformer of Juda- ism, as a mere enthusiast, as a visionary, whose schemes of establishing a kingdom of Palestine were miserably wrecked. But Bahrdt followed up the track ; and, to the intense disgust of the rationalists themselves, he represented Christ as a coarse naturalist, who, from mere regards of prudence, concealed his real plan, that of destroy- ing all positive religion, and only communicated his wisdom to a select few, whom he formed into a kind of secret society. Its headquarters ration- alism had in Berlin ; its popular organ, in Nicolai's Algemeine Deutsche BibUothek, which began to be published in 1765. As a representative example of its scientific productivity may be mentioned Teller's Worterbuch cles N. T., 1772. In Xicolai's periodical, which in its time was considered one of the great instruments of German civilization, every thing which in English or French philosophy smacked of passionate research or audacious as- pirations was carefully cut off, and that which was served was cautiously toned down to a most insipid palaver. In Teller's Worterbuch all the specifically biblical ideas were transformed into commonplace trivialities of general morals, which naturally led the author to the idea of the per- fectibility of Christianity. Generally speaking, the course of rationalism, from its origin to the appearance of Kant, may be described as a move- ment from Christianity to religion in general, then from religion in general to mere morality, and finally, from morality to eudsemonism, the doctrine of happiness. As the philosophy of AVolfi had proved decisive for the final development of both supranaturalism and rationalism, it was to be expected that the philosophy of Kant would also exercise its influ- ence. And so it did. When Kant, on the one side, theoretically, completely excluded the supra- natural as something to which reason could enter into no relation whatever, and yet, on the other side, practically re-introduced it into reason as a necessary postulate, he seemed simply to open the way for the idea of a divine revelation. And, indeed, there were quite a number of theologians — Staudlin (d. 1826), K. L. Nitzsch (d. 1831), Amnion (d. 1849), and others — who attempted to infuse new life into supranaturalism by deducing the necessity of faith in the Christian mysteries from Kantian premises. Staudlin never grew tired of asserting that the true conception of Christianity could be built up only on the basis of a union between rationalism and supranatu- ralism, whence the school received the name of rational supranaturalism, or supranatural ration- alism. But it soon became apparent that the hybrid had not strength enough to live. The phil- osophical substructure could not bear the theo- logical building reared upon it. One concession had to be made to rationalism after the other; and the school gradually disappeared, while those who took its place — Hamann, Claudius, Harms, and others — built on another foundation, pursued other aspirations, and soon dropped the whole question of rationalism and supranaturalism. Still more affinity rationalism showed to the Kantian philosophy; and all the more serious rationalists among the theologians accepted the Kantian deduction of morality as a true liberation fi'om the vulgar eudaemonism, in which they felt half suffocated. But rationalism had at this time spent all its power of production. It could do nothing but repeat its old proposition, — that reason is the highest arbiter, even in matters of religion; that Christianity is perfectible, etc. Thus Rohr, in his Briefe iiber den Rationalismus, 1813, explains, that " that which the supranatu- ralists call Christology forms no part of his sys- tem, which is simply the exposition of a religion taught by Jesus, but not of a religion of which Jesus is the subject." The fundamental principle of rationalism he finds in the non-exclusion of intermediate causes. " ICo experience," he claims, "has ever found evidence of a direct, immediate interference of God : nay, the very notion of the supranatural causes a feeling of disgust." The religion of Jesus can become the universal reli- gion, only so far as it is the religion of pure rea- son ; and only those of its propositions can- be accepted as universal truth which have been rec- ognized by the collected reason of the human race. Not so very different from this is Wegscheider : Institutiones theol. dogm., 1815. But though, in the second decade of the present century, the rationalists were still in possession both of the RATISBON. 1998 RAUCH. church and the school, they not only produced nothing new, but they actually began to pine away, from inanition ; and the new theological schools which arose beside them (those of Schleier- macher and Hegel) were as indifferent to the question of rationalism and supranatui-alism'as were the successors of their supranaturalist ad- versaries. Lit. — Hahx : De rationalismi indole, 18"27 ; Staudlin : Geschichte dea Raiionalismus und Su- pranaturcdismux, 1826 ; Tholuck : Vorqeschichte d. R., 1S53, and Gescliiclite d. R., 1865; IIondes- IIAGEN : Der deutsche Protestantismns, 1850, 3d ed. ; F. de Rougemont : Les deux cites, 1874; [histories of rationalism by Lecky (Lond., 1865, 2 v.), and Hurst (N.Y., 1865); Cairns: Unbelief ill the 18lh Century, Edinb., 1881; and Tholuck : art. in Herzog, I. xii. 537-554]. Robert kubbl. RATISBON, The Conference of (April 27- Jlay 25, 1511), may be considered as a continua- tion of the (Conference of Worms, 1540, and as the last attempt by Charles V. at solving the religious confusion of Germany without arms. The interlocutors were Gropper, Pflug, and Eck on the one side, Butzer, Pistorius, and Melanch- thon on the other. Besides the presidents. Count- palatine Friedrich and Cardinal Granvella, six witnesses were present, among whom was Jacob Sturm. As basis, was used, not the Confessio Augustana, but the so-called Ratisbon Book, in twenty-two articles. In spite of Eok's opposi- tion, an agreement was arrived at concerning the article on justification ; and the Roman Catho- lics granted that faith, with the addition of efficax, was the principal, and indeed the sole, condition of justification. But with respect to the articles on the doctrinal authority of the church, the liierarchy, discipline, sacraments, etc., no agree- ment was possible ; and the only real result of the conference was the general conviction that the religious split in Germany was not to be healed by a theological formula. Lit. — Reports of the conference were published in Latin and German by Butzer and Melanchthon, and in Latin by Eck. Further documents are found in Corpus Reformatorum, iv. 118-637. See also Briegek: Contarini u. das Regensburger Con- cordien., 1870; and Dittrich: Regesten u. Briefe d. Kardinals C., Braunsb., 1851. H. SCHMIDT. RATRAMNUS, a contemporary of Pasohasius Radbertus, and one of the most prominent writers of the Carolingiaii age ; was monk in the monas- tery of Corbie in Picardy, which he seems to have entered while Wala was abbot (826-835). Of his personal life nothing is known, but he enjoyed great authority and a great literary fame in his time. Charles the Bald often appealed to his opinion on ecclesiastical questions. By the bish- ops of his province he was charged with the refutation of Photius' encyclical letter; and Gottschalk celebrated him in a poetical epistle, printed in Migne, Patrol. Liitiu., \o\.V21. The most important of his -works is his De corpore et sanguine Domini, written after 844. He there argues with great vigor that the real body of Christ — the body in which he lived and died, wag buried and resurrected — is not present in the Eucharist. But, though he thus defended the symbolical view of the Lord's Supper in oppo- sition to Paschasius Radbertus, he, nevertheless, taught a kind of mystical presence, drawing an analogy from the presence of the Holy Spirit in the water of baptism. The book has had a pecul- iar history. By the synod of Vercelli (1050), it was condemned and burned as a work of John Sco- tus Erigena; and during the middle ages it had fallen completely into oblivion, until John Fishei-, bishop of Rochester, in 1526 quoted it against (Ecolampadius as a representative of the Roman- Catholic doctrine of the Eucharist. It was then printed at Cologne in 1527 : but the favor it found with the Protestants, especially with the Re- formed, made it suspected among the Roman Catholics; and the Council of Trent put it unhesi- tatingly on the Index as a spurious fabrication. This view of the book was maintained by all Roman-Catholic writers until the Parisian doc- tors — Sainte-Beuve in 1655, and Jacques Boileau in 1712 — undertook to vindicate its authenticity. In the Gottschalk controversy, Ilatramnus wrote two works, — De prcedestinatione Dei and fj-ma Deltas. In the former he defends the double pre- destination ; though, at the time he wrote, both the synod of Mayence (848) and that of Chiersy (849) had condemned that idea. His most famous work is his Contra Grcecorum opposita, a refuta- tion of Photius, in which he defends not only the Filioque, but the whole liturgical, dogmatical, and disciplinai-y development of the AVestern Church. In his curious Episiola de Cynocephalis ad Rimber- tum he maintains that the cynooephali are the off- spring of Adam. His works are found collected in Migne: Patrol. Latin., vol. 121. STEITZ. RATZEBERGER, Matthaus, b. at Wangen in Wiirtemberg, 1501 ; d. at Erfurt, Jan. 3, 1559. He studied medicine at Wittenberg, and was suc- cessively body-]physician to the Elector of Bran- denburg, the Count of Mansfield, and the Elector of Saxony. He was a relative of Luther, his house-physician, and an intimate friend of his. The best edition of his Life of Luther is that by Neudecker, Jena, 1850. RAU (RAVIUS), Christian, b. at Berlin, Jan. 25, 1613 ; d. at Fralikfort-on-the-Oder, June 21, 1677. He was graduated at Wittenberg, 1636. In 1638 he visited England; from 1639 to 1612 he was in the East, acquiring Turkish, Persian, Ital- ian, Spanish, and Romaic. On his return he taught Orientalia at Oxford (1642-44), Utrecht (1644), Amsterdam (164.5), Upsala (1650), Kiel (1669), Frankfort-on-the-Oder (1671). He was also at Stockholm for several years, under Charles Gustave, as interpreter and librarian to the king. His most useful work is perhaps his epitome of Buxtorf's Hebrew and Greek Concordance, Berlin and Frankfort, 1677 ; but besides it lie pubhshed, among other works, Chronologia infallibilis biblica, Upsala, 1669 ; De adrentuali plenitudine temporis Jean Christi in carnem, Frankfort, 1673. RAUCH, Frederick Augustus, Ph.D., first presi- dent of Marshall College, Mercersburg, Penn. ; b. at Kirchbracht, Hesse-Darmstadt, July 27, 1800 ; d. at Mercersburg, Penn., March 2, 1841. The son of a minister of the Reformed Church, in his childhood he received a faithful Christian training. At the age of eighteen he entered the university of Marburg, and subsequently studied philosophy and theology in Giessen and Heidel- berg. Thereupon' he was appointed exti'aordi- nary professor of philosophy in the university of Rauch. 1999 RAVENNA. sen, and at the end of one year was compu- ted with ail appohitnient to an ordinary pi-o- irship in the university of Heidelberg. But ome public occasion, before leaving Giessen, xpressed political sentiments which brought 1 him the displeasure of the government. A id warned him of danger, and urged him to pe. He had at midnight a final interview of hours with his father, and then took refuge nierica, 1831. He located at Easton, Penn., being a total stranger, earned a livelihood some months by teaching music. But his ties as a scholar, and his high character, soon ming known, he was made professor of the nan language in Lafayette College. June, 1832, he removed to York, Penn., and charge of the high school, which in 1829 been established by the German Reformed rch in connection with her theological semi- '. In the annual meeting held in October Ills year he was elected professor of biblical atui-e. The high school was removed to jersburg in the fall of 1835, and incorporated arshall College. Dr. Rauch was chosen presi- ; and in the twofold capacity of president of shall College, and professor of biblical litei-a- in the theological seminary, he labored with and enthusiasm for the last five years of his 3 a scholar. Dr. Rauch excelled in classical ature, in natural history, in moral philosophy, in mental science. He was at home, also, in sphere of aesthetics, and had his mind richly id with the creations of genius as they belong le fine arts genei-ally. 'i'he German philoso- with all its bewildering abstractions, was for the subject of familiar knowledge; while it manded, also, his general confidence and re- t. He saw in its different cardinal systems, joutradietion and confusion so much as the y of one and the same grand intellectual ement, borne forward from one stage of lopment to another. At Heidelberg he was -ident and friend of the eminent theologian philosopher, Charles Daub, who represented right or conservative wing of the Hegelian ol, and had firm faith in the triune person- of God and in the other distinctive prin- !S of Christianity. In America, Rauch's stian ideas became more decided, clear, and I. both the college and the seminary, Rauch ht by lectures, written and oral. When g a text-book, it was his uniform habit to mpafiy the examination of students with an ■mal lecture, expounding, criticising, illus- ng, or commenting upon the contents of the :. He never failed to awaken interest, stimu- thought, create a keen thirst for knowledge, kindle enthusiasm in his students. He was ably the first man who introduced into the ational .system of America what is known le organic in distinction from the mechani- uethod. The parts of a subject were not rded as externally, but ever as internally re- I. Mind was not a conglomerate of faculties, a vital unity. History was not merely a snce of events, but a growth, a process ncing agreeably to the nature of life. Ko tion in philosophy was to be discussed or 20-111 settled according to an arbitrary plan or standard, but was to be considered and solved agreeably to principles and laws which were inherent in the idea itself. The truth of a dogma was to be tested or determined, not by any number of Bible- passages, but by its organic connectiou with that living economy of which Jesus Christ was the author and the animating soul. Rauch, whilst living, was understood and appreciated by few only. The systems of moral and mental philoso- phy then taught were to him superficial and meagre. He believed it to be his mission to labor for the union of German with Scotch and American modes of thought, or Anglo-German philosophy as he termed it. To accomplish this end he planned a series of works, the most need- ful of which he believed to be. one on psychology, another on ethics, and a third on aesthetics. But his premature death frustrated this scheme. During the last year of his life he wrote and pub- lished his Psychology, and he had completed his plan and preparation of a work on ethics. Dr. Rauch was properly the founder of ]\Iar- shall College. This was the principal achieve- ment of his short life. He prepared, organized, and trained the first five classes (1837-41); and in doing this he breathed a soul into the institu- tion. The characteristic features of his philo- sophic genius and organic method he infused s-o effectually, that his educational work survived his death. The distinguishing spirit inbreathed by him has lived and flourished in the philosophy and theology of the college and seminary (now located at Lancaster, Penn.), though modified, developed, and matui'ed by his successors, onward to tlie present time. See Mercersburg The- ology. Lit. — Rauch: Psychology, or a View of llt Human Soul, including Anthropology, Xew York, 1840 (3d ed. rev., 1844, with Preface by Dr. J. 'W. Nevin) ; The Inner Life of the Christian (a series of sermons published after Rauch's death by E. V. Gerhart) ; Dr. J. W. Kevin : Eulogy (on occasion of the removal of Rauch's remains from Mercersburg to Lancaster, 1859), in Mercers- burg Revieic, vol. xi. p. 456. E. V. GERHART. RAUHE, Haus. See Wichern. RAUTENSTRAUCH, Franz Stephan, b. at Plat- ten, Bohemia, 1734 ; d. at Erlau, Hungary, 1785 ; entered the Benedictine order, taught philosophy, canon law, and theology, at Braunau, and was in 1774 made director of the theological faculty in Vienna. He was a zealous defender of the re- forms of Joseph IL, and drew up the edict of 1776 concerning the re-organization of the theo- logical study in Austria. Among his writings are, Institutio juris ecclesiastici, Prague, 1769, and Synopsis jur. eccL, A'ienna, 1776. RAVENNA, an important city of Gallia Cispa- dana, forty-three miles south-east from Bologna, and originally situated on the Adriatic, from which, owing to the deposits -from the delta of the Po, it is now distant between five and six miles. It was founded by the Thessalians, according to Strabo, who describes it as traversed by canals, abounding in bridges and ferries, and noted for the abundance of its wine. Late in the history of the Roman Republic it was the chief military station of Cisalpine Gaul, RAVENNA. 2000 RAVENNA. and a frequent resort of Julius Ctesav during his Gallic administration. Augustus made it one of the three principal naval stations of the empire, and the headquarters of the Adriatic fleet. He constructed a new and spacious harbor, about which a town grew up, known later as the sub- urb Classis ; and between this and the city proper arose, in time, another suburb, under the name of Cfesarea. From this time until far on in the history of the later empire, the city appears as an impor- tant military and naval station, and as a place of confinement for state prisoners. About 400 A.D. it became the residence of the Emperor Honorius, who fled thither at the approach of Alaric, and continued to be the seat of goveiuiment until the fall of the Western Empire, in 476. Galla Placi- dia, the sister of Honorius, and mother of Valen- tinian HI., resided there as regent from 425 to 450, and contributed largely to the adornment of the city. Theodoric besieged it in 487 ; and the murder of Odoacer placed in his hand the scei> tre, which he wielded for thirty-three years. He was succeeded by a series of elective kings, until 539, when Justinian undertook to bring Italy under the Byzantine Empire, and Ravenna opened its gates to Belisarius. Then followed, for a hundred and eighty-five years, the rule of the ex- archs or viceroys of the Byzantine court, the last of whom, Eutychius, was expelled by the Lom- bards in 752. The chief interest of Ravenna is ecclesiastical. According to a questionable tradition, the gospel was preached there as early as 79 A.D., by a dis- ciple of Peter, Apollinaris, who suffered martyr- dom for the destruction of a temple of Apollo. Monumentally the city falls into the line of eccle- siastical history with the era of the Theodosian family ; and, within less than a hundred and fifty years, Galla Plaoidia, Theodoric, and the repre- sentatives of the Byzantine Empire, successively enriched it with the C^hristian monuments which now constitute its principal attraction. Its chief monuments belong to the transitional period, when the Roman and the Teutonic elements of the modern world were both in being, and when the mingling of the two had not yet formed a third whole different from either. It was the seat of the first settled Teutonic dominion beyond the Alps. The monuments fall into three classes, marking three periods, — the Theodosian, the Gothic, and the Byzantine. Of the Theodosian era, the principal relics are the church of San Giovanni Evangelista, erected by Placidia, 425; the church of SS. Nazaro e Celso, better known as the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia (450), where her huge sarcophagus is still preserved with those of at least two Roman emperors ; the baptistery of San Giovanni in Fonte (451), one of the most interesting ecclesi- astical structures ih the world, containing the earliest known mosaics of the fifth century. The Gothic or Arian era is represented by the building known as T/teodoric's Palace, either a fragment of the original structure, or an addition to Theodoric's actual work; the Mausoleum of The- odoric, a cylindrical stone edifice of two stories, with a cupola foi'med of a single enormous stone ; the two Arian churches remaining of the six erected by Theodoric, — San Spirito, noteworthy only for its baptistery, Santa Maria in Cosmedin, with its sixth century mosaics, — and San Martina in Ccelo Aureo, afterwards changed to S. Apolli- nare JVuoco, in honor of the first bishop of Raven- na, whose remains are said to be interred there. The series of colossal mosaic figures occupying the whole length of the triforium on both sides of the nave may safely challenge the competition of any similar works in the world. The church of 5. Apollinare in Ctasse, in the ancient suburb Classis, was begun eight years after Theodoric's death (526), and consecrated fifteen years later. It now stands almost alone in a desolate marsh. The original mosaics of 671 are interesting as marking the point where the ecclesiastical senti- ment begins to rank with the purely Christian. The figure of Apollinaris in the midst of a flock of sheep is on a level with that of Peter, thus asserting the equality of the Eastern and Western churches. The great illustration of the Byzantine period is the church of San Vitale, begun in 526, and consecrated 547, to the memory of Vitalis, the patron saint of Ravenna. Here the oblong basili- ca gives place to the octagon, and the lines of columns are replaced by tiers of arches. The mosaics are of the time of Justinian and Theo- dora. Among them are portraits of the emperor and empress as patrons of the church. When Honorius chose Ravenna for his resi- dence, the see of Ravenna was raised to metro- politan dignity, increased in importance under the Ostrogothic rule, and maintained its rank during the exarchate. An assembly of bishops was convened there about 419 by Honorius, to decide the contest for the papal chair between Boniface and Eulalius. They could not agree, and left the decision to the emperor. After the e.stab- lishment of the exarchs, a long struggle began for the independence of the Roman see. Maurus, wlio was primate (642-671), refused obedience to the Pope, and was sustained by the Emperor Con- staus in the edict of 666, declaring Ravenna inde- pendent of Rome. Under Pope Domnus (678) the supremacy of Rome was again acknowledged. The struggle was renewed between Pope Hadi-iau and Archbishop Leo (770-779), and again, after nearly a century of quiet, between Pope Nicho- las I. and Archbishop John, and was finally ended by the complete submission of John at a synod called by Nicholas at Rome, 861. Ravenna has been the seat of twenty-five syn- ods, few of which are deserving of special men- tion. Among the decrees of the synod of 877 it was enacted that bishops must be consecrated within three months after their appointment, on penalty of excommunication. At the synod of 967 the Emperor Otho I. yielded to Pope John XIII. the city and territory of Ravenna. The synod of 998 condemned the custom of seUing the holy Eucharist and chrism ; and that of 1314 pronounced against the excessive freedom and luxury of nuns, and the too frequent use of ex- communication, and revoked the permission to monks to preach indulgences. Ravenna holds the ashes of Dante, who removed thither in 1320. There he completed the last oantica of the Divina Commedia, and died on the 14th of September, 1321. The twenty-eighth RAVIGNAN. 2001 RAYMOND OF SABUNDB. ito of the Purgatorio, describing the earthly radise, bears unmistakable traces of his fre- ent walks in the Pitieta, the great pine-foi-est lieh now covers part of the ancient harbor, and etches for forty miles down the coast. Lit. — HiERONYMUs Rubeus (local historian the sixteenth century) : Historiarum Hievonymi ibei, libb. x. etc., Venet., lo72 ; Muratori : Her. d. Script., vol. ii., Milan, 1723 (this volume iitains the lives of all the llavennese bishops Agnellus, who wrote under Pope Gregory IV. 28-844). He admits that sometimes, in the sence of authentic sources of information, he s composed the biography " with the help of )d and the prayers of the brethren " {Life of Exuperantius, Muratori, ii. 62). Neverthe- is, he represents fairly enough the traditions of 8 fifth and sixth centuries, though with some bsequent legendary incrustations. His great im- rtance lies in preserving the dates of the build- js, and in showing beyond all doubt, that the urches of Ravenna are really the works of the th and sixth centuries) ; Ciampini : Romana •lera Monimenla, Rome, 1747 ; Al. Ferdinand N QuAST : Die Alt-christlichen Bamoerke oon Ra- ma, rom funften bis zum neunten Jahrhundert his- isch geordnel u. durch Abhildungen erlautert, Ber- , 1842 (a very admirable and thorough work) ; )WARD Freeman: The Goths at Rai'enna, his- •ical essays, 3d series, Loudon, 1879 ; T. Hodg- !J : Itaii/ and her Invaders, A.D. 376-476, Lond., SO, 2 vols. ; CoRRADO Ricci : Racenna e i suoi ntorni. Raven., 1878. See also Gibbon: Decline d Fall of the Roman Empire: Milman : History Latin Christianity , and Hare : Cities of North- i and Central Italy, hondon, 1876, 3 vols. ; and, • history of councils, Philippe Labbe : 5.5. mcilia, Venet., 1728; E. H. Landon: Manual of 'uncils of the Holy Catholic Church, Lond., 1846 ; SFELE : Conciliengeschichte, vol. v. (2d ed., Frei- rg-im-Br., 1873 sqq.). maevin e. Vincent. RAVIGNAN, Gustave Francois Xavier d^ la oix de, b. at Bayonne, Dec. 2, 1795; d. in ris, Feb. 26, 1858. He was educated in Lycee naparte ; studied law, and had already begun ictising as an advocate in Paris, when he en- ed the order of the Jesuits, and entered the ninary of St. Sulpice. When the Jesuits were pelledfrom France, in 1830, he repaired to Swit- ■land, and became a teacher at Freiburg ; but 1835 he returned to France, and in 1837 he jceeded Lacordaire as preacher of Notre Dame. 1 was considered one of the greatest preachers his time, vehement in his pathos, trenchant in : irony, audacious but conquering in his argu- mt. In 1848 he retired to his convent on ac- mt of ill health. He published De I'existence de I'institute des Je'suites, Paris, 1844, 7th ed., 55, and Clement XIII. et Clement XIV., 1854, ■ols. A kind of autobiography was translated o English by Do Poulevoy, New York, 1869, der the title. The Life of Father Ravignan. RAYMOND MARTINI, a Dominican monk from ! thirteenth century; b. at Suberts, a village Catalonia; is noted as an Orientalist and as a ssiouary among the Jews in Spain and the Mo- mraedans in Tunis ; he died after 1284. His giofidei was first edited by Joseph de Voisin, ris, 1651, and is still of interest. His Capis- m Judceorum is found in manuscript in Bologna, but has never been printed. His refutation of the Koran has perished. See Touron : Hist, dcs hommes illustres de I'ordre de St. Dominique, Paris, 1743, i. 489-504; Ambrosius de Altamatura : Bihliolh. Dominicana (ed. Rocaberti), Rome, 1677, pp. 58, 449-455 ; Quetif and Echard : Script. Orrf.Prarfic, Paris, 1719,1.396-398; Wolf: Bibl. Hbr., i. 1016-1018, iii. 989-991. H. L. steack. RAYMOND OF PENNAFORTE. See Penna- forte. RAYMOND OF SABUNDE, or SABIENDE, a native of Spain ; taught medicine and philosoj^hy at Toulouse, and became finally professor regius there in theology. From 1434 to 1436 he wrote his Liber naturcE sive creaturarum, etc., the only monument he has left of himself, but a work which occupies a most prominent place in the his- tory of natural theology. Augustine was the first ■who made a distinction between lumen naturcE and lumen gratice; that is, between the truth \ihich may be acquired by natural experience and the truth which is given us only by divine revelation. But after him the distinction was repeated over and over again ; and through the whole course of medisBval theology it sent out two opposite tenden- cies, — one laboring to establish an impassable bar- rier between the two sources of truth, and another which considered it possible to combine them into one single stream. After the overthi-ow of nomi- nalism in the twelfth century, and more especially after the formation of the gi-and systems of Al- bertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas, the latter tendency, that of reconciliation and combination, became prevalent. It was supported by the ruling realism, and capable of assimilating a considera- ble amount of Platonic elements. Revelation and redemption continued to be considered as indis- pensable links in the divine scheme of salvation; but it was at the same time generally held that the idea of God could be reached by natural rati- ocination, and that nature herself had implanted in man the principle of morality. In the begin- ning of the fourteenth century, however, a com- plete change took place. From the influx of the Arabico- Aristotelian philosophy, philosophical speculation received a new impulse ; but as it was compelled to confine itself to systematic theology without making any fresh researches or any new conquests, and as systematic theology already stood fixed with the character of unquestionable authority, needing no testimony from reason, and even unwilling to accept any, it came quite natu- rally to pass that reason and faith, philosophy and theology, were placed over against each other as irreconcilable opponents. (See William Oc- cam.) It was against this tendency that Ray- mond wrote his Liber naturce, which may be said to contain the first construction of a system of natural theology. The book of nature, he says, and the book of the Bible, are both revelations, — the former general and immediate, the latter specific and mediate ; and the reciprocal relation between them is this : by the light which the words of the Bible throw over the works of na- ture the latter not only become more comprehen- sible, but they prove also the indispensableness of the former. The manner in which this idea is carried out may not be above criticism ; but the work exercised, nevertheless, a considerable influence, as may be infei-red from the number RAYMUNDUS LULLUS. 2002 REDEMPTION. of imitations it found. The editio princeps of it is without date or place, but belongs probably to the yeai- 14Si. The best edition is that by Ryoh. Paffroed, Deventer, 148S. The latest is that by J. F. von Seidel, Sulzbaoh, 1852 ; but it lacks the Prologus, which in 1595 was put on the In- dex, because it declares the Bible to be the only source of revealed truth. See Fr. Holberg ; De theologia natiiruH R. Sahunde, Halle, 1843 ; D. Matzke: Die naturliclie Theologie des R. S., Breslau, 1846 ; M. Huttler : Die Religionsphi- losophie R. S., Augsburg, 1851 ; Ki.eiber : De R. S., Berlin, 1856. schaarschmidt. RAYMUNDUS LULLUS. See Lullus. READER. See Lector. REALISM. See Scholastic Theology. REAL PRESENCE. See Lord's Suppee, p. 1348. RE'CHABITES, the descendants of Jonadab, the son of Eechab, whose obedience to their father's command not to drink wine, build houses, sow seed, plant vineyards nor have any, but to dwell always in tents, is held iip by Jeremiah as a model for Judah (Jer. xxxv.). The promise that Jonadab should not want a man to stand be- fore the Lord forever (Jer. xxxv. 19) was probably fulfilled by the admission of the Rechabites, on account of their piety, into the tribe of Levi ; for a son of Rechab is mentioned in Neh. iii. 14 along with the Levites, and, according to 1 Chron. ii. 55, Rechabites were scribes, a Levitical occupa- tion. Besides, the phrase "to stand before the Lord" meant "to minister," as the Levites did (Deut. X. 8, xviii. 5, 7). Where the Rechabites came from originally is unknown, but it is gener- ally supposed they were Kenites (1 Chron. ii. 55). RECLUSE, a term often applied to all persons who withdraw from the world to spend their days in meditation, but properly applied only to her- mits, and especially to monks and nuns who are, at their own request, solemnly sealed up in their cells, there to die. The privilege is only to be accorded to those of tried and extraordinary virtue, and by express permission of the abbot. They were not allowed afterwards to leave their cells, except by the bishop. The practice was commonest in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, and among the Benedictines and Franciscans. Aelred, abbot of Revesby, Lincolnshire, wrote directions for recluses (regula .i. instituiio inclusa- rum). Rabanus Maurus was a recluse when elected archbishop of Mainz. RECOLLECT (from recolligere, " to gather again "), the term applied to certain congrega- tions inside different monastic orders, because their members have returned to the primitive strict rule of life. So in the latter part of the seventeenth century, there were recollects of the Augustinians ; so among the Franciscans there were recollects of both sexes. heezog. RECONCILIATION. See Ato.nemext. RECTOR (governor), as distinguished from vicar, is a clergyman of the Church of J-higland who receives either the whole revenues of the parish, if there be no vicar or the church was never appropriate, or that part which was of old appropriated to some of the monasteries, while the vicar receives that part which was set out for the maintenance of him who was to supply the cure. REDEEMER, Orders of the, were founded, (1) in Spain, by Alfonso I., as a reward for bravery against the Moors, which was abolished alter their conquest ; (2) in Italy, by Vincenzo of Man- tua (also called the Order of the Precious Blood of Christ), for the defence of the Catholic faith, which was abolished in the eighteenth century ; and (3) in Greece, by King Otto I. on June 1, 1844, as a reward lor merit, the king himself being grand master. herzog. REDEMPTION is a fundamental conception of Christianity, and the name Redeemer is apphed to Christ as a comprehensive designation of his work. It pi'esupposes a state of bondage and restraint, in which man fails to reach the devel- opment for which his powers adapt him, and stands in a false relation to God. ''This disturb- ance of our relation to God is called sin. If there were no sin, there would be no redemption. Re- demption is, therefore, liberation from sin and its evil consequences. The promise of redemption which God gave after the fall (Gen. iii. 15) was renewed to the children of Israel in various loi'nis. as a deliverance from enemies (Exod. xx. 2) and from the hand of the ungodly (Ps. xxii., xxxi. 15), a conception which still prevailed in New- Testament times (Luke i. 71), and from guilt and sin (Ps. Ii. ; Isa. xliii. 24, 25, liii., etc.). Jeho- vah is expressly called the Redeemer of Israel (Isa. xli. 14, liv. 5, Ix. 16). The promises of the Old Testament were fulfilled in Christ. The redemption from the yoke of the Roman domin- ion, which the mass of his contemporaries ex- pected, he did not procure. His redemption, is an infinitely higher and better one, from sin and all evil, and extends to all mankind (John iii. 16, 17). The New Testament speaks of it under a variety of figures, as the payment of a ransom (7d)Tpov), and a rescue from a lost condition {unuXiia). It is regarded as a deliverance from guilt, whereby the forgiveness of sins is made possible (Eph. i. 7 ; Col. i. 14, etc.), the curse of the law (Gal. iii. 13, iv. 5), and the wrath of God (Rom. v. 9; 1 Thess. i. 10, v. 9). This is the juridical side of redemption. It has also an ethical side, and in- cludes deliverance from the power and dominion of sin. In this sense, Christ has redeemed us from all unrighteousness, as his own possession, purifying us unto good works (Tit. ii. 14 ; 1 Pet. i. 18 sq.), and has overcome the world, whose tempta- tion leads us into evil (John xvi. 33 ; 1 John v. 4, etc.), and has broken the power of the prince of this world, — the Devil (John xii. 31 ; Col. ii. 15). Redemption also has a physical aspect ; and, when Christ returns again to raise the quick and the dead, there will be no more pain and death for the believing (Rev. xxi. 4), but eternal life (Rom. V. 10, vi. 22). The original motive of redemption was the love of God, which wills not the death of the sin- ner (John iii, 16 ; 1 Tim. ii. 4). In order to accomplish it, God sent his Son into the world, who gave himself as our ransom, even unto death (Matt. XX. 28 ; John x. 11, 15 ; 1 Tim. ii. 6), be- coming a cui-se on the cross to deliver us from the curse of the law (2 Cor. v. 21; Gal. iii. 13). What he began in his humiliation on earth, he is consummating in his state of exaltation. Christ is himself redemption (John xiv. 6, xi. 25, 20) offered to all men, on condition of their repent- REDEMPTION. 2003 RBDBMPTORISTS. ance, and turning from their evil ways (2 Cor. vii. 10 ; Jas. v. 20, etc.), believing in the Lord Jesus Christ (Rom. i. 16; Eph. ii. 8), and con- fessing his name (Rom. x. 9, 13). The sinner must work out his own salvation with fear and trembling (Phil. ii. 12), dying to sin, and living unto righteousness (1 Pet. ii. 24). The post-apostolic writers bring out the differ- ent aspects under which the work of redemption is presented in the New Testament; but the ma- jority of the Fathers (Irenseus, Origen, Gregory of Nyssa, Ambrose, Augustine, etc.) treated it as a judicial transaction, in which Jesus gave up his life to the Devil in payment for mankind. Gregory Nazianzen, opposing this conception, treated it as a conflict between Christ and Satan for the pos- session of man (Oral., xlv.). As heathenism, the manifestation of sin's dominion began to be over- come, the church began to regard redemption more from the stand-point of its power and effects upon the soul itself. Athanasius carried out the idea that the Logos assumed human nature, and gave himself up unto death, because the justice and veracity of God demanded the death of mankind, as he had threatened, for sin. Basil the Gi'eat, Cyril of Alexandria, Cyril of Jerusalem, Hilary, and John of Damascus, held to this conception. It was Anselm of Canter- bury who laid the most stress on man's guilt, and worked out his doctrine in the famous treatise. Why God became Man ("Cur Deus homo"). Starting with the conception of the divine justice and the majesty of the law, he asserted the neces- sity of an equivalent for the violation of the law. This could be furnished only bj' the innocent and infinite Son of God. This doctrine of the atonement was further developed by Hugo of St. Victor, Alexander of Hales, Albertus Magnus, Bonaventura, Thomas Aquinas, and Duns Scotus. The Reformers, accepting this view, developed the doctrine in such a way as to render its practical workings very different from what they are in the Roman-Catholic Church, which imposes burdens and penances upon the sinner, admits works of supererogation, and grants to the priesthood the powers of binding and loosing. The Protestant churches regard redemption as the work of divine mercy, accomplished by the incarnation, obedi- ence, and death of Christ, and made efficacious by the faith of the sinner. This work, which is already accomplished, acts upon the intellectual nature of man as a deliverance from darkness unto light (Col. i. 13), and upon his moral nature, delivering his will from the bondage of sin, and endowing it with the power to choose and exe- cute works of righteousness. Christ redeems us from the world, the flesh, and the devil ; and faith in him overcomes the world (1 John v. 4). Re- demption also affects man's physical nature by delivering him from death ; Christ himself being the resurrection and the life (John xi. 25), having broken the power of death by his own resurrec- tion. He who believes in Christ already has eternal life (John iii. 36) dwelling in him. And, when Christ returns, our vile bodies shall be changed into the likeness of his glorious body (Phil. iii. 21), and we shall be translated into the communion of the blessed. This is redemption in its narrowest sense (Rom. viii. 23 ; 1 Cor. i. 30; Eph. i. 14). [For a still further treatment of the subject, and its literature, see art. Atonk- MENT.] SCHOBEHLEIN. REDEMPTORISTS, or CONGREGATION OF OUR MOST BLESSED REDEEMER, was found- ed by Alfonso da Liguori (see art.), Nov. 8, 1732, and grew in spite of opposition. In 1742 Liguori was chosen general-s^iperior, and in 1749 the order was approved by a papal brief. The first house was established at Scala, Italy ; a second, in 1735, in the diocese of Cajazza. After the papal approval, the order increased rapidly, espe- cially in the Two Sicilies. The original rules of the Congregation were unusually severe, allowed only sacks of straw for beds, hard bread and soup at table, and imposed long seasons of worship every night, self-flagellation three times a week, and missionary activity among the very poorest classes. Liguori di-afted the first constitution in 1742, and took many of his rules from the Jesuits. In addition to the usual vows of poverty, chasti- ty, and obedience, a fourth vow was enjoined, by which the member was obligated to refuse all honors and benefices outside of the order, except upon the express command of the Pope. In con- sequence of a breach between the Government of Naples and Pius VI., the order was divided into two factions. The Pope declared the houses that espoused the cause of Naples as no longer a por- tion of the Congregation, revoked their privileges, and pronounced upon Liguori the forfeiture of his dignity as general-superior, Peter Francis de Paula being substituted in his place. Liguori yielded submission to the Pope, and advised all the houses to do the same. The division was healed three years after his death. During the last yeai-s of Liguori's life the Con- gregation began to extend beyond the limits of Italy, especially in Germany and Austria. Clem- ens Maria Hoffbauer (b. at Tasswitz, Austria, Dec. 26, 1751) may be called the second founder of the order. He opened, in connection with one Hibel, a Redemptorist mission in AVarsaw, and had great success among the Poles and Germans of the city. In 1792 he was chosen general vicar of his order for the lands where the Polish and German tongues prevailed. The last act of his busy life was the foundation of a Redemptorist college at Vienna, which was achieved about the time of his death, March 15, 1820. Since that time the order has grown to a position of much influence in Austria. It is also strong in Bavaria, and has houses in Holland, Belgium, France, England (Falmouth, etc.), and the United States (New York, Albany, etc., with colleges at Balti- more and Pittsburg). The Redemptorists have often been identified with the Jesuits on account of their fourfold vows; and in parts of Italy, Austria, and Bavaria, they have taken the place of the Jesuits during the period of the latter's suppression. On account of the resemblance in certain matters of practice, they have shared the same fate with the Jesuits in Germany, France, and Belgium, and been sup- pressed or banished by the civil law. In 1872 they were expelled from Germany, and in 1879 from France. See Von Schulte : D. neueren kath. Orden u. Kongreffationen in DeutscJdand, Ber- lin, 1872 ; PbsL : Clemens M. Hoffbauer, Regens- burg, 1844 ; Fehk : Geschichte der Monehsorden, II. 219; and art. Liguori. zockler. RED SEA. 2004 REFORMATION. RED SEA, The, an inlet of the Indian Ocean, 1,450 miles long, 230 miles broad, separating Egypt from Arabia; begins at Bab-el-Mandeb, in latitude 12° 42' 20" north, and stretches, in the direction of north-west, to Ras Mohannned, in latitude 27° 44' north, where it separates into two arms, — the Gulf of Suez to the west, and the Gulf of 'Akabah to the east. Its name among the ancient Hebrews, Syrians, and Egyptians, was "The Sea of Reeds," and "The Red Sea" among the Greeks and Romans : Herodotus, Agathai-- chides, Diodorus Siculus, Ptolemy, Pliny, Strabo, Ctesias, Josephus, Pseudoarrian (in his Periplus), the Greek writers of Scripture (1 Mace. iv. 9 ; Sol. Wisdom X. 18, xix. 7 ; Acts vii. 36 ; Heb. xi. 29), the Septuagint, the Vulgate, and the Byzantine writers, Antoninus, and Cosmas Indicopleustes. The Arabs have only local names. The deriva- tion of tlie Hebrew name, " Sea of Reeds," is un- certain, as reeds are very rare along those shores : nevertheless, Ehrenberg has shown that the reed, which the Hebrews knew so well from the banks of the Nile, is actually growing at the two points of the Red Sea with which they were acquainted ; namely, the eastern terminus of the Wadi et Tih and the Gulf of 'Akabah. Equally uncertain is the derivation of the Greek-Roman name " Red Sea." Some derive it from the red corals, which are found in great plenty in the waters, and were muoli used by the Hebrews and Syrians for ornaments (Ezek. xxvii. 16) ; others, from Edom ("red"). The Hebrews often added to their "Sea of Reeds," "in the land of the Edomites." The Red Sea has its greatest interest for the student of the Bible on account of its connection with the history of the exodus of the Israelites (which art. see). But it was from the earliest times of importance as the connecting link between the East and the West. The Island Purim, situated in the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, was the bridge across which the Hamites reached Africa after the destruction of the Tower of Babel, and across which Sesostris led his army to the conquest of the East. 'Akabah was the harbor of Solomon, Josa- phat, Azaria, Rezin, the Romans, and the Byzan- tines. Rameses II. connected the Gulf of Suez with the eastern arm of the Nile by a canal, and the Ptolemies deepened and widened the canal. But very little was known of the Red Sea until quite recently. The western coast was first ex- plored by Niebuhr, 1763 ; the eastern, by Hol- ford, 1772. The Sinaitic Peninsula and the Gulf of 'Akabah remained unknown till the days of Ruppell, 1819, and Moresby, 1829-33. [See art. in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible; and Ebers : Durch Gosen zum Sinai, Leipzig, i-ev. ed., 1881 passim.^ PRESSEL. REED, Andrew, D.D., an eminent philanthro- pist and divine ; was b. in London, Nov. 27, 1788, and d. there Feb. 25, 1862. Nearly all his life was spent in London, and two-thirds of it in one Congregational pastorate. He founded several asylums for orphans, idiots, and incurables. He published No Fiction, 1819 ; Narrative of the Visit to the American Churches, 1836, 2 vols, (mainly, though not wholly, his work) ; Narrative of the Revival of Religion in Wycliffe Chapel; Advance- ment of Iieli()ion the Claim of the Times, 1843; and Sermons, 1861. He compiled a Supplement to Watts, 1817 (enlarged ed., 182,5), and The Hymn- Book, 1842. These contained about twenty hymns of his own, and as many by his wife Elizabeth : a number of them, especially one or two of Dr. Reed's, have been extensively used. His Memoirs, by his two sons, appeared 1863. F. M. bird. REFORMATION is the historical name for the religious movement of the sixteenth century, — the greatest since the introduction of Christianity. It divided the V/estern Catholic Church into two opposing sections, and gave rise to the various evangelical or Protestant organizations of Chris- tendom. It has three chief branches, — the Lutheran, in Germany ; the Zwinglian and Cal- vinistic, in Switzerland, France, Holland, and Scotland; the Anglican, in England. Each of these branches has again become the root of other Protestant denominations, especially in England and the United States, under the fostering care of civil and religious freedom. The entire Prot- estant population now numbers over a hundred millions of nominal members. Protestantism has taken hold chiefly of the Germanic or Teutonic races, and is strongest in Germany, Switzerland, Scandinavia, Holland, the British Empire, and North America, and extends its missionary opera- tions to all heathen lands. Although divided, and ever tending to new divisions, it is at the present time the most active and progressive part of Christendom. I. Preparation for the RKroRMATiON. — It was not an abrupt revolution, but had its roots in the middle ages. There were many " reformei-s before the Reformation," and almost every doc- trine of Luther and Calvin had its advocates long before them. The whole struggling of mediaeval Catholicism toward reform and liberty ; the long conflict between the German emperors and the popes ; the reformatory councils of Pisa, Con- stance, and Basel ; the Waldenses and Albigenses in France and Northern Italy; Wiolif and the Lollards in England ; IIus and the Hussites in Bohemia; Arnold of Brescia, and Savonarola, in Italy ; the spiritualistic piety and theology of the mystics of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries ; the theological writings of Wesel, Goch, and Wessel, in Germany and the Netherlands ; the rise of the national languages and letters in con- nection with the feeling of national independ- ence; the invention of the printing-press; the revival of letters and classical learning under the direction of Agricola, Reuchlin, and Ei'asnius, — all these, and similar movements, were prepa- rations for the Reformation. The evangelical churches claim a share in the inheritance of all preceding history, and own their indebtedness to the missionaries, schoolmen, fathers, confessors, and martyrs of former ages, but acknowledge no higher authority than Christ and his inspired organs. The Reformation is similarly related to mediseval Catholicism as the apostolic churohto the Jewish synagogue, or the gospel dispensation to the dispensation of the law. The discipline of the law looks towards freedom and independ- ence. See the Epistle of Paul to the Galatians (the Magna Charta of evangelical Protestant- ism). Lit. — On the preparations for the Reformation, see especially Ullmann : Die Reformatoren vor der Reformation (Hamb., 1842, 2 vols., Eng. trans, by R. Menzies, Edinb., 1855, 2 vols.), and the REFORMATION. 2005 REFORMATION. monographs on Wiclif, Hus, Wessel, Savonarola, Erasmus, etc. , mentioned under these titles. II. Principles of the Reformatiot. — It was originally neither a political, nor a philo- sophical, nor a literary, but a religious and moral movement; although it exerted a powerful influ- ence in all these directions. It started with the practical question. How can the troubled con- science find pardon and peace, and become sure of personal salvation? It retained from the Catholic system all the objective doctrines of Christianity concerning the Holy Trinity and the divine-human character and work of Christ, in fact, all the articles of faith contained in the Apostles' and other oecumenical creeds of the early church. But it joined issue with the pre- vailing system of religion in soteriology, or in the doctrines relating to subjective experimental Christianity, especially the justification of the sinner before God, the true character of faith, good works, the rights of conscience, and the rule of faith. It asserted the principle of evangelical freedom as laid down in the Epistles of Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles, in opposition to the system of outward legalistic authority which held the individual conscience and private judgment in bondage. It broug-ht the believer into direct relation and union with Christ as the one and all-sufficient source of salvation, in opposition to traditional ecclesiasticism, and priestly and saintly intercession. The Protestant goes directly to the word of God for instruction, and to the throne of grace in his devotions ; while the pious Catho- lic always consults the teaching of his church, and prefei's to offer his prayers through the me- dium of the Virgin Mary and the saints. From this general principle of evangelical free- dom, and direct individual relationship of the believer to Christ, proceed the three fmidamental doctrines of Protestantism, — the absolute su- premacy of the word of Christ, the absolute supremacy of the gTace of Christ, and the general priesthood of believers. The first is called the formal, or, better, the objectipe principle ; the sec- ond, the material, or, better, the subjective principle ; the third may be called the social, or ecclesiastical principle. German writers emphasize the first two, but often overlook the third, which is of equal importance. (1) The objective principle proclaims the ca-, nonical Scriptures, especially the New Testament, to be the only infallible source and rule of faith and practice, and asserts the right of private inter- pretation of the same, in distinction from the Roman-Catholic view, which declares the Bible and tradition to be two co-ordinate sources and rules of faith, and makes tradition, especially the decrees of popes and councils, the only legitimate and infallible interpreter of the Bible. In its extreme form Chillingworth expressed this princi- ple of the Reformation in the well-known formula, "The Bible, the whole Bible, and nothing but the Bible, is the religion of Protestants." Genuine Protestantism, however, by no means despises or rejects church authority as such, but only sub- ordinates it to, and measures its value by, the Bible, and believes in a progressive interpretation of the Bible through the expanding and deepening consciousness of Christendom. Hence, besides having its own symbols or standards of public doctrine, it retained all the articles of the ancient Catholic creeds and a large amqunt of disciplinary and ritual tradition, and rejected only those doc- trines and ceremonies for which it found no clear warrant in the Bible, and which it thought con- tradicted its letter or spirit. The Calvinistic branches of Protestantism went farther in their antagonism to the received traditions than the Lutheran and the Anglican Reformation ; but all united in rejecting the authority of the Pope (Melanchthon for a while was willing to concede this, but only jure humano, as a limited disciplinary superintendency of the church), the meritorious- ness of good works, the indulgences, the worship of the Holy Virgin, of saints and relics, the seven sacraments (with the exception of baptism and the Eucharist), the dogma of transubstantiation and the sacrifice of the mass, purgatory and prayers for the dead, auricular confession, celibacy of the clergy, the monastic system, and the use of the Latin tongue in public worship, for which the vernacular languages were substituted.. (2) The subjective principle of the Reforma- tion is justif cation by faith alone, or, rather, by free grace through faith operative in good works. It has reference to the personal appropriation of the Christian salvation, and aims to give all glory to Christ, by declaring that the siimer is justified before God (i.e., is acquitted of guilt, and declared righteous) solely on the ground of the all-suffi- cient merits of Christ as apprehended by a living faith, in opposition to the theory — then prevalent, and substantially sanctioned by the Council of Trent — which makes faith and good works the two co-ordinate sources of justification, laying the chief stress upon works. Protestantism does not, on that account, by any means reject or depreci- ate good works : it only denies their value as sources or conditions of justification, but insists on them as the necessary fruits of faith, and evi- dence of justification. (3) The social and ecclesiastical principle is the universal priesthood of believers. This implies the right and duty of the Christian laity, not only to read the Bible in the vernacular tongue, but also to take part in the government and all the public affairs of the church. It is opposed to the hierarcliical system, which puts the essence and authority of the church into an exclusive priesthood, and makes ordained priests the neces- sary and only mediators between God and the people. Lit. — On the principles of the Reformation, see Corner: History of Protestant Theology (Eng. trans., Edinb., 1871, 2 vols.) ; Das Princip unserer Kirche, Kiel, 1841; Justification by Pailh, Kiel, 1857 (both the last tracts on the formal and mate- rial principle of Protestantism are reprinted in Corner's Gesammelle Schriften, Berlin, 1883, pp. 48-187) ; ScHAFF : The Principle of Protestantism (Ger. and Eng.), Chambersb., 1845; Schenkel: Das Princip d. Protestantismus, Schaffhausen, 1852, and Die Reformatoren und die Reformation, 1856 ; Kahnis : Ueber die Principien des Protestantismus, Leip., 1865, and Internal History of German Protes- tantism (3d ed., rev. 1874, 2 vols. ; Eng. trans., Edinb., 1850, superseded by the third German edi- tiqn). On the characteiistic differences between the Lutheran and the Refoi-med (Calvinistic) chui-ches and creeds, see the treatises of Gobel, REFORMATION. 2006 REFORMATION. HUNDESHAGEX, SciINECKENBDRGER, SCHWEIZER, Junus MiJLLEK, etc., quoted in Sciiaff's Creeds of Chrktendom, vol. i. 211. III. The Refokmatiox in the Different Countries. — We confine ourselves here to brief sketches, and refer for details to the respective articles, and omit those countries (Italy, Spain) where the Reformation was totally suppressed by the Inquisition and the counter-reformation of Jesuits. For the general history of the Refor- mation in all countries, we refer to Schrockh : Christl. Kirchengesch. seii der lieformation, Leip., 1804-12, 10 vols.; Gieseler : Church History, American ed., vol. iv., N.Y., 1862 (very impor- tant for the literature, and extracts from the sources); Hagexbach: Historij of the Reforma- tion (translated by Miss E. Moore), Edinb., 1878, 2 vols. ; Merle d'Aubigxe : liistoire de la Refor- mation au Xyi' siecle, Paris, 1835-53, 5 vols., and Hisloire de la Reformation au temps de Calrin, 1862-75, 5 vols. (Eng. trans, repeatedly published in Lond. and N.Y. ; complete edition by Carter, N.Y., 1870, the first work in 5 vols., the second in 8 vols., 1879) ; L. Hausser : Gesch. des Zeital- ters der Reformation, Berlin, 1868 (Eng. trans., N.Y., 1874); George P. Fisher: History of the Reformation, N.Y., 1873 (an excellent work, with a valuable Appendix on the literature of the Ref- ormation, pp. 555-591, which see); Seeboiim : The Era of the Protestant Resolution, Lond. and N.Y., 1874; T. M. Lindsay; The Reformation, Edinb., 1882; Charles Beard: The Reformation of the Sixteenth Century in its Relation to Modern Thought and Knowledge (the Hibbert Lectures for 1883, published iii Lond. and N.Y^). The most learned work against the Reformation is by Dr. DoLLiNGER : Die Reformation, ihre innere Ent- icicklung und ihre Wirkungen, Regensb., 1846-48, 3 vols. But the distinguished author afterwards pi'otested himself against the Pope and the Vati- can Council, and was excommunicated in 1871. (1) The Reformation in Germany. — The move- ment in Germany was directed by the genius and energy of Luther, and the learning and modera- tion of Melanchthon, assisted by the electors of .Saxony and other princes, and sustained by the majority of the people, in spite of the opposition of the bishops and the imperial government. It commenced in the university of Wittenberg with a protest against the traffic in indulgences, Oct. 31, 1517 (ever .since celebrated in Protestant Ger- many as the festival of the Reformation), and soon spread all over Germany, which was in vari- ous ways prepared for a breach with the Pope. At first it kept within the bosom of the Roman Church. Luther shrunk in holy horror from the idea of a separation from the traditions of the past, and retained a profound reverence for cer- tain Catholic dogmas and institutions. He only attacked a few'abuses, taking it for granted that the Pope himself would condemn them if prop- erly informed. But the irresistible logic of events carried him far beyond his original intentions, and brought him into irreconcilable conflict with the central authority of the church. Pope Leo X., in June, 1520, pronounced the sentence of excom- munication against Luther, who, in turn, burned the bull, together with the canon law and several books of his opponents. This was the fiery signal of war. The Diet of Worms in 1521, where he made his memorable defence, added to the excom- munication of the Pope the ban of the emperor. The bold stand of the poor monk, in the face of the combined civil and ecclesiastical powers of the age, is one of the sublimest scenes in his- tory, and marks an epoch in the progress of freedom. The dissatisfaction with the various abuses of Rome, and the desire for the free preaching of the gospel, were so extensive, that the Reformation, botli in its negative and positive features, spread, iu spite of the Pope's bull and the emperor's ban, and gained a foothold before 1530 in tlie greater part of Northern Germany, especially in Saxony, Brandenburg, Hesse, Poni- erania, Mecklenburg, Liineburg, Friesland, and in nearly all the free cities, as Hamburg, Lubeck, Bremen, Magdeburg, Frankfort, and Niirnberg; while in Austria, Bavaria, and along the Rhine, it was pej'secuted and suppressed. Among the principal causes of this rapid progress were the writings of the Reformers, Luther's German ver- sion of the Scriptu]-es (his greatest and most use- ful work, begun 1521, completed 1534), and the evangelical hymns, which introduced the new ideas into public worship and the hearts of the people. That extraordinary man, as a sort of inspired apostle and prophet of Germany, gave to his people the Bible, the Catechism, and the Hymn-Book, in the purest and strongest idio- matic German; and well may Germany, and all the Protestant churches in Europe and America, celebrate the fourth centennial of his birth on the 10th of November of this year (1883). The Diet of Spire, in 1526, left each state to its own discretion concerning the question of reform, until a general council should settle it for all, and thus sanctioned the principle of territorial independ- ence in matters of religion which prevails in Germany to this day ; each sovereignty having its own separate ecclesiastical establishment in close union with the state. But the next Diet of Spire (in 1529) prohibited the further progress of the Reformation. Against this decree of the Roman- Catholic majority, the evangelical princes entered, on the ground of the Word of God, the inaliena- ble rights of conscience, and the decree of the previous Diet of Spire, the celebrated protest, dated April 19, 1529, which gave rise to the name of "Protestants." The Diet of Augsburg, in 1530, where the Lu- therans offered their principal confession of faith, drawn up by Melanchthon, and named after that city, threatened the Protestants with violent meas- ures if they did not ]-eturn shortly to the old church. Here closes the first, the heroic, and most eventful, period of the German Reformation. The second period embraces the formation of the Protestant Le^-gue of Smalcald for the armed defence of Lutheranism, the various theological conferences of the two parties for an adjustment of the controversy, the death of Luther (1546), the imperial "Interims" or compromises (the Ratisbon, Augsburg, and Leipzig "Interims"), and the Smalcaldian war, and ends with the suc- cess of the Protestant army, under Maurice of Saxony, and the peace of Augsburg in 1555, which secured to the Lutheran states the free exercise of their religion, but with a restriction on its farther progress. The third period, from 1555 to 1580, is re- REFORMATION. 2007 REFORMATION. irkable for the violent interual controversies thin the Lutheran Church, — the Osiaudrian ntroversy, concerning justification and sanctifi- tion ; the adiaphoristic, arising originally from e fruitless compromises with Romanists (called [nterims ") ; the synergistic, concerning faith id good works ; and the crypto-Calvinistic, or cramentarian controversy, about the real pres- ice in the Eucharist. These theological dis- ites led to the full development and completion the doctrinal system of Lutheranism as laid iwn in the Book of Concord (first published in i80), which embraces all the symbolical books that church : namely, the three oecumenical eeds ; the Augsburg Confession and its " Apolo- '," both by Melanchthon ; the two Catechisms Luther, and the Smalcald Articles drawn up f him in 1.537 ; and the " Formula of Concord," mposed by six Lutheran divines in 1577. But, I the other hand, the fanatical intolerance of e strict Lutheran party against the Calvinists id the moderate Lutherans (called, after their ader, Melanchthonians or Philippists) drove a rge number of the latter over to the Reformed ^alvinistic) Church, especiallv in the Palatinate 560), in Bremen (1561), Nassau (1582), Anhalt 596), Hesse-Cassel (1605), and Brandenburg 614). The German Reformed communion adopted the eidelberg Catechism — drawn up by two moder- e Calvinistic divines, Zacharias IJi-sinus and aspar Olevianus, in 1563, by order of the elector rederiek III., or the Pious — as their confession faith. The sixteenth century closes the theological story of the German Reformation ; but its po- ical history was not brought to a final termi- ition until after the terrible Thirty- Years' ^Vav, ' the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, which se- red to the Lutherans and the German Reformed niches (but to no others) equal rights with the aman Catholics within the limits of the German mpire. Those two denominations, either in their parate existence, or united in one organization ider the name of the Evangelical Church (as in -ussia, Baden, Wurtemberg, and other states, ice 1817), are to this day almost the only forms Protestantism recognized and supported by the 3rman governments ; all others being small, self- pporting " S3cts," regarded with little sympathy rthe popular mind, and nourished mostly by for- jn aid (the Baptists and Methodists of England id America). But within those ecclesiastical tablishments, Germany has bred and tolerated, iring the present century, almost every imagi- ible form of theoretic belief and unbelief, from e strictest old-school orthodoxy to the loosest tionalism and scepticism. Theological schools ke the place of contending sects. The third rcentennial jubilee of the Refoimation (1817) arks a return to the doctrines and principles of e Reformers, and most of the theological chaii-s the universities were gradually filled with men evangelical convictions. But the conflict is still ling on ; and every new system of philosophy and eology has a fair chance of success or failure, ider the protection of the academic liberty of aching. Germany is the chief modern work- op of critical and scientific theology in all its anches, especially in biblical and historical studies, and sends forth annually the results of profound and acute research in the line of prog- ress. Lit. — On the German Reformation, see the works of the Reformers, in the Corpus Reformalo- rum (so far 54 vols.). A new edition of Luther's works was begun under the auspices of the Ger- man emperor, William I., in 1883, in commemo- ration of the fourth centennial of Luther's birth, and will be published under the direction of Dr. Knaake. (The first volume appeared in Novem- ber, 1883, at "S^^eimar, 710 pages small quarto). Spalatix (d. 1545) : Annates Reform.; Sleidax : De stalu relic/, et reipuhl. Carolo V. Ccesare, 1555; Seckexdorf : Commenl. hist, et apolog. fie Lulher- anismo, 1686 sqq., 4 vols. ; Loscher : VoUstandiffe Reformationsacia u. documenta, 1720 sqq., 3 vols.; JMarheixeke: Gesch. der deutschen Reform., 1816 sqq., and 18.31, 4 vols. ; Raxke : Deutsche Gesch. im Zeilalter 8Q; E. Wilken : Geschichte d. geistlichen Spiele in Deutsch- land, Gbttingen, 1872 ; and art. Drame religieux, in Lichtenberger, Encyclope'die, iv. 62-81. RELIGIOUS LIBERTY. See Liberty. RELIGIOUS STATISTICS, reprinted from Holtzmann u. Zoepffel's Lexilcon fur Theologie, Leipzig, 1882. Note. — The value of this table Is not jn the accuracy and freshness of its figures (for manifestly in the case of the United States a former census has heen used, and it ia probably so in other eases), but in its presentation of the com- parative strength of the various religions. The first column expresses the number of millions and fractions of millions there are iu the respective countries; thus in the German Empire there are 42 and 72 hundredth millions. g 1 a i I To Every Thousand Inhab- itants THERE ARE Christians. 1 1 1 1 1 m 3 COUNTBIES. 1 S s 5 6 a 1 ■i 4* •c 1 ■S Mtrope. 0.01 4.86 16.66 27.50 6.34 36.10 22.49 16.61 2.67 4.01 42.72 33.62 71.73 8.50 6.07 0.19 1.46 1.38 1.99 I 6.18 1.88 "l 2 4 16 18 203 587 613 623 824 37 1 3 "2 991' 999 980 1,000 999 999 996 996 980 804 487 406 367 362 175 104 66 22 10 6 2 1 Portugal . . . . Bpaiu Italy Belgium . . . . France .... 1 138 271 '783 509 893 989 988 992 1 40 36 3 19 12.5 1 38 9 78 Austria Switzerland . . , German Empire . Great Britain . . RuBBia Turkey Boumania .... 33 44 3 Bervia 4 Sweden and Nor- way Finland 19 Asia. Thibet . . . 309.47 6.00 2.00 239 493 228 21 1,000 998 1 Mongolia .... .... 2 .... Japan Manchooria and Co- 33.30 1 20.60 405.00 36.73 242.78 33.78 3.43 4.34 1 5.30 3.72 5.00 13.18 j 4.65 4.89 997 990 990 980 811 60 67 60 10 6 2 3 10 4 rea Cliiua 6 14 149 800 17 950 987 989 992 779 898 410 Hither India , . . 3 7 1 6 6 88 6 Further India . . 32 46 25 Hither India Isl'nds, Siberia . . Central Asia . . . 892 2 Afghanistan, Kafir- 3 5 3 6 1 5 tan_ 1 3 214 95 672 1 1 .... RuBBian Central 4 EuBBian Caucasia . 2 6 1 J/rica, South Africa , . . 824.65 18.79 44.00 2.50 26.00 17.60 10.76 1.61 31.40 24.28 0.06 3.70 1.00 0.81 0.57 2.45 5.25 6.00 2.00 1.16 1 300 6 5 5 5 10 5 10 15 9 123 10 100 60 660 676 600 8 600 400 846 'io ""2 14 980 Equatorial region . 890 Upper Guinea . . 430 Egyptian Soudan . British So. Africa . 650 90 350 Middle Soudan . . 400 Abyssinia .... Orange Republic . 200 10 660 60 300 900 900 40 10 896 920 925 963 990 60 100 50 10 Islands iu the In- 60 7 6 2 800 970 82 7 16 13 I SO Islands in the At- 11 lantic Algeria Egypt ' 62 13 5 60 23 6 Tunis , ... Tripolis .... America. 199.92 9.28 2.83 6.86 j 6.93 j 2.38 j 3.17 11.11 0.08 3.86 38.93 1.07 j 0.02 0.01 9 '"9 12 9 3 4 620 660 823 790 800- 12 925 995 966 960 950 939 905 480 420 162 96 60 27 3 423 3 523 5 5 Peru, Bolivia, Chili, Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela, Gui- ana Argentine Republic, Paraguay, Uru- guay Hayti, Spanish and '>!> 1 .... 2 25 31 16 41: dies .... 1 90 Dutch, Danish, and dies British North Amer- m ica United States of N. A 1 3 18 8 96 Patagonia and Terra 960 del Fuego . . . ?no 86.62 0.42 0.10 0.23 0.82 0.59 0.18 0.04 2.35 413 844 763 750 712 697 620 400 300 655 136 218 144 279 296 238 162 160 2 ?ft Auatralia. :::: 4 2 2 6 5 2 1 1ft '7 104 3 ?, Queensland . . . WpRt AiiHtrnlla 140 437 Polynesia .... 60 500 * Grand total . , 4.73 1,424.19 614 81 194 146 59 2 4 137 25 490 265 83 RELLY, James, b. at Jefferson, North Wales, 1720; d. in London about 1780. He may be regarded as the founder of the Universalist de- nomination from his association with John Mur- ray. Both Relly and Murray were, in the early part of their career, disciples and co-workers of Whitefield. Very few particulars in the life of RELLY. 2027 RENAISSANCE. ly have been preserved. Even Mr. Murray, ardent admirer and convert, tells us nothing ch would afford an insight into his personality, became a Universalist about 1750, and organ- l a society a year or so later. His society, after death, until its dissolution in 1830, was min- red to by laymen. He is best known through writings, which are somewhat voluminous. Kelly's style of writing is remarkably good, icating more than ordinary culture. His prin- d works are as follows : The tryal of spirits, : treatise upon the nature, offices, and operations he Spirit of Truth, London, 1756, 2d ed., 1762 ; •on, or a treatise of the consanguinity and affinity •een Christ and his Church, 175&, reprinted, ladelphia, 1843 ; Antichrist resisted, 1761 ; The of Christ, 1762; The Sadducee detected and '.ted, 1764 ; Christian liberty, 1775 ; Epistles, or great salvation contemplated, 1776 ; Salvation pleted ("a discourse on that subject by J. R., te in the year 1753 "), 1779 ; The salt of the ■ijice, or the true Christian baptism delineated, irding to reason and spirit [n. d., 1779 ?] ; The Tubimical mystery, or an essay on the mission of liel the prophet, 1780. 'he chief of his works — that in which his doc- al views are most fully elaborated, together li the grounds on which they rest — is Union. this he holds to a certain mystical union syeen Christ and humanity. Christ's relation men is like that of the head to the different nbers of the body. His actions and thoughts, refore, are ours : his obedience and sufferings ours. He has brought the whole human race ) the divine favor as fully as if each member . obeyed and suffered in his own person, and s has secured a complete salvation. His the- jy is of the ethical type, maintaining that re must be perfect harmony between the divine ibutes. Of the Almighty he says, "that, 1 God infinite in goodness, he doth not, will I act from one attribute to the dishonor of an- 3r." He believed in the literal resurrection the body. He says [see Sadducee refuted}, 'hat does the term ' resurrection ' imply, if not rising again to life of that which was sub- ed to death? But the soul is immortal. . . . is the body only that dies. Therefore the ire resurrection of the dead, if there be any, it be that of tlie body." He confesses, how- -, that the rising again of mankind in the ind Adam from the sin in which they were )lved in the first Adam implies a quickening renewal of the mind through the truth. He :hes the millennial coming of Christ, in which believers shall rise and reign with him. After- ds, those who are under condemnation shall ; and, through the mediation of the saints, r shall be brought to Christ : so that at last :y knee shall bow, and every tongue confess ; in the Lord they have righteousness and ngth. He held that Christ had abolished or- mces. The " one baptism " spoken of in Eph. 5 is spiritual, operating upon the mind and science through faith. Hence he placed special )hasis upon good works, and commended a id and generous philanthropy. As to the ire of Christ, the views of Relly do not seem liffer from those which were accounted ortho- in his time. His writings show him to be a man of intellectual vigor, versed in theology, a careful student of the Scriptures, a keen logician, and a good controversialist. He must have been a powerful preacher, inasmuch as Mr. Murray, who abhorred Universalism, and who had been specially appointed to refute the Union, was con- verted by the first sermon which he heard him preach. ELMBE H. CAPEN (President Tufts College). REMIGIUS, St., b. probably in 437 ; d. Jan. 13, 533. He was made bishop of Rheims in 45.9, and was an intimate friend of Clovis, whom he con- verted to Christianity. Twice he was made the subject of a fraudulent fiction invented for po- litical purposes by Hincmar of Eheims ; first as having anointed Clovis with oil from the sacred ampulla, and next as having received a letter from Pope Hormisdas recognizing him as primas of France. He has left four letters. The Commen- tary on the Pauline Epistles, ed. by J. B. ViUalpan- dus (1699), and also found in Bib. Max. (Lyons, 1677), is not by him, but by Remigius of Aux- erre. [See A. Aubeet : Hist, de saint Remi, Paris, 1849; Dessailly: Authenticite du grand testament de saint Remi, Paris, 1878.] J. WEIZSACKER. REM'PHAN (more correctly Raiphan), a god, so called in Acts vii. 43. It occurs in a quotation from the Septuagint of Amos v. 26, where the Hebrew has Chiun. The god is generally identi- fied with Saturn. RENAISSANCE, The, is the term now com- monly used to designate the general movement of the human mind against the system of govern- ment in Church and State which prevailed in Europe during the middle age. That system was founded upon the principle of absolute authority in both spheres, in accordance with the supposed divine order for the government of the world. The Church maintained this principle in its con- trol of the consciences, opinions, and acts of men in their relations to subjects within its special jurisdiction ; while the civil power, claiming the same divine origin, ruled with the same authority the citizen in his more immediate relations to the State. The theory was, that there could be no lawful resistance to the duly constituted authority either in Church or State, and no conceivable op- position between them, because the divine will was represented by its lawful exercise in either sphere. Against this theory, upon which the mediaeval system was based, a revolt began in the twelfth century, which, in one form or another, continued to assert itself with aggressive force throughout Western Europe for nearly four hun- dred years ; and that revolt is known by the gen- eral name of the " Renaissance." This movement was most active during the transition period be- tween the middle age proper and our modern era (1100-1500), and its influence is clearly seen in some of the most characteristic features of exist- ing civilization. It may be described in general terms as a struggle of individualism to control the forces of European life as against the power of Church and State as organized in the middle age. The movement, as a general one throughout the countries of Western Europe, is said to have begun with the teachings of Abelard (1079-1142) ; and its special work was not completed, at least in France, until the close of the sixteenth century. Two eras are to be distinguished in its history : frst, that in which the assertion of this claim to RENAISSANCE. 2028 RENAISSANCE. individualism — which is, after all, only another name for the right of private' judgment — was boldly avowed, and persistently maintained, by scholars and philosophers, as a distinct general principle ; and the second, that in which the out- growth of these opinions, and the changes which they produced in the condition of European soci- ety, became conspicuous. The first was seed-time, the other .the fruit-season ; and between the two lay the dark night of nearly a century, in which the "new birth," the Henaissance, seemed to have reached an untimely end. The following is an outline, in their historical order, of some of the principal events in which this spirit of individualism — afterwards known, from the marvelloiis changes it produced in Euro- pean life, as the Renaissance, or " new birth " — exhibited itself. 1. Ahelard (1079-1142) was the first great scholar in the middle age who openly maintained the principle of individualism in a definite form against that of the authority of the church as recognized and settled in his time. He did not claim, as later scholars did, that the church had actually reached wrong conclusions in any given case, but that her fundamental theory, that her own declaration of her own infallibility in all cases should be binding upon Christians, was a false one. Anselm had formulated the church's position by asserting that we must believe in order that we may be able to understand; Abelard, on the contrary, insisted that we must first under- stand before we can believe. Abelard, although condemned by the church for this and other errors, had many disciples, who, adopting his theory, did not hesitate to discuss and condemn many things which were done under the claim of church authority. Indeed, so wide-spread and potent was the influence of Abelard's example, that, according to Hallam, the greater part of the literature of the middle age from the twelfth century may be considered as artillery levelled against the clergy. 2. Arnold of Brescia, who lived in the first half of the twelfth century, was a pupil of Abelard, and applied the principle of free inquiry, as de- fended by his master, to an examination of the claim of popes and bishops to the exercise of au- thority as secular princes. His influence was so great, that he practically dethroned, for a time, one pope, and became himself the ruler of Rome. He was soon deposed, condemned, and burned ; but his career lasted long enough to show that in Italy in the twelfth century there was an opinion strong enough to make itself felt effectually, questioning the authority of the church, not merely to make itself the interpreter of its own jurisdiction over civil as well as over ecclesiastical affairs, but re- volting also against the system of government it had estabUshed. The same principle we see ap- plied, about the same time, in a different sphere, in the insurrection of the Italian cities, under the name of the " Lombard League," against the authority of their German master, the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, — an authority which had theoretically, in the middle age, the same divine origin and sanction, and the same claim to unquestioning universal obedience, as that of the Pope himself. Yet the cities of Lombardy did not hesitate to disown the imperial authority ; and they acquired, by successful resistance to it, a certain qualified independence of the emperor, thus maintaining, as Sismondi says, the first and noblest struggle ever waged by the nations of modern Europe against despotism. 3. Another step in the process of change from the old to the new, the revolt of individualism against the theory of passive obedience to author- ity as maintained by the church, is seen in the condition of the south of France in the thirteenth century. This movement presents itself under a double aspect. We see a defiance of the church's authority by all classes of the population. The higher nobility and the peasants of that region were both arrayed at the same time against it, but from different motives. The nobility of Provence, affected, no doubt, a good deal by the example of their Saracen neighbors, not only led lives in this era characterized by a worldliness, luxury, and love of display, up to that time wholly unknown in Western Europe among Christians ; but many of their opinions were regarded as loose and heretical, and they had become restless under the restraints of church discipline. They professed to be orthodox Catholics ; but their practice of an extraordinary exaltation of the passion of sexual love, their pretentious gallantry to women of their own rank, the courts which they established for the formal regulation of the relations between the sexes, their strange notions of the nature and extent of the marriage obli- gation, the encouragement of the troubadours, whose love-songs are the expression of an im- portant phase in the life of the time, — all this was a genuine revolt, as nmch directed against the church's ideal conception of Christian virtue based upon poverty and self-denial, as it was against the recognition of the authority which enforced its discipline. The nobles denied the power of the church, whose restraints had become distasteful to them ; and naturally they found justification for their course in opinions regarded as heretical. The example of the nobles was followed by the peasants, who, known in history as the Albigenses, had long been ready to revolt against the chm-ch for another and opposite reason; viz., that its doctrines, as well as its authority, did not seem to them to be in accord- ance with the principles and examples revealed in the New Testament. As is well known, this revolt against the authority of the church was cruelly crushed in the thirteenth century: still, it must be regarded as one of the most important movements of the earlier Renaissance against that authority which had been recognized as para- mount, not merely in settling the belief, but in regulating the lives and actions, of men. While the Proven9al poetry was the outgrowth of an age and race thus characterized by disbelief and gross materialism, according to the church stand- ard, the Norman ballads and the lays of the minnesingers in Germany^ about the same era, seem to have been consistent with devotion to the authority of the church, and with the encourage- ment of the robuster virtues of chivalry. 4. Prom Provence the spirit of opposition to the church's theory of the universality of its jurisdiction, and to tbe nature of the ideal of life which it set forth as the highest, passed into Italy. Dante (1310), Petrarch (1348), and Boc- RENAISSANCE. 2029 RENAISSANCE. caccio are called the earliest humanists ; that is, they are the earliest and most eminent of the ■writers who regarded human life as something more than a state of preparation for the life to come, and who believed that obedience to author- ity did not necessarily include all virtue. Dante, with his mind filled with a knowledge of mediEe- val history, and with mediaeval conceptions of life, still does not hesitate, in La Divina Comme- dia, to try every human action by the standard of_ right and justice implanted in every con- science, and never makes mere obedience to the order of the church the test of rightfulness of conduct. He strikes at the very foundation of the secular power of the Pope, as understood in his age, by portraying vividly, in a celebrated passage, the evil results of the supposed gift by the Emperor Constantine, of the Roman territory, and with it the temporal authority, to the Bishop of Rome. While Dante thus made, in opposition to the spirit of the age, the conscience the final judge, Petrarch and Boccaccio strove to conceive of human life as a state less gloomy and ascetic, more human and natural, more joyous, in short, as it was supposed to have been in antiquity, than it was under the practice and the discipline of the church. Petrarch sang at the same time the praises of love and of the free spirit of anti- quity, exalting human dignity and pride, and claiming that there were objects worth living for in this life outside of those included in the church's ideal. Boccaccio was even more worldly, attracting attention to human interests, and por- traying man's passions, joys, and sorrows, the good and the evil so strangely mingled in life, concentrating interest upon man as he actually is, and not upon the ideal man, whom the church by its aU-controUing power and discipline sought to make him. The first or early Renaissance, then, was char- acterized by a general restlessness in European society; a. strong desire making itself manifest through philosophers and poets, and by habits of self-indulgence, to "free life from those restraints in opinions and acts which the Church and the State, by means of their universal authority, recognized for ages, had imposed upon it. There was a long eclipse of the light shed by the earlier Renaissance, but at somewhat diiferent epochs in the different countries of Europe. In Italy it occurred during the long struggle which resulted in the downfall of the city republics ; in France and England, during the hundred-years war between those countries ; and in Germany, during that reign of force and terror which ac- companied the decline of the imperial power. During this eclipse the pretensions of the popes to absolutism became more pronounced than ever. The new orders of the Dominicans and Francis- cans were their most active agents in repressing heresy ; and, the practical control of the universi- ties being in their hands, the most slavish theories of passive obedience to civil as well as to ecclesi- astical authority were taught there. But nothing could restrain the bursting-forth in due time of the new and greater Renaissance, the force of which, unlike that of the earlier one, has gone on increasing ever since. 5. In Italy this revival was mainly stimulated by the enthusiasm awakened among scholars by the study of the works of the great writers of antiquity, and especially of Greek authors, whose writings were first brought to the knowledge of scholars in Western Europe during the fifteenth century and by the discovei-y of the works of Greek art. There had been many learned Greeks, and many manuscripts of Greek authors, in Italy before the taking of Constantinople by the Turks in 145-3 ; but that event drove the Greek scholars into exile, and gave those in Italy who were students of the ancient classics invaluable aid in their interpretation. It was soon found that the ancient authors, Greek and Latin, offered to Italy a literature inspired by nature and reality, guided by reason alone, not subject to any authority, or shrouded by any mysticism. To cultivate and imitate this literature, and to seek for the ideal of life as set forth by the ancient philosophers and scholars, was to break the last bond imposed by the middle age. Italy soon became invaded by a species of fanaticism for the learning of antiquity. Search was made everywhere for the treasures of Greek and Roman art ; and the dis- covery of a manuscript of a celebrated ancient author was regarded as a prize almost equivalent to the conquest of a kingdom. All classes, even the rough soldiers who had become sovereign princes in Italy, became enthusiasts in the study of Greek literatm-e. Academies were founded in the principal cities for the study of the Greek philosophy; and very soon the ancient Greek ideal of life, which was that formed by the exaltation of human pride, and dignity, and force, — in other words, individualism, — was substituted, even among orthodox churchmen of the highest rank, for the Christian ideal, which was that of poverty, humility, and obedience. Some of the popes even became the unconscious instruments of sapping the foundations of their o\^^l authority. Nicolas V. (1455), for instance, who urged the Greek exiles to accept his hospitality, and to teach Greek literature under his protection, seemed to have no higher ambition in life than the patron- age of Greek scholars, even those whose opinions were thoroughly Pagan, and the formation of a library made up of the manuscripts of the works of ancient authors. So Leo X. was, to say the least, as enthusiastic in the cultivation of the Platonic philosophy as in the pei-formance of his proper duties as head of the chm'ch, or in maintaining its traditional authority. No one in Italy at that time, save a few unheeded en- thusiasts, such as Savonarola, drew attention to the utter incompatibility between the Christian philosophy and that of the Greeks. Hence there was no open defiance of church authority, and outward conformity was maintained, being all that was required or expected from the learned. This love of antiquity included many things be- sides an enthusiasm for the Greek philosophy. The discovery of certain remains of Greek sculp- ture changed the whole ideal of art in the fifteenth century, or, rather, educated it in accordance with Greek models. The truth is, that the later Re- naissance in Italy, with its wonderful results, may be regarded as a revolution brought about in the human mind and in culture by the study of beauty of form inspired by the literature and art of antiquity. This was the era of the glory of the fine arts in Italy. While the productions of such RENAISSANCE. 2030 REPENTANCE. painters as Raphael and Michael Angelo, of such architects as Bramante and Brunelleschi, and of such a wonderful genius as Leonardo da Vinci, have given them fame unrivalled in the history of art, all their works are stamped with this pe- culiarity of the time, as distinguishing them from artists of the middle age : (1) They are utterly free from any conventional type, but are pre-eminently the expression of individual and original genius ; and (2) Their ideal of form and beauty, even in the portrayal of Christian subjects, is the natural or Greek type, wholly unlike that consecrated by the piety and usage of the church in the middle age. It was the passionate love of the literature and art of antiquity, and especially of Greece, which made Christian Italy during the Renaissance es- sentially Pagan in opinion and in life. The study of Greek in Germany and in England produced the same effect in disintegrating and crumbling the Catholic faith and authority in those countries, but in a different way. In Italy the. tendency was to make life practically Pagan : north of the Alps, to which region the study of Greek soon spread, it became the seed of Protestantism. In the hands of such scholars as Erasmus, Melancli- thon, and Reuchlin in Germany, and as Colet and Sir Thomas More in England, a knowledge of Greek became a key to the intei-pretation of the original tongue in which the New Testament was written. It was thus the most powerful instrument of biblical study, and became a for- midable instrument in assailing the doctrines, practices, and traditions of the Roman Church, and necessarily the authority of that church upon which so much that was distinctive in its systerii was based. The recent invention of printing, spreading the result of these investigations far more widely than any other agency could have done, strengthened and made permanent the revolt known in history as the Protestant Refor- mation. In France the revival of letters did not produce so great, or at least so immediate, a re- sult as in the other countries we have named. The French campaigns in Italy, under Charles VIII. and Francis I., made those sovereigns familiar with the brilliant culture which prevailed in that country, and stimulated a desire to introduce it into their own. Greek scholars such as Lascaris, and artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, were invited to France by Francis I. For various reasons the influence of the new learning was not as marked there as elsewhere in the sixteenth century. It is seen, probably, more conspicuously in the new style of architecture which it intro- duced into France, called "La Renaissance," than in any thing else. The general tendency, however, throughout Europe during the whole of the sixteenth cen- tury, was shown in a great variety of ways towards the developnient of individualism, and the decline in the recognition of the principle of authority, until this tendency reached its logical outcome in the Reformation. This tendency was much strengthened by the results of the discovery of America, — an event which, if the church's theory of the earth's cosmogony had been well founded, would have been simply impossible. The discovery of a new world turned men's thoughts, beliefs, and aspirations into a new channel. It opened to individualism in action a field wider and more attractive than any which had hitherto been presented to it. Love of ad- venture, enterprise, an ardent thirst for wealth, took the place of the typical virtues of the middle age, — celibacy, poverty, and obedience ; and thus the last bond which united the life of the time to that of the mediseval era in Europe was broken. Lix. — BuRCKHAEDT : Renaissance in Italy; Symonds : Renaissance, 1875-77, 3 vols. ; Lecky : Hist, of Rationalism ; European Morals; Draper ; Intellectual Development of Europe ; Laurent : L'histoire de I'humanite ; Lea: Studies in Ch. His- tory; Remusat : Life of Ansehn ; GuizoT: History of Civilization, general, and in France ; Villari : Machiavelli and Savonarola. 0. J. STILLi!. RENATA, Duchess of Ferrara, daughter of Louis XII. of France, and Anne of Bretagne ; b. at Blois, Oct. 25, 1511 ; d. at Montargis, June 12, 1575. She received an excellent education, — un- derstood Latin and Greek, had studied philosophy and theology, mathematics and astronomy, — and was in 1528 married to Hercules of Este, who in 1534 succeeded to the ducal throne of Ferrara. From early youth she inclined towards Protestant- ism. She encouraged BraccioH to translate the Bible into Italian, and she made her coua-t a place of refuge for French and Italian Protestants. In 1535 Calvin came to Ferrara, and in 1541 began that cqrrespondence which ceased only with his death (1564). But, wlien the religious re-action of 1542 set in, her position became difficult. The Inquisition was established at Ferrara in 1550, and in 1554 the duke complained to the king of France of the obstinacy of his wife. The inquis- itor Oris came to Ferrara ; and Sept. 7, 1554, Re- nata was imprisoned as a heretic in the old castle of Este. She was released on Sept. 26, but she was forced to recant, After her husband's death, in 1559, she returned to France, and openly em- braced the Reformation. She lived at first in Paris ; but, as she could not celebrate Protestant service there after the peace of Amboise, she re- tired to Montargis in 1563. She was in Paris during the Massacre of St. Bartholomew, and suc- ceeded in saving Merlin and the daughter of L'Hopital. See E. Masi : / Burlamacchi e di al- cuni documenti intorno a Renuta d'Este, Bologna, 1876; [and Sophia W. Weitzel: Rene'e of France, Duchess of Ferrara, N.Y., 1883]. TH. SCHOTT. RENAUDOT,Eusebe,b. in Paris, July20, 1646; d. there Sept. 1, 1720. He was educated by the Jesuits ; entered the Congregation of the Oratory ; visited Rome in 1700, and published a number of works referring to the history of the East and the agreement between the Eastern and Western churches with respect to the doctrine of the Eu- charist : Defense de la perpe'tuite de lafoi calholique, Paris, 1708, with two continuations, against Ay- mon's Monuments authentiques ; Gennadii homilia de Eucharistia, Paris, 1709, against Leo AUatius; Historia palriarcharum Alexandrinorum, Paris, 1713 ; CoUectio Uturgiarum orienlalium, Paris, 1716. This last work is that which has most interest to our time. HERZOG. REPENTANCE (the rendering, in the New Tes- tament, of the Greek /icTdvoia) signifies a change of mind and disposition. This idea can never be wanting where there is a genuine and earnest con- sciousness of the divine commands and human REPENTANCE. 2031 RESERVATION. The obligation to repent -will only be acted in where pardon and atonement have been of- sd to allay the guilt, condemnation, and pain !onscience. In the Old Testament the need of don is insisted upon ; and pardon is offered for sins committed without forethought or in te, provided it is sought by the oifering of a rifice to the God of mercy. In the Psahns and phets a broken and contrite heart is substituted sacrifices (Ps. li. ; Joel ii. 13). The motives the cultivation of such a state of heart are nan guilt and the divine willingness to forgive (Isa. xliv. 22). God himself creates the new rt (Ps. li. ; Ezek. xxxvi. 25 sqq.), converts r. xxxi. 18), and promises a dispensation in ch he will write his law upon the heart (Jer. :i. 31 sqq.). 'he Mediator of the new covenant, and his irunner, John the Baptist, began their public jrs with the call to repentance (Matt. iii. 2, iv. Mark i. lo). Citizenship in the kingdom of ven depends upon this change of disposition. M enunciated the code of the repentant sin- in the Sermon on the ilount (Matt, v.-vii.), gave a picture of such a one in the parable ;he prodigal son (Luke xv.), who, "coming to seH," returned in humility, and with the con- ion of his sins, to his father. The thief was sd on the cross (Luke xxiii. 40 sqq.) when he )ught the mercy of the crucified Saviour-. The sties called upon the people to repent, and 3d, as the strongest reason for it, the elevation l!hrist, the Saviour of the world, to the right d of God (Acts V. 31, xi. 18). They used the a EwiaTp£(l)eadcu as synonymous with iieravoelv ts iii. 19, ix. 35). The most emphatic state- it of the thoroughness of this moral change lade by Paul when he speaks of it as a burial 1 Christ, which is followed by a change of life m. vi. 2 sqq. ; Col. ii 12 sqq.), and in the Gos- of John, when it is spoken of as a new birth a above (John i. 12 sq., iii. 3). This brings the connection between genuine repentance that which goes before it, and which is called ineration. From the stand-point of regenera- , the change of heart is an act of God ; from stand-point of repentance, an act of the human 1 the Roman-Catholic Church, baptism is re- led as simultaneous with regeneration and the hing-away of sins. It imposes, however, cer- exercises, obligations, and burdens upon its ibers, which are subsumed under the head of ince (see art.). The Reformers went back 36 original idea of repentance as " a transmu- m of the mind and affections " (transmutatio '.is et affectus — Luther) ; and Luther, in his ity-five theses, asserted that the entire life lid be a penance, penitential act. The deci- element in repentance, or metanoia, is faith, entance, therefore, consists of contrition for and faith in Jesus Christ ; or, as the Augsburg fession puts it, of " contrition, or the terrors . startled conscience for sin, and faith, which inceived by the gospel, or pardon, and believes ins to be forgiven for Christ's sake." Good ks are the necessary fruits of true repentance, rin did not differ from Luther, although he id to emphasize the pangs for sin committed luch as he. 22— III The Pietists in Germany, and the Methodists in England, laid great stress upon the necessity of a thorough repentance, or change of heart (mentaoia). This led to the exaggeration that true repentance necessitates a prolonged and agonizing spiritual struggle. Spener never countenanced this idea, except to say, that whereas many passed into the joys of adoption without experiencing the terrors of the law, others might reach them only after pro- longed spiritual gloom and sorrows, or after pass- ing, as it were, through hell itself. Zinzendorf, however, under the influence of the former theory, lingered for a protracted period in a state of spir- itual gloom and doubt before reaching conviction . The subject was warmly discussed by the Pietists on the one hand, and Luther on the other. (See JocH : De desperalione salulari, Wittenberg, 1730 ; Ehrenffort : D. Geheimniss d. Bekehrung, 1736 ; BuRGMAXN : De luctu panitentium, 1736, etc.) The Methodists insisted on a hearty contrition for sin ; and under the preaching of Wesley, Whitefield, and their contemporaries, there were manifesta^ tions of violent bodily agony. The Rationalists insisted with all earnestness upon a change of the will, but failed to uuderstand the nattire of faith. Among the modern presentations of this subject which go back to the view of repentance which prevailed among the Reformers is that of Chr. F. ScHMiD, in his Ckristl. Siltenlehre. [See the theologies of Hodge (iii. pp. 3 sqq.) and Van Oosterzee; Shedd: Sermons for the Natural Man, Ifew York, 1871, etc.] J. kOstlin. REPH'IDIM. See Wilderness of the Wan- dering. REPROBATION. See Predestination. REQUIEM, a mass for the dead, thus called from the opening words of the text, — Requiem mternam dona eis domine (" Give them, O Lord, eternal rest"). On account of its peculiar char- acter, the Dies irm, dies ilia, is used instead of Glo- ria in excelsis, the Offertorium instead of the Credo, etc. The most excellent compositions of the kind are those of Mozart and Cherubini. REREDOS (from the French I'arrieredos) is the division wall or screen at the back of an altar, rood-loft, etc., in old churches. RESERVATION, Mental, is a trick by which, according to the moral school of the Jesuits, it is possible for a man to teU a lie, or even commit per- jury, Vfithout doing any thing wrong ; namely, by adding mentally some qualification to the words actually spoken. Thus a man who is the only witness of a crime may, when asked by the court, answer, " I know nothing of it," when he men- tally adds, " as a public fact." This infamous doc- trine was first set forth by the Jesuit Sanchez (d. 1610), and then developed by FiLliucius, Castro Palao, Escobar, and Jo. Caromuel, in his Haplotes de restrictionihus mentalihus disputans, Leyden, 1672. Outside of the order of the Jesuits, the doctrine found a zealous defender in Antoninus Diana (d. 1663) : see his Resolutiones morales. ZOCBXER. RESERVATION, Papal. The success vrith which the popes began to interfere with the ap- pointment to vacant benefices by the issue of preces and mandata de providendo (comp. the art. Menses Papales) gave the Roman curia occasion for further exertions in that direction. From the end of the twelfth century, instances occur, in which, when a foreign ecclesiastic died in Rome, RESIDENCE. 2032 RESURRECTION. the Pope himself undertook to fill his place, because it had become vacaut apud sedem apos- tolicam; and in 1265 Clement IV. formally estab- lished the rule concerning the Reservatio ex capile vacationis apud sedem aposloUcam. Honorius IV. extended the rule, in ]286, also to cases in which the incumbent resigned his benefice into the hands of the Pope ; and Boniface VIII. defined, in 1294, the apud sedem apostolicam as a circuit two days' journey distant .from Rome. New kinds of reservations were trumped up ; and in 1316 John XXII. decreed that all benefices which became vacant apud sedem apostolicam — not only by death, but also by deposition, cancelling of election, promotion, transferrence, etc. — were re- served for the Pope. The annoyances and scan- dalous transactions which were caused by this practice gave rise to much complaining, and the Council of Trent also effected some reforms; but it was the concordats which the popes were com- pelled to make with the various states which finally brought order and justice out of con- fusion. H. F. JACOBSON. RESIDENCE (that is, the personal presence at the place of one's office) seems to be a duty more evident in the case of an ecclesiastic than in that of any other ofiicial. Nevertheless, at a very early time it was found necessary to forbid absence. See Concil. Nicmn. (325), can. 15, 16 ; Antioch. (341), caii. 3; Can. Apost., 15, 16. Similar rules were established also in the Prankish Empire by Boni- face. The accumulation of benefices, however, and other still more frivolous reasons, made ab- sence one of the most glaring and widespread misuses of the church in the time of the Refor- mation. But the Council of Trent succeeded only in introducing partial reforms in the Roman- Catholic Church; while in the Protestant churches the abuse speedily disappeared, and made all le- gislation superfluous. H. P. jacobson. RESTORATION. See Apokatastasis. RESIGNATION, the submission of the soul to the will of God, is a Christian grace distinguishing Christian from heathen ethics. Although the will of God is irresistible. Christian resignation is a voluntary act of submission, and rests upon the assurance that all things must work together for good to them that love God (Rom. viii. 28). The love of God for man, as revealed in the New Tes- tament, awakens a sense of imperturbable trust in his care, the very hairs of our head being all numbered (Matt. x. 30). Resignation is there- fore a mixture of voluntary obedience, humility, and trust. Christ is the fulfilment of this grace, and exhibited its highest manifestation in Geth- semane. Christian resignation is distinguished from Stoic submission and Mohammedan fatalism by being voluntary, and based upon the confidence that God will make all things to combine for the good of those that love him. carl beck. RESURRECTION OF THE DEAD. 1. Defini- tion and Biblical Notices. — The term "resurrec- tion " is a figurative one, taken from the conception of the deposit of the dead body under the ground. It stands in antithesis to the body's lying or rest- ing in the grave. The essential reference of the term, however, is to the revivification of the dead, and the resumption of bodily and spiritual exist- ence by them after a period of interruption. The firm belief in the resurrection and the eternal life is one of the products of Christianity, and rests upon the resurrection of Christ. Outside of Chris- tian circles, death is and always has been the king of terrors. In the Old Testament the hope of the resurrection becomes clearer and clearer as revelation progresses. The prophets declare that the righteous shall participate in the consumma- tion of the kingdom of God. The resurrection of the righteous is distinctly referred to in Isa. xxvi. 19 sqq. Ezekiel could not have used the imagery of chap, xxxvii., if he had not known about it; and Daniel (xii. 2, 3) distinguishes be- tween the resurrection of the just and the unjust. Although this hope does not seem to us to be referred to in Ps. xvi. 9 sqq., xlviii. 14, Ixviii. 20, it certainly is in Ps. xlix. 15, Ixxiii. 22 sqq. The Book of Job also assumes the continuation of the communion of the righteous with God after death in xix. 25-27. The New Testament every- where assumes or states the doctrine of the resur- rection. Christ calls himself the "resurrection and the life " (John xi. 25). Paul (Rom. viii. 11) conceives of this resurrection as already begun in the soul. He that hath the Son of God hath the eternal life already begun in him (.lohn iii. 36 ; 1 John v. 12). The resurrection from the dead is regarded as one of the elementary truths of Christianity (Ileb. vi. 1) ; and although Paul gives a sort of an argument for it in 1 Cor. xv., yet it may be said that the doctrine is considered so indisputable as not to be deemed in need of proof by the writers of thp New Testament. It takes its root in the nature of God, in his relation to believers as his children. 2. Mode. ■ — In regard to the manner of the resurrection we must confess that we know only in part. All mere human theories are mere guesses. We are shut up to the Bible : God (Rom. iv. 17, etc.) or Christ (John vi. 39) raises from the dead. This act will be consummated at the end of the world, or the second coming of Christ. According to 1 Thess. iv. 16 sq., and 1 Cor. xv. 23 sqq., the righteous will be raised first, and take part in the judgment with Christ ; then will follow the resui'rection of the rest. In reference to the relation of the body of the resurrection to the present body, we may say in general that it will be subject to all the laws of the eternal life. We shall participate in the glory of God, and be like Christ. There will be a spiritual body (1 Cor. xv. 44 sqq.). Augustine (Serm. 99) defined it by the attributes, impassibility, lucidity, alertness, etc. The main point is its freedom from the service of sin and all mere sensualism. We can foi-m to ourselves some conception of it from the transfiguration of Christ (Matt. xvii. 1 sqq.) and by the words used by Paul, "We shall be changed " (1 Cor. xv. 51). The difference of the sexes will continue, but there will be no prolongation of the sexual passion. We shall be like the angels (Luke xx. 36). The identity of the resurrection body with the earthly body cannot be denied. Origen and others hold to the survival of the eternal form and appearance (rd H(5of) ; others hold to the survival only of the individuality, the essential nature which forms the body ; others hold that already here on earth there is an organ or body of the soul, the ethereal body, which exists between the physical body and the soul. The consummation of this ethereal or RBTTBERG. 2033 RBUCHLIN. ■itual body occurs at the resurrection, and its sent relation to its future condition is repre- ted by the relation of the seed to the ripe it. But why should not the soul be its own sreal body? The soul itself, as J. H. Fichte s, forms the body ; and the body of the resur- bioa will correspond to the individuality of the I, and to the present body so far as it is char- jristic of the individual. >iT. — The literature is very large. See the ious works on systematic theology; the Bibli- Psychologies of Beck and Delitzsch; Lu- A.KDT : Lehre von den letzlen Dingen, Leipzig, II, 2d ed, 1870 ; Rinck : Vom Zustand nach d. ie, Basel, 1861, 3d ed., 1878 ; Florke : Lehre d. lelzten Dingen, Rostock, 1866 ; Hambeeger: ysica sacra, Stuttgart, 1869; Cremer: Aufer- lung der Todten, Barmen, 1870; Schoberlein : heimnisse d. Glaubens, Heidelb., 1872 ; [Alger : it. of the Doctrine of a Future Life, Phila., 1864; TZE : Mikrokosmus (iii. 2, Von d. Silze d. Seele, 'gegenwart d. Seele im Korper"), Leipzig, 1864, ed., 1880; Ulrici : Gott u. der Mensch, Leip., '4 ; Joseph Cook : Ulrici on the Spiritual Body, ng Lect. xiii. of Boston Monday Lectures on jlogy, Boston, 1877]. Robert kubel. ^ETTBERG, Friedrich Wilhelm, b. at Celle, ig. 21, 1805 ; d. at Marburg, April 7, 1849. He s appointed professor of theology at Gottingen 1834, and at Marburg in 1838. Most of his itings belong to the department of church his- y, and comprise, besides a number of minor ays and monogTaphs, Cyprians Leben u. Werken ottingen, 1831) and Kirchengeschichle Deutsch- ds (Gottingen, 1845-48, 2 vols.), reaching to i death of Charlemagne, and a work of im- inse industry, excellent method, and great criti- talent. ' wagenmakn. RETTIG, Heinrich Christian Michael, b. at Bssen, July 30, 1795; d. at Zurich, March 24, J6. He studied theology in his native city, and s appointed professor at Ziirich in 1833. His ifreie prole.stantische Kirche, oder die kirchlichen rfassungsgrundsatze des Evangeliums (Giessen, }2) made a gx-eat sensation, on account of its my new and original ideas on church organiza- n. He also edited the Gospel Codex San-gal- sis, Zurich, 1836. herzog. REU'BEN. See Tribes. REUCHLIN, Johann, b. at Pforzheim, Feb. 22, 55 ; d. at Stuttgart, June 30, 1523 ; one of the ist prominent among the humanist predecessors the Reformation. He entered the university of eiburg in 1470 ; was appointed court-singer to i margrave of Baden-Durlach in 1473 ; accom- aied one of the sons of the margrave as tutor the university of Paris, where he learned Greek im Andronicos Contoblacos, and settled, after I return, at Basel (where he published a Latin ;tionary which ran through twenty-three edi- ns), and began to lecture on Latin and Greek, it the theologians of Basel found that " lectures Greek" were an impious thing, which might iw away the flocks from the Roman fold ; and luchlin left the city. He went first to Paris, lere for aome time he continued his Greek idies under Hermonymus of Sparta, and thence Orle-ansi, where in 1478 he began to study law. iter his return, in 1481, he entered the service the Duke of Wurtemberg, was made his coun- cillor, and accompanied him in that capacity to Rome. In Rome he conversed much with Her- molaus Barbarus (who translated his name into the Greek, Capnio), and in Florence with Mar- silius Ficinus, Picus de Mirandola, Politian, and others, who inspired him with enthusiasm for the mysticism of Plato and the Cabala. The first Hebrew he learned from Jacob Jehiel Loens, a learned Jew who was court-physician to Fried- rich III. Reuchlin was sent to the emperor in 1492, on some diplomatical mission ; was very well received, ennobled, etc. : but the Hebrew knowledge he brought back with him he valued higher than any thing else; and in 1494 appeared his De verba mirifco, the first-fruit of his cabal- istic studies. Afterwards, during a whole year's stay in Rome, in 1497, on business of the elector- palatine, he continued his Hebrew studies under another learned Jew ; and in 1506 appeared his Hebrew grammar, from which dates the scientific study of Hebrew in Germany. Meanwhile he had published a text-book in universal history, another in civil law, Progymnasmata scenica (a kind of school-comedies for exercise in Latin, which ran through twenty-nine editions), De arte prcedicandi, 1504 (which points more markedly in the direction of the Reformation), De arte cabba- listica, 1516, etc. ; and how great a fame and con- fidence he enjoyed is shown by the circumstance, that in 1502 the Suabian Union chose him for their judge. In 1509 he first made the acquaintance of Pfefi- erkorn, a converted Jew holding some ofiice in the asylum of St. Ursula at Cologne; but front that moment his life was filled with anxiety and misery. Pfefferkorn had obtained a decree from the emperor, Maximilian I., ordering all Jews liv- ing in the empire to give up their books to Pfeffer- korn for examination, and pei-mitting Pfefferkorn to confiscate and burn such books as contained polemical utterances against Christianity. Pfeff- erkorn wished to have Reuchlin for his partner in this enterprise, but Reuchlin excused himself. He was, nevertheless, dragged into it. Through the elector of Mayence he received an imperial order to present a memoir on the question of burning all the books of the Jews. The memoir, setting forth the absurdity of such a measure, was shown to Pfefferkorn ; and he printed it in his Handspiegel, 1510, with the most venomous commentaries. Reuchlin answered with his Au- genspiegel, 1511 ; but the theological faculty of Cologne then charged a committee with examin- ing the orthodoxy of the Augenspiegel, and the Dominican inquisitor, Hoogstraaten, took openly the side of Pfefferkorn. The committee found forty-three condemn able propositions in the-^u- genspiegel ; Hoogstraaten stepped forward as for- mal accuser, 1513 ; and for seven years Reuchlin always felt the danger of the stake hovering about him. The court of Spires fully acquitted him, March 29, 1514, and sentenced Hoogstraaten to pay a fine of a hundred and eleven gulden. But Hoogstraaten appealed to the Pope ; and Leo X. formed a court, under the presidency of Benig- nus de Salviatis, archbishop of Nazareth. July 2, 1516, the court gave its verdict, which was an unqualified acquittal of Reuchlin ; but the Pope dared not confirm the decision in the face of the powerful party of the Dominicans, who actually RBUTBRDAHL. 2034 REVELATION. threatened him with rebellion. The final solution was efiected by Franz von Sickingen, who politely advised the Dominicans of Cologne to stop all further proceedings, and pay the fine, or to be prepared for a visit from himself and his friends. The Dominicans chose to pay and be silent. The sensation caused by the trial of Reuch- lin was enormous. All the humanists sided with him ; and a party with very outspoken reforma- tory tendencies, and something of an organiza- tion, was formed under the name of Reuchlinists. It must not be understood, however, that Reuch- lin himself stood at the head of that party. On the contrary, during the whole course of his trial he did his utmost not to fall out with the church. There was in his nature and character not the least trace of a talent for martyrdom. The last years of his life were much disturbed by war-incidents ; and the brilliant engagement he accepted in 1521, as professor in Greek at Tubin- gen, he was by death prevented from fulfilling. After the appearance of Luther he also became estranged from his grand-nephew, Melanchthon, who had previously been his pride. See his biog- raphy by Mai, Durlach, 1587 (Latin); Mayer- HOFF, Berlin, 1830; Lamey, Pforzheim, 1855; LuDwiG Geiger, Leipzig, 1871. klIFpfel. REUTERDAHL, Henrik, b. at Malmij, Sweden, Sept. 10, 1795 ; d. at Upsala, June 28, 1370. He studied theology at Lund, and was appointed ad- junct to the theological faculty in 1824, professor ordinarius in 1844, minister of worship and pub- lic education in 1852, bishop of Lund in 1855, 'and archbishop of Upsala in 1856. His principal work is Svenska Jcyrkaus Jiisioria (History of the Swedish Church), 1838-63, 5 vols., reaching to the Reformation, — a work based on original and exhaustive researches, but often admitting too much space to secular history. A. michelsen". REVELATION, Book of, called, also, by adop- tion, instead of translation of the Greek title, The Apocalypse, a term, which, according to its original sense, would denote the future glorious revelation of Christ, and only by a later idiom, the prophecy of it, and which is now commonly used to designate that specific kind of prophecy, of which this book is the most perfept example, which expresses itself in symbolical visions rather than in simple predictive words. According to the usual arrangement, it stands at the end of the New Testament, a position appropriate to its contents, and probably, also, to its date. It is the only prophetic book of the New-Te.stament canon, and, with the partial exception of Daniel, the only prophetic book of either Testament which is planned and written in the form of a carefully ordered and closely concatenated whole. The boldness of its symbolism makes it the most diffi- cult book of the Bible : it has always been the most variously understood, the most arbitrarily interpreted, the most exegetically tortured. Any question of its genuineness, authenticity, or canonicity, may be considered excluded by the strength of the external evidence. The book asserts itself to be by John in terms which forbid our understanding another than the John of the other New-Testament books (i. 1, 4, 9, xxii. 8). " An unknown John, whose name has disappeared from history, leaving hardly a trace behind it, can scarcely have given commands in the name of Christ and the Spirit to the seven churches • " and it is indubitable that " all this was generally understood in the first two centuries of the apos- tle John" (Hilgenfeld). Traces of the use of the book are found as early as Barnabas, Igna- tius, and the Testt. xii. Patt. ; John's pupil, Papias, witnessed to its credibility; Justin (147) declares it an inspired prophecy of the apostle John. No church writer' expresses a different opinion (Gains of Rome has been misunderstood) until Dionysius of the third century, who, on purely internal grounds, denies it to the author of the Gospel, although asserting it to be certain that its author was some holy and inspired John, who saw a revelation, and received knowledge and prophecy. Nor did doubt, when it had thus once entered the chiirch, spread rapidly. The third century closes without giving us the name of another doubter ; and although Eusebius him- self wavers, and tells us that opinion in his day was much divided, and soon afterwards the Sy- rian Church rejected it, — not without affecting the judgment of individual writers in Jerusalem, Asia Minor, and Constantinople, — yet Eusebius himself believed it to be inspired and canonical, the doubts were purely of an internal kind, the church at large was never affected by them, and the storm, even in the East, was soon weathered. Objection was renewed in the Reformation era by Erasmus, Carlstadt, Luther, Zwingli : but the churches refused to follow their leading ; and, so soon as the subject of controversy changed, the book was used authoritatively by all parties. Modern objection began with W. Mace, 1729, and especially with the party of Semler in Germany. The latest opinion is divided into four classes. The moderate theologians, chiefly of the school of Schleiermacher, just because John wrote the Gospel, deny to him the Apocalypse, which they assign to some other John. The Tubingen school, on the other hand, rightly judging the evidence for the apostolical authorship of the Apocalypse decisive, just on that account deny to him the Gospel. Several extremists wish to pro- nounce both books forgeries. The church at lai'ge, on the other hand, together with the great majority of critics, defends the common apostoli- cal authorship of both books ; although some feel compelled to place them as far apart in date as possible, in order to account for their internal unlikeness : so, e.g., Hase, Reville, Weiss (1882), Farrar, Niermeyer. The grounds of modern objection are almost wholly internal, turning on divergences between the Gospel and Apocalypse in doctrinal conception, point of view, style, lan- guage. But Gebhardt has shown that no argu- ment against unity of authorship ean be drawn from the doctrinal relations of the two books; and every new investigation into the differences of style and language renders it more and more plain that it is consistent with unity of author- ship. " The difl:erence in the language can . . . have no decisive weight attached to it" (Reuss). The integrity and unity of the book are not in dispute. Grotius, Vogel, Schleiermacher, Volter, and (at one time) Bleek and De Wette stand almost alone in doubting them. To-day "the assumption of the unity of the Apocalypse forms the uniform basis of all works upon it " (Volter). Its text, because of the comparatively few manu- REVELATION. 2035 REVELATION. scripts which contain it, remains in an uncertain state in comparison with the other New-Testa- ment books, though not so in comparison with other ancient works, or to any such degree as to impair our confidence in its use. Its date has been much disputed ; although the testimony of the early church, which is ancient, credible, and uniform, would seem decisive for A.D. 94-95. Irenaeus, who was not only brought up in Asia Minor, and there knew several apos- tolical men, but was also the pupil of John's pupil, Polycarp, explicitly testifies that it was seen towards the close of Domitian's reign ; and he is supported in this by Clement of Alexandria, ac- cording to Eusebius' understanding of his words, as well as by Victorinus, Jerome, and later writers generally. Eusebius drops no hint that any other opinion was known to him. Even those who de- nied the book to the apostle, yet assigned it to this time. Not the slightest trace (except, pei'- haps, an obscure one in Origen) of another opinion is found until the late fourth century (the Mm-a- tori canon has been misunderstood), when the notoriously inaccurate Epiphanius, not without self-contradiction, places the banishment and prophecy of John under Claudius (41-5i). Some few writers adopt interpretations of special pas- sages which might appear to imply their writing before the destruction of Jerusalem, but this in- ference is sometimes clearly excluded. No early writer assigns John's banishment, or the compo- sition of the Apocalypse, to the times of Nero or his immediate successors. The earliest direct statement to this eifect is found in the Syriac Apocalypse of the sixth century, which declares that John was banished to Patmos by Nero Caesar. (Is this due to a clerical error for Nerva?) This- is thought to be supported, (1) by Theophylact (eleventh century), who places the writing of John's Gospel at Patmos thirty-two years after the ascension, but at the same time assigns John's condemnation to Trajan, and (2) by a false read- ing (Domitiou [understood of Nero] for Domi- tianou) in one passage of Hippolytus Thebanus (tenth or eleventh century), which is corrected in another. Certainly, if historical testimony is ever decisive, it assigns the Apocalypse to the closing years of the first century. Nor are supporting internal considerations lacking. (1) The natural implication of i. 9 is, that John was banished to Patmos ; and this is in accordance with Domitian's, and not with Nero's, known practice. (2) The churches are addressed after a fashion which sug- gests intimate, perhaps long-standing, personal acquaintance between them and the author ; yet it is certain, that, up to A.D. 68, John was not their spiritual head, and was probably unkirown to them. Neither hi Second Timothy nor in Sec- ond Peter (both sent to this region) is there the remotest hint of the relation between John and these churches, which seems to have been of _ long standing when Rev. ii. and iii. were written. (3) The internal condition of the seven churches appears to be different from that pictured in Ephesians, Colossians, First and Second Timothy, First and Second Peter; and the difference is such as seems to require not only time, but a period of quiet time, succeeded by a persecution, for its development. (4) The ecclesiastical usages of the churches seem to have made an advance. The term " the Lord's Day," for Sunday, is unique in the New Testament ; the office of " pas- tor," found elsewhere clearly marked in the New Testament only in the case of James, is here assumed as universal in Asia Minor, and well settled ; the public reading (i. 3) of the Christian writings in the churches is spoken of as a usage of long standing, and a matter of course. On the other hand, it has of late become the ruling opinion among critics, that the book comes from a time previous to the destruction of Jeru- salem. The chief argvunents which are urged in its support are : (1) The whole tradition of the Domitianic origin of the Apocalypse hangs on Irenaeus ; and it is quite conceivable that Irenseus has fallen into an error, either as to time alone (e.g., Stuart), or as to matter as well, — the ban- ishment, and hence the time of it, and hence the date of the Apocalypse, all depending on a mis- understanding of Kev. i. 9 (e.g., Diisterdieck). But Rev. i. 9 seems most naturally to imply a banishment. Irenasus does not depend on any inference from the book, but mentions excellent independent sources of information in the matter. It does not follow, because all the evidence of the first three centuries and a half is consentient, that it is dependent on Irenseus. Eusebius, on the contrary, understands Clement to the same effect, and appeals as well to a plurality of sources (H. E., III. 20). (2) There is not even an obscure reference in the book to the destruction of Jeru- salem as a past event, — a catastrophe of too great importance in God's dealings with his church to be passed over in silence in a book of this kind. This would probably be a valid argument if the book were thought to be a history or practical treatise written about 70-80 ; but, if a prophecy written about 95, it is too much to demand that it should contain reference to a catastrophe the les- sons of which had been long since learned, and which belonged to a stadium of development as well as date long past. (3) Jerusalem is spoken of in it as still standing, and the temple as still undestroyed (xi. 1, 2, 8 sq., and even i. 7, ii. 9, iii. 9, vi. 12, 16), — a statement which proceeds on a literalistic intei-pretation confessedly not applica- ble throughout the book, or in the parallel case of Ezek. xl. sq. (4) The time of writing is exactly fixed by the description of the then reigning em- peror in xiii. 13 and xvii. 7-12. Until, however, it be agTeed who this emperor is, — whether Nero (Berthold, Bruston), or Galba (Reuss, Ewald, Hil- genf eld, Gebhardt), or Vespasian (Bleek, De Wette, Diisterdieck, Weiss), -=- this reasoning is not strong; and the interpretation on which it is founded (implying the assumption that the ideal date of any vision can be the actual date of the book itself) is exceedingly unnatural in itself, cannot be made to fit the description, except by extreme pressure of its language, and seems to fasten false expectations on the prophet, if not, indeed, the invention of what is known as the "Nero fable." (5) The chief argument with evangelical men, however, is that derived fi'om the literary differ- ences between the Apocalypse and Gospel of John, which are thought by many to be too great to be explained, except on the supposition that a long period of time intervened between the writing of the two^ooks. The differences in dogmatic con- ception and point of view will hardly, however. REVELATION. 2036 REVELATION, after Gebhardt's investigations, be asserted to be greater than may be explained by the diverse purposes and forms of the two writings ; and it is perfectly vain to contend that the differences in style and language are such as are explicable by lapse of time. The Apocalypse betrays no lack of knowledge of, or command over, Greek syntax or vocabulary : the difference lies, rather, in the manner in which a language well in hand is used, in style, properly so called ; and the solution of it must turn on psychological, and not chronological, considerations. Every new investigation dimin- ishes the amount and significance of the differ- ence on the one hand, and on the other renders it more and more clear that its explanation is to be sought in the different requirements of the well- marked types of composition and the divergent mental condition of the wi'iter. The evangelist, dealing freely with his material, takes pains to write better Greek than was customary with him ; the seer is overwhelmed with the visions crowd- ing upon him, and finds no other speech fit for their expression than that of the old prophets, and therefore rightly yields himself to a prophetic, antique, Ezekiel-like, Hebraizing form of speech (Ebrard).i The plan and structure of the book, the whole of which seems to have been seen by John in one day (i. 10), are exceedingly artistic, and are based on progTessive repetitions of sevenfold visions. It thus advertises to us at once its copious use of numerical symbolism, and the principle underly- ing its structure. Ewald, Volkmar, Rinck, Weiss, Farrar, have further correctly seen that the whole consists of seven sections, and thus constitutes a sevenfold series of sevens, and symbolizes the perfection and finality of its revelation. Five of these sections are clearly marked : it is more diffi- cult to trace the other two. But, if we follow the indications of the natural division of the matter, we shall find the separating line between them at xix. 11 (so De Wette, Weiss, Godet, Hilgenfeld). The plan of the whole, then, is as follows : Pro- logue, i. 1-8 ; (1) The seven churches, i. 9-iii. 22; (2) The seven seals, iv. 1-viii. 1; (3) The seven trumpets, viii. 2-xi. 19 ; (4) The seven mys- tic figures, xii. 1-xiv. 20 ; (5) The seven bowls, XV. 1-xvi. 21 ; (6) The sevenfold judgment on the whore, xvii. 1-xix. 10 ; (7) The sevenfold triumph, xix. 11-xxii. 5; Epilogue, xxii. 6-21. The sevenfold subdivision of each section is easy to trace in all cases except in (4), (6), and (7), where it is more difficult to find, and is more doubtful. Within this elaborate plan is developed the action of a prophetic poem unsurpassed in sacred or profane literature in either the grandeur of its poetic imagery, or the superb sweep of its pro- > [The early date is now accepted by perhaps the majority of scholars. In its favor, besides the arguments mentioned by the author of the article, may be urged the allusion to the temple at .Jerusalem (xi. 1 sq.), in language which implies that it yet existed, but would speedily be destroyed; and, further, that the nature and object of the Revelation are best suited by the earlier date, while its historical understanding is greatly facilitated. With the great conflagration at Home, and the Neronian persecution fresh in mind_, with the horrors of the Jewish war then going on, and in view of the destruction of Jerusalem as an impending fact, John received the visions of the conflicts and the final victories of the Christian Church. His book came, therefore, as a comforter to hearts distracted by calamities without a parallel in history. Cf. Schaff, Ris- tory of the Christian Church, rev. ed., vol. i. 834-837. — Ed.] phetic vision. It is of the first importance to its correct understanding, that we should grasp the fact that its prime design is not chronological, but ethical. It was not intended to write history beforehand, but, by tracing the great outlines of the struggle between Christ and the enemy, to keep steadily before the eye of the believer the issue to which all tends, and thus comfort him in distress, encourage him in depression, and succor him in time of need. It has always been the re- course of a persecuted church. In proportion as a church has waxed cold, and settled upon her lees, in that proportion has she neglected this book; but, whenever earthly help and hope have slipped from her grasp, she has addressed herself to it, and found in it all she could need to comfort, encourage, and enhearten. As Luke adjoined to his Acts of the earthly Christ Acts also of the risen Christ, conquering the world from Jerusa- lem to Rome, and establishing his church in the face of all opposition, so John, to his Acts of the God become man, adjoins the Acts of the man be- come God, triumphing not only over one age, but over all ages, not only establishing, but perfect- ing, his church; and thus he brings to the New Testament and the Bible its capstone and crown. " If the Gospels are principally intended to lay the foundations of faith, and the Epistles to en- kindle love, the Apocalypse gives food to hope. Without it, we .should pei'haps see in the church only a place across which believers pass in order to attain* individually to salvation. But by its help we recognize in her a body which develops and which struggles, until, with all its members, it attains the full stature of Christ" (Godet). It is evident that all attempts at the interpreta- tion of such a book are foredoomed to failure, unless they proceed in full recognition of its spe- cial peculiarities. Certain guiding principles to its exegesis emerge from a general view of its form and scope. (1) The primarily ethical purpose of the book, which at once determined the choice and treatment of its matter, and which gives it a universal and eternal application and usefulness, forbids us to expect in it, what we might other- wise have looked for, a continuous or detailed account of the events of future ages. All exposi- tions are wrong which read it as a history framed with chronological purpose and detailed minute- ness, and seek to apply its main portions to events of local or temporal interest, or to recognize the vast outlines of the future as drawn in it in the minute and recondite details of past or contem- porary crises. We might as well see in Michael Angelo's Last Judgment a county assize. This were to make John a pedant, puzzling his readers with his superior knowledge of petty details, instead of a comforter, consoling and strengthen- ing their hearts by revelation of the true relations and final outcome of things. He is dealing with the great conflict of heaven and earth and hell, not with such facts as the exact time when Roman emperors began to wear diadems, or that Turcomans used horse-tail standards, or that the arms of old France were three frogs. (2) Like the other biblical books, the Apocalypse was intended to be, for the purpose it was meant to subserve, a plain book, to be read and under- stood by plain men. No more than elsewhere are we to find here a hidden and esoteric wisdom, REVELATION. 2037 REVELATION. t must labor to avoid the two opposite errors, of considering the book an elaborate puzzle, or using to find any mystery in it at all. It uld be difficult to determine which notion is i more hopelessly wrong, — that which supposes it the original reader readily understood its ole meaning in every particular, and which IS refuses to allow here the brooding shadow ich hangs over all unfulfilled prophecy, espe- lly if only broadly outlined; or that which Dposes, that, in delineating each prophetic pic- ■e, the seer chose emblems appropriate, not to 1 own age or all ages, but specifically to that in ich this special prophecy was to be fulfilled, i which thus condemns him to write in enig- is unintelligible to all ages alike, — a concourse meaningless symbols enclosing one single spot lucidity for each era. Both the analogy of ler Scripture and the experience of all time ve disproved both fancies. Notwithstanding i naturalists, no one has ever understood all ! details of these visions unto perfection : not- thstanding the pedants, the unlettered child of d has found them always open to his spiritual ht, and fitted to his spiritual need. (3) The localypse is written in a language of its own, fing its own laws, in accordance with which it 1st be interpreted. Thereis such a thing as a immar of apocalyptical symbolism ; and what neant by the various images is no more a mat- for the imagination to settle than are points Greek syntax. This is not the same as calling I book obscure, in any other sense than a writ- [ in a foreign language is obscure to those igno- it of it. " As all language abounds in metaphor i other materials of imagery, imagery itself y form the ground of a descriptive language, e forms of it may become intelligible terms, 1 the combination of them may be equivalent a narrative of description " (Davison). The irce and explanation of this symbolism are found the prophets of the Old Testament (especially niel, Ezekiel, and Zechariah) and our Loi-d's hatological discourses, which, moreover, furnish model on the lines of which the Apocalypse is aposed. The study of apocryphal apocalypses 1 also, its uses, since their symbolism is also ,wn from the canonical prophets; but it is t to draw water direct from the fountain. (4) e question of the fulfilment of the prophecy is illy distinct from and secondary to that of the se of the prophecy. Nowhere is it more neces- y to carry out the processes of exegesis free in subjective preconceptions, and nowhere is it re difficult. There seems no way, except to lously keep the exegesis of the prophecy and inquiry after its fulfilment sharply and thor- ;hly separated. It is only after we know fully at the book says, that we can with any pro- 3ty, ask whether, and how far, these sayings ■e been fulfilled. (5) As the very structure of book advises us, and numerous details in it ke certain, it is exegetically untenable to re- d it as one continuously progressive vision : s rather a series of seven visions, each reach- to the end, not in mere repetition of each er, but in ever-increasing clearness of develop- 3t. )oubtless it is because of failure to note and ly these and like simple principles, that the actual exegesis of the book has proceeded after such diverse fashions, and reached such entirely contradictory results. No book of the Bible has been so much commented on : the exegesis of no book is in a more imsatisfactory state. It is impossible here to enter upon the history of its interpretation : the works of Lucke and Elliott, mentioned below, treat the subject in detail. In general, the schemes of interpretation that have been adopted fall into three roughly drawn classes. (1) The Preterist, which holds that all, or nearly all, the prophecies of the book were fulfilled in the early Christian ages, either in the history of the Jewish race up to A.D. 70, or in that of Pagan Rome up to the fourth or fifth century. With Hentensius and Salmeron as forerunners, the Jesuit Alcasar (1614) was the father of this school. To it belong Grotius, Bossuet, Hammond, LeClerc, Wetstein, Eichhorn, Herder, Hartwig, Koppe, Hug, Heinrichs, Ewald, De Wette, Bleek, Reuss, Reville., Renan, Desptez, S. Davidson, Stuart, Lucke, Diistei-dieck, Maurice, Earrar, etc. (2) The Futurist, which holds that the whole book, or most of it, refers to events yet in the future, to precede, accompany, or follow the sec- ond advent. The Jesuit Ribera (1603) was the father of this school. To it belong Lacunza, Tyso, S. R. and C. Maitland, DeBurgh, Todd, Kelly, I. Williams, etc. (3) The Historical, which holds that the book contains a prophetic view of the great conflict between Christ and the Enemy from the first to the second advents. It is as old as the twelfth century, when Berengaud, followed by Anselm and the Abbot Joachim, expounded it. It has received in one form or another, often dif- fering extremely among themselves, the suffrages of most students of the book. It is the system of DeLire, Wiclif, the Reformers generally. Fox, Brightman, Parens, Mede, Vitringa, Sir I. New- ton, Flemming, Daubuz, Whiston, Bengel, Gaus- sen, Elliott, Eaber, Woodhouse, Wordsworth, Hengstenberg, Ebrard, Von Hofmann, Auberlen, Alford, W. Lee, etc. The last six of these writ- ers will be found nearest the truth. Lit. — (1) Introduction. The various intro- ductions to the New Testament, e.g., Credner's, Guericke's, Bleek's, Hilgenfeld's, S. David- son's ; the arts, in the encyclopsedias, e.g., Kit- To's (by Davidson), McChntock and Strong's, Smith's, Herzog's, Lichtenberger's (by A. Sabatier), and Ersch and Gkuber's (by Reuss) ; the prolegomena to the commentaries, e.g., Dijs- terdieck's, Stuart's, Alford's, Lee's (in the Bible Commentary), and Ebrard's ; and the sec- tion in the church histories, e.g., Neander's Planting and Training, and ScffArr's History of the' Apostolic Church (1853, pp. 418^30 and 603- 607) and History of the Christian Church (vol. i., 1882, pp. 825-853) ; also Godet : Studies on the New Testament, Eng. trans., pp. 294-398; Weiss's " Apocalyptische Studien," in Studien und Kritiken, 1869 (cf. his Leben Jesu, 1882, vol. i. pp. 84-101); Renan: L'Antechrist, 1873; Bleek's review of Liicke, in Studien und Kritiken, 1854, 1855 ; and, above all, LIjcke's great work, Versuch einer voll- standigen Einleitung in die Offenbarung d. Joannis, second enlarged ed., 1852. — (2) Commentaries, (a) Preterists : — De Wette : Kurze Erklarung d. O. J., 3d ed. (Mbller), 1862 ; Bleek : Vorlesungen iiber d. Ap. (Horsbach), 1862 ; Ewald : Die Johan. REVIVALS OF RELIGION. 2038 REVIVALS OP RELIGION. Schriflen, 1862, vol. ii. (cf. his Commeniarius in Ap. J., 1828) ; DiJSTERDiECK : Krilisch. Exeget. Handb. (in Meyer's series), 3d ed., 1877 ; Stuart : A Commentary on the Apocalypse, iiewed., 1864, 2 vols.; Despbez: The Apoc. Fulfilled, new ed., 1865; Reuss: L' Apocalypse, IS78. (b) Futurists: — Todd : Six Discourses on the Apocalypse, 1849 ; C. Maitland : The Apostles' School of Prophetic Interpretation, 1849; DeBurgh: An Exjiosilion to the Book of Revelation, 1845; B. W. Newton; Thoughts, etc., 1853; I. Williams: Notes, etc., 1873. (c) Historical : — Ebrard : Die 0. J. (in Olshausen's series), 1853; Auberlen: The Proph- ecies (if Daniel and the Revelation, Eng. trans., 1856 ; Von Hofmann: Weissag. u. Erfill., 1862; Fuller: Erklarung, etc., 1874; Hengstenberg : Die 0. d. h. J., Eng. trans., 1852 ; Klieforth : Erklarung, etc., 1874, 3 vols. ; Elliott : Horce Apocalypticoi, 5th ed., 1862, 4 vols. (cf. also his Warburtonian Lectures for 1849-53, Appendix) ; Wordsworth : Lectures, etc., 1849, and Neio Testament, vol. iii., 1860 ; Alfokd : Greek Testament, vol. iv., 1868 ; Lange (ed. Cravea), Eng. trans., 1874; Lee, in the Bible Commentary, vol. iv., 1881. — (3) Special Works. On the seven churches. Trench (1861), Plumptre (1877), Svobode (1869); Symbolical Parables (1877) ; Theology of the Apocalypse, Gebhardt (The Doctrine of the Apocalypse, Eng. trans., 1878). Practical commentaries, Durham, Vaughan, Fuller. — (4) Latest Literature. E. Huntingford : The Apocalypse, with Commentary and an Introduction, etc., London, 1881 (cf. also The Voice of the Last Prophet, etc., 1858); Pember: The Great Prophecies concerning the Gentiles, the Jews, and the Church of God, London, 1881; Far- HAR : Early Days of Christianity, ii. pp. 103-352, New York, 1SS2 ; Schaff : History of the Christian Church, i., rev. ed., N.Y., 1882 ; Murphy: The Book of Revelation, Belfast, 1882 ; Volter : Die Entstehung d. Apoc, Freib.-i.-B., 1882 ; Ittameier : Die Sage von Nero als dem Antichrist, in Zeitschrift f. kirchl. Wissenschaft u. k. Leben, 1882, 1, s. 19-3i ; Milligan ■ Inter-relations of the Seven Epistles of Christ. (Expositor, January, 1882), Double Pictures in the Fourth Gospel and Apocalypse (^Expositor, October, November, December, 1882), Structure of Fourth Gospel and Apocalypse {Expositor, January, 1883), The Church in the Apocalypse {Expositor, July, August, September, 1883) ; Krementz : Die Offenb. J. im Lichte d. Evang. nach J., Freib.-in-B., 1883 ; J. T. Beck : Erklarung d. Offenb. Johann. cap. i.-xii., ed. Lindenmeyer, Giltersloh, 1883; Hermann: Die Zahl 666 in der Off. d. J oh. xiii. 18, u. s. w., Gustrow, 1883; 1. H. Hall: The Syrian Apocalypse, in the Journal of the Society of Biblical Literature and Exegesis, 1882, Middletown, Conn., 1883; Waller: Apocalyptic Glimpses, Lond., 1883; Milligan: Commentary in Schaff 's Popular Commentary on the N.T., 4th vol., Edinb. and N.Y., 1883. benjamin b. waefield. REVIVALS OF RELIGION. This phra,se is ordinarily applied to the spiritual condition of a Christian community, more or less limited in extent, in which a special interest is very gener- ally felt in respect to religious concerns, accom- panied with a marked manifestation of divine power and grace in the quickening of believers, the reclaiming of backsliders, and the awakening, conviction, and conversion of the unregenerate. Theory of Revivals. — The progress of Chris- tianity in the world has rarely, for any length of time, been uniform. Its growth in the individual and in the community is characterized by very obvious fluctuations. Like all things temporal, it is subject to constant change, exposed to influ- ences the most varied and antagonistic. Now it makes rapid advances in its conflict with sinful propensities and developments ; then it is sub- jected to obstructions and reverses that effectually check its onward course, and result in spiritual declensions. The natural is ever at enmity with the spiritual. " The flesh lusteth against the spirit, and the spii'it against the flesh; and these are contrary the one to the other." Growth in grace is attain- able only by ceaseless vigilance, untiring diligence, unremitting conflict, and a faithful improvement of the opportunities and means of spiritual ad- vancement. Any relaxation in the strife with moral evil tends to spiritual retardation : the evil gets the advantage over the good ; the religious fervor abates ; the soul becomes lukewarm, cold, dead. As with the individual believer, so is it with the community. A church, a sistei-hood of churches covering a large section of country, by reason of the predominating influence of some worldly interests, — the greed of gain in a season of great commercial prosperity, the strife of party during a highly excited political campaign, the prevalence of a martial spirit in a time of inter- national or civil war, or the lust of pleasure in a time of general worldly gayety and festivity, or any absorbing passion for mere temporal good, — may be so diverted from the direct pursuit of holiness, and the prosecution of the work of advancing the kingdom of Chi-ist, as to lose, to a considerable extent, the power, if not the life, of godliness. The spiritual and eternal become subordinate to the worldly and temporal. The blight of spiritual declension settles down upon them, and attaches itself to them with increasing persistency year by year. Such has been the his- tory of Christian churches everywhere. The ancient people of God were rebuked with great frequency by their priests and prophets for their proneness to spiritual declension. "My peo- ple are bent to backsliding from me." "Why is this people of Jerusalem slidden back by a per- petual backsliding?" This proneness was con- tinually coming to the surface, in the days of Moses and the judges, under the kings, and both before and after the exile. Judges and rulers, priests and prophets, Deborah and Barak, Samuel and David, Elijah and Elisha, Jonah and Daniel, Ezra and Nehemiah, were raised up to beat back the waves of corruption, to arrest the tide of degeneracy, and to heal the backslidings of the people. The fire was kept burning on the altar only by repeated divine interpositions, resulting successively in a revival of religion. Similar tendencies have from the beginning been developed in the history of the Christian Church : Ephesus loses her first love, Laodicea becomes lukewarm, Sardis defiles her garments, Philippi and Corinth yield to the blandishments of worldly pleasures. Worldliness and carnality, leanness and spiritual death, succeed, too often, a state of pious fervor, godly zeal, and holy living. The annual narratives of ecclesiastical communi- REVIVALS OP RELIGION. 2039 REVIVALS OP RELIGION. ties bear painful testimony to this degenerating tendency. Such being the testimony of universal experi- ence to the proneness of human nature to de- cline from the spirit and power of godliness, how, it is asked, is this tendency to be checked? Obvi- ously the true and only effective and appropriate remedy for a season of spiritual declension is a season of spiritual revival. Such a season, by whatever agencies or instrumentalities brought about, by whatever adjuncts of questionable pro- priety it may be accompanied, and of greater or less extent, may properly be termed " a revival of religion." These manifestations, moreover, are to be re- garded as the result of a special and peculiar effusion of the Holy Spirit. All spu-itual life, all progress in the divine life, whether in the in- dividual or in the community, in the church or in the nation, is the Spirit of God. The whole period of grace, from ihe Day of Pentecost to the final judgment, is properly termed "the dispensa- tion of the Holy Spirit." Every true convert is begotten of the Spirit, and so becomes a child of God. The Spirit is always in and with the church, carrying forward the work of redemp- tion. Revivals in Biblical Times. — Mention, moreover, is made in the Scriptures of special dispensations of the Holy Spirit, of copious effusions of the Spirit, of particular times of refreshing from the presence of the Lord : " It shall come to pass afterward, that I will pour out my spirit upon all flesh." The fulfilment of this prediction of the prophet Joel began, as the apostle Peter testifies, on the Day of Pentecost next following the cru- cifixion of our Lord. So great and so efficacious was this outpouring of the Spirit, that about three thousand souls were that day made partakers of ' the divine nature by regeneration. And this was only the initial of a marvellous dispensation and display of divine grace in the renewal and sanc- tification of a great multitude of souls, extending through a continued series of years, \Yhereby the Christian Church was planted, took root, and filled the land of Israel with its blessed fruits. It was a great and glorious revival of religion. This was but the first great revival in the his- tory of the Christian Church. Times without number, at particular periods, in peculiar exigen- cies, God has interposed for the redemption of the church and for the triumphant advancement of the gospel of Christ. After a season of spiritual declension, when iniquity had come in, and rolled over the whole land like a desolating flood, a wave of renewing and sanctifying grace has spread itself over a whole region of country, whereby the attention of the multitude has been aroused, great numbers of the careless and thoughtless have been brought under saving conviction, and converts by thousands have been brought into the church of such as should be saved. Marvellous changes have thus been wrought in the aspect of large communities, affecting most favorably the character and the results of the preaching of the Word, the devotions of the closet, the family, and the sanctuary, and the interest taken by the multitude in spiritual and eternal concerns, result- ing in an extraordinary quickening of religious affections, a general stimulus of Christian graces, and the divine renewal of souls that were dead in trespasses and sins. Not only at Jerusalem, but everywhere in all the region round about where the apostles and apostolic men preached in those days, and far away among the Gentiles, — at Samaria, at Cjesa- rea, at the two Antiochs, at Lystra and Derbe, at Philippi and Thessalonica, at Athens and Corinth, at Ephesus and Rome, ■ — such scenes were wit- nessed. So many and so mighty were those spe- cial manifestations of divine power and grace in the gospel, by reason of such effusions of the Holy Spiiit, that Tertullian could say at the be- ginning of the third century, in his appeal to the civil authorities, " We have filled all places of your dominions, — cities, islands, corporations, councils, armies, tribes, the senate, the palace, the court of judicature." " So mightily grew the word of God, and prevailed." The Great Protestant Revival. — Passing over the intervening centuries, it may well be asked. What was the Protestant Reformation, that be- ginning in the fourteenth centurj' under Wiclif, and continued under Hus in the fifteenth, at length culminated in the sixteenth under Luther and Calvin, and a host of kindred spirits? It was a special dispensation of the Spirit, whereby the minds of men everywhere in Christian lands were turned towards the utterances of the Divine Word, the errors of the Papacy were discovered and renounced, the truth as it is in Jesus appre- hended and embraced by multitudes, and the churches built up in the faith of the gospel. It was a great and general revival of religion, where- by converts in tens of thousands were born of the Spirit of God. So thorough aud wide-spread were those conversions, that the fires of persecu- tion were kindled in vain. In spite of princes and prelates, converts to the pure faith of the gospel were made all over Germany, Switzerland, iFrance, Holland, and Great Britain, and not a few in Spain and Italy. It was the greatest re- vival of religion that the world had witnessed, and the church enjoyed, since the days of Con- stantine. Revivals in Great Britain and Ireland. — From that day, all along the centuries, the annals of the church abound in testimonies to the reality and efficacy of these special effusions of the Spirit. The Church of Scotland was born anew in the great revival under Knox and his brethren. "The whole nation," says Kirkton, "was con- verted by lump." Near the close of the sixteenth century, under the ministry of such divines as Wishart, Cooper, and Welsh, all Scotland was visited by an extraordinary effusion of the Holy Spirit. So mightily were men affected, that the whole General Assembly, four hundred ministers and elders, while renewing their solemn league and covenant, with sighs and groans and tears, were swayed by the Spirit, as the leaves of the forest by the " rushing mighty wind " of the driv- ing tempest. Similar scenes were further witnessed in Scot- land, beginning in 1625, at Stewarton, extending through the land, and into the north of Ireland, and eventuating in that remarkable display of divine grace in the Kirk of Scotland, where, in June, 1630, under the preaching of Bruce and Livingston, "near five hundred" souls, in one day, REVIVALS OP RELIGION. 2040 REVIVALS OP RELIGION. were brought under deep conviction of sin, and present!;^ into the light and liberty of the gospel. So, too, in 1638, on the occasion of signing the covenant, the whole country was stirred as by the mighty hand of God. " I have seen," says Livingston, "more than a thousand persons, all at once, lifting up their hands, and the tears fall- ing down their eyes," as with one heart they vowed to be the Lord's. Such was tlie prepara- tion in Scotland, and in England also, for the great reformation, that issued in the Common- wealth under Cromwell, and the prevalence of Puritanism in the Church of England. The Great Awakenincj in the Eicihteenth Century. — A period of great degeneracy, profligacy, and cbrruption, succeeded the restoration of the mon- archy, extending into the next century. At length, in 1730, an era of spiritual revival was ushered in, under the preaching of the Wesleys, Whitefield, and a host of like-minded men of God, during which the churches of England, Scot- land, and Ireland, were visited with a wonderful refreshing from the presence of the Lord. The wave of divine grace extended to the British Col- onies in America, where, under the preaching of Edwards, and Bellamy, and the Tennents, and others of kindred spirit, the churches everywhere, in and out of New England, were so graciously and powerfully revived, that the period has ever since been known as " The Great Awakening," so many were the revivals of religion among the Christian people of the Western World. These visitations of the Spirit were followed by the French War and the war of the American Revolution, resulting in a great decay of piety, and a wide diffusion of scoffing infidelity and profanity. During this period, here and there a church or neighborhood was favored with a gra- cious outpouring of the Spirit; but, for the most part, the churches in America were brought into a most lamentable state of spiritual declension. At length, in 1792, " commenced," says Dr. Griffin, "that series of revivals in America which has never been interrupted. I could stand at my door in New Hartford, Litchfield County, Conn.," he adds, "and number fifty or sixty congregations laid down in one field of divine wonders, and as many more in different parts of New England." The Grand Era of Modern Revivals. — All over the new settlements in the Western and Southern States of America, particularly in Kentucky and Tennessee, a work of divine grace, resulting from a special outpouring of the Spirit, beginning in 1796, and continuing for a dozen years or more, completely remoulded the character of the people, and led large numbers to forsake their sins and unbelief, and to connect themselves with the church. Again : after the war with Great Britain (1812-15), many of the churches were favoi-ed with revivals. Especially was this the case in the years 1827-32, when, under the preaching of Nettleton, Finney, and other evangelists, and by means of protracted meetings of four days' con- tinuance, or longer, revivals were multiplied all over the land. Very marked, also, was the wave of spiritual grace, that, beginning in the city of New York early in 1858, shortly after a season of widespread bankruptcy, spread from city to city, and town to town, all over the United States, until, within a single year, nearly half a million of converts had been received into the churches. It was confined to no denomination, no section, and no one class, in the communities where it prevailed. It was a great and wonderful revival. During the year 1837 a work of peculiar power began at a mission-station at Hilo, in Hawaii, under the preaching of Mr. Coan, and continued for a period of five years, during which 7,557 converts were received into that one church ; 1,705 having been admitted the same day, July 1, 1838. Since the days of the apostles, the world had scarcely witnessed so wonderful a display of di- vine grace. And now, within the past five years (1878-83), a still jnore powerful movement of the Spirit in the Telugu Mission, India, has resulted in bringing moi-e than twenty thousand hopeful converts into the churches ; the accessions during the past year (1882) averaging not less than two hundred per month. The evangelical churches in America very gen- erally, and to a considerable extent in Great Britain and Ireland, as also in the British Prov- inces, most heartily believe in revivals of religion, look for them, pray and ilabor for them, and de- rive much of their vitality from these effusions of the Spirit. A large proportion of their minis- try have been converted in revivals. A class of preachers known as "evangelists," or "revival- ists," devote themselves wholly to their promotion. Here and there, serious irregularities have been introduced by enthusiasts, and much harm done to religion. These offences, however, are excep- tional, and of very limited influence. Verygenei'- ally, revivals of religion are regarded by the best people as mighty helpers to the churches, and as most salutary in their influence over the church and the world. Lit. — Fleming: Fulfilling of the Scriptures, _ 1681, 2 vols. ; Edwards : Narrative of the Work of God in Northampton, Mass., 1736, and Thoughts on the Revival of Religion in New England, 1742 ; Robe : Narrative of the Extraordinary Work of the Spirit of God at Canibuslang, etc., 1742 ; The Chris- tian History, 1743-44, 2 vols. ; Journals of George Whitefield, and Journals of .John Wesley (various dates) ; Pringle : Prayer for the Revival of Re- ligion, 1796 ; Surprising Accounts of the Revival of Religion in the United States of America, 1802 ; Sprague [William B.] : T^ectures on Revivals of Religion, 1833 ; Finney [Charles G.] ; Lectures on Revivals of Religion, 1835; Duncan [Mrs. M. G. L.] : History of Revivals of Religion in the British Isles, 1840 ; Tracts of Glasgow Revival Tract Society, 1840; Douglas: On the Revival of Religion, 1840; Scotch Ministers: Lectures on the Revival of Re- ligion, 1840; Tkacy: The Great Awakening, lSi2 ; Seymour: Life and Times of the Countess of Huntingdon, 1844; Humphrey [Heman]: Revival Sketches and Manual, 1859 ; Narratives of Revivals of Religion in Scotland, Ireland, and Wales (Presb. BoardV, Speer [William] : The Great Revival of 1800; Yisn: Handbook of Revivals, 1874; HeADLEY [P. C.]: Evangelists in the Church, 1875; Porter: Revivals of Religion, 1S77 ; Newell: Revivals, How and When, 1882; [G. W. Hervby : Manual of Revivals, 1884] ; and memoirs of Whitefield, John and Charles Wesley, Robert and James Haldane, Gilbert Tennent, Nettleton, Finney, Kirk, Baker, and other evangelists. E. F. hatfield, D.d. REVOLUTION. 2041 REVOLUTION. REVOLUTION, The French. In Ecclesiastical Respects. — The violent commotion, -which, towards the close of the eighteenth century, almost de- stroyed the whole social and political organization of the French people, was principally and prima- rily an attack upon mediaeval feudalism ; but so close was the connection between the feudal State and the Koman-Catholic Church, that an attack on the former could not fail to affect also the latter. Moreover, all the writers and teachers who had engaged in undermining the founda- tions of the social fabric were utterly hostile, not only to the church and her oiBcials, but to reli- gion in general. A supercilious scepticism with respect to the positive doctrines of the church, and a fickle-hearted frivolity, which felt the moral code of Christianity as a galling chain, stirred up a suspicion that the clergy clung to their political privileges, their social organization, their wealth, not from any conviction of having a higher call- ing, but from mere egotism and arrogance. The idea of the church as an institution based on divine authority was gone, and to employ her wealth in aid of the bankrupt State seemed a simple and natural expedient. Before the outbreak of the Revolution, it was generally believed in the higher circles of French society, that the clergy, as a privileged class, would make common cause with the nobility ; but this supposition was rudely shaken at the very opening of the contest. While the nobility insisted upon strict class-separation in the debate and voting of the states-general, nearly one-half of the delegates of clergy (a hundred and forty- eight out of three hundred and eight) joined the third estate on June 22, 1789 ; and, two days later, a hundred and fifty-one other ecclesiastical delegates, led by Talleyrand, bishop of Autun, followed the example. The clergy began to become popular, the more so as they proved very liberal under the discussion of the financial emer- gency. The abolition of tithes, Aug. 7, with- out any recompense, they submitted to almost without resistance; and when, on Sept. 26, it was moved that all the gold and silver service of the church not absolutely necessary to a decent cele- bration should be used for the alleviation of the people, the Archbishop of Paris supported the move ; and on Sept. 29 the generous offer, esti- mated at a value of about a hundred and forty million francs, was accepted by the Assembly. But heavier sacrifices were soon demanded, — sacrifices which apparently meant ruin. AVhen Necker, in August, presented his desperate report on the finances, some one proposed to confiscate the estates of the church, and thus pay the debt of the State. But at that time the proposition met with no favor. It was again taken up, how- ever, in the fall, and then by one of the dignita^ Ties, of the church, Talleyrand. On Oct. 10 he moved that one-third of the annual revenue of the church, estimated at fifty million francs, should be used for covering the deficit of the budget, arguing that the clergy were not the proprietors, but only the usufructuaries, of the ecclesiastical estates; that the State had absolute authority over every corporation or society formed within its pale; that, according to the principle of the church, the incumbent of a benefice was only an administrator, and could appropriate for his own use only so much as was absolutely necessary, while the rest belonged to the poor. Under the hands of Mirabeau and Abbe Gringoire, the mo- tion received a much more radical redaction ; and on Nov. 2 the Assembly decided, with five hun- dred and eighty-six votes against three himdred and forty-six, that all ecclesiastical estates were in reality the property of the nation, and stood at the disposal of the nation on the condition that the expenses of the public worship and of the support of all church-ofBcials were first defrayed. Two days later the king confirmed the decree, and among the people the clergy found no sym- pathy : on the contrary, scofiBng caricatures were showered down upon them in pamphlets, theatri- cal plays, etc. The clergy still hoped that the decree would never be practically carried out, but in this they were completely mistaken. Other decrees were issued soon after, which showed that the proceed- ings of the Assembly were not governed by a mere regard to the financial emergency. On Feb. 11, 1790, all ecclesiastical orders and congre- gations were dissolved, with the exception only of those which were devoted to instruction of children and the nursing of the sick. The in- mates of the monasteries were allowed to return to civil life by a simple announcement to the nearest secular authority ; and according to the character of their monastic vows, the circum- stances of their monastery, their age, etc., they received a pension of from seven hundred to twelve himdred francs. The nuns, when they were not disposed to break their vows, were gen- erally allowed to remain in their monasteries; while, under similar circumstances, the monks were transferred to certain houses set apart for the purpose. It was evident that the Assembly considered the church the main-stay of all old superstition, the corner-stone of the feudal State, and that her total destruction was the real aim of the whole movement. On April 19 the admin- istration of all church-property was transferred to the State, and the Committee on Ecclesiastical Affairs was charged with selling four hundred million francs' worth of ecclesiastical estates ; and on May 29 the debate on the re-organization of the church, the civil constitution of the clergy, began. A new circumscription of the bishoprics, in order to make them conform with the depart- ments, reduced their number from a hundred and thirty-four to eighty-three. The bishops should be elected by the same body of voters as the members of the departmental Assembly, and should be installed by the metropolitan, or the oldest bishop of the province. To seek papal confirmation was formally forbidden. The chap- ters were dissolved, and only a limited number of episcopal vicars appointed for each see. Priests should be chosen by the qualified electors of the parish, and confirmed by the bishop. Their sal- ary was fixed at from twelve hundred to four thousand francs, besides house and garden ; that of the bishops, at twenty thousand francs, with the exception of the Bishop of Paris, who received fifty thousand francs. In the debate the clergy took very little part. Their principal speakers were the Archbishop of Aix and the Jansenist theologian Camiis, who tried hard to prove that the plan was in perfect harmony with the Kew REVOLUTION. 2042 REVOLUTION. Testament and the councils of the fourth century. On July 12 the' debate was ended, and the civil constitution of the clergy was ready: only the assent of the king was lacking. The king had been most painfully touched by the attacks on the church, and he actually felt his conscience hurt in giving his assent to the civil constitution of the clergy. In this emei-- gency he addressed a letter to the Pope, dated July 28, 1790 ; but the Pope's answer of Aug. 17 was vague and evasive, and on Aug. 24 the king confirmed the decree. Meanwhile the bishops were busy with organizing a passive resistance. Boisgelin, archbishop of Aix, drew up a protest, Exposition des principes, representing the contra- diction between the principles of the church and those of the civil constitution ; and a hundred and ten bishops signed the instrument, which on Nov. 9 was sent to the Pope through Cardinal Bernis. The National Assembly answered by a law of Nov. 27, which demanded that all ecclesi- astics should take an oath on the Constitution, and threatened those who refused with deposition, loss of civil rights, and punishment for disturb- ance of the public order. Abbe Gregoire was the first to take the oath; Talleyrand and seventy- one other clergymen followed the next day; but the rest of the three hundred ecclesiastics who sat in the National Assembly refused; and out in the country refusal became, in many districts, the rule. In Southern France, traces of rebellion began to show themselves. By a letter of March 10, 1791, to the archbishop of Aix, and a formal brief of April 13, the Pope now defined the posi- tion he proposed to maintain with resjject to the whole movement. He absolutely condemned the civil constitution of the clergy, declared all its prescripts and arrangements null and void, demanded that the clergymen who had taken the oath should retract within forty days, under penalty of deposition and excommunication, and exhorted the faithful among the people to keep aloof from any priest not recognized by the papal church. The declaration made a deep impression. On the one side, many priests retracted ; Talley- rand resigned his bishopric, and returned to civil life : on the other, the mob of Paris burnt the Pope in effigie, and the National Assembly closed all the churches in which the priests did not con- form to the civil constitution. But, on account of an earlier law establishing freedom of worship, it was not possible for the National Assembly to forbid the obstinate priests to celebrate service in private houses and chapels ; and it now became a point of honor among all royalists to support and encourage those priests who had not taken the oath. By the king's unsuccessful attempt at flight and the Pope's too hasty letter of con- gratulation, — which latter fell into the hands of the revolutionists, and was published, ^ — the ten- sion of the situation was very much increased. On Sept. 14 the National Assembly incorporated the papal dominions of Avignon and Venaissin with France ; and on Nov. 29 it issued a law that every priest V. ho had not taken the oath should present himself within eight days, and take the oath, before the municipal authority, under penal- ty of losing his pension, and, according to cir- cumstances, being punished witii imprisonment. The king vetoed the law, but with no other result than a palpable increase of the hatred against him and the church ; and when he also vetoed the law of May 27, 1792, which condemned all refractory priests to deportation in order to stop their re-aotionary agitation, the National Assem- bly was, by the fury of the mob, forced to super- sede the royal veto. Deportation to Guiana wa» impossible, as the government lacked the neces- sary means. But very severe measures were em- ployed, and in a very short time the situation of the non-sworn clergy became terrible. A great number of priests were dragged to Paris, and imprisoned in the monastery of the Carmelites : eighteen of them were murdered in the streets' by the mob, and sixty more in the courtyard. One Rossignol boasted that he had killed more than sixty-eight priests. Fortunate were those who escaped by flight. More than forty thousand French priests fled to England, Spain, the Papal States, etc. In England alone about eight thou- sand found refuge. Nevertheless, the whirlwind was yet far from having reached the acme of its fury. A number of laws now appeared, purporting to dissolve the connection between Christianity and civil life. A law of Sept. 20, 1792, defined marriage as a merely civil contract, dissolvable by common con- sent, and transferred the registration of births, deaths, and marriages, from the ecclesiastical to the civil authorities. A law of Sept. 22 inaugu- rated the complete re-arrangement of the cal- endar, — the year should be reckoned from the establishment of the republic ; the month should be divided into three decades, each of ten days, the first of which should be kept a holiday ; the five surplus days of the new year should be feast- days, in honor of Genius, Labor, etc. ; the cele- bration of the Chri.stian Sunday was positively pi-ohibited. On the whole, the convention proved much more hostile to Christianity than any of its predecessors. Public avowals of atheism became quite common. On Aug. 25, 1793, a deputation of teachers and pupils presented itself before the convention ; and the pupils begged that they should not any longer be trained " to pray in the name of a so-called god," but be well instructed in the maxims of liberty and equality; and on Nov. 1 another deputation, from Nantes, openly demanded the abolition of the Roman-Catholic service. The granting of the demand was not far off. On Nov. 7 a letter from a priest was read aloud in the convention, beginning thus : " I am a priest ; that is, I am a charlatan." Imme- diately after, the Archbishop of Paris, an old man, Gobel by name, entered the hall, laid down his staff and his ring on the president's table, re- nounced his office in the Roman-Catholic Church, and declared, amidst immense applause, that he recognized no other national worship than that of liberty and equality. On '^ov. 10 the municipal council of Paris celebrated a grand festival in the Cathedral of Notre Dame, in honor of Reason. Mademoiselle JNIaillard of the Grand Opera, in white robe and blue cap, represented the goddess of Reason. On men's shoulders she was carried from the church to the convention. The presi- dent embraced her ; and the whole convention accompanied her back to the church, and partici- pated in the festival thus sanctioning the aboli- tion of Christianity, and the introduction of the REVOLUTION. 2043 REYNOLDS. ■worship of Reason. On Nov. 13 all magistrates were authorized to receive the resignations of the clergy, and all priests were admonished to re- nounce Christianity; and on Xov. 22 those bishops and priests who willingly abdicated were granted pensions. The church-buildings were used as temples of Reason, as storehouses, as sheep-pens, «tc. : not a few were destroyed. It must not be understood, however, that all religion had died out in France : by no means. Everywhere the people, especially the women, continued to visit the churches ; and even in the convention, voices were heard denouncing the rude, anti-religious demonstrations. Singularly enough, it was Robespierre who gave the first sign of a coming re-action. On Xov. 21 he hotly attacked Hebert in the club of the Jacobins. "There are people," he said, "who, under the pretence of destroying superstition, try to estab- lish a religion of atheism. But atheism is only for the aristocrats ; while the idea of a Supreme Being, who defends innocence, and punishes crime, is for the people." The speech was not without efiect, and Robespierre neglected no op- portunity to push his plans. Finally, on Jlay 7, 1794, he persuaded the con%'ention to decree that the French people acknowledges the existence of a Supreme Being and the immortality of the soul, and that festivals ought to be introduced tending to re-awaken in men thoughts of the Divinity. The first festival was held on June 8. Robes- pierre, as president of the convention, appeared with a huge bouquet in his hand, and colored plumes in his hat, and made a politico-moral speech, interspersed with various kinds of child- ish mummeries. Of course the infidels laughed, and the faithful were scandalized : nevertheless, the festival denotes the turning-point of the move- ment. The constitution of Aug. 22, 1795, gxanted religious liberty. Christian worship was tolerated once more ; and in many places the congregations received back their church-buildings on the sim- ple condition that they should themselves defray the expenses to keep them in repair ; also a great number of emigrant priests returned to France. Many restrictions, however, still remained in force, — thus, it was not allowed to use bells ; and the persecutions did not cease altogether. After the coup d'etat of Aug. 24, 1797, it was demanded that aU priests should take an oath on the new constitution, which bomid them to hate royalty, and devote themselves wholly to the republic. About seventeen thousand clergymen are said to have taken the oath, but such as would not were treated with great severity. Three- hundred and eighty were deported to Guiana, and as many ■died miserably at Oleron and Rhee. The complete restoration of the Roman-Catho- lic Church proceeded, generally speaking, along with the growing influence of Napoleon. Immedi- ately after his return from Egypt, the imprisoned clergymen were set free, Dec. 28, 1799 ; the civil authorities were instructed to let alone all reli- gious affairs; the churches were allowed to be kept open, not only on the first day of the decade, but on any day it pleased the congregation ; the number of the revolutionary festivals was dimin- ished to two ; and the civil oath, binding them to hate royalty, was not demanded. In spite of the rapid spreading of infidelity during the last ten years, and though the people had, so to speak, been weaned from religious worship by the Revo- lution, about forty thousand congregations imme- diately returned to the Roman-Catholic Church ; and on April 18, 1801, semce was celebrated, on the order of Napoleon, in the most solemn man- ner, in the Cathedral of Notre Dame. He hoped thus to form a solid party in support of his own power, and he partly succeeded. A peculiar diffi- culty arose from the dissension which prevailed among the clergy. Those priests who had taken the oath on the Constitution considered them- selves as the true bearers of the French Church, and prided themselves on ha^ig remained stead- fast at their post in the days of danger; while the non-sworn priests — the emigrants, who now returned — looked down upon them as apostates and infidels, who had suffered themselves to be swayed by the cii'cumstances like reeds by the winds. Napoleon first entered into negotiations with the former partj", the constitutional priests ; but, when he saw that not one of the non-sworn priests was present at the great National Council, opened by Bishop Gregoire on June 29, or took the least notice of its proceedings, he immediately changed policy, and opened direct negotiations with the Pope through the emigTant bishops, — negotiations which finally resulted in the Con- cordat. See Concordat, Fkaxce, Hcguexots, etc. Lit. — Baeruel : Histoire du clergd en France pendant la revolution, London, 1794-1804, 2 vols. ; Abbe Jaufeet: Memoires, Paris, 1803, 2 vols.; Gregoire : Memoirs, Paris, 1837, 2 vols. ; Abbe Jager : Hist, de Ve'glise de France pendant la revo- lution, Paris, 1852, 2 vols. ; Aug. Theisee : Docu- ments ine'dits, etc., Paris, 1857, 2 vols. ; [Pressexse : The Church and the French Revolution, a History of the Relations of Church and State from 1789 to 180S. London, 1869]. KLtiPFEL. REYNOLDS, Edward, D.D., Chiuch-of-England prelate; b. at Southampton, 1599; d. at Norwich, Jan. 16, 1676. He was educated at Mei-ton Col- lege, Oxford ; became probation-fellow in 1620, on account of "his uncommon skill in the Greek tongue ; " was preacher at Lincoln's Inn, Lon- don, and rector of Braynton, Northamptonshire ; was the " pride and glory of the Presbyterian party," a member of the Westminster Assembly of Divines, a very eloquent, learned, and popular preacher, though his voice was harsh, and a cau- tious man, though lacking in firmness. On the ejection, by the Long Parliament (1646), of ob- noxious heads of colleges, he succeeded Dr. Fell as vice-chancellor of the university of Oxford, and dean of Christ Church. From 1651 to 1659 he was deprived of his deanery, because he refused, in common with the Presbyterians, to take the " Engagement," and therefore accepted the vica- riate of St. Laurence Jewry, London. In 1659 he was restored, conformed at the Restoration, and was in that year (1660) chaplain to the king, warden of Merton College, and made bishop of Norwich, without, however, surrendering his Pres- byterian view, that a bishop was only a chief pres- byter, and governed with the assistance of his co-presbyters. In the Assembly he was on the committee to draw up the Confession of Faith, and in 1661 he was a member of the Savoy Con- ference. In the latter capacity his weakness REYNOLDS. 2044 RICCI. showed itself. He canied, however, his Puri- tanic principles into practice even while a bishop, and lived simply for his diocese. His Works were first collected and published in 1658 ; best edition, with Life, by A. Chalmers, London, 1826, 6 vols. REYNOLDS (RAINOLDS), John, D.D., Puri- tan ; b. at Pinho, Devonshire, 1549 ; d. at Oxford, May 21, 1607. He was successively scholar, fellow, and president of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. For a while he was dean of Lincoln (1593), but resigned when chosen president. He was one of the great Puritan leaders, and played a prominent part in the Hampton Court Conference, where he had the distinguished honor of suggesting to King James the desirability of a new translation of the Bible. (See Englisi-i Bible Versions.) He was appointed one of the revisers, and as- signed to tlie committee to translate the prophets, but he did not live to finish his part. He was endowed with a wonderful memory, and passed for a marvel of scholarship. SeeNEALE: History oftlie Puritans, vol. i. 252 ; J. I. Mombeet, Hand- book of English Versions, pp. 338, 345. RHE'CIUM (breach) now Rheggio, with ten thou- sand inhabitants, in extreme south-west Italy, opposite Messina. Paul stopped there a day on his way to Rome (Acts xxviii. 13). RHEGIUS (not RE!g1US, for his family name was " Rieger," and not, as his own son, and, after him, many others have it, "Konig"), Urbanus, b. at Langenargen, on the Lake of Constance, in the latter part of May, 1489 ; d. at Celle, May 27, 1541. He studied jurisprudence at Freiburg under Zasius the humanist, among the jurists; but he seems to have been chiefly occupied with the study of classical languages and literatures under the celebrated humanists, Capito and 2Esti- campianus ; and such progTess did he make in that field, that in 1517 he was crowned as imperial orator and poeta laureatus by the' Emperor Maxi- milian. Theological influences, however, were not altogether lacking, even at that time. In Freiburg he became so intimate with Eck, that in 1510 he followed him to Ingolstadt; and in 1518 he wrote his first theological work, De dig- nitate sacerdotum. In 1519 he was ordained a priest. He was at that time in pei-fect harmony with the Church of Rome, the shield-bearer of Eck; and when, in 1520, he was called as preacher to Augsburg, his adoption of the principles of the Reformation could at all events not have been publicly known. It seems that the controversy between Eck and Luther gradually drew him towards the latter, and that the promulgation of the papal bull decided him. In Augsburg he openly preached the views of Luther : against the bull he wrote Anzaygung dass die Romisch Bull, etc.. He was mentioned as author of many of those satirical pamphlets which in that year were pub- lished at Augsburg against the Romanists ; and the clergy of the city were glad, when, in 1521, an incident offered them an opportunity of hav- ing him superseded by a trustworthy Romanist, Dr. Kratz. After a short stay at Hall in the valley of the Inn, Rhegius returned in 1524 to Augsburg, and was appointed preacher at the Church of Ste. Anna. The state of affairs in the city was veiy critical. All the most violent elements of the time were seething within its walls, and Rhe- gius was not exactly a strong man. When the Peasants' War approached the city, he wrote Von Leibeigenscliaft oder Knechtschaft (1525) and ScUussrede von weltlicher Gewalt ; but he did not satisfy the lower classes, which sympathized with the peasants, and the Romanists ascribed the calamity to him and his party. When the great controversy broke out between the Swiss and the German Reformers concerning the Lord's Supper, his Wider den neuen Irrsal Dr. Karlstadl (1524) was found weak, and he was for some time strongly drawn towards the Zwinglian camp; first after 1527 he is again found firmly planted on Lutheran ground. Shortly before, the Ana- baptists had entered the city, and formed a con- siderable party. Rhegius's Warnung wider den neuen Tauforden (1527) was not an unsuccessful move; but the disturbances were not quelled until the city council stepped forward, and decided to employ very severe measures, as, for instance, capital punishment. With the opening of the diet of 1530 Rhegius's activity in the city came to a sudden end. Immediately after his entrance, June 16, the emperor forbade the evangelical ministers to preach ; and, shortly after, Rhegius entered the service of Duke Ernest of Liineburg, and settled at Celle. His labor in Northern Germany for the estab- lishment of the Reformation in Liineburg, Han- over, etc., was very successful ; and to this last period of his life belong also some of his best works : Formulae caute loquendi, 1535, in Latin, and 1536 in German, often reprinted, and consid- ered almost as a symbolical book ; Dialogus von der trostreichen Predigt (1537), a devotional book very much read during the sixteenth and seven- teenth centuries, etc. In the present century the character of the man has been unfavorably judged by Ddllinger, Keim, Keller, and others; and their charges of vanity, lack of strength, etc., are by no means unfounded. He was a humanist, and he fancied himself a poet. Nevertheless, he was one of those humanists who did 'not shrink back from the Reformation when it became deadly earnestness. His works, nearly complete, were edited by his son, in twelve volumes folio, Nurem- berg, 1561-77. [His Formulm was edited by H. Steinmetz, Celle, 1880.] SeelJHLHOEN: Urbanus PJiegius, Elberfeld, 1861. G. UHLHORN. RHETORIC, Sacred. See Homiletics. RHODES, an island of the Mediterranean, ten miles off the coast of Asia Minor, with a capital of the same name, became early known as a centre of commerce. The braz^ii statue at the entrance of the harbor, the so-called Colossus of Rhodes, was one of the seven wonders of the world. Paul visited the city on his return from his third missionary journey (Acts xxi. 1). The island vindicated its independence until the time of Vespasian, but under the Roman rule its pros- perity gradually declined. The city, however, flourished much as a possession of the Knights of St. John, the last outpost of the Christians in the East (1399-1522) ; but, after its surrender to Soli- man the Great, it fell rapidly into decay. See Ed. Biliotti et l'abbJ: Cottret : Vile de Rhodes, Compiegne, 1882. RICCI, Lorenzo, b. at Florence, Aug. 2, 1709; d. in Rome, Nov. 24, 1775. He entered the order of the Jesuits in 1718, and became its general in RICCI. 2045 RICHARD. )8. He was a haughty and imperious man, suited for the position. To all propositions of orm, from the Pope and from the Koman- tholic princes, he answered, "■ Sint ut sunt, aut 1 sint." The consequence of which was, that : Pope dissolved the order by the bull Dominus redemptor noster, July 21, 1773. Ricci was con- 3d in the Castle of St. Angelo, and remained re for the rest of his life. His biogTaphy s written by Carraccioli in Italian, and by rNTE-Foi in French. IICCI, Scipione de', b. at Florence, Jan. 9, H; d. at the Villa Rignano, Jan. 27, 1810. ucated for the church, and ordained a priest 1766, he was shortly after appointed auditor to I papal nuncio at Florence, in 1776 vicar-gen- 1 to the Archbishop of Florence, and in 1780 hop of Pistoja and Prato. He was a pious n, and sincerely devoted to the reform of the man-Catholic Church; and he found warm iport in the grand duke Leopold, a brother of ieph II. But the reforms on which the dio- an synod of Pistoja (1786) agxeed, and which the gTand duke were laid before a general scan synod held at Florence in 1787, were re- ted by that assembly ; and agents from Rome, ;ether with the monks, brought about uproari- ! riots in Prato, which had to be put down by litary force. In 1790 the grand duke left the mtry, and succeeded his brother as emperor of rmany; and in 1791 Ricci felt compelled to iicate, and retire into private life. In 1794 lowed the papal condemnation of the proposi- ns of the synod of Pistoja. See Ada et Decreta nodi Pistoriensis, Pavia, 1788; Acta congregatio- archiepiscoporum et episcoporum Hetrurice Flo- .lics, Bamberg, 1790-94 ; De Potter : Vie de Ipion de Ricci, Brussels, 1825, 3 vols. ; Memorie Scipione de' E., edited by Gelli, Florence, 55. 2 vols. BEKTRATH. illCE, John Holt, D.D., Presbyterian ; b. near w London, Bedford County, Va., Nov. 28, 1777; in Prince Edward County, Va., Sept. 3, 1831. ; studied at Liberty-Hall Academy (later, Wash- fton College) ; was tutor in Hampden- Sidney Uege, 1796-99 and 1800-04 ; in 1800 began the dy of theology ; was licensed in 1803 ; ordained i- installed pastor at Cub Creek, Charlotte unty, Va., in 1804. In May, 1812, he came to 1 first Presbyterian Church in Richmond, Va. ; up to that time the Presbyterians and Epis- )alians had worshipped together. In 1815 he rted The Christian Monitor, the first publication the kind in Richmond, and in 1817, The Vir- ia Evangelical and Literary Magazine (discon- ued in 1829). In 1819 he was moderator of ! Greneral Assembly at Philadelphia. In 1823 was elected president of Princeton College, i professor in the Union Theological Seminary, rginia. He accepted the latter position, and s installed in 1824. His publications consist iefly of sermons, but include Memoir of Rev. mes Brainerd Taylor (1830), and a work which ide a great stir. Historical and Philosophical Con- eralions on Religion, addressed to James Madison 332). See Sprague : Annals, iv. 325. RICE, Nathan Lewis, D.D., Presbyterian ; b. in irrard County, Ky., Dec. 29, 1807 ; d. in Bracken unty, Ky., June 11, 1877. He studied at Centre Uege, Danville, Ky.,' but did not graduate ; was licensed ; went to Princeton for further theological study; and finally was settled at Bardstown, Ky., 1833. Noticing the success of the Roman Catho- lics in alluring Protestant children to their schools at Bardstown, he established there an academy for each sex, and also a newspaper, the Western Protestant, afterwards merged in the Louisville Presbyterian Herald. From 1841 to 1844 he was stated supply at Paris, Ky. In 1843 he had the famous debate at Lexington, Ky., with Alexander Campbell, founder of the Disciples, on the subject of baptism. He ably held his own, and won gTeat repute. From 1844 to 1853 he was pastor in Cincinnati. Dm'ing this period he held three other public debates : (1) in 1845, with Rev. J. A. Blanchard, on slavery ; (2) in 1845, with Rev. E. Pringree, on universal salvation ; (3) in 1851, with Rev. J. B. Purcell (afterwards Roman-Catholic archbishop; see art.), on Romanism. These de- bates, except the last, were published, and widely circulated. From 1853 to 1858 he was pastor in St. Louis, Mo. While there, edited the St.-Louis Presbyterian. In 1855 he was elected moderator of the General Assembly (Old School) at Nash- ville, Tenn. From 1858 to 1861 he was pastor, and fioui 1859, also theological professor, at Chi- cago, 111. ; from 1861 to 1867, pastor in New- York City ; from 1868 to 1874, president of Westmin- ster College, jNIo. ; and from 1874 till his death, professor of theology in the theological seminary at Danville, Ky. Dr. Rice was a great debater and an able preacher. In New York he was lis- tened to by crowded assemblies. He was one of the leaders of his denomination. His publica- tions, besides the debates already referred to, in- clude God Sovereign, and Man Free, Philadelphia ; Romanism not Christianity, New York, 1847 ; Bap- tism, St. Louis, 1855 ; Immortality, Philadelphia. RICH, Edmund. See Eadmund, St. RICHARD, Fitzralph (Armachanus), Archbish- op of Armagh, and Primate of Ireland; d. at Avignon, France, December, 1359. He was fellow of Balliol College, Oxford ; was by Edward IIL promoted to be archdeacon of Lichfield; and in 1333 became chancellor of the university of Ox- ford. He was for a time private chaplain to Richard de Bury, bishop of Durham (1333-45) ; but in July, 1347, he was consecrated archbishop of Armagh. He is chiefly known as an opponent of the mendicant orders, but left theological lectures, a commentary upon the Sentences of Peter Lombard, and two apologetico-polemical works, — one against Judaism (De intentionibus Judceo- rum) ; another against the errors of the Armenian Church, which wished to unite with the Roman Church, in nineteen books, called his Summa. The latter was prepared about 1350, at the request of John, bishop-elect of Khelat, and his brother Nerses, archbishop of Menaz-Kjerd. His attack on the mendicant orders was publicly begun in a course of eight sermons he preached in London, in which he maintained that Jesus never taught any one to beg, and that mendicancy was no part of the Franciscan rule. His discourses made a great stir. They were replied to by Roger Con- way, D.D., of Oxford, a Franciscan. He was accused in the papal court, and therefore obliged to journey to Avignon in 1357 to defend himself. His travelling-expenses were probably partly paid by his fellow-bishops. He delivered his ad(&ess RICHARD OP ST. VICTOR. 2046 RICHMOND. in the council before Pope and cardinals, Nov. 8, 1357. But his bold move was unsuccessful. The story of his Bible translation into Irish is insuffi- ciently supported. His works in print are, Defen- sio curatorum adversus Fratres mendicanies, Paris, 1496 ; Sermones quatuor ad Crucem, London, 1612. See John Wiclif, by Lechlek, Lorimer's transla- tion, vol. i. pp. 75-88, pp. 117, 118. RICHARD OF ST. VICTOR, d. 1173. Very little is known of his personal life. Pie was a native of Scotland, but became very early an in- mate of the Augustine abbey of St. Victor, in Paris. He was chosen prior in 1162 ; and after a long contest he finally succeeded in driving away the abbot Ervisias, who scandalized the brethren by his frivolous life. Of Richard's writings quite a number are still extant, — exegetical, moral, theological, and mystical. As his method was the mystical allegory, his exegetical works have now only historical interest. His moral works (i>e siaLu inierioris hominis, De eruditione interioris hominis, etc.) are also strongly colored by mysti- cism. Of his theological works, the principal are, De verba incarnato, in which he praises sin as the Jelix culpa, because, if there had been no sin, there would have been no incarnation ; De trinitale, one of his most original productions >; De Emmanuele, against the Jews, etc. The most celebrated of his mystical works is his De gratia contemplationis, in which he gives the psychological theory of con- iemplatio as an intuition, an immediate vision of the divine, in contradistinction from cogitaiio, the common reasoning, and meditatio, the pondering on a single, special subject. The first edition of his works is that of Paris, 1528; the best, that of Rouen, 1 650. See J. G. v. Engelhardt : Richard von St. Ficior, Erlangen,1838; Liebnee: Richardin doctrina, Gottingen, 1837-39. C. SCHMIDT. RICHARD, Charles Louis, b. at Blainville-sur- Eau, Lorraine, 1711; executed at Mons, Aug. 16, 1794. He entered the Dominican order in 1727 ; taught theology in Paris ; and took active part in the polemics against the encyclopedists. At the outbreak of the Revolution he settled in Belgium, and was overtaken by the French army of occu- pation. Too old to flee, he was seized, and sen- tenced to be shot, on account of his Parallele des Juifs qui ont crucijie Jesus Christ avec les Fran- fais qui ont tue' leur roi. His Dictionnaire des sci- ences eccle'siastiques (1760, 5 vols.) and Analyse des conciles (1722-77, 5 vols.) are still of value. RICHARDS, James, D.D., Presbyterian; b. at ITew Canaan, Conn., Oct. 29, 1767 ; d. at Auburn, N.Y., Aug. 20, 1848. He entered Yale College in 1789 ; but poverty and ill health compelled him to leave at the end of freshman year. In 1793 he was licensed, and in May, 1797, ordained at Morristown, N.J. In 1805 he was moderator of the General Assembly. In 1809 he settled at Newark, N.J. In 1819 he was elected professor of theology in Auburn Theological Seminary, New York, but declined : however, upon his re- election in 1823, he accepted, and served the seminary with remarkable fidelity and ability. After his death, there were published his Lectures on Mental Philosophy and Theology, with a Sketch of his Life (New York, 1846), and A Selection of Twenty Sermons, with an Essay on his Character by William B. Sprague, D.D. (Albany, 1849). See Sprague : Annals, iv. 99. RICHARDS, William, American Congrega- tional missionary ; b. at Plainfield, Mass., Aug. 22, 1792 ; d. at Honolulu, Sandwich Islands, Deo. 7, 1847. He was graduated froni Williams Col- lege, 1819, and from Andover Seminary, 1822, and on Nov. 19, 1822, sailed for the Sandwich Islands, under commission of the American Board. He was stationed at Lahaina, on the Island of Manui, and was very successful. In 1837 he returned home ; went out again the next year ; and, being taken into the king's confidence, he was made his counsellor, interpreter, and chaplain, while still continuing missionary labors. In 1842, on the independence of the islands being guaranteed by England, Belgium, Prance, and the United States of America, he was sent as ambassador to England and several other foreign courts. In 1845 he returned to Plonolulu, and was appointed minister of public instruction, which made him a mem- ber of the king's privy council. See Speague : Annals, ii. 688. RICHELIEU, Armand Jean Duplessis de, b. in Paris, Sept. 5, 1585 ; d. there Dec. 4, 1642. He was educated for the military profession, but took holy orders, and was in 1607 consecrated bishop of Lu9on, and in 1622 made a cardinal. His career as a statesman he began in 1614, when sent as a deputy of the clergy to the states-gen- eral ; and from 1622 to his death he governed France as its prime-minister. The great aim of his foreign policy was the humiliation of the house of Austria, the baffling of its aspirations to a world's empire ; that of his home policy was the annihilation of the independence of the feudal lords, the establishment of the absolute authority of the crown. Pie succeeded in both fields. Very characteiistic are his relations with the Protes- tants. Making a sharp distinction between reli- gion and politics, he allied himself with the Protestants in Germany against the emperor; while in France he completely destroyed the po- litical influence of the Huguenots. By the edict of grace (NImes, July 14, 1629) the fortifications of the cities of the Huguenots were razed, and their synods were not allowed to meet unless by authority of the government ; but in other re- spects the freedom of worship, and the civil equality of Huguenots and Roman Catholics, were fully respected. See Robson : Life of Cardi- nal Richelieu, 1854 ; Schybergson : Le due de Rohan et la chute du parti protestant en France, Paris, 1880. RICHER, Edmund, b. under humble circum- stances at Chource, a village of Champagne, Sept. 30, 1560 ; d. in Paris, Nov. 28, 1631. He entered the service of the church; studied theology; was made a doctor in 1590, and director of the College of Cardinal Lemoine in 1594. In 1629 he pub- lished his De ecclesiastica politica potestate (Co- logne, 2 vols.), a learned and acute argument. in favor of Gallicanism, defending the views of the Sorbonne, that the oecumenical council stands above the Pope, that in secular affairs the State is entirely independent of the Chui'ch, etc. He was deposed, however, and, with the assassin's knife on his neck, compelled to recant. See his life by Baillet, Amst., 1715. C. SCHMIDT. RICHMOND, Legh, Church of England; b. at Liverpool, Jan. 29, 1772; d- at Turvey, Bedford- shire, May 8, 1827. He was graduated at Trinity RICHTBR. 2047 RIDLEY. liege, Cambridge, 1794, and proceeded M.A., )7. In the latter year he was ordained, and 3ame a curate on the Isle of Wight. In 1805 was made rector of Turvey. While a child, leaping from a wall, he was lamed for life. ! edited The Fathers of the English Church, or Selection from the Writings of the Reformers mid irty Protestant Divines of the Church of England, h Memorials of their Lices and Writings (London, 37-12, 8 vols.), and wrote Domestic Portraiture, the Successful Application of Religious Principle the Education of a Family, exemplified in the emoirs of the Three Deceased Children of the Rev. gh Richmond (9th ed., 1861). But the work which he is best known is The Annals of the \or, 1814, 2 vols. ; which contain those immor- i tracts. The Dairyman's Daughter, The Negro rvant, and The Young Cottager, previously pub- hed separately. Of the first, four million copies, nineteen languages, had been circulated before 49. See his Memoirs by Rev. T. S. Geimshaw, indon, 1828; 9th ed., 1829; edited by Bishop T. Bedell, Philadelphia, 1846. RICHTER, /Emilius Ludwig, b. at Stolpen, near •esden, Feb. 15, 1808; d. in Berlin, May 8, 64. He studied jurisprudence, more especially jlesiastical law, at tlie university of Leipzig, d was appointed professor there in 1835, at irburg in 1838, and at Berlin in 1846. His )rks on ecclesiastical law — Lehrbuch des kathol. d evangel. Kirchenrechts, Leipzig, 1842 (7th ed. 74) ; Die evangelische Kirchenordnungen des 16ten hrhunderls, Weimar, 1846 ; Corpus Juris Ca- nici, 1833-39 (the best edition of that work) ; mones et Decreta Concilii Tridentini, Leipzig, 53, etc. — have exercised a decisive influence that branch of study. RICHTER, Christian Friedrich Gottlieb, M.D., !rman hymnologist ; b. at Sorau, Silesia, Oct. 5, 76; d. at Halle, Oct. 5, 1711. After studying jdicine and theology at Halle, he was appointed Francke superintendent of the academy there, d, later, physician to the famous Halle Orphan- 3use. He was a Pietist. He wrote thirty-three cellent hymns, of which several have been trans- ied; e.g., "Jesus my king! thy mild and kind ntrol," "O watchman! will the night of sin," My soul before thee prostrate lies," "O God! lose attributes shine forth in turn," "Thou imb of God ! thou Prince of peace I " " 'Tis not o hard, too high, an aim." He also wrote four markable treatises upon the bodily sufferings of irist dui-ing his crucifixion, contained in vol. iii. his Opuscula Medica, Leipzig, 1780-81, 3 vols. jr a brief account of his views, see Lange : atthew, p. 523, note. See Richter's Leben u. Irken als Arzi, Theolog. u. Dichter, Berlin, 1865 ; id Miller : Singers and Songs of the Church, >. 141, 142. RIDDLE, Joseph Esmond, Church of England; about 1804; d. at Cheltenham, Aug. 27, 1859. e proceeded M.A. at Oxford, 1831; was ordained iest, 1832, and settled at Leckhampton, near leltenham, 1840. In 1852 he was Bampton lec- rer. He is best known for his Latin-English Ictionary, founded on Freund, London, 1849, and dth T. K. Arnold) English-Latin Lexicon, 1849 ; it he also wrote the valuable Manual of Christian itiquities, London, 1839, 2d ed., 1843 ; Ecclesi- iical Chronology, 1840 ; Natural History of In/- 23 — III delity (his Bampton Lectures), 1852, besides other works. RIDCLEY, Thomas, D.D,, Independent; b. in London about 1667 ; d. there March 27, 1734. In 1695 he became assistant of Thomas Gouge ; and in 1712, in conjunction with John Fames, estab- lished a theological school, in which he delivered his highly esteemed lectures upon the Westmin- ster Assembly's Catechism, published as A Body of Divinity, London, 1731-33, 2 vols. ; new ed., revised, corrected, and illustrated, with notes by Rev. J. M. Wilson, Edinb., 1844, N.Y., 1855. RIDLEY, Nicholas, English reformer and mar- tyr ; was b. early in the sixteenth century at Wil- nianstock, Northumberland; d. at the stake, in Oxford, Oct. 16, 1555. After studying at the grammar-school at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, he en- tered Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, in 1518 ; was supported by his uncle, Dr. Robert Ridley, fellow of Queen's College ; and in 1522 became fellow of Pembroke. In 1527 he took orders, and went to the Sorboune, Paris, and Louvain, for further stud- ies. Returning to Cambridge in 1529, he became senior proctor in 1533. He was at that time much admired as a preacher. Fox calls his sermons "pithy sermons." Cranmer made him his do- mestic chaplain, and vicar of Heme, East Kent. In 1540 he became king's chaplain, and master of Pembroke Hall, and in 1541 prebendary of Can- terbury. At this period he was accused, at the instigation of Bishop Gardiner, of preaching against the Six Articles. The case being referred to Gardiner, Ridley was acquitted. In 1545 he was made prebendaiy of Westminster, in 1547 bishop of Rochester, and in 1550 Bonner's suc- cessor in the see of London. Bishop Ridley's name will always be mentioned in the same breath with those of Cranmer and Latimer, and honored for its distinguished connection with the emanci- pation from the errors and superstitions of the papal system. In 1545 he publicly renounced the doctrine of transubstantiation, to which he was led by reading Bertram's Book on the Sacrament. He committed to memory, in the walks of Pembi'oke Hall, nearly all the Epistles in Greek. He was committed to the Tower, July 26, 1553, from which he was removed with Latimer to the jail of Bo- cardo, Oxford. There he was burned before Bal- liol Hall. The night before his execution he said to some friends, with whom he had supped, "I mean to go to bed, and, hj God's will, to sleep as quietly as ever I did in my life." He seems to have been less imperturbable than his fellow-mar- tyr, Latimer, who, on the way to the stake, cheered him up with the famous words, " Be of good com- fort. Master Ridley : play the man. We shall this day light such a candle, by God's gi-ace, in Eng- land, as, I trust, shall never be put out." Fox has preserved an interesting account of Ridley, and describes him as " a man beautified with excellent qualities, so ghostly inspired and godly learned, and now written, doubtless, in the Book of Life," etc. Quarles has a poem on Ridley, in which he says,— "Kome thundered death; but Ridley's dauntless eye Star'd in Death's face, and scorned Death standing bye. In spite of Rome, for England's faith he stood; And in the flames he sealed it with his blood." Ridley, although a learned man, left few writ- RIBGER. 2048 RIMMON. ings behind him. They are, A Treatise against Image- Worship : Declaration against Transubstanlia- tion ; A Piteous Lamentation of tlie Miserable Estate of the Church in England in the Time of the Late tteooltfrom the Gospel, etc. And there have been published by the Religious Tract Society, London, Treatise and Letters of Dr. Nicholas Ridley, and by the Parker Society, The Works of Nicholas Ridley, Cambridge, 1841. See Fox : Acts and Monuments ; Dr. Gloucester Ridley : Life of Bishop Ridley, London, 1783. D. S. schaff. RIECER, Georg Conrad, b. at Cannstadt, March 7, 1687 ; d. at Stuttgart, April 16, 1743. He studied theology at Tiibingen, and was ap- pointed professor at the gymnasium of Stuttgart in 1721, and pastor of St. Leonhard in 1733. He was one of the most celebrated preachers of the pietistic school of his age, and published a consid- erable number of sermons, which are still much read in Wurtemberg, — Herzenspostille, ZUllichau, 1742 (latest edition, Stuttgart, 18.53-54) ; Richtiger und leichter Weg zum Himmel, Stuttgart, 1744 ; Hochzeitpredigten, 1749 (latest edition, Stuttgai't, 1856), etc. PALMER. RIGHTEOUSNESS, Original. (For the Right- eousness of Faith see Justification.) The elder Protestant theologians designated by the term Justitia originalis, or " original righteousness," the condition of man as made in the image of God, and before the fall. It is found for the first time in the writings of the scholastics, but the treat- ment of the doctrine was begun by Augustine. In his treatise De peccator. mer. et remiss, (ii. 37), he uses the term prima justitia, " first righteous- ness." He considers the doctrine from the stand- point of man's creation in the divine image. Ire- naeus, Theophylact, Justin, and others, speak of this first estate as one of childlike simplicity and innocency. The statement of Athanasius (ec?. Paris, ii. 225) stands alone : " Those who mortify the deeds of the body, and have put on the new man, which is created after God, have the man after his image ; for such was Adam before his disobedience " (^ex""^' '"'> ''°^'' ^Ik-ov, toiovtoc yUp r/v b 'ASufi Tzpd Tij; napaicntjfy Prominence was given, in the treatment of this subject, to man's spiritual endowment with reason and freedom, by which he was to secure moral perfection. With Augus- tine the image of God is the inalienable "rational- soul " (anima rationalis). This includes the will, with a positive inclination to holiness. The first man, however, stood in need of divine help to reach full righteousness (plena justitia). At first he was willing not to sin, and by supernatural grace he was able not to sin (posse non peccare). At the fall the concupiscence of the flesh ( concu- piscentia carnis) took the place of the good will (bona voluntas), and is itself sin ; that is, the oppo- site of righteousness. After Augustine's death, semi-Pelagianism prevailed in the church ; and at the synod of Orange, in 529, it was stated, that, " by the sin of Adam, the free will was so inclined and attenuated (atlenuatum), that no one was afterwards able to love God as he should, to believe in God, or to be influenced concerning God, except the prevenient grace of the divine mercy acted upon him." The scholastic theolo- gians went farther. They dated the discord be- tween flesh and spirit before the fall. The divine gi'ace subjected the former to the latter in the case of Adam: therefore man's original right- eousness was a superadded gift (donum super- additum). The proof was found in the alleged difference between likeness and image (similitudo imago. Gen. i. 26). The essential elements of the divine image were reason and will. Eternal life was a superadded gift. The Reformers, with their deep sense of the sinfulness of sin, defined the original state of man as one in which righteousness and goodness were essential elements. Bellarmin developed the Roman-Catholic doctrine. As man came forth from the Creator's hands, he consisted of flesh and spirit, and stood related to the animals and the angels. By the latter he had intelligence and will ; by the former, passions and appetite (sensus et affectus). A conflict arose, and from the con- flict a terrible diflSculty in doing well (ingens bene agendi difficultas). This was the disease of na- ture (morbus natura;) which inheres in matter : hence God added the gift of original righteous- ness. It was this perfection of the divine image, and not the image itself, which man lost at the fall. The question is, whether man began with a state of absolute moral perfection, as the older Protestant theologians, especially the Lutheran theologians, assei'ted. Against this view, Julius Miiller properly brings the objection that it ex- cludes the possibility of the fall. But man's original condition was not one without a positive inclination to goodness. His will had this dis- position ; but, while it was in harmony with God's will, it might sin, and in the pos.sibility of its sinning consisted its freedom. It was man's duty to preserve his rectitude by his own voluntary choice, thus conflrming God's work. The doc- trine of man's original righteousness is not neces- sarily found in Eph. iv. 24, but in Gen. i., ii., Eccl. vii. 29, and especially in the scriptural definitions of sin, — as a defiance of the divine will, and the cause of human corruption, and the analogy presented by the righteousness of faith. See Chemnitz : De imag. Dei in horn., "Wittenb., 1570; Cotta: De reclitud. horn. prima;va, Tiib., 1753; Wernsdorp: Dereliq.imag.dii!.,'Witterih., 1720 ; [A. RiTSCHL : Die christl. Lehre von der Rechl/ertifjung und Versohnung darcjestellt, Bonn, 1870-74, 3 vols., 2d ed., 1882-88 ; Eng. trans, of vol. i., A Critical History of the Christian Doc- trine of Justification and Reconciliation, Edinb., 1872 ; and the Theologies of Hodge, Van Oos- TEKZEE, and DoRNER ; and the works on Sym- bolics sub "Primitive State"]. H. ceemee. RIIVI'IVION CpB"), pomegranate), the name of an Aramaic divinity mentioned byNaaman (2 Kings v. 18). It occurs as the name of three places (Josh. XV. 32; 1 Chron. vi. 77; Judg. xx. 45), and also as a proper name (2 Sam. iv. 2) ; but it is uncertain whether, in these cases, the name comes from the god, or the pomegranate. The LXX. makes a distinction between them, calling the god 'Pe/ifiuv, and the pomegranate 'PefifuJy, Pe/ivuv. The correct form for the god's name is, indeed, Raman, or Rammaii ; for he is the Assyr- ian god Rammanu. The best explanation of the word is "the height." The many-seeded pomegi-anate is the' symbol of fruitfulness. The tree was holy, and its fruit appears upon the sculptures in the hands of deities (Baal Hham- RING. 2049 RISLER. n, Zexis Kasios). Astarte planted the ponie- nate upon Cyprus : hence the close connection ween the name " pomegranate " and the god. I Baudissih : Sludien ; P. Scholz : Gotzen- ISt. WOLF BAUDISSIX. (INC, Melchior, was schoolmaster at Hersfeld, 3n in 1524 he became acquainted with Thomas nzer, and soon, also, one of his most ardent ;iples. In the same year he went to Sweden leader of an Anabaptist movement in Stock- m, but returned shortly after to take part in Peasants' War. After a visit to Switzerland, began to preach in the vicinity of Hersfeld, icking the Lutherans with great violence ; but 1531 he was imprisoned by the landgrave of sse, and probably never released. His writings 'e perished. ilNGS were used as ornaments for the nose, ears, the arras, and the legs, and more espe- lly for the fingers, as far back in the history the human race as historical researches reach. 5 Babylonians, Hebrews, Egyptians, Greeks, I Romans, and the barbaric peoples of Teu- ic origin which invaded Europe, or, rather, the onan Empire, at the beginning of our era, wore m. In course of time, however, the ornament sived a special signification, and the flnger- 5 became a token of authority, or a sign of a ige. A token of authority was that ring which iraoh gave to Joseph (Gen. xli. 42), or Ahasue- to Haman (Esth. iii. 10), or Autiochus to ilip (1 Mace. vi. 15) ; and so was the ring which i-y member of the equestrian order in the man Commonwealth wore. After the battle of insB, Hannibal sent a bushel of such rings to •thage. A sign of a pledge was the ring, which, ong the Hebrews and the Romans, the bride- om gave to the bride on the occasion of their rothal, and which in the tenth century of our became the Christian man-iage-ring. A com- ation of both these significations is represented bhe episcopal ring, which is at once emblematic his espousal to the church and of the pow-er jis office, whence it is sometimes called annidus nsaliUus, and sometimes annulus patatii. At it time it became a part of the official costume I bishop is not exactly known. It is mentioned the first time in the second book of the Eccle- tical Offices by Isidore of Seville, 595-63.3, then 3, letter from Pope Boniface IV., read in the mcil of Rome, 610, and in the twenty-eighth on of the Fourth Council of Toledo, 63-3. For "Fisherman's Ring," see Axndll's Piscato- s. See Martigny: Des Anneaux chez les miers Chretiens, Macon, 1858. tINKART, Martin, German hymnologist ; b. at snburg, April 23, 1586; d. there, as archdeacon, !. 8, 1649. After studying at Leipzig, and serv- as pastor in Eisleben and Eudeborn, he .settled Eilenburg (1617), and there remained till his th : thus his settlement was synchronous with Thirty- Years' War. In the pestilence of 7, and famine of 1638, he was a savioi- to his 3w-townsmen ; and when the Swedish Lieut.- . Doi-fling, on Feb. 21, 1639, demanded thirty [isand thalers (ten thousand dollars) as the 3om of the city fiom destruction, and he had ided in vain, he assembled the citizens to prayer service, with the result that the victorious ide at last accepted two thousand gulden (one thousand dollars) as ransom. But it is as the author of the German Te Deum (Nun dankel alle Gott, 1644) that Rinkart is immortal. The hymn is in three stanzas, of which the first two are based upon Sirach, lines 24-26, and the third upon the old Gloria Palri. Miss Winkworth has made a close English translation. See Plato : M. Rinkart, Leipzig, 1830 ; Miller : Singers and Songs of the Church, pp. 56, 57. RIPLEY, Henry Jones, D.D., Baptist; b. in Bos- ton, I\Iass., Jan 28, 1798; d. at Newton Centre, Mass., May 21, 1875. He was graduated at Har- vard University, 1816, and at Andover Theologi- cal Seminary, 1819; was evangelist among the Southern slaves from 1819 to 1826, with the excep- tion of one year. In 1826 he became professor of biblical literature and pastoral duties in the newly founded Xewton Theological Institution; from 1832 he taught biblical literature only, until in 1839 he was transferred to the chair of sacred rhetoric and pastoral duties. He resigned in 1S60 ; for five years engaged in literary work and evan- gelistic labors among the freedmen of Georgia ; in 1865 became librarian of Newton ; and from 1872 to 1875 was associate professor of biblical literature. Besides much work in periodicals, he wrote. Memoir of Rev. T. S. Winn, Boston, 1824; Christian Baptism, 1833 ; Notes on the Four Gospels, 1837-38, 2 vols. ; Notes on the Acts of the Apostles, 1844 ; Sacred Rhetoric, 1849 ; Notes on Romans, 1857; Exclusiveness of the Baptists, lSo7 ; Church Polity, 1867; Notes on Hehreios, 1868. RIPON, a town in Yorkshire, Eng. The abbot of Melrose founded a monasteiy there in 661, which the Danes destroyed in 867. The cathedral was begun in 1331, finished, probably, 1494. The town was made the seat of a bishopric in 1836. RIPPON, John, D.D., a prominent Baptist min- ister, and for sixty-three years pastor of a single charge in London; was b. at Tiverton, Devon, April.29, 1751 ; and d. in London, Dec. 17, 1S36. He edited the Baptist Annual Register, 1790-1802, An Arrangement of the Psalms, Hymns, etc., of Dr. Watts, and A Selection of Hymns, 1787, 10th ed., enlarged, 1800. Some of the contents of this last are supposed to be wholly or in part his own ; but his services to hymnody are much more eminent as a compiler than as a composer. His Selection included many originals by Beddome, S. Stennett, Ryland, Turner, Francis, and others, and brought to public notice many lyrics previously in print, but little known. Frequently reprinted, and consulted by almost every subsequent compiler, its direct and indirect influences have been in- calculable. It I'anks as one of the half-dozen hymn-books of most historical importance in the English language. F. M. BIRD. RISLER, Jeremiah, Moravian; b. at Miihlhau- sen, Upper Alsace, Xov. 9, 1720 ; d. at Berthels- dorf. Saxony, Aug. 23, 1811. He was graduated at Basel; from 1744 to 1760 a Reformed minister at LUbeck and St. Petersbui-g, but from 1760 to his death a Moravian ; from 1782 a bishop ; and from 1786 a member of the Unity's Elders Con- ference. He was an eloquent preacher, and faith- ful bishop. He made a French translation of Zinzendorf's Discourses, and of the Hymnal (1785), wrote La sainte doctrine (1769), Leben von A. G. Spangenberg (Barby u. Leipzig, 1794), and Erziih- lungen aus der Briidergeschichte, 3 vols. RITTER. 2050 RITUALISM. RITTER, Karl, b. at Quedlinburg, Aug. 7, 1779 ; d. in Berlin, Sept. 25, 1859 ; was appointed professor of geography in the university of Ber- lin in 1820, and gave a new and- powerful impulse to that branch of study. Those of his works which interest the student of the Bible are Der Jordan und die Beschiffung des Todten Meeres, Berlin, 1850; Ein Bl'ick auf Palaslina, Berlin, 1852; The Comparative Georjraphy of Palestine and the Sinaitic Peninsula, trans, by Gage, Edinbm-gh, 1866, 4 vols. RITUAL means a regulation of external wor- ship, and has aptly been defined as " the external body of words and action by which worship is expressed and exhibited before God and man." RITUALE ROMANUM. After the Council of Trent, the popes took great care to suppress the various rituals which had developed within the pale of the Roman Church, and to establish uni- formity of worship throughout the church. For that purpose, Pius V. published the Breviarium Ro- manum and the Missale Romanum; Clement VIII., the Pontificate and Ceremoniale ; and Paul V., the Rituale Romanum, which, by a decree of June 16, 1614, was made obligatory on all the officers of the Church of Rome. See J. Catalanus : Sacrarum Ceremon. sive Rituum Eccles. S. Rom. Ecclesiee Lib. Tres, Rome, 1750, 2 vols. fol. H. F. JACOBSON. RITUALISM. This popular catchword is used to describe the second stage of that movement in the English Chui-ch which in its earlier condition had been named Tractarianism. The name first appears, probably, in connection with the riots at St. George's-in-the-East in 1859 (cf. quotation from East London Ohseroer of May, 1859, quoted in Letter to Bishop of London, by Bryan King, 1860). The revival of interest in Catholic dogma, effected by the Oxford writers of the Tracts for the Times, was naturally succeeded by a revival of interest in Catholic observances. This practical revival carried the movement into novel circum- stances and situations ; for the earlier detection and exhibition of that sacerdotal structure of the church which had been secured to it by struggles of the Elizabethan divines, was carried on, of necessity, in the intellectual, academic region. The claim asserted, first had to make good its doctrinal status : it had to begin by working its way into the mind and the imagination. The Tractarian writers recognized this necessary order : they anxiously held aloof from precipitating those effects, which they, nevertheless, distinctly anti- cipated from this teaching. " We the old Trac- tarians," wrote Dr. Pusey in the Daily Express, May 21, 1877, "deliberately abstained from in- novating in externals." "We understood the 'Ornaments Rubric' in its most obvious meaning, — that certain ornaments were to be used which were used in the second year of King Edward VI.: we were fully conscious that we were disobeying it ; but we were employed in teaching the faith to a forgetful generation, and we thought it in- jurious to distract men's minds by questions about externals. We left it for the church to revive " (Letter of Dr. Pusey to English Church Union). Also, Letter to the Times, March 28, 1874 : " There was a contemporary movement for a very moder- ate ritual in a London congregation. We (the Tractarians) were united with it in friendship, but the movements were unconnected." _. As soon as their teaching had secured believ- ers, it set itself to apply its principles in action ; and this active application of recovered belief in a sacerdotal church inevitably took the form of recovering and re-asserting that liturgical struc- ture which still underlay the Book of Common Prayer. The movement, in making this fresh effort, passed from the study to the street: it became practical, missionaiy, evangelistic. It insisted that its work upon the masses, in their dreary poverty, demanded the bright attraction and re- lief of outward ornament, and the effective teach- ing of the eye. This change from the university to the town was signalized by the establishment of, e.g., St. Saviour's, Leeds (to which the Trac- tarian leaders lent all their authority), and of the Margaret-street Chapel, under F. Oakeley, a devoted companion of J. H. Newman. The transition to ritual was not only a practi- cal expediency, it was also the logical outcome of the new position ; for the doctrinal revival lay in its emphatic assertion of the conception of mediation, of mediatorial offering. This media- tion was, it taught, effected by the taking of flesh; i.e., of the outward to become the offering, the instrument of worship. The body of the Lord was the one acceptable offering, sanctified by the Spirit; and in and through that media- torial body all human nature won its right to sanctification, to holy use. The spirit needs, ac- cording to this teaching, an outward expression to symbolize its inward devotion. Its natural mode of approach to God is through sacramental signs; and the use of special sacraments justifies, of necessity, the general use of visible symbols. If grace comes through outward pledges, then devotion will obviously be right in using for its realization forms and signs and gestures; love will be right in showing itself through beauty; and prayer and praise will instinctively resort to ceremonial. Nor was the pressure towards ritual merely doctrinal. The double movement in the church had its parallel in the secular world. The spirit- ual revival of Wordsworth had its reflex in the emotional revival of Walter Scott. The set of things was running counter to Puritan bareness. The force and reality of imagination in the shap- ing of life's interests were recognized with the glad welcome of a recovered joy. A touch of kindliness repeopled the earth with fancies and suggestions, and visions and dreams. This world was no longer a naked factory, housing the ma- chinery of a precise and unyielding dogma; nor was it the bare and square hall in which reason lectured on the perils of a morbid enthusiasm: it was a garden once more, rich with juicy life, and warm with color. This literary warmth mixed itself in with the doctrinal movement towards the enrichment of the churches. The emotions were making new demands upon out- ward things : they required more satisfaction. They had been taught by the novelists to turn to the past, whether of cavaliers with plumes and chivalry, or of the middle ages with wild castles and belted knights, and praying monks and clois- tered nuns. All this world of strange mystery and artistic charm had become alive again to them, and the revival made them discontented with the RITUALISM. 2051 RITUALISM. isy flatness of common life. The churches were ponding to a real and wide need when they jred a refuge and a relief to the distressed agination. Everywhere began the Gothic re- al. The restoi-ation of the disgraced and ititute parish churches, which had become prac- illy necessary, was taken up by men full of niration for the architecture which had first ilt them. They were passionately set on bring- ; them back as far as possible into their original idition. The architects thus were, indirectly, lent workers on the side of the ecclesiastical ival. They eagerly studied liturgical correct- B in restoring the beauty of the chancels, in ciug the altar at its proper height and distance, arranging the screen and the stalls, the altar- Is and credence-table. This combination of lesiastical and architectural sentiment was atly furthered by the Cambridge Ecclesiologi- Society ; which did much to foster antiquarian ictness, and to promote active efforts at restora- D. (Beresford Hope's Worship in the Church England.) This architectural movement, which ed its earliest impulses from J. H. Newman's iTch, built at Littlemore amid much ferment i anxiety, culminated in the vast achievements Gilbert Scott and George Street, whose handi- rk has been left in restored churches through- ; the length and breadth of England. This leral restoration of order and fairness into the jlic services, which ran level with the renewal church fabrics, roused much popular hostility, ich made itself known in riotous disturbances, it Exeter, etc., chiefly directed against the use the surplice in the pulpit, following a direction its use given in a charge by Bishop Blomfield 1842. 5ut just as the artistic movement deepened m the external ornamentation of the T\'averley rels into the impassioned mysticism of D. G. ssetti and the pre-Kaphaelite brothers, so the hitectural revival deepened into the symbol- i of a more rapt sacramentalism. This it was ich produced the historical crisis ; and this crisis ame yet more critical by forcing into sharp an- onisni the civil and ecclesiastical jurisdictions ich were called upon to deal with the renovat- ministers. The story of the movement turns nd the various legal judgments given to de- nine the sense of the " Ornaments Rubric ; " , the Rubric inserted, in its first form, into the lyer-Book of Elizabeth, and re-inserted, in a ;htly changed form, in the Prayer-Book of the iteration, prescribing the ornaments of the min- r and of the chancel during all offices. The I of the Elizabethan divines had been to secure main work of the Reformation, and yet to tect the Liturgy from the " loose and licentious idling " of the more eager of the Marian exiles. 5y had therefore accepted, with some important irations, the second of the two Prayer-Books Edward VI. as the standard of the Reformed 'ices ; but, owing to the strong pressure of the en, they refused to adopt it also as the stand- of the ornaments ; and for this they went back m earlier date, the second year of King Ed- d VI., when much ritual remained which the ; PrayerjBook of Edward VI. had accepted, which the second book had rejected. There doubt that this included and intended chasu- bles and copes, albs and tunicles, with other details of altar-fumiture. The question that arose was as to how far this Rubric, when re-enacted in the Act of Uniformity, was intended by the divines of the Restoration to retain its full original sense. In its earlier form it was prescribed " until the queen should take further order." Was that " further order " ever taken ? and, if so, does the later condition of the Rubric, in omitting any ref- erence to this " further order," assume that order, or ignore it? If it ignored it, why was it never acted upon? For certainly these ornaments have never been in full use. But, if it assumed it, how was it possible not to define what the " order " was, or to prescribe still the second year of Edward VI. as the standard, without a hint of any qualifica- tion ? Round this main issue a swarm of compli- cated historical, legal, and liturgical argiunents arose ; and who was to decide among them ? Here started up a new difficulty. The j uridical relations between Church and State were the result of a most long and intricate history, which at the Ref- ormation had finally assumed this general form. The old machinery of ecclesiastical courts re- mained entire, — consisting of the Bishop's Courts of First Instance, in which the bishop's chancellor adjudicated ; and the Archbishop's Court of Ap- peal, in which the dean of arches gave judgment, as the embodiment of the archbishop. But from this, again, there was to be an appeal to the king ; and for hearing such appeals a composite court had been erected by Henry VIII., the Court of Delegates, the exact jurisdiction of which had never been clearly defined. This had continued, rarely used, dimly considered, until, without any- body's notice, a great legal reform, carried out by Lord Brougham, was discovered to have trans- ferred, without intending it, all the power of this Court of Delegates to a certain Committee of Privy Council, composed and defined for other general purposes. When suddenly there was need of a final adjudication on anxious and agitating spir- itual questions, it was this Committee of Privy Council which the rival parties found themselves facing. It dealt with the question of baptism, in the case of ^Ir. Gorham (1850) ; and Bishop Blom- field of London had in consequence, speaking in the House of Lords, protested against the nature and character of the committee as a court of final appeal in ecclesiastical questions. No change, however, had been effected ; and in March, 1857, the question of ritual was brought before it, on appeal, in the case of " Westerton I's. Liddell," in which case the ritualistic practices of St. Barna- bas, Pimlico, had been condemned in the Consis- tory Court of London and in the Court of Arches. Amidst great excitement, the committee pro- nounced that the Rubric permitted generally the use of those articles which were prescribed under the first Prayer-Book, and therefore sanctioned the use of credence-table, altar-cross, altar-lights, colored altar-cloths, etc. From that moment the Ritualists have acted steadily in the belief that this legal decision was but affirming that which is the plain, historical sense of the words in the Rubric, and have pressed, often with rashness, sometimes with insolence, for the revival of all the ritual which this interpretation justified. In accomplishing this, they have been aided, advised, and sustained by the elaborate organization of the RITUALISM. 2052 RITUALISM. English Church Union, numbering now over twen- ty thousand members, formed for the defence and protection of those, who, in carrying out the Rubric so understood, were menaced by perils and penal- ties. For however favorable single congregations might be, yet the work of revival had to be car- ried on, (1) in defiance of the long unbroken usage, which had never attempted any thing beyond that simpler ritual which had been adopted and allowed as the practicable minimum under Elizabeth and Charles II. ; (2) in defiance of the bishops, whoSe paternal authority was generally exercised to sup- press, by any pressure in their power, any sharp conflict with this common custom ; (3) in defiance of fierce popular suspicion, roused by dread of Romish Uses, such as broke out, e.g., in the hide- ous rioting at St. George's-in-the-East (1858-60), which the weakness of the Bishop of London, and the apathy of the government, allowed to con- tinue for months, and finally to succeed in expel- ling the rector, Mr. Bryan King, and in wrecking his service ; (4) in defiance of the Court of Final Appeal, which in a series of fluctuating, doubtful, and conflicting judgments, had created a deep dis- trust in its capacity to decide judicially questions so rife with agitated feelings and popular preju- dices. This distrust — strongly roused by the Mackonochie judgment (1868) and the Purchas judgment (1871), in which it was supposed, in spite of obvious paradox, that every thing not mentioned in the Prayer-Book was disallowed and illegal — culminated in the Ridsdale judgment (1877), in which it was declared that the " further order " allowed the Queen had been taken in the issuing of the advertisements under Archbishop Parker, and that the divines of Charles II. there- fore, when they permitted the ritual of the second year of Edward VI., really intended only so much of it as was required in the Elizabethan advertise- ments. This startling decision the main block of High-Church clergy found it impossible to respect or accept ; and this repudiation of its verdict brought to a head the protest that had been made ever since the Gorham judgment against the va- lidity of the court itself as an ecclesiastical tribu-' nal. This last problem had been made critical by the famous Public- Worship Regulation Act (1874), introduced in the House of Lords by the Arch- bishop of Canterbury, iu disregard of the protests of the Lower House of Convocation, and declared in the House of Commons to be a " bill to put down ritualism " by j\Ir. Disraeli, then prime-min- ister, who, iu spite of Mr. Gladstone's impetuous opposition, carried it, amid intense excitement, in an almost unanimous House. This bill swept away all the process in the diocesan courts : it al- lowed any three aggrieved parishioners to lodge a complaint, which, unless stayed by the bishop's veto, was carried before an officer nominated nor- mally by the two archbishops to succeed to the post of dean of arclies on its next vacancy. From him the appeal would be, as before, to the Privy Council. Thus the scanty fragments of ecclesias- tical jurisdiction, which, under existent conditions might be supposed to balance the civil character of the Court of Appeal, were all but wholly abol- ished. The attempt to enforce this bill by the bishops was met by absolute resistance, ending, after being challenged at every turn by technical objections, in the imprisoimient of four priests. In this collision with the courts, the Ritualists had the steady support of the mass of High-Church clergy, who had held aloof from their more ad- vanced and dubious ritual. This support evi- denced itself in the "Declaration" of over four thousand clergy, headed by the Deans of St. Paul's, York, Durham, Manchester, etc. (1881). The condition of things had become intolerable; and in 1881 a royal commission was issued to consider the whole position of ecclesiastical juris- diction. A similar mode of relief had been at- tempted in 1867, when a royal commission on ritual had been appointed, which urfder the chair- manship of Archbishop Longley, — after taking an immense mass of evidence, and after prolonged discussions, — had issued a report on the crucial point of the Ornaments Rubric, which recommend- ed the " restraint " of the use of vestments, " by providing some effectual process for complaint and redress," but which, by the use of the word "re- strain," declined to declare their illegality, and then had found itself unable to attain any thing like unanimous agreement on the nature of the legal process which it proposed to recommend. The innerhistory of the commission will be found in the third volume of Bishop's Wilberforce's Life. No legislation on the main subject followed this divided repoi-t. But convocation in 1879, and the Pan-Anglican Synod in 1880, had come to resolu- tions more or less iu accord with the commis- sioners' report, iu the sense of recommending a prohibitory discretion to the bishop in any case where a change of vesture was attempted. Such a recommendation seemed naturally to allow and assume the abstract legality of the change. Yet the courts of law had finally decreed vestments illegal, and the majority of bishops were prepared to accept their interpretation ; and, as long as they did so, no terms of peace could be found on the basis of the proposal in convocation. For even though the bishops were willing to abstain, in fa- vorable cases, from pressing the legal decisions, they were forced to set the law in motion by the action of a society called the " Church Associa- tion," which exerted itself to assert and support the rights of any parishioners who might be ag- grieved by the ritual used in any church. Thus the exercise of discretion was made all but impos- sible to a bishop, who could only veto proceedings brought against a clergyman by giving a valid reason, and yet was forbidden to offer as a valid reason the possible legality of the vestments. The Commission on 'Ritual, therefore, had left the conflict still severe and unappeased. The Commission on Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction is still sitting. It has relieved excited feelings by allow- ing that the condition of that jurisdiction is open to question. And the lastaot of Archbishop Tait, on his death-bed, was to suggest a truce to the fierce legal prosecutions which had imbittered the long controversy, by bringing about aii arrange- ment vt'hich would terminate the historic case of Martin vs. Mackonochie, round which the contest had turned for eighteen years. Thus the tension has slackened : the possibility of peace seems to have become conceivable. The question has wid- ened from the consideration of ritual to the prob- lem of the permanent adjustment of Church and State. The days of ritual fever and ritual wilful- ness are passing. The chaos which the absence RIVET. 2053 ROBERTSON. ill reliable law produced had made wilfulness arbitrary extravagance inevitable. Men in- jed their own ritualistic fancies, without con- ration and without reality. But they have nselves learned the weariness of disorder and folly of anarchic revolt. The evangelization he masses grows more urgently needful ; and ace of this need all men are anxious to be re- ed from the fret of a war about external de- i. Still, peace seems only attainable under the iition that the Ritualists can secure for them- es a discretionary concession for the use of that imonial which the contested Rubric appears . to prescribe, however much long usage may e negatived its prescriptions; for, as things id, the dilemma announced to the Ritual Com- sioners by Bishop Phillpotts of Exeter is as te as ever : " Enforce the Rubric, and you wiU iuce a rebellion : alter the Rubric, and you will e a shipwreck." henry scott holl^ind (Senior Student, Christ Church, Oxford). [IVET, Andre, b. at Saint-Maixent in Poitou, r. 5, 1?73 ; d. at Breda, Holland, Jan. 7, 1651. studied theology in the academies of Orthez La Rochelle.; and was appointed minister at mars in 1593, and professor at Ley den in 1620. 1632 he removed to Breda as director of the lege of Orange. He was a prolific writer, and lis works — exegetical, polemical, and edifica- f — a collected edition appeared at Rotterdam, 1, 3 vols, folio. His Isayoge ad Scripluram Sa- il (Dort, 1616) is still of value. C. bchmidt. tOBBER-COUNCIL. See Ephesus. tOBERT THE SECOND. Robert II., king France, and son of Hugh Capet, was b. at Or- is.about 970 ; and d. at Melun, July 20, 1031. was crowned 988, and became sole king 996 7]. He married (1) Lieutgarde, or Bosale, [owof Arnoul, Count of Flanders; (2) Bertha, low of first Count of Chartres and Blois ; and Constance, daughter of William, Count of es. Bertha being his cousin (four times re- yed), the Pope, Gregory V. (998), ordered his orce. Robert resisted, but was forced to sub- ;, and humble himself, before the ban was taken In all other particulars Robert is a pattern conformity, and more a monk than a king. loved music and poetry, founded four mon- jries, built seven churches, and supported three idred paupers entirely, and a thousand par- ly. By the help of his ecclesiastical influence managed to reign thirty-four years. But his B place was in the cloister, and he could ill e with the affairs of his time. By his third e, a handsome shrew, he had four sons and ) daughters. Robert's natural son, Araauri, 5 great-great-grandfather (Irisdeul) to Simon Montfort. The best title Robert has to our ard is from his Veni, Sancle Spirilus {Come, lij Spirit), which is one of the greatest of Latin nns. ^IT. — See SiSMONDi: Hist, des Franqais, iv. 98-111, and Hist. Lit. de la France, vii. pp. i-333. SAMUEL W. DUFFIELD. lOBERTSON, Frederick William, English acher ; b. in London, Feb. 3, 1816 ; d. at ghton, Aug. 15, 1853 ; eldest son of Frederick bertson, a captain in the royal artillery. His ication was begun Under the personal superin- dence of his father, who instructed him for four years. In 1829 the family removed to Tours, where he studied the classics with an English tutor, and attended a French seminary ; but, owing to the Revolution of 1830, his father re- turned to England, and Frederick was placed at the Edinburgh academy, under Archdeacon Wil- liams. From the academy he passed to the uni- versity, where he attended various classes, and whence, at the age of eighteen, he returned to his home with great store, of miscellaneous knowl- edge, and many pleasant memories. In 1833 he was articled to a solicitor in Bury St. Edmunds; but, after a year at the desk, his health broke down, and it was resolved that he should enter the army, for which he had a strong predilection. But, weary with waiting for a commission, he at length determined, on the urgent advice of some wise friends, to study for the ministry; and on May 4, 1837, he was examined and matriculated in Brazenose, Oxford. Five days after, he re- ceived the offer of a commission in the Second Dragoons ; but the decision had been made, and the offer was declined, although all through his life he retained his martial tastes, and his char- acter had the finest qualities of military heroism. He was known at Oxford " as one who carried the banner of the cross without fear, and was not ashamed of Christ." He took a lively interest in the debates of the Union, but was, perhaps, more influenced by Arnold and Wordsworth than by the studies prescribed in the curriculum. He was ordained by the bishop of Winchester on July 12, 1840, and was for a year curate in that city. He began his ministry with deep earnest- ness and devout humility, and practised the most rigorous austerities, by which his health was broken down, so that he was compelled to seek rest on the Continent. While there, he married at Geneva, and almost immediately after returned to Cheltenham, where, in the summer of 1842, he accepted the curacy of Christ Church, and per- formed its duties for nearly five years. In Sep- tember, 1846, he went again to the Continent ; and there, while wandering in the Tyrol, he passed through that spiritual crisis which he has so vividly described in his lecture to working-men. Hitherto he had been ranked among the Evangeli- cals of the Episcopal Church ; but now, after a terrible struggle, in which his faith at one time could hold by nothing but that "it is always right to do right," he came out at length on the side of the Broad School. He therefore resigned his Cheltenham curacy, and accepted the charge of St. Ebbes, Oxford, on which he entered in the beginning of 1847. Thence he went to Trinity Church, Brighton, where he began his work, Aug. 15, 1847, and where he continued till his death, precisely seven years after. In this place he gathered round him a large congi'egation of intelligent and admiring hearers, and threw him- self warmly into special efforts for the welfare of workingmen, for whom he formed an institute, and to whom he delivered some of his ablest lectures. But though he was popular as a preach- er while he lived, — so popular, indeed, as to become a target for the shots of the Record, and the party whom that newspaper represented, — yet it was not until he died that his influence was appreciably felt by the great world. After his brief pastorate in Brighton, it was natural that ROBERTSON. 2054 ROBINSON. some memorial of his ministry should be desired by his people ; and so, though he never wrote his sermons before delivery, a volume of posthumous sermons was made up from the written reports of them which he had sent to a friend after they had been preached. When these were published, they were at once seen to be characterized by great freshness of thought, independence of judg- ment, and fervor of heart ; and the volume ran through many editions. A second collection of discourses was soon called for : this was suc- ceeded by a third, and that again by a fourth, comprising Expositor}/ Lectures on the Epistles of the Corintluans. These were followed by a col- lection of Lectures and Addresses on Literary and Social Topics, and, so late as 1881, by The Human Race and Other Sermons, preached at Cheltenham, Oxford, and Brighton. Robertson was greatest in the analysis of char- acter and motive. His biographical sermons are among the best of that class which our language contains: those on Jacob, Elijah, David, and John the Baptist, deserve to be ranked beside those of Butler and Newman on Balaam, and are worthy of the deepest study. His experimental discourses are almost equally admirable ; and some of his practical, like that on the parable of the Sower, are exceedingly powerful. But his doctrinal discussions are one-sided and unsatis- factory ; and in that department he is not to be unqualifiedly commended, or implicitly followed. No thorough account of the occasion of his change of view from almost ultra Evangelicalism to the opinions of the Broad School is furnished by his biographer. His sermons at Winchester contain all the characteristic doctrines against which he afterwards so deliberately protested at Brighton ; and in his later days, as his biographer has ad- mitted, he showed but scant justice to the Evan- gelical party ; and, if there was any intolerance in his nature, it oozed out there. It has always seemed to us that some personal difference must have been at the beginning of his estrangement from those with whom he was first identified; but, in the absence of particulars, it is impossible to determine, and, in the presence of his better sermons, it is invidious to inquire. His letters, so many of which are given in his biography, are as suggestive as his discourses ; and the memoir, as a whole, is full of stimulus to all, but especially to those who are looking forward to the ofiice of the ministry. In his life he was often tempted to despond, as if he was spending his strength for nought ; but his death has multiplied his usefulness, and widened his influence. Had he lived till now, it is questionable if he would have told on men in England and America to any thing like the extent that he is telling to-day. Lit. — Stopford A. Brooke, M.A. : Life and Letters of Frederick W. Robertson, M.A. ; Sermons, first, second, third, fourth, and fifth series. william m. tayloe. ROBERTSON, James Craigie, Church of Eng- land; b. at Aberdeen, 1813; d. at Canterbui-y, July 9, 1882. He was graduated at Trinity Col- lege, Cambridge, 1834 ; was vicar of Beckes- bourne, near Canterbury, from 1846 to 1859, when be was appointed canon of Canterbury. From 1864 to 1874 he was professor of ecclesiastical history, Kings College, London. His historical works take high rank. He wrote, How shall we conform Jo the Liturgy of the Church of England f London, 1843, 3d ed., 1869 ; History of the Chris- tian Church to the Reformation, 1858-73, 4 vols., new ed., 1873-75, 8 vols. ; Sketches of Church His- tory, 1855-78, 2 parts ; Biography of Thomas Beckel, 1859 ; Plain Lectures on the Growth of the Papal Power, 1876 ^ edited Heylyn's History of the Reformation, 2 vols., for the Ecclesiastical So- ciety, 1849 ; Baisgrave's Alexander VIL and his Cardinals, 1866 ; and Materials for the History of Thomas Becket, 8 vols., in the Master of the Rolls series, Chronicles and Memorials of Great Britain, 1875-82. ROBINSON, Edward, D.D., LL.D., an eminent biblical scholar, and pioneer of modern Palestine exploration; b. at Southington, Conn., April 10, 1794; d. in New- York City, Tuesday, Jan. 27, 1863. He was graduated first in his class at Hamilton College, Clinton, N.Y., 1816, and after studying law at Hudson, N.Y., in 1817 returned there as tutor in mathematics and Greek. He held the position only a year. On Sept. 3, 1SJ8, he mar- ried Miss Eliza Kirkland, daughter of the Oneida missionary, who, however, died the next year. From his marriage until 1821 he worked his wife's farm, but also pursued his studies. In the autumn of 1821 he went to Andover to superin- tend the printing of his edition of part of the Iliad (bks. i.-ix., xviii., xxii.), which appeared in 1822, and while there, under Professor Moses Stuart's influence, began his career as biblical scholar and teacher. From 1823 to 1826 he was instructor in the Hebre,w language and literature at Andover Theological Seminary, meanwhile busily occupied with literary labors. He assisted Professor Stuart in the second edition of his Hebrew Grammar (Andover, 1823, 1st ed., 1813), and in his translation of Winer's Grammar of the New-Testament Greek (1825), and alone translated Wahl's Clavis philologica Novi Testamenti (1825). In 1826 he went to Europe, and studied at Gdttin- gen, Halle, and Berlin, making the acquaintance, and winning the praises, of Gesenius, Tholuck, and Rbdiger in Halle, and Neander and Ritter in Berlin. On Aug. 7, 1828, he married Therese Albertine Luise, youngest daughter of L. A. von .Jacob, professor of philosophy and political sci- ence at the university of Halle, a highly gifted woman of thorough culture, well known before her marriage by her pseudonyme of " Talvj " (see list of her works in AUibone, ii. p. 1836). In 1830 he returned home; and from 1830 to 1833 he was professor-extraordinary of biblical litera- ture, and librarian in Andover Theological Semi- nary. In January, 1831, he founded the Biblical Repository, subsequently (1851) united with the Bibliolheca Sacra, to which he contributed numer- ous translations and original articles. In 1831 he was made D.D. by Dartmouth College. In 1832 he issued an improved edition of Taylor's trans- lation of Calmet's Dictionary of the Bible, and in 1833 a smaller Dictionary of the Holy Bible (which has been widely circulated) and a translation of Buttmann's Greek Grammar (extensively used as a text-book). In 1833 ill health, induced by his severe labors, compelled him to resign his pro- fessorship, and he removed to Boston. Continu- ing his studies, however, in 1834 he brought out a revised edition of Newcome's Greek Harmony of ROBINSON. 2055 ROBINSON. the Gospels (far superior to the earlier editions) ; in 1836, a translation of Ges&mvis' Hebrew Lexi- con (5th edition, the last in which Robinson made any changes, 1854) and the independent Greek arid English Lexicon of the New Testament (revised ed., 1850). In 1837 he was called to be professor of biblical literature in the (Presbyterian) Union Theological Seminary, New- York City. He ac- cepted, on condition that he be permitted first to spend some years (at his own expense) in study- ing the geography of the Holy Land on the spot. Permission being given, he sailed July 17, 1837, and in conjunction with Rev. Dr. Eli Smith, an accomplished Arabic scholar, and faithful mis- sionary of the American Board in Syria, thor-' oughly explored all the important places in Pales- tine and Syria. In October, 1838, he returned to Berlin ; and there for two years he worked upon his Biblical Researches in Palestine, Mount Sinai, and A rabia Pelrcea. This truly great work, which at once established the author's reputation as a geographer and biblical student of the first rank, appeared simultaueously in London, Boston, and in a German translation carefully revised by Mrs. Robinson, and carried through the press in Halle by Professor Rbdiger, 1841, 3 vols. In recognition of his eminent services, he received in 1842 the Patron's Gold Medal from the Royal Geographical Society of London, and the degree of D.D. from the university of Halle, while in 1844 Yale College gave him that of LL.D. In 1852 he visited Palestine again, and published the results of this second visit in 1856, in the second edition of his Biblical Researches, and in a sup- plemental volume, — Later Biblical Researches in Palestine and the Adjacent Regions: the third edi- tion of the whole work appeared in 1867, 3 vols. Dr. Robinson I'egarded the work as a mere prepa- ration for a complete physical, historical, and topographical geogi-aphy of the Holy Land. But repeated attacks of illness undermined his con- stitution, and an incurable disease of the eyes obliged him in 1862 to lay down his pen. After his death in 1865, the first part, the Physical Geography of the Holy Land, which was all he had prepared, was published in English (London and Boston) and in a German translation by his wife (Berlin). Meanwhile he had occupied himself with pre- paring an independent Greek Harmony of the Gos- pels (1845), which was far superior to any thing of the kind, and in 1846 an English Harmony. He also revised his other works for new editions, wrote numerous articles and essays, and lectured regularly in the seminary. In May, 1862, he made his fifth and last visit to Europe, saw many old friends, but failed to receive any permanent benefit to his eyesight. In November he returned, and resumed his lec- tures; but at the Christmas holidays he was forced to cease, and after a brief illness died, Jan. 27, 1863. Dr. Robinson was a man of athletic form and imposing figure, though somewhat bent in later years; of strong, sound good sense; reserved, though when in congenial company often very entertaining and humorous. He was thorough and indefatigable in his investigations, very scep- tical of all monastic legends, very reverent to God's revelation. Outwardly cold, his heart was warm, and his sympathies tender. He is the most distinguished biblical theologian whom America has produced, — indeed, one of the most distin- guished of the centm-y. Of all his valuable works his Biblical Researches did most to perpetu- ate his memory. " The first real impulse, because the first successful impulse, towards the scientific examination of the Holy Land is due to the American traveller, Dr. Robinson." Ritter praised his " union of the acutest observation of topo- graphic and local conditions with much prepara^ tory study, particularly the erudite study of the Bible, and of philological and historical criti- cism " (Die Erdkunde von Asien, viii., div. ii. 73). Dean Stanley said, " Dr. Robinson was the first person who ever saw Palestine with his eyes open to what he ought to see " (Addresses in the United States, p. 26). The original manuscript of Dr. Robinson's Biblical Researches and a part of his library are in possession of the Union Theological Seminary. For further information, see the memorial ad- dresses of his colleagues, Drs. Hitchcock and Henry B. Smith, in Life, Writings, and Character of Edioard Robinson, D.D., LL.D., New York, 1863; Dean Stanley: Addresses in the United States, 1879, pp. 23-34; and the author's arts. in Herzog,'' xiii. 13-16, and in McClintock and Strong, ix. 50-53. philip schaff. ROBINSON, John, M.A. It is not certain where the subject of this sketch was born, prob- ably in or near Gainsboi'ough ; but whether in Lincolnshire or Nottinghamshire we have no means of deciding: this we learn, however, that the event happened in 1575 or 1576. At the age of seventeen (in 1592) he was admitted to Corpus. Christi (Benet's) College, Cambridge, which was then much inclined to Puritanism, where he re- mained for seven years. Having taken his de- grees, he was elected a fellow of his college in 1598-99, and went to Norwich, or some jilace in its neighborhood, about 1600, where, according to Ainsworth, " the cure and charge of . . sowles was . . committed to him," and where he. la- bored as a preacher about four years. Whilst here, those doubts which eventually ripened into- convictions agitated his mind, and his Puritan practices led to his suspension from the ministry by the bishop of the diocese ; after which, being denied the right of pi'eaching in some leased building, and having failed to secure the master- ship of the hospital at Norwich (probably that which Harrison had held ^ome years before), ^ for which failure Bishop Hall afterwards taunted him, — he left Norwich in 1604, resolved on sepa- ration. The resolution was a painful one ; and with reference to it he said, " Had iiot the truth been in my heart ' as a burning fire shut up in my bones' (Jer. xx. 9), I had never broken those bonds of flesh and blood wherein I was so straitly tied, but had suffered the light of God to have been put out in mine own unthankful heart by other men's darkness." He doubtless knew of the existence of a company of Separatists, under John Smyth at Gainsborough, to whom he went, taking Cambridge on his way, where he consulted with Paul Baynes, Lawrence Chadderton, and others, as to the course he contemplated ; and now he resigned his fellowship. When he arrived at Gainsborough, he was welcomed into the com- ROBINSON. 2056 EODIGER. pany of many who afterwards chose him for wieir pastor, and who now are known as the " Pil- grim Fathers." This Gainsborough society, for politic reasons, divided, and became two distinct churches. Urged by the persecutions they en- dured, the original body, under Smyth, emigi-ated to Amsterdam in 1606 : the remainder consolidated at Scrooby, and ordinai'ily met at Mr. Brewster's house ; but, in consequence of continued perse- cution, these also resolved to emigrate, and went over to Holland in 1607 and 1608. They first went to Amsterdam, but only temporarily; and then (in February, 1609) Robinson and about a hundred of his friends applied to the burgomas- ters of Leyden, requesting permission to reside in their town. This permission was granted, and here the exiles remained for eleven years before the first Pilgrims left. In 1611 they purchased a building in the Clock-steeg, which they enlarged, and adapted it to their purposes, and made it their headquarters; and here Robinson resided. In 1615 he became a member of the university of Leyden, where he honorably disputed with Epis- copius on the points of Arminianism, and where he was greatly respected. The church increased under his ministry, but they still were strangers in a foi'eign land. They felt this, and longed for a dwelling-place where they might feel them- selves at home : and, as their native land refused them a peaceful habitation, they turned their thoughts to America; there they thought they might find a home, and spread the gospel, and thither they resolved to go. Brewster was ap- pointed to lead the first company : and Robinson remained with the rest, intending to follow with them when the way should be prepared ; but this service he did not live to render. In 1620, after an affecting parting, the first Pilgrims started. Robinson died in Leyden in 1625, and was buried, March 4, in St. Peter's Church. He married Bridget White, by whom he had several children. When he left England, he was a strict Separatist ; but his opinions subsequently were modified. He held it needful to separate from churches whose constitution appeared to him to come short of the New-Testament ideal; but he did not refuse com- munion with theui, and could welcome their godly members to the fellowship of his own church. His life and works were published in England in three volumes by the Rev. 11. Ashton, I^on- don, 1851. Further information respecting him and his church was given in Rev. Josei'H Hvh- iwi's, PiUjrim Fathers . . . The Founders nf Plym- outh, New England, 8vo, London, 1851. The latest and most complete account of him and his opin- ions is contained in Dr. Dextkr's The Congreya- tionalism of the Last Three Hundred Years, New York, 1880. JOHN" Browne. ROBINSON, Robert, an able and erratic preach- er of various opinions, but mostly connected with the Baptists ; was b. at Swaffham in Norfolk, Jan. 8, 1735; and d. while on a visit to Dr. Priest- ley, at Birmingham, June 8, 1790. From 1761 he was pastor of a society at Cambridge. He translated Saurin's Sermons (1775-84, 5 vols.), and published some of his own, besides a History of Baptism, which appeared posthumously 1790, and other works. He wrote two very popular hymns, "Come, thou Fount" (1758), and "Mighty God, while angels bless thee " (1774). F. M. bird. ROBINSON, Stuart, D.D., Presbyterian; b. at Strabane, near Londonderrv, Ireland, Nov. 26, 1816 ; d. at Louisville, Ky., Oct. 5, 1881. He was graduated at Amherst College, Massachusetts, 1836, and studied theology at Union Theological Seminary, Prince Edward, Va. ; taught school for two years ; was pastor at Kanawha Salines, W. Va 1841-47; at Frankfort, Ky., till 1852; at Balti- more, Md., till 1856; was professor of ecclesiology in the Presbyterian theological seminary at Dan- ville, Ky., until 1858 ; and from then until his death was pastor of the Second Presbyterian Church at Louisville, Ky. He was one of the most promi- nent clergymen of the South. He espoused the Southern side during the civil war. Among his published works are. The Church qf God an Essen- tial Element of the Gospel (Philadelphia, 1858), and Discourses of Redemption (New York, 1866, Edinburgh, 1869). ROGH, St., b. at Montpellier in 1295; d. there in 1327. During an epidemic he went from town to town in Northern Italy, nursing the sick, and curing them in a miraculous way. After his re- turn, however, he was imprisoned in his native place, and he died in the dungeon. But in course of time such a number of fabulous tales gathered around his name, that innumerable churches, chapels, and hospitals were dedicated to him. See A ct. Sanct , Aug. 16. ZdCKLEE. ROCHESTER, a city of Kent, Eng., on the right bank of the Medway, twenty-eight miles south-east of London, with population, 1871, 18,352. In 604 thei'e was a priory there and a bishopric. Its cathedral was founded by Gundulf, 1077; consecrated, 1130. Its restoration was be- gun in 1871. It is principally Norman and Early English in style. ROCK, Daniel, D.D., Roman Catholic; b. at Liverpool, 1799 ; d. at Kensington (London), Nov. 28, 1871. He was educated in the English Col- lege, Rome ; was domestic chaplain to the Earl of Shrewsbury, 1827-40, then pastor at Buckland, near Farringdon, and on the re-introduction of the Roman-Catholic hierarchy in 1852 canon of South wark. He was an eminent antiquarian, and wrote Hierurgia, or the Sacrifice of the Mass expounded (London, 1833, 2 vols., 2d ed., 1851, 1 vol.). Did the Early Church in England acknowl- edge the Pope's Supremacy f (1844,) The Church of our Fathers, as seen in St. Osmond's Rite for the Cathedral of Salisbury (vol. i., ii., 1849, vol. iii., pts. 1, 2, 1853-54). RODCERS, John, D.D., Presbyterian; b. in Boston, Aug. 5, 1727; d. in New York, May 7, 1811. He was licensed by the presbytery of Newcastle, October, 1747; on March 16, 1749, was settled in Philadelphia as pastor of St. George's. In 1765 he resigned, and came to New lork, where he was pastor until his death, except during the Revolutionary War. In 1789 he was elected moderator of the first General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church, held at Philadelphia. He was a stanch patriot during the Revolution, and was several times consulted by Washington. He was a prominent chaiacter in church and city life. See Samuel Mii.leu : Memoir of John Rodgers, New York, 1809, new ed., Presbyterian Board, Philadelphia; Sprague: Annals, in. 154- RODICER, Emil, b. at Sangerhausen, Thurin- gia, Oct. 13, 1801 ; d. in Berlin, June 15, 1874. ROGATIONS. 2057 ROKYCANA. studied at Halle, where he became docent, i ; extraordinary, 1830, and in 1835 ordinary essor of Oriental languages. In 1860 he went Jerlin in the same capacity. He was one of first editors of the Zeksclirift iler Deulschen jenlandlschen. Gesellschaft. His principal work is continuation of Gesenius' Nocus T/iesawus ologicus criticus linguce kehrcem et chaldtece Vele- Vestamenti Edilio it., of which he edited the i volume, 2f-n (18i2), and appended indexes, itions, and corrections (1858). He also edited 3nius' Hebrew Grammar (14th to 21st ed.). independent works embrace De 'oric/ine et •le arahiccE librorum V. T. hisloricorum interpre- nis libri duo, Halle, 1829; Chreslom. Syr. c. »., 1838. OGATIONS were religious processions, in eh prayer was made for some special blessing. 11 after the age of persecution was over, the •ch manifested a tendency for public and a,l processions (Sozomen, vi'ii. 8). The ideas rayer and penance were associated at an early ! with them, and Rufinus (Hisl. EccL, ii. 33) iks of such a procession passing through the sts, in which the Emperor Theodosius took ;, dressed in a penitential garment. These ;essions, and the prayers themselves, were also 3d "Litanies." For further information, see ANY. OCERS, Ebenezer Piatt, D.D., Reformed toh); b. in New- York City, Dec. 18, 1817; t Montclair, N.J., Oct. 22, 1881. After a par- course at Yale College and Princeton Semi- j, he was licensed in 1840, and settled pastor he Congregational Church of Chicopee Falls, s., 1840-43; of the Edwards Congregational rch of Northampton, Mass., 1843--46 ; of the ibyterian Church of Augusta, Ga., 1847-53; he Seventh Presbyteriau Church of Philadel- i, Penn., 1854-56 ; of the . North Reformed ch Church of Albany, N.Y., 1856-62; and of South Reformed Butch Church of New- York , 1862-February, 1881. He was beloved as or and friend ; a genial man, useful and hon- . in his diiferent spheres of labor. Of his lished writings may be mentioned The Precious nys of Peter, Sermons upon the use of " pre- s" in Peter's Epistles, N.Y., 1862. See the ately printad In Memoriam, N.Y., 1882. OCERS, Henry, English essayist ; b. Oct. 18, I; d. at Pennal Tower, Machynlleth, North es, Aug. 20, 1877. After serving for some ! as an Independent minister, he became essor of English language and literature in ifersity College, London, 1839, then professor ihilosophy in Spring Hill, Independent Col- , near Birmingham, until in 1858 he succeed- 3r. Vaughan as principal of the Lancashire ;pendent College, Manchester, and so re- led until a few years of his death. From • to 1859 he was connected with the Edinburyk lew, in whose columns he published much of best work. He particularly distinguished self by his opposition to the aims and ulti- 3 results of the Tractarian movement. His itation mainly rests upon his Eclipse nf Faith, Visit to a Reliqious Sceptic, London, 1852, 3d., 1858, and Defence, 1854, 8d ed., 1860 (in jT to Professor F. W. Newman). His other ings embrace Essay on the Life and Genius of Jonathan Edwards (prefaced to Edwards's Works, 1834) ; Life nf John Howe, 1836, several editions; Essays from the Edinburgh Review, 1850-55, 3 vols., new ed., 1874-78 ; Essay on the Life and Genius of Thomas Fuller, 1856, 2 parts ; Selections from the Correspondence of R. E. H. Greyson [anagram of Henry Rogers], 1857, 2 vols.; The Superhuman Origin of the Bible inferred from itself (Congrega- tional Lectures), 1873, 5tli ed., 1877. ROGERS, John, English clerical martyr; b. at Birmingham about 1500 ; burned at Smithfield, Feb. 4, 1555. He was graduated B.A. at Cam- bridge, 1525; received an invitation to Christ Church, Oxford ; about 1534 became chaplain to the Merchant Adv.enturers at Antwerp, and there made the acquaintance of Tyndale and Coverdale, and became a Protestant. In 1537 he issued (probably at Wittenberg), under the pseudonyme of "Thomas Matthewe," a skilful combination and revision of the Bible translation of Tyndale and Coverdale, which has since been known as Matthew's Bible. (See English Bible Ver- sions.) He married at Antwerp; removed to Wit- tenberg, where he was pastor until the accession of Edward VI. (1547), when he returned to Eng- land. He was in 1550 provided by Bishop Ridley with settlements in London, and in 1551 made prebendary of St. Paul's. On the succession of Queen Mary (1553) he was arrested for his vigor- ous denunciation of Romanism, and after months of imprisonment was burnt, — the first Marian martyr. On Oct. 20, 1883, his bust was unveiled at Birmingham, Eng., by the major. See Ches- ter _:_ Lil'e of Rogers, London, 1861. ROHR, Johann Friedrich, b. at Rossbach, July 30, 1777; d. at Weimar, June 15, 1848. He studied tlieology at Leipzig, and was appointed preacher at the university church there in 1802, pastor of Ostrau, in 1804, and court-preacher at Weimar in 1820. He is one of the most promi- nent representatives of the so-called rationalismus vulgaris, and gave a full exposition of his views in his Briefe ilber den Rationalismus, Aix-la- Chapelle, 1813. Afterwards he maintained a continuous opposition, both against orthodoxy and against the speculative ideas, in his periodi- cals, Predigerliteratur (1810-14), Neue und Neueste Predigeiiileratur (1815-19), and Kritische Prediger- Bibliothek (1820-48). But his controversy with Hase {Antihasiana}, and his attack on Schleier- inacher immediately after the death of the latter, made it apparent that he was unable to under- stand the higher forms of religious life. Among his other works are Paldstina (1816, 8th ed., 1845), Luthers Leben und Wirken (1818, 2d ed., 1828), Die gute Sache des Protestautismus (1842), and a great number of sermons. G. frank. ROKYCANA, John, a Bohemian priest, who was the central figure in the ecclesiastical history of Bohemia, 1430-70. He first became promi- nent in 1427 by denouncing, in a sermon, the policy of Sigismund Korybut, who was attempt- ing to bring about a reconciliation between Bo- hemia and the Pope. Rokycana's denunciations led to the expulsion of Korybut, and the downfall of the moderate party for a time. Bohemia again resisted the arms of Europe with success ; but the success was bought by exhaustion, which led it to listen to the overtures of the Council of Basel. In the conferences held at Basel, Rokycana was ROMAINB. 2058 ROMAN-CATHOLIC CHURCH. the chief conti-oversialist on the Hussite side, and showed a conciliatory spirit. In the negotiations ■which followed, and which ended in the acceptance of the Compacts by the Bohemians, Rokycana took a chief part. His policy was that Bohemia should accept re-union with Rome on the basis of the Compacts, but, by a national oi-ganization of its church, should secure its religious liber- ties. Before the Compacts were signed (1435), the Bohemians secretly elected Rokycana arch- bishop of Prag, with two suffragans. After the signing of the Compacts, Sigismund was received as king of Bohemia; but he did not recognize Rokycana as archbi.shop without the consent of the Council of Basel. The Catholic re-action in Bohemia was so strong, that in 1437 Rokycana was driven to flee from Prag, but resumed his office of archbishop when the influence of George Podiebrad became supreme, in 1444. From that time till his death he was closely associated with the policy of Podiebrad. He died in 1471,— two months before his master. King George, — at the age of seventy-four. The character and motives of Rokycana were much disputed during his lifetime, and have been so since. Like all men who try a policy of moderation, he encoun- tered the hostility of the extreme parties. His plan of organizing a national church in Bohemia led to his own elevation to the office of archbishop, and the question of his confirmation in his office was the question that stood foremost in the dis- putes with the Pope. Really Rokycana summed up in his own personal position the aspirations of the more sagacious of the Bohemian statesmen. It is easy to accuse such a man of vanity, obsti- nacy, and self-seeking. His policy was proved by events to be impossible, and his position was scarcely tenable. He was driven to alternate between cowardice and rashness. He and King- George failed, but their success would have been momentous for the future of Europe. They played a difficult game, but they played it against overwhelming odds with prudence and modera- tion. Lit. . — See under Podiebrad. For the earlier part of Rokycana's career, the materials are to be found in Palacky : Urkundliche Beitrage zur Ge- schicJite des Hussilenkriegs, Prag, 1872-73, 2 vols., and Monumenta Conciliorum Generalium Soeculi XVU, vol. 1, Vienna, 1857. M. CREIGHTON. ROMAINE, William, a noted English divine of the evangelical class ; b. at Hartlepool, Durham, Sept. 25, 1714 ; d. rector of St. Ann's, Blackfriars, London, July 26, 1795. He was ordahied in 1736, and as early as 1739 was bold enough to attack AVarburton's Divine Legation in a sermon preached before the university of Oxford, where he had received his education. He was scarcely a match for so redoubtable an antagonist, though he was not wanting in scholarship. A Hutchinsonian in science and learning, he was, nevertheless, chosen professor of astronomy in Greshain Col- lege ; but an Oxford sermon on The Lord our RigJdeousness, of an extremely Calvinistic type, excluded him forever afterwards fi'om the uni- versity pulpit. However, popularity with the London citizens made up for his ejection in the midland seat of learning ; and for many years he gathered crowded congregations at St. Andrew's Wardrobe, as well as St. Ann's, Blackfriars. He stood forth as the main pillar of Evangelization which, in the last half of the eighteenth century' was reviving in the Church of England after the re-action against Puritanism consequent upon the Restoration a hundred years before. His place therefore, in the history of theological literature in England, is important. He wrote a number of books of minor interests and repute; but three books proceeding from his pen became exceed- ingly popular in his lifetime, and continued to be read long afterwards; i.e.. The Life of Failh (1763), The Walk of Faith (1771), and The Triumph of Failh (1794). They have been repeatedly pub- lished in one volume, and are highly commended for their spiritual tone by such men as Edward Bickersteth, Dr. Williams, and Dr. Chalmers. The Hon. and Rev. W. B. Cadogan wrote a life of this excellent man, which was prefixed to an edition of his works, in eight volumes, published in 1796. JOHN STOUGHTON. ROMAN-CATHOLIC CHURCH. It is the lar- gest of the three grand divisions of Christendom (Greek, Latin, and Protestant), and in its own estimation the only church founded by Christ on earth. Bellarmin, one of her standard divines, defines the church as consisting of all who, (1) profess the true faith, (2) partake of the true sacraments, and (3) are subject to the rule of the Pope of Rome as the head of the church. The first mark excludes all heretics, as well as Jews, Gentiles, and Mohammedans ; the second excludes the catechumens and the excommunicated ; the third, the schismatics (i.e., the Greeks, or Oriental Christians, who hold substantially the true faith and the seven sacraments, but refuse obedience to the Pope). The Protestants, without distinc- tion, are excluded as being both heretical and schismatical. But all who hold those three points belong to the church militant on earth, without regard to their moral character (^etiamsi reprobi, scelesti el impii sinl), though only the good mem- bers will be saved. Thus defined, the church, says Bellarmin, is as visible and palpable as the (guondam) republic of Venice or the (quondani) kingdom of France. He denies the distinction between the visible and invisible church altogeth- er.i The full name of the Roman communion is the "Holy, Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman Church." She numbers over two hundred millions of souls, or about one-half of the entire Christian popula- tion of the globe.^ She is found in all continents and among all nations, but is strongest in south- ern countries, and among the Latin and Celtic races in Italy, Spain, France, Austria, Ireland, and South'America. She agrees in all essential doc- trines and usages with the Greek Church (except the Papacy), but has more vitality and energy; while she is far behind the Protestant commu- nions in general culture, intelligence, and freedom. The Roman Church has a rich and most remark- able history, and still exercises a greater power over the masses of the people than any other • Ve Conciliin et Ecclesia, lib. iii. c. i: " Pro/esaio wra fidei, HacTamentornim covtmunio, et subjectio ad legiihiium paHto7'evl Romunuvi pontificem. . . . Sct-teaia eft catun tiomU innn Ha vinibili'< et palpabilin, ut efit ctxius populi Homani, vet ItegiiHvi Galliot ant Renpnbltca Veiietomni. 2 According to tlie statistics of Bcbm and Wagner for 1880, the propoi'tion stood thus ; — Konmn Catholics 216,938,600 Protestants 130,329,000 Greeks 84,007,000 ROMAN-CATHOLIC CHURCH. 2059 ROMAN-CATHOLIC CHURCH. f of Christians. She stretches in unbroken lession back to the pahny days of heathen (le, has outlived all the govei-nments of Europe, is likely to live when Macaulay's New-Zea- ler, "in the midst of a vast solitude, shall take stand on a broken arch of London Bridge to ch the ruins of St. Paul's." Doctrine. — The Roman-Catholic system octrine is contained in the oecumenical creeds ! Apostles', the Nicene with the Filioque, and Athanasian), in the dogmatic decisions of the menical councils (twenty in number, from to 1870), the bulls of the popes, and espe- ly in the Tridentine and Vatican standards. ; principal authorities are the canons and de- s of the Council of Trent (1563), the Pro- ion of the Tridentine Faith, commonly called "Creed of Pius IV." (1564), the Roman 3chism (1566), the decree of the immaculate 3eption (1854:), and the Vatican decrees on Catholic faith and the infallibility of the e (1870). The best summary of the leading eles of the Roman faith is 'contained in the 3d of Pope Pius IV., which is binding upon priests and public teachers, and which must lonfessed by all converts. It consists of the ene Creed and eleven articles. To these must ' be added the two additional Vatican dogmas he immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary the infallibility of the Pope. The Roman- bolic system of doctrine was prepared as to ter by the Fathers (especially Irenaeus, Cyprian, fustine, Jerome, Leo I., Gregory I.), logically [yzed and defined and defended by the medise- schoolmen (Anselm, Thomas Aquinas, Duns tus), vindicated, in opposition to Protestant- , by Bellarmin, Bossuet, and Mohler, and corn- ed in the Vatican dogma of papal infallibility, ch excludes all possibility of doctrinal refor- ion. A question once settled by infallible lority is settled forever, and cannot be re- led. But the same authoiity may add new mas, such as the assumption of the Virgin •y, which heretofore has been only a " pious lion " of a large number of Catholics, as the laculate conception was before 1854. See DENTINE Profession OF Faith. '.. Government and Discipline. — The !ian Church has reared up the grandest gov- nental fabric known in history. It is an )lute spiritual monarchy, culminating in the e, who claims to be the successor of Peter, the vicar of Christ on earth, and hence the ■eme and infallible head of the church. The )le are excluded from all participation even emporal matters : they must obey the priest ; priests must obey the bishop ; and the bish- the Pope, to whom they are bound by the t solemn oath. This system is the growth of i, and has only reached its maturity in the ican Council (1870). The claim of the Bishop lome to universal dominion over the Christian rch, and even over the temporal kingdoms essing the Catholic faith, goes back to the I of Leo I. (440-461), and was renewed from I to time by Nicholas I., Gregory VII., Inno- III., and Boniface VIII. But this claim always resisted by the Greek Church, which ned equal rights for the Eastern patriarchs, by the German emperors and other princes, who were jealous of their sovereignty. The con- flict between the Pope and the Emperor, between priestcraft and statecraft, runs through the whole middle age, and has been recently revived under •a new aspect by the Papal Syllabus of 1864, which re-asserted the most extravagant claims of the mediseval Papacy, and provoked the so-called Culturkampf in Germany and France. But the stream of history cannot be turned backward. The Pope is aided in the exercise of his func- tions by a college of cardinals (mostly Italians), whose number varies. At present it includes six cardinal-bishops, forty-five cardinal- priests, and fourteen cardinal-deacons. Archbishop McClos- key of New York is the first American cardinal, elected in 1875. The Pope was at first chosen by the Roman clergy and people ; but since the time of Gregory VII. he is elected by the cai'dinals, who meet in conclave on the eleventh day of the vacancy, and elect either by quasi-inspiration unani- mously, or by compromise, or by scrutinium, two- thirds of the votes being required. The Pope with the cardinals together form the consisiory. The various departments of administration are assigned to Congregations, under the presidency of a cardinal; as the Congregation of the Index libro- rum pro/lib., the Congregation of Sacred Rites, the Congregation of Indulgences, the Congrega- tion rfe propaganda Jide, etc. The Pope has a nuncio in all the principal Catholic countries. The whole Roman hierarchy consists of over 700 bishops, 169 Latin and 27 Oriental archbishops, 7 Latin and 5 Oriental patriarchs. The greatest public display of the Roman hierarchy was made in the LS.tei'an Council of 1214 under Innocent III., and in the Vatican Council of 1870 under Pius IX. On the papal government, see the works quoted sub Papacy on p. 1737. III. Worship and Ceremonies. — They are embodied in the Roman Missal, the Roman Bre- viary, and other liturgical books for public and private devotion. The Roman Church accom- panies its members from the cradle to the grave, receiving them into life by baptism, dismissing them into the other world by extreme unction, and consecrating all their important acts by the sacramental mysteries and blessings. The wor- ship is a most elaborate system of ritualism, which addresses itself chiefly to the eye and the ear, and draws all the fine arts into its service. Gothic cathedi-als, altars, crucifixes, Madonnas, pictures, statues, and relics of saints, rich decorations, sol- emn processions, operatic music, combine to lend it great attractions for the common people and for cultured persons of prevailing' sesthetic tastes, especially among the Latin races. But while the external splendor dazzles the senses, and pleases the imagination, the mind and heart, which crave more substantial spiritual food, are often left to starve. Converts from Rome usually swing to the opposite extreme of utmost simplicity. Every day of the calendar is devoted to the memory of one or more saints. The greatest festivals are Christmas, Easter, Pentecost, the feast of the Im- maculate Conception, the Annunciation (March 25), Purification (Feb. 2), Assumption of the Virgin Mary. But the weekly sabbath is not near as well observed in Roman-Catholic countries as in Great Britain and the United States. Catholic worship is the same all over the world, even in ROMAN-CATHOLIC CHURCH. 2060 ROMAN-CATHOLIC CHURCH. language; the Latin being its sacred organ, and the vernacular being only used for sermons, which are subordinate. Its throne is the altar, not the pulpit (which usually stands away oft' in a corner). It centres in the mass, and this is regarded as a real though unbloody repetition or continuation of the atoning sacrifice of Christ on the cross. At the moment when the officiating, priest pronounces the words, " This is my body," the elements of bread and wine are believed to be changed into the very substance of the body and blood of our Saviour ; and these are offered to God the Father for the sins of the living and the dead in purgatory. The Reformers saw in the mass a relapse into Judaism, a refined form of idolatry, and a virtual denial of the one sacrifice of Christ, who, " by one offering hath perfected forever them that are sanctified" (Heb. x. 14), But Catholics deny the charge, and reverently regard the mass as a dramatic commemoration and renewed application of the great mystery of redemption, and the daily food of the devout believer. On the Roman-Cath- olic worship, see the standard editions of the Mis- sate Romanum, the Breinarhim Romanum, and the Pontijicale Romanum , also George Lewis: The Bible, the Missal, and the Brerianj, or Ritualism Self- illustrated in the Lilurcjical Books of Rome (Edin- burgh, 1853, 2 vols.) ; and John, Marquess of Bute : The Roman Breviary translated out of Latin into English (Edinburgh, 1879, 2 vols.). IV. History. — The earliest record of a Chris- tian Church in Rome we have in Paul's Epistle to the Romans (A.D. 58). Though not founded by Peter or Paul, who came to Rome after the year 60, it may possibly be traced to those " strangers of Rome, Jews and proselytes," who witnessed the Pentecostal miracle on the birthday of the Chris- tian Church (Acts ii. 10). At all events, it is the oldest church in the West, and acquired great distinction by the martyrdom of St. Peter and Paul. The Vatican Hill, where the chief of the apostles was crucified, became the Calvary, and Rome the Jerusalem, of Latin Christendom. The Roman martyrdom of Paul is universally con- ceded. The sojourn of Peter in Rome has been doubted by eminent Protestant scholars, and it can certainly not be proven from the New Testa- ment (unless " Babylon " in 1 Pet. v. 13 be under- stood figuratively of Rome) ; but it is so generally attested by the early Fathers, Greek as well as Latin, that it must be admitted as a historical fact, though he probably did not reach Rome before A.D. 63, as there is no mention made of him in the Epistle to the Romans, nor in Paul's Epistles of the Roman captivity, written between 61 and 63. The metropolitan position of the city, whose very name means "power," and which for so many centuries had been the mistress of the world, together with the widespread belief that Christ (Matt. xvi. 18) had instituted a perpetual primacy of the Church in the person of Peter and his suc- cessors in office, supposed to be the bishops of Rome, are the chief causes of the rapid growth of that congregation to the highest influence. It inherited the ambition and prestige of empire, and simply substituted the cross for the sword as the symbol of power. For fifteen centuries the fortunes of Western Christendom were bound up with the Roman Church ; and even now, in her old age, she is full of activity everywhere, but especially in Protestant countries, where she is stimulated by opposition, and invigorated by fresh blood. We may distinguish three stages in the development of Roman Catholicism. (1) The age of ancient Grceco-Latin Catholicism, from the second to the eighth century, before the final rupture of the Greek and Latin communions. This is the common inheritance of all churches. It is the age of the Fathers, of oecumenical creeds and councils, and of Christian emperors. Many of the leading features of Roman Catholicism, as distinct from Protestantism, are already found in the second and third centuries, and have their roots in the Judaizing tendencies combated by St. Paul. The spirit of traditionalism, sacerdo- talism, prelacy, ceremonialism, asceticism, nio- nasticism, was powerfully at work in the East and the West, in the Nicene and post-Nicene ages, and produced most of those doctrines, rites; and institutions which are to this day held in common by the Greek and Roman churches. There are few dogmas and usages of Romanism which may not be traced in embryo to the Greek and Latin Fathers : hence the close resemblance of the Greek and Roman churches, notwithstanding their rival- ry and antagonism. But, alongside with these Romanizing tendencies, we find also, in the school of St. Augustine, the evangelical doctrines of sin and grace, which were, next to the Bible, the chief propelling force of the Reformation. (2) The age of Mediceval Latin Catholicism, as distinct and separated from the Greek, extends from Gregory I., or from Charlemagne, to the Reformation of the sixteenth century. It is the missionary age of Catholicism among the Latin and Teutonic races in Europe. Here we have the conversion of the barbarians in the north and west of Europe, under the fostering care of the bishops of Rome ; here the growth of the Papal hierarchy, though in constant conflict with the secular power, especially the German Empire; here the scholastic theology, but, in opposition to it, also the various forms of mysticism, and a more liberal biblical theology ; here an imposing theocracy, binding all the nations of Europe to- gether, yet with strong elements of opposition in its own communion, urging forward toward a reformation in head and members. The middle ages cradled the Protestant Reformation as well as the Papal counter-Reformation. Wiclif in England, Hus in Bohemia, Wessel in Germany, Savonarola in Italy, the Waldenses, the Bohemian Brethren, the Councils of Pisa, Constance, and Basle, and the revival of letters, prepared the way for the great movement of the sixteenth cen- tury, which emancipated Christendom from the spiritual bondage of Rome. (3) The age of modern Romanism, dating from the Reformation, or, rather, from the Council of Trent (1563). This is Roman Catholicism, in opposition, not only to the Greek Church, but also to evangelical Protestantism. In some re- spects it was an advance upon the middle ages, and experienced great benefit from the Reforma- tion. No Alexander VI., who was a monster of wickedness, nor Julius II., who preferred the sword to the staff, nor Leo X., who had more faith in classical literature and art than in the fabula de Christo, could now be elected to the chair of St. Peter. No such scandal as the Papal ROMAN-CATHOLIC CHURCH. 2061 ROMAN-CATHOLIC CHURCH. lism, with two or three rival popes cursing and communicating each other, has disgraced the urch since the sixteenth century. On the other nd, the Papacy has given forifnal sanction to 3se scholastic theories and ecclesiastical tradi- ns against which the Reformers protested. It pressly condemned their doctrines; and, by liming to be infallible, it made itself doctrin- y irreformable. In modern Romanism we must again distin- ish two periods, which are divided by the reiau Pope Pius IX. [a) Triclentine Romanism is directed against the inciples of the Protestant Reformation, and ed the dogmas of the rule of faith (scripture d tradition), original sin, justification by faith d works, the seven sacraments, the sacrifice of ! mass, purgatory, invocation of saints, the ven- ition of relics, and indulgences. The "Old tholics," who seceded in 1870, and were excom- micated, took their stand first on the Council of ent, in opposition to the Council of the Vatican, J charged the latter with apostasy and corrup- n ; although in fact, and as viewed from the atestant stand-point, the one is only a legiti- ite, logical development of the other. [6) Vatican Romanism is directed against mod- 1 infidelity (rationalism), and against liberal tholicism (Gallicanism) within the Roman urch itself. It created, or rather brought to 1 maturity and exclusive authority, two new jmas and two corresponding heresies, — con- ning the Virgin Mary, and the power and inf al- ility of the Romau pontifE. These questions re left imsettled by the Council of Trent, and onsiderable difference of opinion continued to ivail in the Romau communion. Gallicanism arished in France dming the golden age of its ji'aturej and was formulated by Bossuet in the nous articles of Galilean liberties; but, since ! restoration of the order of Jesuits, the Ultra- mtane school, which defends papal absolutism, iduaUy gained the ascendency, and accom- shed a complete triumph, — first in 1854, when IS IX. proclaimed the immaculate conception of i Virgin Mary to be a divinely revealed dogma faith ; and in the Vatican Council in 1870, lich declared the Pope to be the infallible bishop bishops. The same Pope, in 1864, issued the yllabus of Errors," which must be considered by manists as an infallible official document, and ich arrays the Papacy in open war against mod- i civilization and civil and religious freedom. The reign of Pius IX. was very eventful in the tory of the Papacy : it marked the height of pretensions and the logical completion of its 3trinal system, but also the loss of its temporal sver. On the very day after the passage of the pal infallibility dogma (July 18, 1870), Napo- n III., the chief political and military sup- :terof the Pope, declared war against Protestant nssia (July 19), withdrew his troops from Rome, 1 occasioned the utter defeat of Imperial France, ! rise of the new German Empire with a Prot- ant head, and the downfall of the temporal iirer of the Papacy. Victor Emmanuel, sup- ■ted by the vote of the people, marched into me, made it the capital of free and united ly, and confined the Pope to the Vatican and a purely ecclesiastical jurisdiction (Sept. 20, 1870). History has never seen a more sudden and remarkable revulsion. Pope Pius IX. involved himself in difficulties with Italy, Spain, Germany, France, and Russia, and excited the sympathies of the masses, first as an exile, and then as a prisoner in the Vatican. Yet his reign was longer than that of any Pope, and exceeded the traditional twenty-five years of Peter. The policy of his successor, Leo XIII., is wiser and more conciliatory. The history of the Roman Church during the present century shows the remarkable fact, that she has lost on her own gTOund, especially in Italy and Spain, but gained large accessions on foreign soil, especially in England, by the secession of Cardinal Newman, Cardinal Manning, and several hundred Anglican clergymen and noblemen, since 1845, who sought rest in absolute submission to an infallible authority. On the other hand, this gain has been more than neutralized by the Old- Catholic secession in Germany and Switzerland, under tiie lead of Drs. Dollinger, Reinkens, and von Schulte, and other eminent Catholic scholars, whose learning and conscience did not permit them to submit to the Vatican decrees of 1870. For particulars, see Papacy, Pope, Jesuits, Gallicanism, Ultramontanism, Immaculate COXCEPTIOX, IXFALLIBILITY, TrENT, TrIDEN- TINE CONFESSIOX, VATICAN CoUKCIL, etc. Lit. — The standard writers in explanation and defence of the doctrinal system of Romanism are Bellarmin (Dispulationes de Controversiis Chris- tiance Jidei aducrs. Imius temporis hcereticos, 1590, 3 vols, folio, and often since), Bossuet {Exposition de la doctrine de I'eglise calholique, 1671), Mohler {Symbolik, 8th ed., 1872), Pekrone (Pralectiones theologicm, 36th ed., 1881), Kleb, Dierixger, Friedhof, Wisemax. The chief historical works by Roman Catholics are ihe Annals of Baroxius, the Church Histories of Rohrbacher, Mohler (edited bj' Gams), Alzog, Kraus, Hefele {Con- ciliengeschichte, down to the Council of Constance, a very valuable work), Dollinger (before his secession in 1870), Cardinal Hergenrothek (Kirchengeschichle, in 3 vols., 2d ed., 1880). Of Spanish works, the able defence of Romanism by Balmes is made known to English readers by a translation. Protestantism and Catholicity com- pared in their Effects on denization, 1851. In recent times the Roman Church has found its most zealous advocates among converts such as Dr. Ilurter (the historian of Innocent III.), Car- dinal Newman, Cardinal Manning, Dr. Orestes Brownson (1844-76), who carried the weapons of Protestant learning and culture with them. The fullest repositoi-y of Roman-Catholic theological learning may be found in Abbe Migne : Noucelle Enc'/clope'die The'ologique, Paris, 1850 sqq., 52 vols, (a series of dictionaries on all branches of sacred literatm-e), and in Wetzek and Welte : Kirchen- lexikon oiler Encykl. der kathol. Theologie, in 12 vols. (Freiburg, 1847-58), which is now coming out in a revised form, begun by Cardinal Her- genrother, and continued by Dr. Kaulen, Frei- burg-im-B., 1882 sqq. See also Berington and Kirk : The Faith of Catholics, on Certain Points of Controversy, confirmed hy Scripture, and attested hy the Fathers, London, 1846, 3 vols. ; 3d ed. by James Waterworth. Protestant works on and against the Roman- ROMAN-CATHOLIC CHURCH. 2062 ROMAN-CATHOLIC CHURCH. Catholic Church. Chbmnitz : Examen Concilii Tridenlinii Isaac Barrow: Treatise oh the Pope's Supremacy; jMarheineke: Das System d. Katholi- cismus, 1810-13, 3 vols. ; Bauk : Der Gegensalz des Kathoticismus ii. Protestantismus (against Mohler), 1836 ; Archbishop \Viiatei,y : The Errors of Ro- manism traced to their Origin in Human Nature, 1830 (5th ed., 1856); Edgar: Variations of Popery, 1849 ; Arohdeaooii Hake : The Contest with Rome, 1856; Martensex: Kathoticismus u. Protestantis- mus, 1874 ; Hase ; Handbuch der Protest. Polemik, 4th ed., 1878; Johann Delitzsch: Das Lekr- system der rbm. Kirche, 1875; Pusey: Irenicon, 1870 (letters to Dr. Newman) ; Emile de Lave- LEYE : Protestantism and Catholicism in their Bear- ing upon the Libert y and Prosperity of Nations, with an Introduction by Hon. W. E. Gladstone, 1875; the essays of Professor G. P. Fjshek and Dr. R. S. Storrs, on "Protestantism, Romanism, and Civiliza,tiou," in the Proceedings of the Evangeli- cal Alliance Conference of 1873 (New York, 1874, 449-406) ; W. E. Gladstone : Rome, and the Newest Fashions in Religion (the Vatican Decrees, Vaticanism, Speeches of Pope Pius IX., in 1 vol.), 1875; John Schulte : Roman Catholicism, Old and Neiv, from the Stand-point of the Infallibility Doctrine, 1878; Littledale: Reasons against Join- ing the Church of Rome, 1881 (30th thousand); R. Jenkins : Romanism, a Doctrinal and Historical Examination of the Creed of Pius IV., London, 1882. Compare also the writer's Principle of Prot- estantism, 1S4.J, his art. in Johnson's Cyclopaedia, 1878, and his Creeds of Christendom (3d ed., 1881), i. 83-191, and ii. 77-274 ; F. Nippold : Handbuch d. neusten Kirchengeschichte, Elberfeld, 3d ed., 1883, vol. ii., " Gesch d. Katholizismus seit d. Restaura- tion von 1814 (850 pp.). On the Roman-Catholic Church in the United States, see next art., by a learned member of that church. PHILIP SCHAFF. ROMAN-CATHOLIC CHURCH IN THE UNIT- ED STATES. This church is in its government divided into dioceses, under archbishops and bish- ops appointed by the Pope, and deriving apostolic succession from consecration by other lawfully constituted bishops. In its origin it was formed by the extension of the dioceses and authority of Seville and Rouen and the vicariates apostolic of England and Loudon. The early Spanish colonial and mission efforts were subject to the archbishops of Seville till the creation of the suffragan sees of Santo Domingo (1513) and Tlascala (1519). When permanent settlements were formed in Florida, they, with Spanish Louisiana, were under the bish- ops of Santiago de Cuba till the erection of the see of Havana, iu 1787. The French in Canada were subject to the archbishops of Rouen till Canada was made a vicariate apostolic, under Bishop Laval, who became, in 1674, first bishop of Que- bec. The jurisdiction of this see extended over the French settlements and posts from Maine to Louisiana till 1789. The English Catholics in Maryland and other British Colonies were subject to the English vicars apostolic till Dr. Carroll was made Prefect Apostolic of the United States, 1784. When the see of Baltimore was erected (1789), its jurisdiction was extended to the whole territory of the republic, and that of Quebec in some parts ceased. Louisiana and the Ploridas were placed under a separate bishop in 1793. Texas, New Mexico, and California were subject to Mexican sees. As Catholics increased in the United States by natural growth and immigra- tion, sees were erected in 1808 at New York, Bos- ton, Philadelphia, and Bardstown. After the cession of Louisiana to the United States, sees were established at St. Louis and New Orleans • and, while Oregon was a disputed territory, a vica- riate apostolic, and, soon after, an episcopal see, was founded (1846), dependent on Canada. In the territory subsequently acquired from Mexico, a bishopric existed, that of the two Californias, the bishop residing in Northern California. The other portions were soon placed under American bishops. These original dioceses have been, as the growth of the country required, subdivided, till there were in 1883 twelve archbishoprics, fifty-two bishoprics, nine vicariates apostolic, and one prefecture apostolic. Each archbishopric, with the dioceses of the suffragan bishops, forms an ecclesiastical province. On the vacancy of a see by death, resignation, or removal, the archbishop and bishops of the prov- ince select three priests, whose names are sent to Rome; and from this list the Pope generally chooses one, who is appointed to the vacant see. His bulls are then issued, and despatched to the bishop-elect, who is consecrated and installed. The Clergy, and Mode of Recruiting. — There, were in the United States, in 1883, 6,546 priests. For the training of candidates for the priesthood, there were thirty-one seminaries under the direc- tion of the bishops, and also several similar insti- tutions connected with the religious orders, in which members of those bodies pursued their theo- logical course. The most impoi-tant seminaries are, St. Mary's, Baltimore, founded in 1791, and directed by the Sulpitians ; Mount St. Mai-y's Theological Seminary, Emmittsburg, Md. ; St. Jo- seph's Seminary, Troy, N.Y. ; the Seminary of St. Francis of Sales, near Milwaukee ; St. Vin- cent's Theological Seminary, Cape Girardeau, Mo. ; and the Seminary of Our Lady of the An- gels, Niagara Falls, N.Y., directed by the Lazar- ists. Of those connected with the regular orders, the most important are the House of Studies at Woodstock, Md., for scholastics of the Society of Jesus; the House of Studies at Ilchester, Md., for the Redemptorists ; St. Vincent's Abbey, West- moreland County, Penn., for the Benedictines; and St. Bonaventure's Seminary, Allegany, N.Y., for the Franciscans. There are also iu Europe the American College at Rome, and the American Col- lege at Louvain, where candidates for the priest- hood are prepared for duty in this country. The Missionary College of All Hallows, Drumcondra, Ireland, prepares young men for the priesthood to serve in other countries, and among them many are accepted by bishops in the United States. Be- sides these, many priests of different nationalities come with the general emigration, and are incor- porated into the body of the clergy. The Regular Orders. — Besides the secular priests, subject directly to the bishops, and consti- tuting most of the pai'ochial clergy, there are many religious orders. The oldest of these is the Soci- ety of Jesus, which began its labors in Maryland in 1633, and down to the Revolution supplied al- most exclusively the priests who labored among the Catholics in the then British Colonies. Mem- bers of the same order from Canada established ROMAN-CATHOLIC CHURCH. 2063 ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. lian missions, and attended the white settle- nts along the northern frontier and in the val- of the Mississippi. The Jesuit fathers at sent conduct colleges at Georgetown (D.C.), Itimore, New- York City, Fordham (N.Y.), Jer- ' City, Worcester (Mass.), Cincinnati, Detroit, Louis, Mobile, New Orleans, Las Vegas (N.il.), laha (Neb.), Santa Clara (Cal.), and some others, i have churches in many cities and towns. The minicans have had convents and chui-ches doing rochial work in Ohio and Kentucky since the ^inning of the century, and more recently in lifornia. New York, and New Jersey ; the Au- stinians, in Pennsylvania, New York, and Mas- ihusetts. Several orders have come in to labor ncipally among the Germans, — the Eedemp- ists (who have parish-churches, and also give ssions to German and English speaking con- igations), branches of the Franciscan order, formed Franciscans, Conventuals, Capuchins, jaged mainly in parochial work. The Passion- 3 are devoted more especially to the giving of ssions. The Lazarists, or Priests of the Mis- n, are engaged chiefly in the direction of semi- ries and colleges ; Priests of the Holy Cross, in ectiiig colleges, schools, and in parochial work ; ! Benedictines, who have several abbeys, with leges, schools, and churches in all parts of the inti-y. Churches and their Tenure. — The churches are some cases held by the bishop or archbishop trustee ; in other States, by a board of trustees, there is,no membership in the Catholic church- in the sense that the term is used in Protestant iies, the application of the general laws made ' the latter threw the choice of trustees into the lids of those who contributed least to the main- lance of the churches, and who seldom joined the ordinances of the church. This led to vest- j the title in the bishop as trustee, but the plan lated other difficulties. In many parts the title the church is now vested in a board consisting the bishop, the pastor of the church, and two '-trustees. The churches, colleges, abbeys, and uses of the religious orders, are generally held them under acts of incorporation. The churches have been built almost exclusive- by voluntary contributions, and are, as a rule, cumbered by mortgage-debts ; the congrega- ns being unable to meet the whole cost, and ne of the churches possessing funded property, rge bequests, devises, and donations to church- or church-work, are as rare among Catholics in 3 United States as they are common among Prot- ants. A system grew up in churches, of accept- ; deposits, and paying interest, as a means of aiding mortgages ; but, as matters were rarely inaged with the judgment of business-men, the iult has often been financial ruin, as at St. ter's Church, New York, Cincinnati, and Law- ice, Mass. Education. — Prior to the Revolution, any dis- ictively Catholic schools were almost impossi- 3 ; an academy for boys in Maryland, which was pertly maintained for several years, being almost 3 only example. Schools in connection with the urches were established as soon as Catholics ire free ; and, until public schools began to be ;ablished by State authority, the schools main- ned by the different denominations were almost 24— III the only schools accessible to the children of the poorer classes. The Catholics have since been compelled to retain and extend their parochial system, as the State schools, in their general tone, influence, and text-books, are so decidedly Prot- estant as to make them a powerful means in alien- ating the young from Catholicity. The number of Catholic parochial schools in the United States is estimated at 2,500, and the nuAiber of pupils at nearly half a million. In these, religious in- struction is given, with the usual branches taught in schools; and text-books are used free from matter offensive to Catholics. These books, in their educational form and mechanical execution, have been greatly improved within the last twen- ty years. Parish schools are, to a great extent, taught by members of religious orders and com- munities which make instruction their special work. Of these the chief are the Brothers of the Christian Schools, Brothers of the Holy Cross, Brothers of Mary, Xaveiian Brothers, Franciscan Brothers, for boys' schools ; Ursulines, Benedic- tine, Presentation Nuns, Sisters of Charity, School Sisters of Notre Dame, Sisters of Notre Dame, Sisters of the Holy Cross, Sisters of St. Joseph, Sisters of St. Francis, Sisters of St. Dominic, Sis- ters of Mercy, Sisters of the Immaculate Heart, for girls. For higher education, there are acade- mies under some of the orders of Brothers ; and, for young ladies, under the Ladies of the Sacred Heart, Ursuline Nuns, Sisters of Notre Dame, of the Holy Child, St. Dominic, St. Joseph, etc. The number of these academies was given in 1883 as 579. The colleges and universities for young men numbered 81 ; that at Georgetown, D.C., being the oldest. None of these institutions are en- dowed, or possess founded professorships. They are, with a few exceptions, owned and directed by religious orders, — Jesuits, Benedictines, Augus- tinians, Franciscans, Lazarists, Priests of the Holy Cross, Brothers of the Christian Schools. There is no Catholic college in the United States with a lay faculty, and only a few with a faculty of secular priests. Sunday schools are generally maintained in the cities, and in other places where there is a resident pastor; but, as religious in- struction is given in the parochial and other schools during the week, the Sunday-school system does not hold the same importance as among Protes- tant bodies. The Catholic Press. — The necessity of diffusing religious intelligence among Catholics, and of meeting charges against the church, led to the establishment of Catholic newspapers. Of these the United-States Catholic Miscellany, founded by Bishop England of Charleston, was one of the first and ablest. There are in 1883 many pub- lished in various parts of the country, in English, German, French, Spanish, and Portuguese; the Freeman's Journal, published in New York, under the editorship of J. A. McMaster, being the most able and influential. There are several monthly publications of a literary and devotional charac- ter, such as the Catholic World, the Are Maria, and one review. The American Catholic Quarterly, which fills the place long occupied by Brownson's Quarterly Review. For the diffusion of books among Catholics, attempts were twice made to establish publishing societies ; but the Metropoli- tan Press and the Catholic Publication Society ROMAN-CATHOLIC CHURCH. 2064 ROMAN-CATHOLIC CHURCH. both failed to maintain themselves, and fell into private hands. The publication of Catholic books is left to individual publishers. The sale of Bibles among Catholics is very large, Protestant houses as well as Catholic being engaged in publishing them. Charitable Institutions. — The relief of the poor and afflicted calls for the services of a number of religious communities of women, devoted to gen- eral or special woi'k. The Sisters of Charity meet almost all wants, directing orphan and foundling- asylums, homes for neglected children, reforma- tories for the vicious, industrial and parochial schools, general hospitals, insane-asylums, homes for the aged, and visiting the sick ; the Sisters of Mercy visit the sick and prisons, and have houses for unemployed servant-girls ; the Little Sisters of the Poor are devoted to the care of the aged ; the Sisters of the Poor of St. Francis, to hospital- work ; the Bon Secours Sisters, to the nursing of the sick at their homes. The total number of charitable institutions reported for 18S-S was 460. Almost without exception, these depend on vol- untary contributions ; none being endowed, and bequests of the wealthy being comparatively rare. Asylums for the treatment of insanity and the care of deaf-mutes have been established by sis- terhoods in several places. Liturgy. — The Liturgy in use in the Catholic Church in the United States is the Roman, the Roman missal, breviary, pontifical and ritual, being exclusively used ; and none of those which acquired local tolerance in parts of Europe have ever obtained at any time in any district of this country. The regular orders have also in most cases a Proper, containing offices of saints belong- ing to their rule, which the Holy See permits in the churches and houses of the order. As the emigration has brought over few if any Catholics belonging to the Oriental rites, Lajin alone has been used in the Catholic churches of the United States, except where a United Greek or Syriac priest visiting the country has celebrated mass according to his own rite. The discipline of the Western Patriarchate in regard to communion under one kind, and the celibacy of the clergy, are universal. Government. — The canon law of the church, as modified by special grants or customs in France, was established in the churches under the French rule in New York, Indiana, Michigan, Illinois, and Wisconsin, and, as modified in Spain, was established in Florida and Louisiana and the former Mexican territory, with the regulations adopted by synods at Quebec and Santiago de Cuba, and by provincial councils at Santo Do- mingo and Mexico; but as, in all parts except New Mexico, the old population merged in the expansion of Catholics from the original territory of the republic, the early ecclesiastical law is virtually unknown at present. The United States is regarded as a missionary country, and the affairs of the Catholic Church here are conducted at Rome through the Congregation de Propaganda Fide. No parishes have been canonically insti- tuted, as in Canada and Mexico ; and consequently there are, except in a few instances, actually no parish priests properly so called. The priests are ordained sub tittdo missionis, and bound to obedi- ence to their bishop, and have, when assigned to quasi parishes, no canonical immobility. The church here tends to the establishment of canon law and the complete system under it, so far as it is possible in this country and at this time. At present, however, the position of the priest is not so clearly defined as to prevent frequent appeals- to Rome, and occasional suits in the State courts. An instruction issued at Rome a few years since led to the establishment of a committee of clerg-y- men in each diocese, who are to investigate all charges against a priest, and whose report is to some extent a necessary step in withdrawing a priest's faculties, or removing him from a pas- toral chai-ge. The first legislation in the Catholic Church in the United States was the synod of Baltimore,, held by Bishop Cari'oU in 1791 ; and its regula- tions, with rules adopted by the bishops in 1810^ were the onljr specific laws till the assembling of the first Provincial Council of Baltimore, convened' in 1829, under the sanction of Pope Leo XII., by Archbishop Whitfield. The decrees of this coun- cil and of others held at Baltimore in 1833, 1837,. 1840, 1843, and 1849, were approved by the popes,, and became law in the ohui-ch east of the Missis- sippi, and were accepted generally west of the- river. In 1846 Oregon City was made a metro- politan see with two suffragans; and in 1847 St. Louis became the head of a province embracing the dioceses of Dubuque, Nashville, St. Paul, Chicago, and Milwaukee. In 1850 New York was made an archiepiscopal see, and the bishops; of Boston, Hartford, Albany, and Buffalo, were made suffragans to it ; Cincinnati was also made- a metropolitan see, having Louisville, Detroit, Vincennes, and Cleveland as suffragans. In 1853- San Francisco became a metropolitan, with Mon- terey as a suffragan see ; and in 1875 Boston was made an archiepiscopal see, with the bishops of Portland, Burlington, Springfield, Providence, and Hartford as suffragans; Philadelphia, with Pittsburg, Harrisburg, Erie, Scranton, and Wil- mington as suffragans; Milwaukee, with Green Bay, La Crosse, Marquette, and St. Paul as suf- fragans ; Santa Fe was also made an archiepisco- pal see in 1875 ; and in 1880 Chicago, with Alton and Peoria as suffragans. In most of these new provinces, councils were also held by authority of the Holy See, — in Oregon in 1848; in New York, 1854, 1861, 1883;! in Cincinnati in 1855, 1858^ [> The fourth council of the Produce of New York -was heldin New-York City, from Sept. 23 (Sunday) to Sept. 30, 1883. The "Opening and closing ceremonies iu the cathedral were- impressive. The language of the council was Latin, and in this language on the last day the decrees of the council were read (the bishops severally assenting) . They were placed on the gos- pel side of the altar, signed by the cardinal, all the liishms (In the order of seniority), by Monsianor Preston and by Father Farley, and then sent to Rome. The decrees related to morals- and discipline, especially to marriage, in protest to lax views and practices, and to godless education; but the proceedings leading to them were secret. After the decrees were signed, an address was read, the kiss of peace given, and the council difr- missed with the solemn Papal benediction from the cardinal. The following "Acclamations " were euug at the conclusion of the services : — . • .i Archidiaconus. — Sanctissimaa et Individuaa TrioitaU, sempiterna laus ac gratiarum actio! Chorus. — Gloria Tibi, Trinitas sequalis, una Deltas, et ante omnia ssecula, et nunc, et in perpetuum I Arch. — Beatae Mariae, Virgini Beiparae, sine labe con- ceptae, honor aeternus, filialis veiieratio! Chob. — Benedicta sit Dei filia, et sponsa, et mnter; beatam dicant earn omnes generationes ! Abch. — Beatissimo Leoni, Papae XIII., fldei doctori Infal- libili, multi anni, perennis felicitasi ROMAN-CATHOLIC CHURCH. 2065 ROMAN-CATHOLIC CHURCH. [, and 1882 ; in St. Louis in 1855, 1858 ; in New ians in 1856, 1860 ; in San Francisco in 1874 1882, in all of which, decrees were passed ling in those provinces, as those of Baltimore, inued in 1855, 1858, and 1869, were in that iced province. To insure general action, how- ■, throughout the United States on some im- -ant points, and to express clearly the faith discipline of the whole church in this country, lary councils were held at Baltimore in 1852 1866, in which many decrees were adopted the archbishops and bishops of the whole itry. The decrees of these councils conform heir dogmatic part with the established doc- es of the church, and in matters of discipline gi-adually bringing the economy of the church tiis country into harmony with the discipline ther and older portions of the chureh. he oldest Catholic body of population in the ted States is the population of New Mexico, Spanish and Indian origin. The white popu- )n is essentially descended from the first set- !, who occupied the country about 1580, and I, though expelled about a century after, soon rned. The original Spanish population of :ida aU retired in the last century when the jny passed into the hands of England. Dur- the British sway, a number of Minorcans and eks were introduced by Mr. Turnbull, whose iendants form the nucleus of the present bolic population of that State. he French settlements at Vincennes, Kaskas- Cahokia, influenced by Rev. Mr. Gibault, ;omed Gen. Clark during the Revolutionary r; and their descendants form ])art of the lolic population of the West and South, loit was long retained by England ; and its ich population underwent few changes, and r descendants still form a considerable part he Catholic population. he nucleus in the English Colonies was the •f of colonists who came over in 1633 with aard Calvert. Many of the settlers were iestants, and Calvert at once put up a church iheir use-; but the leading settlers who took ands in their own name were mainly Catho- lOR. — Impleat eum DominuB spiritu sapientiae et virtutis ; 3U hostium viudicet eum, et coiisen'et eum auDos multoH! XCH. — Eminentissimo Archiepiscopo Neo-Eboraccnsi, > Novi Mundi Cardinali, liujua Coucilii Fraeaidi, vita , multse gratiae ! lOB. — Vita loDga, multee gratiae! Domiuus retribuat! JCH. — IHustriBsimis Archiepiscopo et EpiHCopis, qui hauc ium celebrarunt, prospera vita, faustum miaiBterium ! lOR. — Praeconibus vepitatis benedictio Dei, memoria per- >, iaborum uberrima seges ! SCH. — Episcopis et presbyteris hujuB Pro\inci8e, qui in uo obdormienmt, pax Chlisti, gloria Faradisi ! lOR. — Requiem aeteruam dona eiB, Domine, et lux per- . luceat cis ! ICH. — Clero hujufl Provinciae, religioBiB communitatibuB, i popuio BaluB a Domiao et benedictio ! fOB. — Pater sancte, Berva cob a maio ; Banctiiica eos in Lte, et vitam aeternam da eia ! ICH. — Almse noBtrae Keipublicae pax indeliciens, Balutaris >eritas ! lOR- — Ne dereliuquas, Domine, super quos invocatum est !n Tuum; da cis angelum Tuum custodem, ac in portum itatis Tuae deduc navem eoi-um ! JCH. — Synodi Neo-Eboracensis hujuB Quartae decretis -eamuB, ndeliter observemus ! lOB. — Omnes idipsum sentimus; omnes venerabimur et diemusi iCH. — Nob vero miniflterium nostrum explentes, ut boni osatores multiformis gratiae Dei, iutcrcedentibue pro BeatiBsima Matre Dei atque Sanctis omnibuB, dignos mus UOB misericordia Dei et Domini uostri Jesu Christ! ! ;0B.— Fiat! Fiat! Amen! Amen!— Ed.J lies. As no Protestant minister came to attend those of that faith, most of the settlers in a few years were Catholics, and so continued, till, under William III., Lord Baltimore conformed to the Established Church in order to recover the prov- ince. This body of Catholics received few acces- sions from Europe, as from the time of Cromwell penal laws made the life of Catholics as intolera- ble as in England. The public services of the church were forbidden, double taxes imposed, the possession of arms denied . At one time these persecuted Catholics sought to obtain of the French Government lands in Louisiana. A few crossed into Virginia ; but laws were as severe in that Colony, and in the last century the testimony of a Catholic could not be used in court. In New York a few Catholics settled during the proprietorship of James II. as Duke of York, and king ; but under the subsequent rulers they disappeared, penal laws preventing the entrance of priests. Pennsylvania was more liberal, and Catholics were among the earliest settlers ; and clergy came over, who not only attended the Catholics, but won over some Protestants. From 1732 these Penn.sylvania Catholics came under the ministration of the English Jesuits in Mary- land, who had been the pastors of the Catholics there from the foundation of the Colony, and had attended those in New York in the seventeenth century. When a German emigration to Penn- sylvania began, many of the new-comers were Catholics; and, to minister to them, some German Jesuits came over, who visited Catholic mining- colonies at the iron-mines in New Jersey, and under Father Ferdinand Steinmeyer, or Farmer, extended their missionary excursions to New York not long before the Revolution. These Catholics had no churches, except in Philadelphia, Lancaster, Conewago, and Goshen- hoppen ; no churches being permitted in Maryland, where only small chapels, under the same roof as the residence of the priest, were allowed. In 1755 seven thousand Catholic Acadians were, for refus- ing to take the oath of supremacy, seized, and scattered in poverty through the thirteen Colo- nies. Most of them who survived the hardships of their terrible transportation straggled to Can- ada or Louisiana, only Maryland retaining any permanently. During the Revolution the Canadians were friendly, and might easily have been won. A number espoused the American cause, and settled in Northern New York. Two Canadian regi- ments were formed, which fought in the Conti- nental Army to the close of the war, and had a Catholic chaplain commissioned by Congress. After the Revolution, a new emigration set in, bringing in Catholics, who settled in New York and New England. The Maryland ex-Jesuits were the only clergy, their society having been dissolved by Clement XIV., and the Vicar Apos- tolic of London having virtually abandoned them on account of their adhesion to the American cause. Priests, not always of the highest charac- ter, straggled over with the emigrants ; and some chaplains of the French and Spanish naval and military forces remained to do mission-work here- After the Rev. John Carroll was appointed Prefect Apostolic, some order was established; and from the erection of the see of Baltimore ROMAN-CATHOLIC CHURCH. 2066 ROMAN-CATHOLIC CHURCH. the growth was steady. Churches were begun in New York and Boston, and then at other cities near the coast, from Boston to Savannah. In consequence of the- troubles caused by the out- break of the Revolution in France, a community of Carmelite nuns came to Maryland ; the Eng- lish Dominicans, expelled from Bornheim, sent a part of their community to Kentucky ; the Sulpi- tians began a seminary; and a, number of learned and zealous French priests came to the United States, who did much to maintain a spirit of re- ligion among the older and more recently arrived Catholics. Conversions to the Catholic religion became more frequent. Gov. Lee of Maryland, Rev. John Thayer of Boston, Rev. Mr. Kewley of New York, the Rev. Mr. Barber and his family. Ironsides, Richards, Holmes, and others, showed the influence of the liberty given to Catholics. This freedom was not absolute. In some States they were still disfranchised. In New York they could not sit in the Legislature. In Massachu- setts the highest court in 1800 decided that a Catholic must pay for the support of the Protest- ant minister ; and a priest was indicted for marry- ing a couple out of the limits of the city where he resided, although within the district assigned to him by the bishop. Kentucky was settled largely by Catholics from Maryland, and had priests laboring there soon after the Revolution. The church there took form under the labors of Rev. Mr.'Badin, Nerinckx, and Bishop Flaget, with the English Dominicans. The French priests of Kentucky visited the old French settlements in Indiana, Illinois, and Michi- gan ; the Rev. Gabriel Richard becoming the chief missionary in the last State. In the East the French priests Matignon and Cheverus attend- ed the Catholics of Boston and those scattered throughout New England. Bishop Carroll had sought a division of his diocese at the very commencement of the century ; but it was not till 1810 that bishops were appoint- ed to Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Bards- town, Ky. Increasing emigration soon led to a growth of the Catholic body in the other dioceses. When the agitation for Catholic emancipation began in England and Ireland, a counter-move- ment led to the publication of many works at- tacking the Catholic doctrines, discipline, and institutions. This brought increased controversies. Many of the works were reprinted in the United States; and the controversial literature begun by Carroll, Thayer, and Fleming, was continued, and reached its height about 18i56, when works like the Awful Disclosures of Maria Monk were issued. The falsity of that book was shown by William Jy. Stone, editor of the Commercial Advertiser, and •was established in a chancery suit; but a similar work led to the burning of an Ursuline Convent at Charlestown, Mass. After this period, the opposition to Catholics became political, rather than theological, as was apparent in the Native American riots in Philadelphia in 1844, in which two churches and many residences were destroyed. Since that time, political parties and associations hostile to Catholics appear from time to time. These have not, hpwever, affected sensibly the growth of the Catholic body, ©r the establishment <)f churches, colleges, convents, schools, asylums, hospitals, and the like. The earlier Catholic emigration was mainly Irish ; but for the last forty years the German-Catholic element has been increasing steadily; so that, especially in the West, the Germans and their immediate descend- ants form a large part of the Catholic body. They are said to have about one-third of the priests in the United States, and they have a large number of bishops. They maintain several Catholic papers, and have many" thoroughly organ- ized societies. In New England and Illinois there are large bodies of Canadian French. The most eminent members of the Catholic Church in the United States have been Archbish- ops Carroll and Spalding of Baltimore, Hughes of New York, Cardinal McCloskey, Archbishop Henni of Milwaukee, Bishop England of Charles- ton, Brute of Vincennes, Archbishop Kenrick of Baltimore, Bishop Flaget of Bardstown and Louis- ville, Bishop Cheverus of Boston, Prince Gahtzin, Rev. Dr. Corcoran, Rev. Felix Varela, Rev. I. T. Hecker, Chief-Justice Taney, Judge Gaston of North Carolina, Commodore Barry, Gen. Rose- crans, Orestes A. Bi'owrison, Robert Walsh, James A. McMaster, Dr. Levi Silliman Ives, the Redemp- torist Father Miiller. The first Catholic churches erected in this country, except in Spanish parts, were generally plain and inexpensive ; but with the growth of the body, churches and institutions of great solid- ity and beauty were erected, often beyond the means of the community, and involving loads of debt under which many churches are struggling. Of the churches, the finest is St. Patrick's Cathe- dral, New York, one of the most striking ecclesi- astical buildings in America. Catholic Population. — There are no accurate data for estimating the Catholic population in the United States. As there is no system of membei'ship in the Catholic Church such as ob- tains in many Protestant denominations, every one baptized and brought up in the Catholic faith, attending divine worship more or less regu- larly, and from time to time approaching the sac- raments, is regarded as a Catholic, unless he distinctly disavows it by formally connecting him- self with some other church. A Catholic Direc- tory is published annually, made up of reports from the different archbishops and bishops, with estimates of population ; but these are not always based on a census, or on the number of bap- tisms, which may be taken as that of live births. The population given for 1883 by this periodical is 6,832,954. The system adopted in the United- States census gives a much smaller population; but the census figures are based on the seating- capacity of the churches, and in the Catholic churches in the cities and large towns this gives a number much below the real one. In these churches there are on Sundays three or four successive masses, each attended by a different congregation; so that a, church with a seating- capacity of 1,500 will and often does accommo- date 6,000. Thus in Hartford, in April, 1881, an actual count showed 12,431 attending five Catho- lic churches, and 12,000 attending forty Protestant churches on the same day. Similar enumerations elsewhere gave similar results, showing that a Catholic congregation in a city numbers at least four times the seating-capacity of the church. The Catholic population is mainly in the North- ROMAN-CATHOLIC CHURCH. 2067 ROMAN-CATHOLIC CHURCH. and newly settled Western States, and is iparatively small in the States which till re- t times retained slaveiy, excepting Louisiana, are the original population was exclusively ,holic. Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecti- , and Louisiana have about one-third of the lulation Catholic, according to Catholic esti- tes; New York, Wisconsin, and California, -fourth ; Maryland, Minnesota, Colorado, and kota, one-fifth; Illinois, Xew Jersey, Idaho, and ishington Territory, one-sixth; Pennsylvania, -seventh ; ilichigan and Kentucky, one-eighth ; io and Nebraska, one-ninth ; Maine and New mpshire, one-tenth ; but in Virginia the Catho- are one in forty to the population ; in Geor- , one to sixty ; in Tennessee, one to fifty ; in ,bama and Mississippi, one to eighty ; in South olina and Arkansas, one to one hundred; and North Carolina, where there is the smallest portion of Catholics, one to nine hundred. cOGRESS OF Catholic Church in United States. Teak. Bishops. Priests. Churches. PopulatioD. 24 45,090 5 85 11 226 18 601 454 27 1,081 1,073 1,523,350 49 2,236 2,386 3,600,000 60 4,873 4,731 6,000,000 72 6,546 6,241 6,832,954 'he Catholic body includes many of foreign onality. The German and Irish Catholics, 1 their immediate families born here, each con- ites probably about one-fourth of the whole; t of the other half being American-born, with aaller proportion of other nationalities. fissions. — No missionary society exists among Catholics of the United States for home or ign missions ; nor is there any tract society lunday-school union, or similar means of dif- ng religious knowledge among old or young, sions among the Indians have existed from earliest period, and nearly one hundred Catho- priests lost their lives in efforts to convert ian tribes. A few Indians of the old conver- : remained at Indian Oldtown in Maine, St. is in New York, with others in Canada, be- jing to the Abenaki and Iroquois families, re are Catholic ChipjDewas in Michigan, Wis- sin, and neighboring States. In recent times sion-work among the Indians was revived by Jesuit fathers, who had missions among the tawatamies, Osages, and Kansas ; and, under her De Sinet, missions were founded among Flatheads, Kalispels, and Coeurs d'Alene in Rocky Mountains, which are still maintained. Oregon, missions of secular priests and of ate Fathers are established among the Chi- £, Yakamas, Warmspring, Umatilla, Grand d, and Malheur Reservation Indians, with the fille and Attanam missions in Washington ritory. The Pueblo Indians of New Mexico ; converted by the Spanish Franciscans before I ; and their descendants are still Catholics, ough, during Mexican republican rule, the .king up of the missions left them for more than a generation without religious guides. The Franciscans had extensive missions in California, which were also broken up by the Mexicans, and most of the Indians perished : the few sui-vivors known as Mission Indians are still Catholics. The Benedictines under Bishop Marty are at- tempting work among the Sioux in Dakota, and under Abbot Robot among the tribes in Indian Territoi-y. No organized effort has been made to reach the negroes of the South. There are many colored Catholics in Maryland and Louisi- ana ; and the Sisters of Providence, a community of colored women, have long been in charge of Catholic schools. The Benedictines have made some efforts in Savannah, on Skidaway Island, Ga. ; and some fathers of St Joseph, and secular priests, have charge of colored churches in sev- eral places : but the work has not attained any great development. All these missions to In- dians and negroes are under the bishops of the dioceses in which they are situated. Lit. — The sources to be consulted for the his- tory of the Catholic Chm-ch in the United States are, for the Spanish portion, Gil Gonzales Da VILA : Teatro 'Eclesiastia, ^Madrid, 1649 ; Be- navides : Memorial, 1630; Torqcemada : Monar- quia Indiana, 172-3, 3 vols. ; Ayeta : La Verded Defendida ; Espinosa, Hisloria del Colegio Apos- lolico de Quere'taro, 1740-92, 2 vols. ; and Vida del Padre Antonio Marr/il; Palou: Vida del Padre Junipero Serra, 1787; Alegke : Hisloria de la Proiincia de Mexico; Concilios Mexicanos, 1769- 70, 3 vols ; Sinodo Diocesano de Santiago de Cuba, Habana, 1844 ; Arispe, Memorial, 1812 ; The Pious Fund of California (J)ocunients'), San Francisco, 1875; Gleeson : History of the Catholic Church in California, 1872. For the French portion, Biard : Relation, Lyons, 1616 ; Letters in the Annuce Lit- terce, 1611, 1613; Tlie Series of Jesuit Relations (reprinted), Quebec, 1858, 3 vols. ; Martin: Vie du P. Isaac Jogues, 1873 ; Lives in Die Kathotische Kirche in den Vereinigten Staalen, Regensburg, 1864 ; Relations by Gravier, Bigot, the Ursu- LINES, MiLET, ChAUMONOT, DaBLON, MonTIGNY, etc., in Shea's Cramoisy Series; Le Clercq: Establishment of the Faith, New York, 1881 ; Kip : Jesuit Missions; Charlevoix: History of New France, New York, 1866. For the church in the original English Colonies, the best collection of material is in Foley's Records of the English Province of the Society of Jesvs (1877-83), with White's Relatio Itineris , for the chinch under the Republic, De Cocrcy's Catholic Church in the United States (ed. of 1879) ; Shea : History of the Catholic Missions among the Indian Tribes, 1855; Fitton: Sketches of the Church in Kew Eng- land, 1844 ; Connecticut Catholic ; Bayley : Catho- lic Church on the Island of Kew York , Shea : Catholic Churches of New-York City , Mulrenan : Catholic Church on Long Island, 1S71 ; Timon : Missions in Western New lo;•^•, 1862; Lambing: Catholic Church in Pittsburgh and Alleghany, 1880; St. Vincenz in Pennsylvania and the Benedictine Album; O'Connell: Catholicity in the Carolinas and Georgia, 1879 ; Spalding : Sketches of Ken- tucky, 1844; minor histories of particular churches; De Smet : Indian Sketches, Oregon Missio7is, and Western Missionaries , Archbishop Blanchet : Catholic Church in Oregon, works in Italian on the church in this country by Grassi, Vilanis, ROME AND CHRISTIANITY. 2068 ROME AND CHRISTIANITY, and Mazzuchelli ; and a Russian work by Lapuchin, St. Petersb., 1881 ; Clark : Lives of Deceased Bishops, 1872, 2 vols., and separate Lives of Archbishop Carroll, Cardinal Cheverus, Arch- bishops Hughes, Spalding, Bishops Flaget, Neu- mann, Quarter, and Tiuion ; Lives of Prince Ga- litzin. Rev. Messrs. Varela, Nerinckx, Baker; Life of Mrs. Seton, foundress of the Sisters of Charity; The Plenary and Provincial Councils in the Collectio Lacensis, and as originally issued ; Synods in vari- ous Dioceses ; Smith: Ecclesiaslical Laiv ; wovks oi Archbishop Hughes, and Spalding, and Bishop England ; Catholic periodicals and newspapers, including the Annals of the Propagation of the Failh. JOHN GILMARY SHEA, LL.D. (R. C). ROMAN EMPIRE AND CHRISTIANIxr, The. A view of the relations of Christianity to the Roman Empire would embrace a consideration of three distinct epochs in Roman history : (1) That period (about three hundred years) when Chris- tianity was brought into conflict with the old re- ligious beliefs and policy of the empire,' and was gradually couvei-ting the Roman world to the faith ; (2) The period during which Christianity became the state and official religion of the em- pire, from the reign of Constantine to that of Charlemagne, about five hundred years ; (3) That long period, commonly called the " middle age," when Western Christendom was ruled under a system called the " Holy Roman Empire," formed by a close alliance of the Popes with Charlemagne and his successors. The religion of the Romans had its origin in the worship by each family of its own household and tutelary divinities, in whom the souls of their an- cestors were supposed to be enshrined. The reli- gion of the cioitas consisted in honoring, under the name of numina, those physical forces of nature, which, unpropitiated, might, it was feared, prove dangerous to the safety of the State. The Romans were regarded by the ancients as a most religious people. The forms of fanjily and of state religion were carefully observed by them in every event of life. The safety and protection of the State was the great object of all Roman policy, and it had for its basis religious beliefs. The cultus was entirely under the control of the civil authority. There was no priestly caste at Rome, after the manner of the Orientals. Pontiffs, augurs, and priests performed certain special functions in as- certaining the will of the gods ; but they did so only under the direction of the lay authorities. Devotion, accompanied by enthusiasm or demon- strative feeling, was considered wholly out of place in the worship of the Roman divinities. Calm- ness, moderation, self-possession, on the part of the worshippers, were essential qualities when the favor of the gods was to be invoked. The most important peculiarity in their ritual was the exact observance of those forms, which, it was supposed, their ancestors had employed successfully in their worship. In the most religious of the Romans these forms constituted the very substance and essence, not merely of religious worship, but of religious faith also. Thus, while the best charac- teristics of Roman life were gradually developed, religion presented itself to the minds of the peo- ple as having one sole object in view ; namely, the safety and prosperity of the State, and as providing, as the only method of reaching that object, the maintenance and exact observance of the ancestral ritual. When Rome became mistress of the world, this intensely national religious system had been a good deal weakened by two principal causes : (1) The introduction of the worship of foreign deities, chiefly from Egypt and the East, such as Isis, Serapis, and, later, the Mithraic ritual ; (2) The destructive criticism of the basis of the popular religion by philosophers and poets, who followed the example given them by the Greeks. To meet these assaults, it was said that any one was free to believe what he chose, provided he punctually observed the ancient prescribed ritual of worship. And such, strange to say, was the belief and practice of the Romans when their power was greatest, and when patriotic virtue was strongest amongst them. The fitting types of the religion they professed are Cicero, who has, of all the ancient authors, written most fully in its praise, and who believed in no gods whatever ; and the supreme pontiff, Julius Caesar, who, notwithstand- ing he was the official head of the Roman religion, stoutly denied the immortality of the soul in the Senate HousS. The new gods and the new philosophy worked a great change towards the close of the republic ; and Augustus found, when he became emperor, that the practice of the old religious rites had been almost given up. Incredulity and material- ism had driven the worshippers of the old gods from their temples, so many of which had fallen into ruin, that Augustus rebuilt no less than eighty-two of them in Rome alone. His policy was to found his empire upon a conservative, basis. It would appear that there was still left some faith in the old forms, and he selected the reli- gious sentiment of the people as most convenient for his purpose. At the same time the conquests of Rome had impressed him, in common with many statesmen of the time, with the belief that the religions of all countries had a similar basis, and that their diverse gods were really manifes- tations of the same divine power under different names. On this principle, foreign religions were tolerated in Rome and throughout the empire, always, however, under the condition, express or implied, that they did not interfere with that of the state. The apotheosis, or deification of the emperors, which began under Augustus, is, per- haps, the truest expression of the actual religious sentiment of the time. It formed the empire reli- gion, which, in imitation of the narrow worship of the civitas, made the supremacy of the empire the great object of religious interest, devotion, and worship. Still, the observance of the rites of the old national worship was carefully kept up. For- eign religions asked for no exclusive privileges ; and the only restriction which was placed on their votaries was, that they should do no act which was inconsistent with the preservation of the safety and supremacy of the Roman Empire. Christianity had thus at the outset to meet, (1) the old Roman popular religion ; (2) the devotion to foreign deities, chiefly Egyptian and Oriental, which had become fashionable among the higher classes; (3) the religion which was based upon the deification of the emperors. Of course, the hostility between its system and these formsof religion was irreconcilable. The point at which BOMB AND CHRISTIANITY. 2069 ROME AND CHRISTIANITY. the conflict was first to take place is accurately fihowQ in the book of Acts. The Romans did not persecute the early Christians for mere opiii- ion's sake. On the contrary, we learn, that, when 4he Jews were exciting popular clamor against St. Paul and his companions in the cities of Greece and Asia Minor, the Roman officials were wholly unwilling to see in the conduct of the apostle an ofEence against Roman law, while they contemptu- 'Ously declined to consider questions- concerning ithe Jewish religion, as beyond their jurisdiction. It would appear that neither the belief nor the worship of the early Christians, as long as they were so obscure as not to attract public notice, subjected them to the penalties of Roman law. The cruel sufferings which they endured at Rome, lunder Nero (A.D. 64), seem to have been due to a desire on the part of that tyrant to make the J^ews odious by attributing the burning of Rome to one of the parties or sects of that people, as the Christians were then popularly supposed to be. At any rate, it is very certain that the Chris- itians had nothing to do with burning the city; ^nd the persecution of Nero, so called, was a local •one, not extending beyond' the limits of Rome itself. The letter of Pliny to the Emperor Tra- jan (A.D. 103), asking his advice as to the treat- ment of the Christians in Bithynia, shows that both parties seem to be dealing with a new prob- lem, at any rate, with one which had not yet been -settled by imperial legislation. Doubtless, Pliny 'had, by virtue of the imperium confided to him, punished severely those who had been guilty of •overt acts of impiety by refusing to pay divine honors to the emperor ; but he is evidently puzzled ■to know what he is to do with those persons, who, while their belief and worship are not in accord with the national rites, have been guilty of no •outward act of disobedience to the government. Heresy was a crime the punishment for which had not then been provided for in the Roman -code ; and hence these two men, certainly among the most enlightened of their age, agree, while ihaving absolute power, upon a policy of modera- tion and conciliation towards those whose religious •opinions differed from those of the old Roman faith. While the government thus forbore persecuting the Christians for heresy, still the populace in >the large cities in the East, where the Christians were numerous, became, for various reasons, in- tensely imbittered against the new religion. The tihristians naturally kept themselves more and more aloof from their fellow-subjects. They re- garded the order to throw a few grains of incense upon the altar of the gods or of the emperor, not as a test of loyalty, but as an invitation to •commit an act, in their eyes, of horrible impiety. They absented themselves, for conscience' sake, from the cruel sports of the amphitheatre, espe- ■cially when great religious festivals in honor of the heathen gods were held there ; they refused to be soldiers, yet they courted martyrdom ; and finally they preached a doctrine which taught that the world would soon be consumed by fire, and that all who did not worship the Christian -God were doomed to eternal punishment. Under these circumstances, the mob in these large towns, frenzied by the open neglect of their own reli- gious rites, and attributing every calamity they suffered to the wi-ath of their offended gods, fre- quently shouted, " The Christians to the lions I " And the complaisant procurator, willing to do them a pleasure, too often yielded to their de- mands. It is observable, that the first Roman legisla- tion bearing directly on the position of the Chris- tians in the empire is found in the edicts of Hadrian and Antoninus Pius, by which Chris- tianity was not protected, but its disciples were rescued from the fury of the mob, and handed over for trial, for their offences against the Roman religion and Roman law, to the regular tribu- nals. It is also to be observed, that although the open profession of the Christian faith, and espe- cially its propagation by means of proselytism, necessarily violated the Roman law, the offence was not an ecclesiastical crime in the modem sense. The Roman gods were guarded from in- sult by the Roman law, because their favor was considered essential to the safety of the State. Their claims to reverence were defended, not by the Pontifex Maximus, but by the emperor. Under this jurisprudence, many Christians were tried, and condemned to death, under the Anto- nines. The martyrs of this age included some of the most illustrious early Christian confessors, — Polycarp at Smyrna, for instance ; St. Justin, the Christian apologist at Rome ; and a large num- ber of disciples at Lyons, including the celebrated St. Blandina. For nearly a hundred years after the Antonines, the hand of persecution was meas- urably stayed. The emperors who ruled during that period knew, and cared as little for the old Roman gods as they did for the Roman Senate and people. They were mostly ignorant but suc- cessful soldiers, who had risen from the ranks, and were wholly imbued with Oriental supersti- tions. In the beginning of the third century, there was a renewal, under two emperors, of the perse- cution of the Christians, from different motives. Severus, in order to avenge the neglected Serapis, the god of his predilection, condemned many Christian worshippers in Egypt and in Northern Africa; whUe Decius, hoping to propitiate the old gods, to whose neglect he ascribed the decay of the Roman power, caused many Christians at Rome, including their bishop, to be put to death. The last serious effort which was made by the government to arrest the triumphant pi-ogress of Christianity was the adoption of a new form of Paganism as the official religion,- — a system in which some rude notions of the unity of God were mingled with the recognition of the power of the old gods as that of subordinate divinities, and with certain forms of sun-worship. Chris- tianity, under this new Paganism, was, so to speak, outlawed. By the edict of Diocletian and Galerius, its churches were destroyed, and its property confiscated; and in one sense the Church suffered from this persecution to a great- er degree than from all the rest. But either the number of the Christians was too great, or their faith was too strong, to be overcome by the new enemy. The dying Galerius, in 311, while he justified the measures of Diocletian and himself as undertaken to secure the public welfare and the unity of the State, revoked the edict of per- secution as not adapted to secure its ends, and ROME AND CHRISTIANITY. 2070 ROME AND CHRISTIANITY. thus gave to the Christians permission for the free and public exercise of their religion. The Edict of Milan (312), issued in the joint names of Constantine and Licinius, has been called the " great charter of the liberties of Christianity ; " but it was no more than an edict of unlimited toleration. Still, it withdrew official recognition and protection from Paganism ; and under its operation the old Roman religion gradually and slowly died out. Christianity was not recognized as the official religion until the reign of Theodo- sius, 380. Whether Constantine was a Christian is an historical problem not easy to solve. He purposely delayed baptism until he was in articulo mortis. But, wliether Christian or not, vast changes took place during his reign, caused not merely by the luirestricted progress of Christianity, but by the relations which the emperor held towards its organized form, the Church. No one can read the account of the proceedings of the Council of Nicsea (325), which formulated the creed which from that period to this has been regarded as the basis of the faith of the universal church, without being convinced that the emperor was regarded as something more than the honorary president of that body, that he considered him- self at least as Pontifex Maxhnus in the new i-eli- gion, as his predecessors had been in the old; and thus at the very outset was forced upon the infant Church that unholy alliance with the State, which, among other things, has helped to make Christi- anity so conspicuous an element in all subsequent history. The modern conception of the union of Church and State had its origin under Constan- tine. His successors, Theodosius and Gratian, define or ratify the definition of doctrines, and condemn heretics. Justinian evidently thought himself Pope and emperor combined ; and Char- lemagne, in his Capitularies, is at once the legis- lator of the Church and of the State. The Christian Church received from Constan- tine another distinguishing mark, which it re- tained for nearly fifteen hundred years ; namely, the principle and the practice of punishing here- tics by civil penalties. It is an humiliating con- fession to make, that heresy — which is defined to be a persistent advocacy of opinions which have been condemned by the church — is an offence which has never been punished as a crime by the civil magistrate under any ecclesiastical system save the Christian. But Constantine pro- vided by an edict that the Donatist heretics should be so punished in 316, and his example was fol- lowed by Theodosius and others ; so that before the close of the fourth century no less than seven- teen edicts had been pronmlgated, directing the magistrates to punish Christian dissenters. By these edicts they were deprived of their property, and made incapable of holding office, and they were liable to be scourged and banished. The first blood judicially shed for religious opinion is said to have been ttiat of certain Manicheans in 385; but it is alleged that their condemnation was extorted from an usurping emperor, and that the infliction of death as a punishment was highly disapproved by such saints as Martin of Tours and Ambrose of Milan. During the fourth centui-y the pretensions of the Cliristian hierarchy to poWer were greatly increased, and the primitive simplicity of the conduct of Christians no longer existed. Th& church had vast possessions; its clergy formed the larger portion of the educated classes, and held conspicuous positions at the imperial court. Christian beneficence was not only recognized as a duty, but it became the fashion, or, rather, a passion among people of rank and wealth, to lavish gifts on the church : the magistrates in the town worked generally harmoniously with the bishop in the administration; the bishop, indeed, becoming the most conspicuous officer in the municipia. In short, society during the fourth century, both in the East and the AV^est, became Christianized. A revolution had begun which not only destroyed the outward forms of Pagan- ism, but which gradually worked out its spirit from the minds of the people. Nowhere can we find a better illustration of the recognized power of the clergy than where Ambrose, archbishop of Milan, has the courage to forbid the Emperor Theodosius (A. D. 390) even to enter the church, much less to receive therein the sacraments, until he had undergone penance for the crime of the massacre at Thessalonica, of which he had been guilty. To this new condition of society a good deal of the legislation of Constantine and his successors corresponds. Much of that legislation is charac- terized by its humane spirit, and is in such strik- ing contrast with the old Roman ideas, that we can hardly mistake in tracing in it the direct in- fluence of Christian doctrine and moritl example : such, for instance, are the edicts forbidding the exposition of infants, and restraining excessive cruelty towards slaves, as well as those concern- ing adultery, divorce, unnatural crimes, etc. How much of all this was due to what may be called the " reflex action " , of Christianity, and how much to the humane principles of stoicism, it is not easy to say. As the fourth century witnessed a succession of Christian emperors, and the firm establishment of the dogmatic creed of Christianity in the em- pire, so the fall of Pagan and imperial Rome, and the building-up of a new and Christian Rome upon its ruins, occun-ed during the fifth. The siege and capture of Rome by Alaric and his- Goths, in 409, opens, therefore, a new era in his- tory. Rome then ceased to be the conqueror of the world in the old sense; but, as soon as she be- came Christian, she prepai-ed to wield a far greater power over mankind than she had ever yet done.. As the imperial power declined through corrup- tion, weakness, and the assaults of the Barba- rians, that of the Church, which availed herself freely of the iinperial methods and organization, constantly increased. The power of civil govern- ment, especially in the West, fell into her hands naturally and necessarily, simply because the rulers, in the general confusion, were incapable of affording protection to those whom they gov- erned. The capture of Rome by Alaric, there- fore, was one of the great steps by which the popes, bishops of Rome, rose to power. _ The Pope at that time was doubtless the most impor- tant man in Rome : he alone, had any real power, — not merely the attributes of supremacy, but authority very extensive in practice, although undefined. To him the panic-stricken Senate and people turned for help in time of danger ; ROME AND CHRISTIANITY. 2071 ROME AND CHRISTIANITY. he (Leo I.) justified their confidence by ring, first to mitigate the anger of Alaric, , secondly, to induce the cowardly Honorius, amidst the morasses of Ravenna, to send ;or to the sorely pressed people of Rome, m that time the real government of that city in the hands of its bishop. No emperor ever rwards resided there. Meantime, in the East union between Christianity and the imperial srnment became more thoroughly consoli- id. The provisions of the Code of Justinian )-565) are the best illustration how far this :ess had been carried; this code being a revised ion, so to speak, of the existing imperial law. egins with a profession of belief in the Xicene 3d and in the authority of the first four Gen- Councils. It acknowledges the supremacy of Roman Church, commanding all the churches e united with her. Justinian legislates, there- , in this code, for Rome as well as for the t. The theory that the emperor is the reli- is as well as the civil head of the empire is ntained throughout his legislation. The I'ch officials are as much xmder his jurisdiction he civil magistrates. There are no exemp- s, whatever, of the clergy from the ordinary ration of the civil law. The hierarchy in the rch, as in the State, is regulated by the pro- 3us of this code ; and the bishop is made an erial officer for certain temporal aifairs. re are also minute regulations in this code lerning the discipline of the monasteries, se provisions in regard to the relations of the nan Government to Christianity in the sixth luiT form, of course, but a small portion of the it Code of Justinian ; but they seem to show r clearly, either that-the hierarchical and sacer- il pretensions of later ages were not then put fard, or that the imperial government wholly )red them. Religion and civil law, Church State, appear in the legislation of Justinian be practically identified under the common •emacy of the emperor; and church law lughout the world is based on Roman ideas methods, which were all the outgrowth of theory of the absolute unity of the State, s far as we can say that the progress of Chris- ity was thenceforth dependent upon human icies, we may affirm that its special course direction, so different in the eastern and in western portions of the empire, was deter- ed by the different relations it held to the jrnment at Constantinople and at Rome, he strength of Christianity as organized by emperors of the East was very much wasted erpetual controversies in regard to the nature Ihrist. The emperors participated actively in le discussions, which were regarded as matters he highest State concern. They resulted in ling asunder the Christian organization of the fc; and the Oriental sects of the Nestorians, sbites, Maronites, etc., were not only heretics eligion in the eyes of the authorities at Con- tinople, but they became thoroughly dis- 3ted to the imperial government because it not maintain what they regarded as the or- lox creed. These religious dissensions were, loubt, a main cause of the increasing weak- I of the Byzantine government in its control he lands forming the basin of the Mediterra- nean, and contributed largely to the ease with which they were oveiTun and subdued by the- followers of jVIoharamed. In the AVest, although the church in Rome may be called a Greek missionary church, the curious and subtle metaphysical discussions concerning the divine nature, so dear to the Greek mind, were- avoided, and a more practical spirit prevailed. Rome, as has been said, became a Christian city in 410 ; and the separate government of an em- peror of the West was given up in 476. While, however, the Caesar at Constantinople thus became- again nominally the world-emperor, the real power, in Italy at least, was thenceforth in the- hands, first of the Goths, and then of the Lom- bards and the Pope. By the close of the fifth century all the prov- inces of the West were permanently occupied by Barbarian invaders. But the Roman Church, with the Pope at its head, not only survived the wreck of the Roman Empire, but it seems to hav& snatched from its dying hands the gift of govern- ing mankind, which enabled it to conquer the world anew. From the day the Pope felt himself secure in his supremacy in the church in the West^ and free from any likelihood of interference by the emperor at Constantinople, measures were begun by him to revive the old Roman Empire, or rather to establish in its place a new one with the old methods and pretensions, of which the Pope was to be the spiritual director and guide. This- scheme was carried out in the midst of the con- fusion and ruin caused by the invasion of the Barbarians ; and they themselves were made the agents, in the midst of their triumph over the old empire, of establishing a new one on a far grander scale, called the " Holy Roman Empire." This scheme was begun by sending missionaries, from the Pope into heathen Germany to propagate there the Roman-Catholic faith, and by forming a close alliance with the Prankish chiefs who ruled over tribes, who alone, of all the Barbarians, were Catholic as opposed to Arian. The Pope added much to the power of Pepin in the eyes of his tribesmen by crowning and anointing him king j and, in turn, the king aided and protected the Catholic missionaries in Germany. The result was, that Prankish conquests and the triimiph of orthodoxy went hand in hand in that country. The obligation of the Pope to the king was re- ciprocal, and it was to their mutual advantage to maintain it. This was seen particularly, on a much larger scale, in the reign of the successor of Pepin, Charlemagne, who had, as king of the Franks, become by his conquests the ruler of a far larger territory than the Roman Empire had ever occupied in Europe. He was called upon by the Pope to drive out the Lombards, who were encroaching upon the territories of the church, and to free the Pope from the jurisdiction of the emperor at Constantinople, who was striving to impose upon the Western Church the observance of decrees abolishing the worship of images in churches which were considered heretical at Rome. This work, which was begun by his father Pepin, was completed by Charlemagne ; and on Christ- mas Day, A.D. 800, Charlemagne was crowned at Rome, by the Pope, emperor of the new or revived Roman Western Empire, or, as it was called, the "Holy Roman Empire." The significance of this. ROME AND CHRISTIANITY. 2072 ROME. transaction is, tliat it was intended by the parties to it to divide tiie government of the world between them. To the new empei-or and his successors, kings of the Franks, duly crowned by the Pope, was assigned universal rule in temporal affairs, as also the duty of defending the church, and of maintaining the true or Catholic faith throughout the world. To the Pope was given not only a supreme dominion in matters ecclesiastical, but a certain great but undeiined power in civil affairs. It was supposed, that, under this dual system, no -collision between the Christian emperor and the Christian pontiff was possible, each being neces- sarily moved by the same impulse. This scheme was a strange mixture of the Roman idea of uni- versal dominion and absolute unity of government with St. Augustine's theory, that it was the chief purpose of God in creating man that there should be a visible society on earth, called " the church," by means of which the city of man should become in due time the city of God. Under this new or revived Roman Empire the relations of the Popes with the kings of the Franks or of Germany — "Roman Emperors," as they were styled — were maintained during the middle age and up to the time of the Reforma- tion. Practically it was a great failure ; because it was found impossible for the parties to it to agree upon what special powers were reserved by it to the emperor, and what belonged to the Pope. Disputes on this subject were kept alive during the reigns of the kings of Germany of the three dynasties, the Saxon, the Franoonian, and the Hohenstauffen, founded upon claims made by them by virtue of their office as emper- ors, as opposed to those of the Popes ; and yet the system of the Holy Roman Empire, unsuited us it proved itself to be to the feudal society which had succeeded the imperial system of Char- lemagne, was maintained legally and nominally in the public law of Europe until long after the Reformation. It held its place notwithstand- ing the long quarrel of "the Investitures," in which the real question at issue was whether the Pope or tiie emperor should control the bishops (then as a class by far the largest landholders in Europe) by conferring upon them with their office the estates belonging to their sees. Even the humiliating scene of the world's titular master, Henry IV., imploring in abject penitence the for- giveness of the Pope, Gregory VII., because he had previously disavowed the Pope's authority, did not disabuse men's minds of the belief that a Roman empire with an emperor and a pope at its head was part of the eternal order. Nor did the haughty sacerdotal pretensions of the popes during the middle age ; nor the enforced payment of tribute to the court of Rome ; nor the constant interference of the popes in purely civil questions within the empire, such as wars of succession and the like; nor even the purely secular ambition which led many of the popes to maintain their .pretensions in Italy as against the emperor by all the weapons of the spiritual armory, and which in the end foi'ced the emperors to abandon Italy, — Bone of these things seemed to interrupt the legal 'relations at least which had been established be- tween the popes and Charlemagne and Otho the Great. But the Reformation destroyed in the end this strange mediseval creation. More than half of Germany was Protestant in 1648, when the Peace of Westphalia closed the wars of religion by providing for the direct sovereignty of the differ- ent princes, and abolishing that of the emperor, and granting "equal and exact" toleration to Catholics and Protestants. This really made the former empire a federation ; for its affairs were ruled by a diet representing the different states, and it was inconceivable that an empire in the mediaeval sense could exist where the jurisdiction of the Pope was disavowed. Still, the lawyers in Germany clung obstinately to the old forms of the Roman law ; and when a vacancy occurred the elections were held, and the Roman emperor duly installed in the Romer Saal at Frankfort. This mockery was kept up until 1806, when Napoleon, having become Protector of the Con- federation of the Rhine, and refusing to recognize any longer the existence of the Holy Roman Empire, Francis 11., then emperor, voluntarily gave up the title, and took that of " Emperor of Austria;'' and thus the Holy Roman Empire came to an end a thousand and six years after the coronation of Charlemagne, and eighteen hundred and fifty-eight years after Caesar had conquered at Pharsalia. Lit. — Gibbon: Decline and Fall; Finlay: Greece; Stanley: Eastern Church; Milman: History of Christianity, and Latin Christianity; Schaff: History of the Christian Church (revised edition, 1882 sq.); Beyce: Holy Roman Empire ; Boissier: La religion Romaine ; Champagny: iStudes sur I'Einpire Romain; C. J. STiLLli : Studies in Medimoal History; Mekivale: History of the Romans. C. J. STILLfi. ROMANCE BIBLE VERSIONS. See Bible Versions. ROMANS, Epistle to the. See Paul. r6maNUS ascended the papal throne in 897, after the assassination of Stephen VII., but reigned only four months. See Jaffj^: Regesta Pont. Rom., p. 303. ROME has been more closely interwoven with the history of the civilization of the human race than any other city on the globe. In some single point other cities may excel it. It has no Gol- gotha, and it has no Acropolis ; but all the single threads of ancient history were gathered in Rome, and from Rome issued all the single threads of modern history. More especially Rome may be said to have been the centre of the history of the Christian Church. From the third to the sixteenth century it was, in spite of the schism of the Eastern Church, and in spite of a never fully suppressed opposition in the Western, the pivot on which the Christian Church rested ; and from the Reforma- tion down to our times it has still continued to be the head of the largest section of the Christian Church. It owes this its prominent position in the Christian world to the circumstance of its being the residence of the popes. It was the popes who with great courage and tact, and some- times, also, with great sacrifices, saved the city from utter destruction by the hands of the Bar- barians ; and it was a simple and natural conse- quence of the course which events took, that in time it became not only the residence, but the possession, of the popes. By degrees, however, as ROME. 2073 ROOD. papal idea of transforming Christianity into id of Thibetan Lamaism developed, imperial e, with its temples, palaces, theatres, and 3, disappeared, and on its ruins, and from its rials, papal Rome was constructed, with its jhes and monsisteries. The connection be- n the city and its rulers became as intimate lat between body and soul : nevertheless, it ; not be overlooked, that the city actually lowest at the very moment when the Papacy highest. When the popes removed to Avi- 1, Rome v!SLS nothing more than a number of } stretches of gTass, brushwood, and ruins, in h the robbers lay in ambush for the pilgrims wandered from church to church, or from astery to monastery ; and it was not so much eturn of the popes as the revival of letters h this time saved the city, and once more 3 it the centre of civilization. During the e period of the Renaissance, Rome was in- the true hearth of science and art, of learn- md taste, until in the eighteenth century it ivith a rival, which finally outshone it, namely, 3. In the middle of the nineteenth century rity again changed character. It became a ical centre, and, after some convulsions, the ;al of the kingdom of Italy ; and by degrees, oyal Rome unfolds itself with its schools, iries, hotels, and commodious citizens' dwell- papal Rome is pressed into the shadow, and mes a memory. 1 Sept. 16, 1870, the French troops were drawn from Civita Vecchia ; and on Sept. 20, e surrendered to the king of Italy, after a t resistance by the papal mercenaries. A pro- nal government was established, and a popu- ote was decreed on the question of annexation le kingdom of Italy. As 40,785 votes were le affirmative, and only 46 in the negative, — [oquent characterization of the papal govern- t, — a royal decree of Oct. 9 formally annexed Roman territory, and on July 2, 1871, the of Italy took up his residence in the city, iiwhile the Italian Parliament had passed the lied "law of guaranty" (May 13, 1871), allow- ;he Pope to live in the Vatican as a sovereign, lubject to the laws of the land, and granting an annual appanage of 3,225,000 livres. Pope protested against all these proceedings, mmunicated every one who had taken part he establishment of the kingdom of Italy, ied to accept the appanage granted, and cora- led loudly that he was kept a prisoner in the can. But his protests had no effect, and his slaints found no sympathy. The syllabus the decrees of the Vatican Council proved •ly unable to prevent the floods of modern ization from pushing their waves against the walls of the Vatican. A new police-force, w boai-d of health, a better illumination of itreets, a new press-law, a new school-law, etc., sformed the city in an incredibly short time, E it had been touched with a magic wand, of a population of between 200,000 and 300,- inhabitants there were 14,389 pupils in 1873 le new elementary schools established urider control of the State. In the same year the Protestant Church of St. Paul-within-the- Is was dedicated, and the first female semi- was opened. There are now about twelve Protestant congregations and chapels in the city, representing the leading denominations, but most- ly supported by English and American friends. In spite of these changes, and many others of the same tendency, Rome has not as yet lost its character of being a pre-eminently ecclesiastical city. Of its hundred and thirty conventual insti- tutions, some have been suppressed by the Italian Government, and their buildings employed for other purposes. But its three hundred and sixty churches are still standing ; and they are by no means deserted, or in any way bereft of their splendors. Besides the churches of St. Peter, St. John Lateran, and St. Maria Rotonda (Pan- theon), which ai'e separately spoken of in tliis work, we may mention the Church of St. Paul, situated outside the city, on the road to Ostia, and on the spot, where, according to tradition, the apostle suffered martyrdom. The original building was one of the oldest and most magnifi- cent churches in Rome, but was burned down on July 17, 1823. The falling roof, which was of wood, completely spoiled the columns and walls, with their costly mosaics and pictures. The new building, however, for whose construction the viceroy of Egypt presented the Pope with several shiploads of the finest alabaster, is a grand and no less magnificent structui'e. The Church of Sta. Maria Maggiore, situated on the Esquiline Hill, is one of the five patriarchal churches of Rome. It was built by Pope Liberius (352-366), and is probably the oldest Mary-church in Christendom. It is a basilica; and its flat wooden ceiling, excellently carved, and profusely gilded, is supported by forty-two magnificent col- umns. From the balcony on its front the Pope blesses the multitude on Aug. 15, the feast of the Ascension of Mary. The Church of St. Lauren- tius, situated outside the gate of the Tiburtine Road, was originally built by Constantine the Great, and consists really of two structures, con- nected with each other by a chapel over the tomb of the saint. The Church of St. Peter in Monto- rio, situated in the Trastevere, was built by Fei-- dinand and Isabella of Spain, on the spot, wliere, according to tradition, St. Peter suffered mar- tyrdom. The Church of Sta. Maria in Aracseli, situated on the Capitoline Hill, was built before the tenth centm'y, and occupies the site of the ancient temple of Juno Moneta. It is, however, not so much the great number of churches in Rome which give the city its specifically ecclesi- astical character as the life which is developed in the churches, and which, so to speak, is continued in the streets and in the houses. Lit. — Plainer and Bunsen : Besclireihung der Sladt Rom, Stuttgart, 1829-42, 6 vols. ; GiiEGO- ROVIUS : Geschichie der Stadt Rom im Mittelalter, Stuttgart, 1859-72, 8 vols. ; Alfred vox Reu- mond: Geschichie der Sladl Rovi, Berlin, 1S67-70, 3 vols. ; De Rossi : La Roma SoUeranea, Rome, 1864-78, 3 vols., and its English abridgment by Brownlow and Northcote, London, 1869, 2 vols., 2d ed., 1879 ; M. Brock : Rome Papal and Pagan, 1883; besides guide-books, travelling sketches, etc., by Wey, Story, especially Hare {Walks in Rome, and Days near Rome). RONSDORF SECT. See Eller. ROOD is the Anglo-Saxon word for "cross,"' "crucifix." ROOS. 2074 ROSE. ROOS, Magnus Friedrich, b. at Sulz-on-the- Neckar, Sept. 6, 1727; d. at Anhausen, March 19, 1803. He studied theology at Tiibingen, and was appointed vicar in Stuttgart 1755, diakonus at Gbppingen 1757, and at Bebenhausen 1767, and prcilal of Anhausen 1784. A pupil of Bengel, and inclining towards pietism, he exercised a great influence, not only by his writings, but also by his powerful and impressive personality. His principal works are, Einleilunij in die bibiischen Geschichten, 1774 (last edition, 1876) ; Ckriitliche Glaubenslehre, a popular representation of the sys- tem of Christian doctrines, 1786 (last edition, 1860) ; CJiristliches Hausbucli, Kreuzscliule, 1799 (last edition, 1864) ; Soldaletigesprtiche, Ettoas fiir Seefahrer, etc. H. BECK. ROSA OF LIMA, the principal saint of Peru; b. at Lima in 1586 ; d. there in 1617, in conse- quence of the ascetic practices she performed in imitation of Catharine of Siena. She was canon- ized in 1671. See Act. Sanct., Aug. 26. ROSA OF VITERBO, d. in her native city of Viterbo in 1252, about eighteen years old ; preached repentance in the streets with the cross in her hand. See Act. Sanct., Sept. 4. ROSALIA, St., the principal saint of Sicily, lived in the twelfth century as a hermit on Mount Quisquina, where her remains were found in a cave in 1624. She died between 1160 and 1180. See Act. Sanct., Sept. 4. ROSARY, The, consists of a string of larger and smaller beads, and is used by the Roman Catholics when they say their Pater-nosters and Ave-Marias, in order to ascertain the number done. The cus- tom of repeating the Lord's Prayer over and over again a great number of times in succession arose among the first Christian hermits and monks. (See SozoMEisr: Hist. Eccl., vi. 29). But the origin of the rosary is, nevertheless, of a much later date. It was first used by the Dominican monks, though it is not certain that it was intro- duced by St. Dominic him,self. As it is used both by the Mohammedans and the Brahmins, it is generally believed to have been brought to Europe by the crusaders. There are various forms of rosaries : that generally used has fifty- five beads ; namely, five decades of Ave-Maria beads, and five Patei'-noster beads. The mean- ing of the name rosarium, properly a " garden of roses," is variously explained by Roman-Catholic writers, but most properly from the phrase rosa mystica, often applied as a predicate to the A'^ii'gin. The Confraternity of the Rosary — Confraterni- tas de Rosario, B. M. V. — was founded at Cologne in 1475, by Jacob Sprenger, grand-inquisitor of Germany, and received from Sixtus IV. absolu- tion for a hundred days, and from Innocent VIII. absolution for three hundred and sixty thousand years. The victory of Lepanto, Oct. 7, 1571, was generally ascribed to the prayers of the order, and solemn festivals were established in its commemo- ration. It is the duty of each member to count his beads at least once a day. [See J. F. Mayer : De Rosario, Greifswald, 1720; Edwin Arnold: Pearls of the Faith (poems on the Mohammedan's rosary, the hundred names of Allah), London, 1882.] G. E. STEITZ. ROSCELIN (R02ELIN, or RUCELIN), often spoken of in the history of Christian doctrines as tritheist, and in the history of philosophy as nomi- nalist, but nevertheless very imperfectly known. He seems to have been born in the diocese of Sois- sons, and to have been educated at Rheims. He was a canon at Compiegne, where his peculiar conception of the Holy Trinity first startled his pupils, and attracted public attention. In har- mony with his philosophic nominalism, he could conceive of God as existing only under the form of an individual, and consequently the Trinity became to him three gods. One of his pupils, Johannes, afterwards cardinal-bishop of Fuseoli addressed himself to Anselm, at that time abbot of Bee; and Anselm answered, promising to write a complete refutation. (See Baluzius : MiscelL, iv. p. 478, and Ep. Anselm., ii. 35.) A synod was convened at Soissons in 1092; and as Roscelin used to quote both Lanfrano and Anselm in favor of his views, the latter sent an exposition of his ideas to the synod, and Roscelin was compelled tO' recant. Anselm then finished his Defde trinitatis, which is a refutation of Roscelin ; and the latter, as he, in spite of his recantation, continued to teach his old views, was deposed. He went to England, and attacked Anselm, now archbishop of Canterbury, for his views of the incarnation. A controversy had just sprung up between the archbishop and the king; but, as they shortly after were reconciled, Roscelin 's attack had no effect, and he left England. (See Roscelin: Epist., p. 197.) He settled at Tours ; and, shortly after, his controversy with Abelard began. Abe- lard had been his pupil ; but, in his book De trini- tale (afterwards called Introductio in theologiam), Abelard, evidently with an eye to the decisions of the synod of Soissons, very strongly emphasized the unity in the Trinity. Roscelin denounced liim to Gisbert, bishop of Paris, for other heresies, and Abelard answered with a violent attack on Rosce- lin. (See Abelard : £^;j. xxi.) But from that time the latter disappears from history. See the several woi'ks on the history of philosophy by Ritter, Prantl, and HaurIau ; Histoire littdraire de la France, ix. p. 358; J. Schwane: Die Dogmengescli. d. mittleren Zeit [787-1517], Freib.-im-Br., 1882,, pp. 18, 152, 245 sqq. landerer. (HAUCK.) ROSE, The Golden. See Golden Rose. ROSE, Henry John, Church of England; b. at Uckfield, 1801 ; d. at Bedford, Jan. 31, 1873. He was graduated at St. John's College, Cam- bridge, 1821 ; fellow, 1824 ; Hulsean lecturer, 1833 (" The Law of Moses viewed in connection with the History and Character of the Jews ") ; rector of Houghton Conquest, Bedfordshire, 1837; arch- deacon of Bedford, 1866. lie edited the Encydo- pcEdia MctropoUtana (London, 1817-45, 2d ed. of pai-t, 1849-58) from 1839, from which he re- printed, with additions, his History of the Christian Church from 1700 to 1858, 1858. He also edited the first volume of the Neio Biographical Diction- ary (1839-47, 12 vols.), wrote in part the comments upon Daniel for the Bible (Speaker's) Commentary (London and New Yoi-k, 1876), and was a mem- ber of the English Old Testament company of revisers. ROSE, Hugh James, brother of the preceding; b. at Uckfield, 1795 ; d. in Florence, Italy, Dec. 22, 1838. He was graduated at Trinity College, Cambridge, 1817; vicar of Horsham, 1822-30; prebendai-y of Chichester, 1827-33 ; Christian Ad- vocate in the university of Cambridge, 1829-33 ; ROSBNBACH. 2075 ROTHB. ar of Hadley, Suffolk, 1830; incumbent of •stead, Essex, and of St. Thomas, 1834; and cipal of King's College, London, 1836. He a very learned man, and a High-Churchman 16 most pronounced type. He is considered, led, the actual founder of the Tractarian ement. (See Tuactarianism.) He edited EncyclopCEilia Melropolkana (1836-38), and ected the Neiv Biographical Dictionary (see re). For list of his publications, mostly iphlets, see Allibone m loco. OSENBACH, Johann Georg, anativeof Heil- in, a spar-maker by trade; was seized with )-ious enthusiasm by reading the writings of ann Adam Rabe of Erlangen; gave up his [e, and wandered thiough Germany, from )ingen to Hamburg, 1703-06, preaching, and ling prayer-meetings, but generally persecuted ;he clergy and the police. From Germany he X to Holland, and there the track of him has jme lost. He published Glaubens-Bel-enntniss, }, Wunder-Bekekrung, 1704, Wunder-FUhrung '.es, etc. L. HELLER. OSENMUlLER, Ernst Friedrich Karl, b. at sberg, near Hildburghausen, Dec. 10, 1768; t Leipzig, Sept. 17, 1835. He studied Oriental ;uages and archaeology at Konigsbei-g, Gies- and Leipzig, and was in 1792 made professor he last-mentioned university. For the study he Arabic language and literature, his Inslilu- es ad fund. ling. Arab.{Levp., 1818) and Analecta bica (Leip., 1824—27, 3 vols.) were of great im- ;ance; and he exercised considerable influence the development of evangelical theology by lishing exact information of the state of the t, modern and ancient (Das alte und neue Mor- and, Leip., 1816-20, 6 vols.), and by his linguis- 1 and archfeological explanations of the Old lament, Scholia in V. T. (Leip., 1785-1817, 16 ;., abridged into 5 vols., Leip., 1828-35), Hand- ifilr MM. Krilik und Exegese (Gottingen, 1797- 3, 4 vols.), and Handb. d. bibl. Allerthumskunde ip., 1823-31, 4 vols.). albrecht vogel. OSICRUCIANS. Li 1614 there appeared at sel an anonymous pamphlet under the title la Fraternitatis des lobUchen Ordens des Jiosen- izes. It gave a full report of the foundation ,he secret society of the Rosicrucians two hun- i years before, and an elaborate account of life of the founder, Christian Rosenkreutz. was a German by birth, of a distinguished ily, and made as a monk a pilgrimage to isalem. Having studied physics and mathe- lics among the Arabs, and mastered the whole nee of magic, he returned to Germany, and ided the order. The members, who were in possession of all the deepest secrets of science, absolutely exempted from sickness or suffer- should devote themselves to the curing and sing of the sick ; but they should wear no pecul- dress, and the existence of the society should ke^t a secret for a hundred years. The re- Iding of a house, the book goes on, divulged secret to the world; and people are now ted to enter the society. In 1615 appeared fession oder Bekandtnuss der Societal und Bru- chaft R. C, and in 1616 Chymische Hochzeit islian Rosenkreutz. The sensation which these lications produced was immense ; and vehe- it controversies arose, both among theologians and physicians. Andreas Libavius protested that the whole purpose of the society was to destroy the authority of Galen, and put Theophrastus Para- celsus in his place. Others — as, for instance, the English alchemist, Robert Fludd, and the body- physician of the Emperor Rudolph II., Michael Maier — defended the society with enthusiasm. Various mystic philosophers and theologians, as also the Jesuits, tried to take advantage of the movement ; while others saw in it a perfidious attempt against Lutheranism. Singularly enough, it proved absolutely impossible to discover the least trace of the actual existence of the original society. New societies appropriated the name, but the old seemed entirely to have disappeared. People began to consider the whole affair as a mystification ; and it has been established with tolerable certainty, that the author of the Fama was Johann A'alentin Andrese, the noted Wurtem- berg theologian. Lit. — Missiv an die hocherleuchtete Briiderschaft, etc., Leipzig, 1783, giving a survey over the whole literature of the subject from 1614 to 1783 ; Chk. von Murr : Ueber den icahren Ursprung der Rosenkreutzer, Sulzbach, 1803; G. E. Guhrauer: Kritische Bemerkungen uber den Verfasser der Fama Fraternitatis, in Niedner's Zeitschrift fur histo- rie Theologie, 1852 ; [Hargraae Jennings : The Rosicrucians, their Riles and Mysteries, London, 1870, 2d ed., 1879]. klupfel. ROSWITHA lived in the latter part of the tenth century as nun in Gandersheim, and wrote, at the instance of her abbess (Gerberga, 959- 1001, a daughter of Duke Henry of Bavaria), an epic in praise of Otho I. {Ilrotsuithce carmen de gestis Oddonis I. imperatoris), and another on the history of her monastery (De primordiis coenobii G aiidershebnensis). She became still more famous by her comedies, written after the model of Ter- ence, and for the purpose of weaning people from reading the slippery but charming plays of that writer. Her collected \^orks were edited by K. A. Barack, Nuremberg, 1858. Her two epics have not come down to us complete, but have some value as historical sources. German trans. by Thojias G. Pfund, in Geschichtsschreibern d. Deutsch. Vorzeit, vol. 5. JULIUS WEIZSACKER. ROTA. See Curia. ROTHE, Richard, b. at Posen, Jan. 28, 1799; d. at Heidelberg, Aug. 20, 1867. He was edu- cated at Breslau, the headquarters of the opposi- tion to Napoleon; but he nevertheless began his theological studies in 1817 at Heidelberg, "the Prussian temper being repugnant to him." In 1819 he went to Berlin, but neither Schleier- macher nor Neander made any great impression on him. By Baron von Kottwitz he was intro- duced to the Berlui circle of pietists ; and that influence continued predominant with him, even during his stay at Wittenberg (1820-22), where he finished his studies. He was also intimately associated with Tholuck. In 1823 he was ap- pointed chaplain to the Prussian embassy in Rome. There he became intimate with Chevalier de Bun- sen, and the somewhat narrow bounds of his piet- ism began to give way to the free development of his own speculative genius. In 1828 he returned to Wittenberg as director of the theological semi- nary. He lectured chiefly on church history, and his lectures have been published by Weingarten ROUMANIA. 2076 ROUSSEAU. (Wittenberg, 1875-76, 2 vols.) ; but he was thirty- eight years old when he published his first inde- pendent work, a commentary on Rom. v. 12-21 (Wittenberg, 18-37), a masterpiece of acute and penetrating exegesis. In 1839 he was made pro- fessor of theology at Heidelberg ; and there he spent the rest of his life, with the exception of a short period (1849-54), during which he lectured at Bonn. At Heidelberg he lived in a quiet and almost retired fashion ; though he took an active, and at times even a decisive, part in the devel- opment of the somewhat entangled church affairs of Baden, and though he exercised a profound and wide-spreading influence, both as professor and as author. Personally he was distinguished by purity, simplicity, and modesty, and by the com- pleteness and perfect harmony of his character : no element, moral, intellectual, or ajsthetical, was lacking; and none was unduly developed. His authorship beai's the same stamp. No Christian idea, no phase of Christian life, is foi-gotten in the theological system he elaborated ; and none is made a party question. His two principal works are, Anfdnqe der chrisllichen Kirche unci Hirer Ver- fansunrj (1837), and Theologische Ethilc (1845-48, 3 vols.j 2d ed., thoroughly revised, 1867-72, in 5 vols.). They supplement one another. The first is based on the idea that the Church is destined to be wholly absorbed by the State as soon as it has reached its merely pedagogical goal, — to make religion penetrate into every fibre of human life ; the second, on the idea that religion and morals are absolutely identical, so that no Chris- tian dogma is fully realized until it finds its way out in human action, and no act of man is really moral, unless illuminated from within by the light of the Christian dogma. The development of these ideas is often very bold, and sometimes a little singular ; but through the whole wafts the spirit of true Christian humility and love. The following noble confession of his humble belief is worth quoting : " The ground of all my think- ing, I can truly say, is the simple faith of Christ, not yet a dogma, much less a theology, which for eighteen hundred years has overcome the world. It is my highest joy to oppose constantly and determinedly every other pretended knowledge ■which asserts itself against this faith. I know no other firm ground on which I could anchor my whole being, and particularly my .speculations, except that historical phenomenon, Jesus Christ. He is to me the unimpeachable Holy of Holies of Humanity, the highest Being known to man, and a sun-rising in history whence has come the light by which we see the world" (1st ed. Ethik, pref., p. xvi.). His Ethik is the gi'eatest work of Ger- man speculative theology next to Schleiermacher's Der Christliche Glauhe. Next in importance is his Zur Dogmalik, 1863, and his lectures on Dog- matik, imperfectly edited from his manuscripts by Schenkel, Heidelberg, 1870, 2 vols. Rothe also published some sermons and minor treatises. His Sermons/or the Christian Year appeared in an Eng- lish translation, Edinburgh, 1877. His life was written by Nippold, Wittenb., 1873-75, 2 vols. ROUMANIA comprises 4,598,219 inhabitants belonging to the Greek Church, 115,420 to the Church of Rome, 8,803 to the Armenian Church, and 7,790 to the Evangelical Church, also 401,051 Jews, and 25,033 Mohammedans. The Greek Church is the State Church, organized on strictly hierarchical principles. The higher clergy, from the archbishops of Bucharest and Jassy to the pro- topopes, are paid by the State. The lower clergy — the popes, or priests — are paid by the congre- gations, or support themselves by agriculture. They are educated in eight State seminaries ; but nothing more is demanded from them than read- ing the formularies, and performing the ceremo- nies. Evangelical congregations have been formed in Jassy, Bucharest, Galatz, etc., in conneotioa with, and under the protection of, the Prussian State Church. J. Samuelson: JRnumania, Past and Present, London, 1882. G. DORSCHLAG. ROUS, Francis, b. at Halton, Cornwall, 1579;. d. 1658 ; was educated at Oxford ; member of Parliament during the reign of Charles I., and provost of Eton, 1643. He published various- theological and other works, which wei'e collected in a folio volume, 1657. His Psalms translated into- English Metre were recommended by the House of Commons to the Assembly of Divines at West- minster, Nov. 20, 1643, and published 1646. As revised by its appointment, then in Scotland by J. Adarason, T. Crawford, T. Row, and J. Nevey^ it was " allowed by the authority of the General Assembly of the Kirk of Scotland, and appointed ' to be sung in congregations and families" (1649)^ and has ever since been so used. It is a curious fact, that what was for a century the entire, and • is still the main, metrical pi'ovision of the Scottish. ' Church, was made mainly by one whose whole life was spent in Southern England. In the Reformed and United Presbyterian communions, it is even now regarded as the only legitimate vehicle for God's praise in song; the argument being that the Book of Psalms is "a complete manual of praise," and has alone " the seal of divine appointment ; " that there is " no warrant for making or using any other hynnis in the wor- ship of God ; " and that this version is " more plain, smooth, and agreeable to the text than any heretofore." (See The IVue Psalmody, Philadel- phia, 1858, reprinted at Belfast, 1861-67.) Critics have usually regai-ded it as beneath contempt; and readers for whom it has no charm of associa- tion find it, with rare exceptions (eminently Ps. xxiii.), rough, dry, tasteless, and profitless to the last degree. Yet Rufus Choate said, "An uncom- mon pith and gnarled vigor of sentiment lie in that old version : I prefer it to Watts's." And Sir Walter Scott found it, "though homely, plain^ forcible, and intelligible, and very often possessing a rude sort of majesty, which perhaps would be ill exchanged for mere elegance." F. M. bird. ROUSSEAU, Jean Jacques, b. at Geneva, Junfr 28, 1712 ; d. at Ermenonville, near Paris, June 3, 1778. He grew up in an unhappy home. His mother died at his birth. His father, a watch- maker by trade, was a fool ; and the son passed his time in idleness, reading romances. But there were powers in him which early showed them- selves. When nine years old, the reading of Plutarch filled his soul with enthusiasm. Ap- prenticed to an engraver on copper, he was ill treated, and found no better consolation than idle- day-dreams in the woods. At last he ran away. He sought refuge with a Roman-Catholic priest in Confignon, in the neighborhood of Geneva ; and the priest brought him to Madame de Warens ROUSSEAU. 2077 ROUSSEAU. Annecy, a recent convert to Romanism, and a ly of disgusting immorality covered over with ;hin film of external respectability. By them vfas placed in a monastery in Turin, where he s converted from Calvinism to Romanism, and sn let loose. Sixteen years old, he became valet one house, where he stole, and then in another, leuce he was dismissed for laziness. He re- ined to Madame de Warens, and was placed in seminary, where he learned some music, and m for many years he was cast about in a rather venturous manner, chiefly living as the lover Madame de Warens. But at the same time studied mathematics, Latin, music, etc. He id Locke, Leibnitz, Malebranche, Descartes, I.; and when in his twenty-ninth year, in 1741, found himself superseded by somebody else in ! service of Madame de Warens, and went to ris, he was not altogether unprepared for a srary career. [n Paris he formed a connection with Therese vasseur, a bar-maid from Orleans, a woman lo never could learn the names of the months, r distinguish between the common coins. He erwards, near the close of his life, made her his fe ; but the five children she had borne to him carried to the foundling-hospital. He made ; living by copying music, — he also wrote two sras (Les Muses galantes, 1742, and Le devin village, 1752) which were successfully brought the stage, and some letters on French music, lich, though they gave much offence, have some tical value, — and he continued the business 3n after he had become a famous author. He 1 so as a speculation, and the speculation suc- ided. Everybody wanted to see him, and to ve some music copied by him ; and high per- is did not fail to leave some golden present in ; hands of Madame Levasseur. In 1750 he blished his first essay, Le progres des sciences et I arts, a-t-il contribue a corrwnpre ou a epurer les ;urs, by which he won the prize of the academy Dijon. Concerning the principles, the funda- intal relation between nature and civilization, was in utter confusion ; but the passion with ich he threw himself on the side of nature, i vigor of his argumentation, the keenness of 1 observations, and the inexhaustible wealth his eloquence, made his book irresistible, and ! more so because it struck a latent but power- current of sympathy in the public. For a itury, people's knowledge of nature had been Teasing almost day by day ; for a century the ificiality of society had been growing almost ?ond endurance : hence the success of Defoe's binson Crusoe, of Thomson's The Seasons, of ssner's Idyllen, etc. ; and hence the success of usseau. In 1753 followed his Discours sur •igine et les fondemens de I'inegalite parmi les nmes, which set another shrill string vibrating, the difference between rich and poor; and )rtly after he returned to Geneva, re-entered ! Reformed Church, and recovered his lost citi- iship. [u 1760 appeared La nouvelle Heloise, and m 52, Le contral social, and JSttale, — the three prin- lal works of Rousseau. In the history of fiction nouvelle Heloise denotes a turning-point. It the dawn of the romantic school : it inaugu- es a new kind of characters, of which the un- spoiled child of nature, "the beautiful soul" Julie,- is the chief type. If Le conlrat social and Emile,. which followed rapidly one upon the other, are put in relation to each other, and considered under one view, they form an open self-coiitra^ diction. In iSmUe, the State, the Church, every institution the histoiy of the race has developed^ is sacrificed in order to produce the perfect man such as nature meant him to be : in Le contrat social, every element of true humanity, even reli- gious freedom, is sacrificed in order to produce the perfect citizen such as the State demands him. But each by itself exercised a tremendous influence. Le contrat social, with its false premise^ that the State rests upon a contract between the ruler and the ruled, became one of the watch- words of the French Revolution, and made all the thrones of Europe tremble. Still deeper and more immediate was the effect of iSmde, ou de V Education. The education it advocates cul- minates in deism. Of a divine revelation, of Christianity, the author knows nothing ; but the opposition which he offers to the surrounding atheism and materialism is vigorous; the con- viction with which he preaches the three great fundamental truths — the existence of God, the freedom of the will, and the immortality of the soul — is impressive; and the system of educatioQ which he places over against the training in use, with its dead scholasticism and merely mechani- cal methods, denotes a decisive progress. The book was burned, however, both in Paris and Geneva. As his genius developed, his character broke- down. The sensitiveness which formed part of Rousseau's nature grew into a disease, and the vanity and suspicion which necessarily resulted from the unprincipled life he led made it at last impossible for him to converse in a free and noble way with his fellowmen. He was seized by melancholy and misanthropy. He fancied that he was the victim of a widespread conspiracy. He left Geneva in 1756, driven away by Voltaire^ who had settled at Femey, and who hated him cordially. He went back to Paris, and lived for six years in the solitudes of Montmorency. But in 1762 the Parliament of Paris condemned iSmile as a " godless " book, and an order of arrest was issued against the author. Rousseau fled, he did not know exactly whither. On an invitation from Hume, he went to England; but he sooi* fancied he had found out that Hume was one of his worst enemies. In 1767 he returned to Paris, not sane any more. He died very suddenly, sus- pected of having taken poison. But, in spite of the mental disturbances from which he suffered, he wrote in the last years of his life his Confes- sions, — one of his most brilliant achievements. It involuntarily reminds the reader of Augustine's Confessiones, though there is one very striking difference. Rousseau is as candid as Augustine- in acknowledging his faults, and confessing his shortcomings; he does not spare himself | he goes into the most disgusting details : but his candor does not make the same impression of truth and uprightness that Augustine's does. Somehow his confessions of faults and crimes always end in a kind of self-glorification. To the last years of his life belongs also a treatise on the origin of religion, which was found in 1858. When com- RODSSBL. 2078 BUCKERT. pared with the Profession de Foi du Vicaire Savoyard, in iSmile, it shows a decided approach towards Christianity. Lit. — The editions of Rousseau's works are very numerous. The most noticeable are those of Geneva, 1782-90, 17 vols, quarto, or 35 vols. -octavo, and Paris, 1793-1800, 18 vols, quarto. Interesting surveys of his character, life, and in- fluence, are found in the works of Villemain, ViNET, Hettner, Demogeot, and others. His life was written by V. D. Musset-Pathay, Paris, 1825, 2 vols., [and by Joim jNIorley, London, 1873, 2 vols. See also St. Mauc-Giraedin : J. J. Rousseau, sa vie et ses ouvrages, Paris, 1875, 2 vols. ; C. BoRGEAUD : ./. /. Rousseau's Religions- pMlosopliie, Jena, 1883]. J. P. LAl^GE. ROUSSEL, Gerard (Gerardus Rufus), the con- fessor of Marguerite of Navarre ; was b. at Va- querie, near Amiens, and joined, while studying theology in Paris, that circle of young reformers which formed around Lefevre d'fitaples. When the persecution began in 1521, he fled to Meaux, where he found refuge with Bishop Briijonnet. Soon, however, he was driven away from Meaux too ; and he then staid for some time in Strassbui'g, in the house of Capito. In 1526 he was allowed to return to France, and was made confessor to the Queen of Navarre, who in 1530 made him abbot of Clairao, and in 1536 bishop of Oleron. He belonged to the kind of reformers who tried to find a middle course between the chmch of the Pope and the church of Calvin. He continued to work for the Reformation, but without separat- ing from the Church of Rome. He used the French language in the mass, he administered the Lord's Supper under both species, and he wrote for his clergy an exposition of the Apostles' €reed, the Decalogue, and the Lord's Prayer, in which he adopted all the essential ideas of the Reformation. The exposition was condemned by the Sorbonne as heretic in 1550 ; but Roussel •died before the verdict was formally issued. See, further, C. Schmidt : Gerard Roussel, Strassburg, 1845. C. SCHMIDT. ROUTH, Martin Joseph, D.D., Church of Eng- land; b. at South Elmhani, Suffolk, Sept. 15, 1755; d. at Oxford, Dec. 22, 1854. He was elected fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford, July, 1776, and president, April 11, 1791. He pub- lished the valuable Reliquim sacra (fragments of the lost Christian authors of the second and third centuries, one of the most important and useful works upon patristic literature, revealing the finest English scholarship), Oxford, 1814-18, 4 vols., 2d ed., 1846, supplementary vol., 1848, and Scriptorum ecclexiasticorum opuscula, 1832, 2 vols., 3d ed., 1858 ; and edited Burnet's History of his Own Time, 1823, 6 vols. ROW, Thomas, minister at Hadleigh, Suffolk, is the most voluminous English hynuiist after C. Wesley. His two volumes, published in 1817 and 1822, contain no less than 1,072 effusions, notable only for their number. F. M. bird. ROWE, Mrs. Elizabeth, born Singer, a poetess highly esteemed in her day ; was b. at llohester, 1674, and d. 1737. She was a friend of Bishop Ken, and sought in marriage by Dr. Watts. Her works, includijig some ornate hymns for- merly in occasional use, appeared 1739, in 2 vols. F. M. BIED. ROWLANDS, Daniel, a powerful Welsh preach- er; was b. at Pant-y-beudy, near Llangeitho, Wales, about 1713 ; d. at Llangeitho, Oct. 16, 1790. Of his youth and early manhood nothing is known, except that he studied at the grammar- school of Hereford. Ordained at London, 1733, whither l^e travelled on foot, he became curate to his brother at Llangeitho, holding that position till his brother's death, 1760. The Bishop of St. Davids refused to induct him into the office of rector, but inducted his son in his stead. In 1763 the bishop revoked his licensure on account of his " irregularities." Thus was lost to the Church of England one of the most powerful preachers of the century. Lady Huntingdon, a good judge, spoke of him as having no superior in the pulpit, except Whitefield ; and Bishop Ryle calls him " one of the spiritual giants of the last century." He preached to immense audiences in the church and in the fields. Once in his history a revival began with his reading of the Litany of the Church of England. At the words, " By thine agony and bloody sweat, good Lord, deliver us," the congre- gation began to weep loudly. Eight of Rowland's Sermons were translated into English in 1774. See the Biographies by John Owen (London, 1840) and E. Morgan ; and Ryle : Christian Leaders of the Last Century, Loudon, 1869. ROYAARDS, Hermann Jan, b. at Utrecht, Oct. 3, 1794 ; d. there Jan. 2, 1854. He studied the- ology in his native city, and was appointed pro- fessor in 1823. He devoted himself chiefly to church history and canon law ; and his works, Geschiedenis van het Christendom in Nederland (Utrecht, 1849-53, 2 vols.) and Hedendaagsch kerk- regt in Nerderland (Utrecht, 1834-37, 2 vols.), exercised considerable influence on the study of those departments. J. J. van OOSTEKZEE. RUBRICS (Latin ruhrica, from ruber, "red," because they were originally written in red ink) are in the ecclesiastical sense the directions in service-books which show how the various parts of the Liturgy should be performed. It is no longer customary to print or write them in red ink, but such directions are distinguished by different type from the body of the text. The word was borrowed by the church from the law, in which it was applied to the titles or headings of chapters in certain law-books. RUCHAT, Abraham, b. at Grandcour in the canton of Vaud, Sept. 15, 1678; d. at Lausanne, Sept. 29, 1750. He studied at Bern, Berlin, and Leyden, and was appointed professor of belles- lettres in 1721, and of theology in 1733, at Lau- sanne. His fame rests upon his excellent Abre'ge' de I'histoire eccle'sias. du Pays-de-Vaud (1707) and Hisloire de la reform, de la Suisse (1727-28,_ 6 vols.). The seventh volume was not printed until a hun- dred years later, in the edition by Vulliemin, 1835, which contains Ruchat's biography and a com- plete list of his writings. I-IAGENBACH. RUGKERT, Leopold Immanuel, b. at Gross- hen nersdorf, near Herrnhut, in Upper Lusatia, 1797 ; d. at Jena, April 9, 1871. He was, like Schleiermacher, educated by the Moravians in the school of Niesky, and studied theology and phi- lology at Leipzig. In 1825 he was appointed teacher at the gymnasium of Zittau, and in 1844 professor of theology at Jena. From early youth the great goal of his life was to become a uni- RUDELBACH. 2079 RUINART. ty teacher; and his first book, Der dkade- le Lehrer (Leipzig, 1824), followed in 1829 by Jffene Mittheilun//en an Studirende, is a rep- itation of his ideas of university-teaching, he had to fight hard, and to achieve a con- able literary fame, before he reached his goal. 325 he published his Chrisdiche Philosoplde; 131, his Commentary on the Epistle to the Ro- , 2d ed., 1839, in 2 vols. ; and then his com- ;aries on Galatians (1833), Ephesians (1834), Corinthians (1836, 1837, 2 vols.), all charac- Bd by a certain naive iDoldness, but distin- led by scholarship and piety. As a professor ma, he published his second great systematic :,_ Theologie (Leipzig, 1851, 2 vols.), a peculiar jination of dogmatics and ethics, also Das dmahl (Leipzig, 1856), Der Rationalismus 5), and several minor treatises and devotional S. G. FRANK. JDELBACH, Andreas Gottlob, b. in Copen- a, Sept. 29, 1792; d. at Slagelse, in the sh Island of Sealand, March 3, 1862. He ed theology at the university of his native and was in 1829 appointed superintendent at chau-in-Saxony; which position he resigned 345. From 1846 to 1848 he lectured in the srsity of Copenhagen, and in 1848 he was ap- ;ed pastor at Slagelse. His literary activity chiefly in German. Besides several collec- of sermons and devotional tracts, he pub- d Hieronymus Savonarola, Hamburg, 1835; rmation, Lulherthum, und Union (his principal :), Leipzig, 1839; Einleitung in die Augshur- e Konfession, Leipzig, 1841 ; l/ber die Bedeu- des apostoUschen 'Symbolums, Leipzig, 1844. ither mth Guericke he founded in 1839 the chrift fur lutherische Theologie und Kirche, h he continued to edit till his death. He one of the most prominent champions of ; Lutheranism against the Prussian union e two confessions. He also left an unfinished aiography. JDINCER (RUDIGER), Esrom, b. at Bam- May 19, 1523 ; d. at Nuremberg, Dec. 2, 1591. iudied at Leipzig, and was appointed rector of ymnasium of Zwickau in 1549, and professor ittenberg in 1557. But in 1574 he was com- d to leave Wittenberg ; it having become ?n that he rejected the bodily presence of it in the Lord's Supper, and otherwise devi- frora Lutheran orthodoxy. He fled to Berlin, inally settled at Nuremberg, where his hetero- seems to have given no offence. He was a flc writer. His most interesting works are psalmorum paraphrasis Latina, De origine itatis, etc. herzog. JET, Francisco de Paula, b. in Barcelona, 28, 1826; d. in Madrid, Nov. 18, 1878; one le most prominent evangelical missionaries pain in the present century. As a young he went on the stage, and was a singer at a, where he was converted by a sermon of i de Sanctis, and entered the Church of the lenses. In 1855 he returned to Spain, and Q to preach in Barcelona. Repeatedly thrown prison, he escaped by the aid of the military srity; but finally he was summoned before piscopal court, convicted of heresy, and con- led to death at the stake, which punishment commuted into exile for life. He went to 9.n_TTT Gibraltar, and formed an evangelical congrega- tion- there. Afterwards he preached, also, with great success, to his countrymen in Algeria ; and after the revolution of 1868 he was able to open a chapel in Madrid, and celebrate evangelical ser- vice in the very capital. FRITZ FLIEDNER. RUFINUS, Tyrannius (Turranius, Toranus), b. at Aquileja; entered, while still a young man, a monastery in his native city, where he became acquainted with Jerome, and received baptism in 370 or 371. In the following year he went to Egypt, where he lived for six years, and visited the most famous hermits of the Nitrian moun- tains and the deserts. In 378 or 379 he went to Jerusalem, and built his cell on the Mount of Olives. Though leading a life of severe asceti- cism, he was a man of means, and entertained friendly relations both with Melania, who had founded a monastery in Jerusalem, and Jerome, who lived at Bethlehem. The Origenistic con- troversy, however, brought him into conflict with Jerome. They were reconciled; but when Ru- finus, after his return to Rome in 397, began to translate the works of Origen into Latin, the estrangement was renewed. The latter part of his life Rufinus spent in his native city. He died in Sicily in 410, flying before the hordes of Alaric. His principal importance Rufinus has as inter- preter of Greek theology. He translated many of Origen's exegetical works, and we owe to him our knowledge of the important work, De prin- cipiis. He also translated the church history of Eusebius (leaving out the tenth book, and adding two books of his own, thus carrying the narra^ tive down to the death of Theodosius the Great), the Recognitiones dementis, the Instituta Mona- chorum of Basil, the Sententim of Sixtus, an un- known Pagan philosopher, whom he mistook for the Roman bishop and martyr, Sixtus (Xystus). Whether he wrote the famous Hist. Monachorum sive de vitis patrum, or whether he simply translated it from a Greek original, is doubtful : the latter, however, seems the more probable. Finally, he wrote an Expositio Symboli Apostolici, of historical rather than doctrinal interest, and two books, De ienedictionibus duodeclm pdlriarcharum. Collected editions of his works have been given out by De la Barre (Paris, 1580), Vallarsi (Verona, 1775), aud Migne : Patr. Lat., xxi. Lit. —Just. Fontaninus: Hist. litt. Aquilej., Rome, 1742 (the two books treating of Rufinus have been reprinted by Vallarsi and Migne) ; M. DE RuBEis : Diss, duce, Venice, 1754 : J.Iakzu- jfiTTi: De Tyr. Raf., Padua, 1835; A. Ebert : Geschichte d. chrisll. lat. Litteratur, Leipzig, 1874, pp. 308-318. w. MbLLER. RUINART,Thierry,b. atRheims,JunelO,1657; d. in the monastery of Hautvillers, in the vicini- ty of his native city, Sept. 27, 1709. In 1674 he entered the Congregation of St. Maur, and in 1682 he settled at St. Germain-des-Pres as the pupil, and soon as the friend and co-worker, of Mabillon. His first great work was the Acta primoruni Mar- tyrum, Paris, 1689 (2d ed., Amsterdam, 1713; 3d, with his biography, Verona, 1731) ; then followed his Hiitoria persecutionis Vandalicm (Paris, 1694, of great importance for the history of the African Church), and his excellent edition of the works of Gregory of Tours. Together with Mabillon, he edited the eighth and ninth volumes of the Act. RULE OP FAITH. 2080 RUSSIA. Sanct. Ord. S. Bened. Among his other writings are Ecclesia Parisiensis vindicata, 1706, in defence of Mabillon's De re diplomatica ; Abre'ge de la vie de D. Jean MaUllon, 1709 ; and several treatises in the Oucrages posthumes de Mahillon et Ruinart, Paris, 17:34:. G. laubmann. RULE OF FAITH. See Rkgula Fidei. RULMAN MERSWIN, b. at Strassburg, 1307; d. in the Island Der griine Wort, July IS, 1382. He was a wealthy merchant and banker, when in 1347 he gave up business, joined the Friends of God, and led a life of severe asceticism, under the guidance of Tauler. In 1386 he acquired the Island of Der griine Wort, in the 111, near Strass- burg, and retired thither. His principal writings are Das Bannerbiichlein, edited by Jundt, 1879, and Von den 9 Felsen, edited by Schmidt, 1S59, See C. Schmidt: Ridman Merswin, in Revue d' Al- sace, 1856 ; and Jundt : Les amis de Dieu, Paris. 1879. PREGEE. RUPERT, St., the apostle of Bavaria: was a descendant of the Merovingian house, and bishop of Worms, when by Duke Theodo II. he was in- vited to Bavaria, which at that time was only nominally a Christian country. He came, and worked with great success, building many church- es, and founding many ecclesiastical institutions, among which was Salzburg, where he died in 696. His life is described in Gesia S. Hrodberti, ed. by F. M. Mayer, in Arcliiv fur osterreich. Geschiclite, vol. 63. See also Acta Sanctorum Boll. (March 3, p. 702), and Fkiedrich : Das walire Zeilalter des Id. R., 1866. HAUCK. RUPERT OF DEUT2, one of the most prolific theological writers of the twelfth century ; a con- temporary of St. Bernhard, and, like him, a mystic. The date and place of his lairth are unknown ; but he was educated in the monastery of St. Lauren- tius at Liege, and ordained a priest tiiere in 1101 or 1102. In 1113 he removed to tire monastery of Siegburg, in the diocese of Cologne; and in 1120 he was elected abbot of Deutz, wliere he died, March 4, 1135. His first writings — De dioinis officiis, and a commentary on Job, merely an ex- tract from the Moralia in Jobum by Gregory the Great — did not find much favor. The doctores et magistri felt indignant that a mere monk, who had not sat at the feet of any great teacher, should un- dertake to write books. It came to an actual con- flict between Rupert and the pupils of William of Chalons and Anselm of Laon. They accused him of holding heretical views concerning the relation between the omnipotence of God and the existence of evil; but he defended himself valiantly in his De voluntate Dei (1113) and De omnipoleniia Dei (1117) ; and he was protected both by his abbots and by Archbishop Friedrich of Cologne. His chief works, however, are not polemical, but exe- getical, — Tractatus in Evangelium Johannis, Com- menlarius de operibus sanctce Trinitatis (his principal work, in forty-two books),. Commentaries on the Revelation, Canticles, the minor prophets, etc. In Deutz he wrote De regula Sancli Benedicti, An- nulus, with a view to the conversion of the Jews ; Liber aureus de incendio Tuitiensi, a description of a frightful conflagration which destroyed the larger part of Deutz, Sept. 1, 1128, etc. The first collected edition of his works is that by Cochlseus, Cologne, 1526-28, 2 vols, folio : the last appeared in Venice, 1751, 4 vols, folio. mangold. RUSSELL, Charles William, D.D., Roman-Cath- olic theologian, and one of the papal domestic chaplains ; b. at Killough, County Down, Ireland 1802; d. at Maynooth, Feb. 26, 1880. He was educated at Maynooth, where he became professor of humanity in 1825, in 1845 professor of ecclesi- astical history, and in 1857 president. Although personally unknown to the leaders of the Oxford movement, he was in correspondence with them ; and Dr. Newman says that Dr. Russell had more to do with his conversion to Romanism than any- body else. Dr. Russell joined Wiseman in edit- ing the Dublin Review. He was a member of the Historical Manuscripts Commission (1869), and published a translation of Leibnitz's Sijsiem of Theology (London, 1850), and Life of Cardinal Mezzofanti (1858, new ed., 1863). . See Cooper : Neio Biographical Dictionary (Supplement, 1883). RUSSIA. The vast empire of Russia is about equal in territorial extent to the British Empire, and twice as large as any other country in the world. In 1878 it had an estimated area of 8,500,- 000 square miles, and a population of 87,000,000 souls. The territory and population in Asia are constantly increasing. Its government is an au- tocracy, there being no constitutional limits to the power of the Czar. The prevailing religion of the Russian Empire is the Orthodox Oriental, or Greek Church. More than three-fourths of the entire population belong to it, and it is established by law in the following terms : " The ruling faith in the Russian Empire is the Christian Orthodox Eastern Catholic declara- tion of belief. Religious liberty is not only assured to Christians of other denominations, but also to Jews, Mohammedans, and Pagans ; so that all peo- ple living in Russia may worship God according to the laws and faith of their ancestors." This religious liberty, however, is qualified by the fol- lowing conditions. No Christian can change his religion for any other than the Russian Church, nor can a non-Christian embrace any other form of Christianity ; and any apostasy from the State Church is punished by severe penalties, such as banishment from the empire. Next to the Christian inhabitants of Russia, the Mohammedans are the most numerous, and their numbers are constantly increasing by ter- ritorial extension in Central Asia. They num- ber at present no less than 7,500,000, of whom 2,364,000 are in European Russia, '3,000,000 in Central Asia, 2,000,000 in the Caucasus, 61,000 in Siberia, and 426 in Poland. Their clergy con- sists of about 20,000 muftis, moUahs, and teach- ers. The number of Russian Jews in 1878 was stated to be 1,944,378; in Poland, 815,433; in Caucasia, 22,732 ; in Siberia, 11,941 ; in Central Asia, 3,396; but this number has been since decreased by emigration to America. The num- ber of pagans in European Russia is 258,125 ; in Siberia, 286,016 ; in Central Asia, 14,470 ; in Cau- casia, 4,683 ; and in Poland, 245. Second in point of numbers to the Established Church of the empire, which includes within its pale between 60,000,000 and 70,000,000 souls, come Christians who adhere to the Roman-Catho- lic Church. Prior to the partition of Poland, this church had no settled organization in the Russian Empire ; but since 1818 there has been an eccle- siastical organization, confirmed by a papal buU. RUSSIA. 2081 RUSSIA. t of a total population of 5,210,000 in Russian and, no less than 4,597,000 are Roman Catho- , while only 34,135 are Orthodox Russians, tside of Poland, Russia in Europe had (in 1878) loman-Catholic population of 2,898,000; in icasns, 25,916; in Siberia, 24,316 ; in Central a, 1,316. The Polish provinces had formerly irge population belonging to the United Greek irch, but nearly aU of these have now been Dnciled to the Russian Church. The United nenians number about 33,000. Ls the acquisition of Poland added a large nan-Catholic population to Russia, so the an- ;ation of the Baltic provinces and Finland e many Lutherans to the empire of the Czar. 3y enjoy entire liberty of ecclesiastical govern- at, and worship under the superintendence of minister of the interior, but are not allowed nterfere in any way with the national church. 3 total number of Lutherans is 2,400,000 in 3sia proper, 300,000 in Poland, and 12,000 in a. ?he Reformed Church numbers about 200,000, -half of whom reside in Lithuania. The jNIo- ians have about 250 chapels, and a member- 3 of 60,000. In 1876 there were about 15,000 ononites, but many have since emigrated to United States. There are also some German )tist missions. ^he catholicos of Etchmiadzin, the head of the lent Gregorian-Armenian Church, has been !e 1828 a subject of Russia. The Armenian irch and its clergy enjoy all the privileges ceded to foreign creeds. The subjects of the lolicos number 38,720 in European Russia, ,310 in Caucasia, 15 in Siberia, and 1 in Cen- Asia. 'he condition of the State Church demands careful consideration. Its origin dates back the tenth century of the Christian era. Ac- ling to an ancient tradition, the gospel was ; preached in Scythia by Andrew the apostle ; no record has been left by which this tradi- i can be verified. But in the year 988 the ,nd Duke Wladimir, with all his court and ly of the Russian people, received baptism in river Dniepfer. The administration of the dy established church was for a long time in hands of the Patriarch of Constantinople ; after the conquest of that city by the Turks, 453, the Grand Duke Theodore applied to the riarch of Constantinople for the establishment , patriarchal see in Moscow. The request was ited, and the patriarchate of Moscow founded 1588. The most eminent of these Russian riarchs was Nikon (1652-57), who introduced ly reforms into the service-books. But these rms encountered much opposition, and led to separation of sects, called Staroveri, or " Old ievers," which continue to exist to the present . (See Russian Sects). eter the Great, about the year 1700, effected ir changes, the most important of which was abolition of the patriarchate of Moscow, and substitution for it of what is called the Holy erning Synod as the supreme authority, sub- only to the will of the Czar. This body con- i of twelve members. he Russian Church is divided into fifty-eight :chies, or dioceses, each of which is under a bishop. The bishops are of three classes. Those of the first class are called metropolitans, of whom there are but three in Russia, viz., Kiev, Moscow, and Petersburg. The second class are called archbishops, and the third are simply bish- ops. Besides these, there are some vicars, or BufEragan bishops, who are assistants. The infe- rior clergy are divided into the white or secular priests, and into the black clergy, .or monks. The number of the secular clergy, including all grades, is estimated at nearly 100,000. In 1878 the number of monks was 10,512, and of nuns, 14,574 in 147 nunneries. The creed of the Russian Church is that of the oecumenical Council of Nicaea (325), with the additions rhade to it by the First Council of Con- stantinople (381). In common with all branches of the Greek Church, the Russians reject the Filioque, and teach that the Holy Ghost proceeds from the Father alone, and not from the Father and the Son. They also receive as binding on the consciences all the decrees of seven oecumeni- cal councils (from 325 to 787). This erects a barrier of separation between the Russian Church on the one side, and Protestants on the other. The Russians acknowledge seven sacraments (or mysteries, as they term them) ; viz., baptism, chrism, the eucharist, confession, orders, matri- mony, and the unction of the sick. As soon as a child is born, the clergyman is sent for to say a prayer over the mother, and give a name to the child ; which is usually (but not always) the name of the saint for the day of its birth or baptism. The sacrament of baptism is usually administered in the house ; and the child is baptized by trine immersion, dipping it three times into the font. The Russian Church, however, acknowledges the validity of baptism by pouring water, in which respect it diifers from the church in Greece. Forty days after the birth of the child, it is brought to the church with its mother, for the purification of the mother, and reception of the child. The sacrament of the holy chrism (or confirmation, as it is called in the AVest) is ad- ministered by priests, with fragrant oils conse- crated by the bishops. It is usually administered soon after the baptism, sometimes immediately after. The priest anoints the child or adult con- vert with the oil above referred to, saying at the same time the words of the appointed service for chrism. The Holy Eucharist is called in the Oriental Church the Divine Liturgy. Leavened bread is used, and wine mingled with water ; and commu- nion is given in both kinds. The priest receives each element separately ; but the other communi- cants receive the consecrated bread dipped in the wine, administered with a golden spoon. The adult commimieants receive the sacraments stand- ing, but even young children and infants are com- municated. It is customary in Russia to receive the communion once a year, — in the season of Lent, immediately before Easter. Auricular confession and absolution are admin- tered, as in the Roman-Catholic Church ; but the confessions are somewhat more publicly made in the church, — in the sight, but not the hearing, of others ; and the penitents are questioned more generally on the Ten Commandments. The Russian Chui'ch recognizes three orders in RUSSIA. 2082 RUSSIAN SECTS. the clergy as of divine appointment, viz., bishops, priests, and deacons ; but it has other ecclesiastical grades above and below these, as metropolitans, archbishops, proto-presbyters, archimandrites, proto-deacons, sub-deacons, psalmists, singers, and sextons. Ordinations are administered by bishops only. Matrimony is attended by great festivity, and some curious and interesting ceremonies, the most important of which is the coronation of the newly wedded pair. During the service, two crowns, which are often made of silver or of gold, are held over the heads of the bridegroom and the bi-ide, by friends appointed for that purpose. The crown being a symbol of triumph and joy, this custom is intended to signify the triumph of Christian virtue, and joy at the entrance of a new life. Bishops and monks are forbidden to marry; and marriage is allowed but once to secular priests and deacons before their ordination. The laity are allowed, when deprived by death of their partners, to marry thrice; but fourth marriages are strictly forbidden. It must be added that divorces are not infrequent in Russia. The unction of the sick differs from the ex- treme unction of the Roman Catholics in that it is not administered to a person at the point of death, but to a sick person, with prayers for his recovery. It is a very long service, and in its full form is administered by seven priests ; but it can be administered by a single one. The services connected with the celebration of the Easter festival, and with the burial of the dead, are quite interesting and peculiar. Peter the Great was the first to establish schools in the capitals of tlie eparchies, where boys, and especially the sons of priests, could be educated for the priesthood. These schools for more than a century have been supported and controlled by the Holy Governing Synod. The country is divided into four school-districts, — Petersburg, Kiev, JIoscow, and Kazan. At the head of each district is a church academy, and each academy has a faculty consisting of a rector, archimandrite (abbot), one hieromouaoh (monk-priest), two secu- lar priests, and several professors. The metro- politan superintends all, acting under the decrees of the synod. The Petersburg academy is the centre of all, since the decrees of the synod pass through it to all the other academies. Under these chief academies are the eparchial seminaries, with many circuit and parish schools. Pupils first enter the parish school, and remain there two years ; then they attend the circuit school, the eparchial seminary, and the academy, re- maining at each about three or four yeai's. The Russian Church derives her theology from the Sacred Scriptures (the reading of which is allowed to the laity), the writings of the Church Fathers before the division between east and west, and of the Oriental Fathers subsequent to that, of whom the most eminent is John of Damascus. The most celebrated theologians of the Russian Church proper are Peter Mogila, who published the Orthodox Confession in 1643 ; Adam Zoer- nikav, who published an important treatise. On the Procession of the Holy Ghost from the Father only, in 1682; Theophanes Procopovich in 1715, who draws largely from Zoernikav; Demetrius of RostofE (17U9), and Stephen Javorsky (about the same date), both of whom are somewhat in- clined to Roman-Catholic views ; and Tichon of Zadonsk, who is not unfavorable to Protestant- ism. The historical and doctrinal works of Moura- vieff, the metropolitans Platon and Philaret, the Abbe Guettee, and the arch-priest Basaroff, are also worthy of an attentive perusal. Lit.— NkStor (d. 1116) : Annals, German trans- lation by Sohldzer, Gottingen, 1822 sqq., 5 vols. ; R. W. Blackmorb : The Doctrine of the Russian Church, being the Primer or Spelling-Bool; the Longer and Shorter Catechisms, and a Treatise on the Duty of Parish Priests, Aberdeen, 1845; A. N. Moura- viEFF (late chamberlain to the Czar, and procu- rator-general of the Most Holy Synod) : A History of the Church of Russia (goes down to 1721), trans- lated by R. W. Blackmore, Oxford, 1842; A. P. Stanley: Eastern Church, London, 1861, 5th ed., 1869, lect. ix.-xii. ; L. Boissard: L'e'glise de Rus- sie, Paris, 1867, 2 vols. ; D. M. Wallace : Russia, London, 1877, 9th ed., 1883 ; W. Palmer: Notes of a Visit to the Russian Church in IS^O-Jj.!, Lon- don, 1882 ; ScHAFF : Creeds of Christendom, vol. ii. pp. 275-544 (contains the Orthodox Confes- sion of Mogilas, the Decrees of the synod of Jerusalem, and the Longer Russian Catechism of Philaret). NICHOLAS BJERRING. RUSSIAN SECTS, comprehended under the general name Raskolnik. This word is from the Russian word raskol, "cleft," and means sepa- ratist, schismatic, and dissenter. It designates all the dissenters from the Established Church of Russia, i.e., from the Greek-Eastern Church. The Bible was translated from the Greek into the Slavonian in tlie ninth century by Cyril (d. 869) and Methodius (d. 855), the Slavonian apostles (both canonized : see Cyril and Methodius), and the ritual books somewhat later. Owing to a lack of knowledge on the part of translators and iranscribers, tlie Slavonian church-books were full of mistakes, and needed revision. Again : up to the seventeenth century the parishioiiei's usually_ elected their priests, and the people had much in- fluence on the church administration. Patriarch Sikon (1652-58), a man of great knowledge and of autocratic tendencies, undertook to revise the ritual books, and to secure the power of appoint- ment of priests and the church adininistration in general, exclusively to the bishops. Being sup- ported by the Czar, Nikon succeoded in his re- forms. But many priests and parishes refused either to accept the revised books, or to submit to the supreme authority of the bishops and patri- arch. Thus the great schism, or raskol, took place in the Church of Russia. Originally the Raskolniks differed from the Established Church rather in rites than in prin- ciples. They called themselves " Staroveri," or the " Old Believers," in opposition to the " New Believers," or " A'ikonians." They_ held sacred certain points modified by the revision ; namely they used only the unrevised service-books; they crossed themselves with two fiugers and not with three ; they repeated hallelujah only twice ; they used seven and not five altai-breads in the Eucha- ristic service ; they used only an eight-pointed cross; during divine services they turned from left to right, "according to the sun," and not from right to left ; they attended only their own RUSSIAN SECTS. 2083 RUSSIAN SECTS. urches, and regarded the outsiders as impure ; jy said Isoos (Jesus) instead of lisoos; they ver shaved their beard, being afraid of spoiling id's image ; they never used tobacco, or prac- ed vaccination. In the course of time the Ras- Iniks have been subdivided into numerous sects, d their religious views have been gi-eatly modi- d. To-day, while some sects do not differ from 3 Russian Church in regard to principles, others ep pace with the most advanced sects of the nerican and European Protestants. The Raskolniks are divided into two classes ; raely, Popovtzi, or those who have priests opes), and Bezpopovtzi (without popes), who ve no regular and constant priests. Popovtzi yet hold those views characteristic of the Old ilief. However, a large number of them have ilized that there is no dogmatic difference be- een them and the New "Believers : therefore jy treat both the State and the Church of Rus- i in a friendly spirit. These are known under 3 name of EDUfOVERTzi (those of one belief. It is, of the same belief). The late Czar, Alex- der II., granted them liberty of religious ser- ;e. Their old chui'ches were opened, and new es built. The ai-chbishop of the Edinovertzi iides at Moscow. The Popovtzi recognize the iestly hierarchy : they have priests and bishops then- own. Some of them fanatically denounce th the Czar and the Church, and for that rea- 1 are regarded as dangerous, and treated as 3h ; for instance, the Dositheans (the followers Dosithey). The Bezpopovtzi hold that every Christian is mest, and therefore there is no need of a special iestly order. In support of their view they e Rev. i. 6 : "And [Christ] hath jnade us kings d priests unto God." However, in their reS- )us meetings they appoint some one from long themselves, one more learned in Holy riptures, to act as a spiritual teacher ; but such person has no special authority, and does not ed to be ordained. They believe that we are ing in the reign of Antichrist: but they ex- lin that under "Antichrist" must be under- lod the impious spirit of our time ; under fife," the present society ; and under " birth," jression from the Christian truth. They be- ve that the authorities of to-day are the Anti- rist's servants, and therefore they consider it great sin to pray for them. They affirm that 3 churches are unnecessary to Christians ; for . Paul said, " Know ye not that ye are the tem- : of God, and that the Spirit of God dwelleth you?" (1 Cor. iii. 16). They have abolished nost the entire ritual of the Greek-Eastern lurch, partly by command of the Bible (as they derstand it), and partly in accordance with jir own idea of the Antichrist's reign. Among the Bezpopovtzi, there are sects hold- T very radical views. Thus some (E. Blokhin) not recognize the authority of the Bible, but t believe they are guided simply by " inspira^ n from above : " they do not adore the holy ages, nor keep any religious meetings. Others [. HerasimofE) say that they do not believe in it Bible which is printed with ink, but in that B which is laid down in their heart and con- ence. Among the Bezpopovtzi the following its are particularly known : — The Philippines (the proselytes of Philipp Pustosviat) observe only two sacraments, — bap- tism and the Lord's Supper : they refuse to take the oath of allegiance to the Czar, do not pray for the Czar, and decline to enter the military service. The Nemoliaki (" those not praying ") are an extreme type of the Bezpopovtzi. Their creed is reduced to these three points, — the study of the New Testament, spiiitual prayer, and a pure life. Cossak Zimm was the founder of this sect. He taught that there are " four ages. " From the crea- tion of the world to Moses was sprmg, or the age of ancestors ; fi-om Moses to Christ's birth was summer, or the age of fathers ; from Christ's bii-th to 1666 (when a council of Russian bishops anathe- matized the Easkolniks) was autumn, or the age of sons ; fi'om 1666 down to our time is winter, or the age of the Holy Ghost. " No external rites are needed in our time," they say. The VozDYKHANTZi (" the Sighers ") hold, that, in the time of the Old Testament, there was the reign of God the Father ; in that of the New Tes- tament, the reign of God the Son ; with the com- pletion of the seventh thousandth year from the creation of the world began the reign of the Holy Ghost. Now the true believers must serve the Holy Ghost by spiritual prayers and by sighing. Both the Nemoliaki and the Vozdykhantzi adapt their Bible to their views by explaining ijb aUegor- ically. Some of them go so far as to affirm that there is no need even of spiritual prayer, for " God knows what we need without our prayers." Evi- dently these come to pure deism. The Steanniki (" the Travellers ") or Begoo- .Ni (" the Runners ") do not stay in one place more than a few days. They do not revere the cross, but call it simply a piece of wood. They affirm that all God's promises concerning the church are already fulfilled ; that now we are living in "the future age " and in the " new heaven ; " that the resurrection of the dead has already taken place, or rather that it takes place each time that one leaves the sinful life, and begins to walk in the ways of truth and piety. There are many Bezpopovtzi who object to being called the " Old Believers." " Only Hebrews are old believers," they say ; " and we are the Spiritu- al Christians." To this group belong the Dook- hoborzi, the Molokaneh, the Obschie, the Stund- ists, the Khlisti, and the Skoptzi. The DooKHOBORzi are those denying the exist- ence of spirit, or rather spiritual beings and spir- itual life. They hold that there is no personal God, that he is inseparable fi-om the society of pious men. " God is the good man i " that is their maxim. They do not believe in a life after death : therefore they deny the existence both of paradise and hell. They do not recognize the authority of the Bible, but believe they are guided by a " liv- ing book," which is traditions of their own. However, those traditions are nothing else but different Bible-passages which sustain their own views. They consider Christ to be only equal to any good man of our day. They often quote, and explain in then- own way, this verse : " God is a Spu'it : and they that worship him must worship him in spirit and truth " (John iv. 24). " Spirit is in us," they say : " therefore we are gods, and therefore we have to adore living good men." RUSSIAN SECTS. 2084 RUSSIAN SECTS. They reverently bow before each other, be it man, woman, or child. They discard all the rites of the Greek Church. They deny the authority of the Czar on the ground, that, being God's people, they do not belong to this world, and therefore they are not subject to the rule of worldly authori- ties. They oppose war, evade military service, and do not pray for the Czar. The MoLOKANEH ("Milk-eaters") call them- selves " the truly spiritual Christians." They be- lieve only in the New Testament, but explain it in their own •wa.y. They affirm that baptism with water is invalid : purification from sins by pure life and good deeds, that is a true baptism. They object to all external rites, crossing, prayers, tem- ples, etc. They consider themselves free from all state laws, on the ground, that, " where the Spirit of the Lord is, there is liberty " (2 Cor. iii. 17). The Obschie (" Communists ") are a branch of the Molokaneh, and differ from them only in hold- ing property in common. In each commune there are twelve elected apostles, who direct works and the distribution of goods. The sect of Stundists is of recent origin : it became known only in 1860. The Stundists strive to get rid of the authority both of the State and the Church. They hold that everybody is free to understand the Bible in his or her way. So far they have come to these conclusions, — the priestly hierarchy is invalid ; there is no sense in adorar tion of the cross and holy images ; of the seven sacraments, only baptism and communion are to be retained. Of all the sects of the Raskolniks, only Khlisti and Skoptzi are despised by Russian people at large. The Khlisti (" Self-lashers "), though they do not recognize the church-rites, practise many rites of their own kind. They are ascetics, and the married life is regarded by them as the great- est sin. They wage a constant war against human nature ; and for that reason they continually lash themselves, both in private and in religious meet- ings. They believe that among them sometimes appears the Lord Sabaoth in the person of one of their brothers, and that Christ and the Virgin have appeared among them many times. They blind- ly obey their prophets and prophetesses, who are guided by their own inspiration. For whole nights they lash themselves, and turn around a sacred basin of water, and in their state of excitement they believe they see Christ or the Holy Ghost. The Skoptzi ("Self-mutilators") ai-e an extreme branch of the Khlisti. They act literally accord- ing to the words, " If thy right hand causeth thee to stumble," etc. (Matt. v. 30). The number of the Raskolniks is constantly increasing in spite of all efforts both of the State and the Church to thwart their propaganda. There are about fifteen millions of them all told, or over six per cent of the whole population of Russia. The Bezpopovtzi count nine millions; the Popovtzi, three millions; the Spiritual Chris- tians, two millions; the Khlisti and the Skoptzi, sixty-five thousand : the rest belong to undeter- mined sects. The Bezpopovtzi increase on account of the Popovtzi, and the Spiritual Christians em- brace the most advanced of the Bezpopovtzi. The Raskolniks in general have been always regarded by the State and the Church authorities as a dangerous element, and were treated with utmost severity. The death-penalty, mutilations, tortures, chains, exile to Siberia, and other pun- ishments, have been freely resorted to against them. In the last century many Raskolniks used to hide themselves in the forests of Siberia; and on being discovered by the officials, they often preferred to burn themselves alive rather than to submit to various penalties at the hands of the Antichrist, as they styled the Czar. According to the Russian law now in force, the Popovtzi are tolerated, and the Bezpopovtzi are deprived of many civil rights ; the Khlisti and the Skoptzi are treated as criminals ; they are transported either to Siberia or to the Caucasus. Propagation of the views of the Raskolniks is punished by im- prisonment for from one to six years (Art. 207, vol. xiv.). The Dookhoborzi, Molokaneh, Khlisti, Skoptzi, and others who do not pray for the Czar, are regarded as very dangerous (Art. 82) ; and even in Siberia and the Caucasus they are for- bidden to live among Orthodox people. By the Czar's ukase, June 2, 1883, the Raskol- niks are granted some civil rights and a certain freedom of religious service. The minister of the interior is empowered, in agreement with the Chief Procurator of the Holy Synod, to give per- mission to the Raskolniks to open, or to repair, or to renew, or even to build, new chapels or houses of prayer. In giving his permission, the minis- ter shall be guided by local circumstances, and particularly by the character of the teaching of the different sects. The Raskolniks are allowed to perform the religious service according to their own rites in their chapels, and also in private houses.. It is forbidden to open their convents, and all religious processions in public are also forbidden. The chapels of the Raskolniks must not have the shape of the Orthodox churches, and must not have bells outside. The propa- gation of the Raskolnik teaching among the Orthodox is strictly forbidden. The Raskolnik religious teachers have no special rights which are granted to the Orthodox clergymen. The literature on the Raskolniks is very volu- minous. The best works on the subject are as follows : ScHAPOFF : Russian Raslcol of the Old Belief; Kostomaroff : series of the articles in The Vestnik Evropi ; Metropolitan Makaey: History of Russian Church, vol. xiii. (Patriarch Nikon) ; Kelsieff : Official Investigation of the Raslcol; P. Melnikopf : Letters on the Raslcol; Andreeff : Raslcol and its Significance ; Ignaty : History of the Raslcol; Esipoff : Trials of the Ras- kolniks in XVIII. Century; N. Popoff: Raskol of To-day ; Prior Partheny : Spiritual Sword against the Raskolniks; J. Popoff: Materials for History of the Raskol; Nilsky : On Antichrist, against the Raskolniks ; V. Popoff : Secrets of the Raskolniks; O. Novitzky : The Dookhoborzi; Archimandrite Israel : Reeieio of the Sects of the Raskolniks ; I. Dobrotvorsky : God's People ; V. Farmakovsky: Anti-State Elements in the Raskol. There are also many books written by Raskolniks themselves; for instance, Archpriest Abbakum : Autobiography; Brothers Denisoff: Answers; P. LuBOPYT>fY : Catalogue of the Works by Men of Old Belief; By-Laws of the Theodosians, 1826; Brother Paul: The Czar's Way; Anti- christ according to the Bible ; Principles of Christ's Church on the Keys. All these books are pub- RUTGERS SEMINARY. 2085 RUYSBROBCK. hed in the Russian language at St. Petersburg Moscow. Db. p. j. popoff. RUTGERS THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY. See !w Bruxswick Theological Seminart. RUTH. This book relates an episode among i Israelites in the days of the Judges, — the ii-y of the marriage of Ruth the Moabitess to r kinsman, Boaz, and so, how another heathen cestor was introduced into the pedigree of David d of Jesus Christ. The grace and beauty of 5 story are universally praised. By it we get glimpse into the domestic life of the period, le very simplicity of the book, which consti- »s its charm, is also the best proof of its ithf ulness. What forger would invent such a e, in which, to the royal house of David, a ■eign and idolatrous ancestor was attributed ? imerous attempts have been made to rob the ok of its historical character. It has been isidered as written in advocacy of Levirate irriage, so that the cleft betweeen Israel and ! Gentiles might be bridged (Bertholdt and nary) : but Boaz was not Mahlon's brother, but ly his kinsman ; hence his action was purely luntary. Reuss considers it as invented by a (rth-Palestinian, after the fall of Ephraim der Assyria, as a political romance, prophesy- ; the re-union of Ephraim to Judah, because lomi the Ephraimite recognized the child of ith, the progenitor of Judah's royal line, as her ir. But there is really no reason for consider- f it as other than an old, true, but long-time written, traditional history of the Davidic nily. At what time in the Judges period the iidents occurred cannot be definitely deter- ned, but at least a hundred yeai-s before David uth iv. 18). The book itself, as its Arama- is and late grammatical forms show, was writ- i many years afterwards, probably not until er the exile. The late date is therefore the ison why the book appears in the Jewish Ha- igrapha. It is true the LXX. put it with dges ; and Joseph us testifies to the Jewish cus- n of his day, of reckoning these two books as 3 {Contra Apion, i. 8). But the supposition it Ruth was originally a part of Judges, and, some say, constituted its third appendix (Ber- !au, Auberlen), lacks evidence, and is rendered probable by the independence of the story, is complete in itself. LiiT. — See the general commentaries ; [the niletical and practical treatment by Thomas LLER (1650), George Lawson (1805), Stephen Tyng, Sen., The Rich Kinsman, 1856] ; also H. H. Wright : The Book of Ruth in Hebrew I Chaldee, Lond., 1864; R. W. Bush : Popular reduction to... Ruth, Lond., 1883. The Hagga- commentary upon Ruth is given by Wunsche : I. Rabb., Leip., 1883. v. orelli. lUTHERFURD, Samuel, a distinguished Scotch ine and Covenanter; was b. about 1600, at 3bet, Roxburghshire; d. at St. Andrews, March 1661. In 1617 we find him studying at Edin- rgb, where he received the degree of M.A. in !1, and was soon after appointed to the pro- soTship of humanity. He demitted this office 1625, and after studying theology was settled Anworth in 1627. He was regarded as an able i impressive preacher. In 1634 he attended I death-bed of Lord Kenmure, and gave an account of the death-bed scene, fifteen years later, in the \fork, 7' he Last Heacenly Speeches and Glorious Departure of John, Viscount Kenmure. In 1636 he issued Exercitationes de Gratia, a work in defence of the doctrines of grace against the Arminians. It established his reputation on the Continent, and brought him a call to the chair of theology at Utrecht, and one to Hardewyk. On July 27, 1636, he was cited before the High Com- mission Court to answer for his nonconformity to the Acts of Episcopacy, and his work against the Arminians. Deprived of his living at Anworth, he was banished to Aberdeen. When the Cove- nant was again triumphant, in 1038, he returned to Anworth, and in 1639 was made professor at St. Andrews. In 1643 he was chosen one of the Scotch commissioners to the AVestminster Assem- bly ; and during his four years of service in that capacity wrote The Due Right of Presbytery, Lex Rex, and The Trial and Triumph of Faith. The Lex Rex was burned under the author's windows at St. Andrews in 1660. He was soon afterwards deprived of his offices, and cited to appear before the next Parliament on the charge of high trea- son, but death prevented him from going. He i-epiied to the citation, referring to his condi- tion, "I am summoned before a higher Judge and judicatory : that first summons 1 behove to answer; and ere a few days arrive, I shall be where few kings and great folks come." Among his other works are Covenant of Life (1655), Civil Policy (1657), Life of Grace (1659). Stanley calls him "the true saint of the covenant." Rnther- f urd's letters are particularly interesting and edi- fying. See A. A. Bonar: Letters of Rev. Samuel Rutherford, with a Sketch of his Life, N.Y., 1851, new edition carefully revised, Lond., 1881 ; Manna Crumbs . . . being Excerpts from the Letters of Samuel Rutherfurd, gathered by Rev. W. P. Breed, Phila., 1865 ; Stanley : The Church of Scotland, London and New York, 1872 (pp. 100-108); A. F. Mitchell: The Westminster Assenibly,!^!^^.,!^^^; and the histories of Scotland. RUYSBROECK, or RUSBROEK, doctor ecstati- cus, the most prominent of the Dutch mystics; b. in the village of Ruysbroeck, between Brussels and Hall, in 1293 ; was educated in Brussels, but never learned so much Latin that he could write it, though he seems to have been acquainted with the writings of the Areopagite, as also with the earlier German mystics. He was for a long time vicar of the Church of St. Gudula in Brussels, but retired in 1353 to the Augustine monastery Gron- endal, in the forest of Soigny, near Brussels, and died there in 1381. His four principal works are Die Zierde der geistlichen Hochzeit, Der Spiegel der Seligkeit, Von dem funkelnden Stein, and Samuel : his other writings are only more or less interest- ing repetitions. They were originally written in Dutch, but soon translated into Latin (Rusbrochii Opera, Cologne, 1552 and oftener), German (byG. Arnold, Offenbach, 1701), and French. There is no collected edition of Ruysbroeck's works ; but the above-mentioned four books have been very carefully edited by Arnswaldt, Hanover, 1848. In opposition to Hugo and Richard of St. Victor, but in agreement with the German mystics, the mystic speculation of Ruysbroeck describes a movement from God to man, and then back to God, not always clearing the banks of pantheism. The RYBRSON. 2086 RYLAND. details are often very acute, subtle, and charm- ing by their beauty and freshness„but often also very obscure and ovei'loaded. Ullmann : [He- formers before the Reformation] ; Bohringer : Die deulschen Mysliker, pp. 462 sqq. C. SCHMIDT. RYERSON, Adolphus Egerton, D.D., LL.D., Methodist ; b. in Charlotteville, Jforfolk County, Canada, March 24, 1803 ; d. in Toronto, Feb. 19, 1882. His father was a native of New Jersey. His parents were in easy circumstances, yet Eger- ton spent his early years in healthful labor on the farm. He was endowed with a healthy, vig- orous constitution, and great intellectual power. His thirst for knowledge was most intense, and his reading was extensive and varied. In early life he connected himself with the Methodist Church ; and on Eastej- Sunday, 1826, he began his work as a preacher in that body. He soon became famous as one of the most eloquent, effec- tive, and promising preachers in the connection. He early began to write for the periodicals of the day; and some of his articles having attracted attention, and provoked discussion, he was chosen editor of the Christian Guardian by the Conference in 1829, — an office which he filled with eminent ability and fearlessness during a period of great interest in Canadian history. In 1833 he was sent by the Conference as a delegate to the Wesleyan body in England, where his rare gifts and persua- sive eloquence were at once recognized: He was repeatedly intrusted with similar missions; and so ably and skilfully did he conduct the matters committed to him, that he secured the confidence and approval of the leading men on both sides of the Atlantic. In 1841 he was elected the first president of Victoria University ; where for three years, both as principal and professor, he won the confidence and affection of the students, and did much to establish the rising institution. In 1844 he was appointed by the governor-general, Sir Charles Metcalfe, chief superintendent of educa- tion for Upper Canada. Into this new arena he entered with a resolute determination to succeed ; and he spared no pains, effort, or sacrifice to fit himself thoroughly for the onerous duties to which he had been appointed. He steadfastly prosecuted his work with a firm, inflexible will, unrelaxing tenacity of purpose, an amazing fertility of expedient, an exhaustless amount of information, a most wonderful skill in adaptation, a matchless ability in unfolding and vindicating his plans, a rare adroitness in meet- ing and removing difficulties, great moderation in success, and indomitable perseverance under discouragement, calm patience when misappre- hended, unflinching courage when opposed, until he achieved the consummation of his wishes, — the establishment of a system of education second to none in its efficiency, and adaptation to the cir- cumstances of the people. He proved to be just the man for the place, and the work he accom- plished is his enduring monument. He was frequently elected secretary of the con- ference, and in 1874 was its president. His breth- ren conferred on him every honor at their disposal. In 1841 he received the degree of D.D., and in 1861 that of LL.D. He wrote extensively on all subjects connected with public affairs, specially on questions relating to civil and religious liberty and education. He was an able, vigorous, and successful controversialist. He issued numerous pamphlets, wrote many elaborate reports, and published several works, — a treatise on moral science. Epochs of Canadian Methodism, and in 1880 The History of the United Empire Loyalists, in two large volumes. William ormiston. RYLAND, John, D.D., a distinguished Baptist, minister; was b. at Warwick, Jan. 29, 1753; d. at Bristol, May 25, 1825 ; pastor at Northamp- ton, 1781 ; pastor at Bristol, and president of the Baptist college there, from 1794 to his- death. He published some sermons, and one or two other books. His Hymns and Verses, numbering nearly a hundred, were collected by D. Sedgwick, 1862. Some of them have been extensively used, and at least two retain a place in most of the collections. A Memoir by Dr. Hoby is prefixed .to Sedgwick's edition. F. M. bikd. SAADIA HA GAON. 2087 SABAS. s. AADIA HA CAON, Ben Joseph, Jewish rabbi; it Fayum, Upper Egypt, 892; d. at Sura, ylonia, 941 or 942. He was educated by the aites, yet he became their vigorous opponent. is distinguished for his Arabic translation of Pentateuch, Job, Psalms, Canticles, and other ks (each of which he accompanied by brief otations), his grammatical and lexical works, , above all, for his treatise in defence of Juda- , Religion and Doctrines, written in Arabic, but ' known only by the Hebrew translation of ah ben-Tibbon, German translations by Fiirst e j'Udischen Religionsphilosoplien des Millelallers, >nd., Emunot We-Deot oder Glaubenslehre und losophie von Saadja Fajjumi, Leipzig, 1845) by Ph. Bloch, in Jiidisches LiteraturUatl, Mag- urg, 1878. By his translations, made between and 928, he acquired such fame that in the Br year he was called to Sura in Babylon to gaon (head teacher) of the famous Jewish )ol there, and held the office until his death, 1 the exception of four years (933-937), when lyas kept from his office, and lived in Bagdad, fas in this period that he wrote his Religio7i Doctrines. His position in the history of jesis is thus indicated by Professor C. A. jgs: "The Peshal, or literal interpretation, is 1 in the Targum of Onkelos and the Greek lion of Aquila, with reference to the law, but id little expression among the ancient Jews. ! Qarites [Karaites] were the first to empha- it in the eighth centuiy. Before this time •e is no trace of Hebrew grammar or Hebrew ionary. The Qarites threw off the yoke of ainical Halacha, and devoted themselves to literal sense, and became extreme literalists. iienced by them, Saadia introduced the literal hod into the rabbinical schools, and used it as most potent weapon to overcome the Qarites. became the father of Jewish exegesis in the die ages, and was followed by a large number listinguished scholars, who have left monu- its of Jewish learning." — Biblical Study, New k, 1883, pp. 303, 304. See also L. Wogue : 'aire de la Bible et de I'exe'gese biblique jusqu'a jours, Paris, 1881; J. Guttmann: Die Reli- sphUosophie des Saadia dargestellt u. eriautert, tingen, 18S2. AALSCHUtZ, Joseph Levin, German rabbi; t Konigsberg, March 15, 1801 ; d. there Aug. 1863. He studied in the university of Konigs- f ; became Ph.D. in 1824, and in 1849 privat- jnt in philosophy, and afterwards professor aordinary, — the first Jew who ever received appointment. From 1825 to 1829 he taught tie Berlin Jewish public school ; from 1829 to ) was rabbi in Vienna; from 1835 to his death rabbi in Konigsberg. His principal works Das Mosaiscke Recht (1846-48, 2 vols., 2d ed., i), and ArcMoloqie der Hebraer (1856, 2 vols.). IVBA'OTH [pS\<±i,aa^aue, "hosts:" the trans- ation occurs in the English Version only in 1. ix. 29, cited from Isa. i. 9, and Jas. v. 4 : where the translation is used]. The designa- tion of God as "Jehovah Sabaoth " is not found in all the Old Testament. It is lacking in the Penta- teuch, Joshua, and Judges; is used first in First and Second Samuel (1 Sam. i. 3, 11, iv. 4, xv. 2, xvii. 45 ; 2 Sam. v. 10, vi. 2, 18, vii. 8, 26, 27), then in Kings, but very seldom, and only by Elijah and Elisha (1 Kings xviii. 15, xix. 10, 14; 2 Kings iii. 14). In the prophetical books of Amos, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, it frequently occurs ; but in the others seldom, and in Ezekiel and Daniel not at all. It is missing in Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Canticles, generally in the Psalms, entirely in the post-exilian books, except in 1 Chronicles, in direct relation to David (xi. 9, xvii. 7, 24). The original meaning of the appellation "Jehovah Sabaoth " does not imply, as many maintain, that Jehovah was a god of war ; for it is precisely in that period when he was fighting in a wondrous way for his people that the appellation is un- known. In 1 Sam. xvii. 45 its juxtaposition with " God of the armies of Israel " shows that it did not mean the same as the latter. So also Ps. xxiv. 8 (cf . with 10) proves that " the Lord mighty in battle " was a different and lower conception to " the Lord of hosts." Nor are the " hosts " to be understood of the creation generally. The appel- lation comes from the " heavenly hosts," including both the stars and the angels, and calls attention - to the position of Jehovah above both classes: hence the folly of star-worship, so common in the countries surrounding Israel. The stars are mere lights (Gen. i. 14), created for a definite purpose (Ps. civ. 19), although in their way eloquent of Jehovah's praise (Ps. viii. 3, xix. 1). Above them far is Jehovah, who made them, and rules them. Similar is the case respecting angels. They con- stitute the upper congTegation of worshippers (Ps. cxlviii. 2, cl. 1), who praise God for his wonders of providence and grace (Ps. xxix. 9, Ixxxix. 6 sqq.). They also are the messengers of God and the wi1> nesses of liis mighty acts. AVhen God is styled " Jehovah Sabaoth," his superiority to angels is set forth : hence the epithet rebukes star-worship, and other forms of idolatry; represents him as the absolute ruler of the world, and at the same time as ready to put down every opposition to the people of his choice. OEHLER. SABAS, St., b. at Mutalasca, or Mutala, a village in Cappadocia, 439 ; d. near Jerusalem, about 531. When he was only eight years old, he gave up all his wealth, and retired into a mon- asteiy, whence he ten years afterwards went to Palestine, and settled as a hermit, and pupil of Euthymius, in the desert near Jerusalem. As his fame for sanctity increased, many Christians joined him, and a laui-a was formed under the rule of St. Basil. In 484 Bishop Sallustius of Jerusalem ordained him a priest, and made him abbot of an order of monks he had founded, and which was called, after him, the Sabaites. He introduced a very severe discipline, was a zealous defender of the synod of Chalcedon, founded sev- eral monasteries, and enjoyed the confidence aud SABBATARIANS. 2088 SABBATH. esteem of the Emperor Anastasius. He is com- memorated by the Roman Chm'oh on Dec. 5. The existing convent of Mar Saba, on the west- ern shore of the Dead Sea, was founded by him. — Two other saints of the same name, both of whom suffered martyrdom, — the one in Eome (272), the other in Wallachia (372), — are com- memorated respectively on the 24th and the 12th of April. — Finally it may be noticed that the hermit Julian of 'Edessa also is surnamed Sabas. See Acta SS. April 12 and Oct. IS; Schrockh : Kirchenc/eschichte, xviii. 44 sqq. NEUDECKBR. SABBATARIANS. See Seventh-Day Bap- tists. SABBATH (lieh. shabbath ; Gi:, to sahbaton, or ta sabbata), the seventh day, regarded among the Israelites as holy, and a day of rest. It is of divine origin, its type being the seventh day, on which God rested from all his work. Moses in- troduced the sabbath first in connection with the manna (Exod. xvi. 5, 22-30), in such a manner as indicated that the sabbath was as yet un- known to the people. The people by observing the sabbath, having experienced its blessing, re- ceived then the commandment concerning that day on Sinai. The expression in Exod. xx. 8, " Remember the sabbath day," is not intended to remind of the sabbath as an ancient institution, but it rather means that the people should always remember the now existing order of the sabbath. The signification of the sabbath can only be known from the Old Testament (cf. Gen. ii. 3; Exod. XX. 11, xxxi. 13-17), which is as follows: God created the world in six days, a,nd rested on the seventh day : he therefore blessed and sancti- fied this day of completing his work. In like mannei-, the people which he had sanctified unto himself, and which acknowledged the Creator and Lord of the world as their God, was to sanctify, after every six days of labor, the seventh day as a day of rest ; and this was to be a sign of the cove- nant between God and his people. These sen- tences convey the following ideas. (1) Like God, so is man to work and to rest. The life of man is to become a likeness of the divine : especially are the people, called to be the organ of establishing a divine order of life upon earth, to be known as the people of the living God by the change of labor and rest, corresponding to the rhythm of the divine life. (2) In blessed rest the divine work is finished : because the creating God rests satisfied in the contemplation of his works, his creation itself is finished. In short, " the seventh day is not the negation of hexahemeron, but the blessing and sanctification of the same." There- fore, also, the work of men is not to be of a nega- tive nature, but it was to finish itself in a blessed harmony of existence. In the same manner, also, the whole history of men was to complete itself in an harmonious order of God, as is already guar- anteed in the sabbath of the creation, and pre- figured in the sabbath seasons. The rest of God on the seventh day of creation, which is without an evening, moves over the whole course of the world to receive it at last in itself. The whole fourth chapter in the Epistle to the Hebrews bears upon this; viz., that the rest in God is to become also a rest /or men. But we get the full object of the sabbath idea by combining it with the dominion of sin and death which have entered into the development of the human society. After the divine curse had been pronounced upon the earth, and man had been destined to work for his food, the desire after the rest of God becomes a craving after redemption (Gen. v. 29). Israel, also, whilst in Egyptian bondage without any refreshing inter- ruption, has to sigh for relief. When God, at the deliverance from bondage, gave him the seasons of rest returning regularly, this order became a thankful feast in commemoration of the deliver- ance which he had experienced. Therefore it is said (Deut. v. 15), "And remember that thou wast a servant in the land of Egypt," etc. But there is yet another point. The sabbath has only its significance as the seventh day, which is preceded by six work-days. The first part of the com- mandment concerning the sabbath, which is a commandment itself (Exod. xx. 9), reads, " Six days slialt thou labor, and do all thy work : but the seventh day is the sabbath of the Lord thy God." Only in consequence of preceding labor the sabbath is to follow, as work and creation completes itself in God in blessed rest. The word in Gen. iii. 19 retains its force, only that the sabbath becomes "a corrective for the injuries inflicted on men living under the curse of sin, by the heavy and oppressing work, and at the same time detracting from God." We need not dwell here on the humane character of the Mosaic law, which in its enactments provides also for the rest of the servant and stranger as well as for the cattle (Exod. xx. 19, xxiii. 12). From what has been said, we see that the sabbath is a divine institution, a divine gift sanctifying the people (Ezek. XX. 12). The day was celebrated by rest from labor (Exod. xxxiv. 21 ; Num. xv. 32), and by a special burnt offering presented in the temple in addition to the usual daily offering, which was doubled on this day (Num. xxviii. 9). In the holy place of the temple the show-bread was renewed (Lev. xxiv. 8). Deliberate profana- tion of this day was punished with death (Exod. xxxi. 14 sq., XXXV. 2), which was inflicted by stoning (Num. xv. 32 sq.). The Israelites had to bake and cook their food for the sabbath on the preceding day (Exod. xvi. 23), to which un- doubtedly refers the injunction in xxxv. 3. They were also forbidden to leave the camp on the sabbath day (Exod. xvi. 29), and, with reference to this, travelling on the sabbath was afterwards " also forbidden. Marketing and public trade ceased on the sabbath (Neh. x. 31, xiii. 15, 16), and it was merely an auxiliary police regulation of Nehemiah to close the gates on that day (Neh. xiii. 19). But the passages in Nehemiah, especially x. 31, show that at that time a strict observance of the sabbath had not yet been cus- tomary among the people. The measures, how- ever, which Nehemiah took for the sake of a more quiet sabbath contain nothing of that micrological casuistry which prevailed in later times; and when the Chasidim sulfered their ene- mies to cut them down, rather than to arm on the sabbath (1 Mace. ii. 32 sq. ; 2 Mace. vi. 11), Mattathias, apprehending the great danger which, would accrue to the Jews, laid down the injunc; tion that it was permitted to take defensive measures against the enemy, and to abstain from offensive operations (1 Mace. ii. 41 j 2 Mace. viiL SABBATH-DAY'S JOURNEY. 2089 SABBATICAL YBAB. This principle prevailed afterwards (Jos., XIV. 4, 2), but not always (Jos., War, II. ). The inventive spirit of later times laid . the minutest and strictest sabbath regula- , vyhich are contained in the Talmud, and a 3 Talmud treatise is devoted to this subject, this micrology had already been developed e time of Christ, we know from such pas- as Matt. xii. 2, John v. 10 sq. In spite of minute injunctions which were hedged t the sabbath, this day was to be regarded lay of joy. The meals for the sabbath were ribed, every one was to eat three meals ; and 'almud Shabbath (fol. 118, col. 1) says, "Who- observes the three meals on the sabbath wjll ived from the birth-pains of Messiah, the nent of hell, and the war of Gog and Ma- ' For the strict sabbath observance of the les, cf . the art. Essenes. Cf . Scheoeder :. mgen u. Gebrduche des lalmudisch-rabbinischen %tkums, pp. 34 sq., 52 sq. ; [Bdxtorp : Syna- Judaica ; Vitkinga : Synagoga ; Picard : ious Ceremonies ; the art. " Sabbath," in [m's Handworlerbuch and in Hamburger's Encyclopa.die'\. oehlee. BBATH-DAY'S JOURNEY (Acts i. 12). I the injunction in Exod. xvi. 29 the scribes iown the rule that an Israelite must not go thousand yards beyond the limits of his e. The permitted distance seems to have grounded on the space to be kept between uk and the people (Josh. iii. 4) in the vfil- jss, which tradition said was that between rfc and the tents. Whilst the rabbis on the land regulated the walking on the sabbath by allowing only a certain space, yet on the ■ hand they also contrived certain means eby the sabbath-day's walk could be ex- :d, without transgressing the law, by the so- i mixtio terminonim, or connection of distances. ■ ordained that all those who wished to join social gatherings on the sabbath were to iit on Friday afternoon some article of food jertain place at the end of the sabbath-day's ley, that it might thereby be constituted a eile, and thus another sabbath-day's journey [ be undertaken from the first terminus, mly does an entire Talmudic treatise (Erw- ;reat on this " connection of distances," but inism has also invented a prayer for that jse, " Blessed art thou, Jehovah, who hast aanded (!) us the erid) " (i.e., connection of nces). Comp. Leusden : Phil. Hehr. mixt. ■t. 32, no. 14; Selden : Dejure not. et gent., ; Frischmuth : Dissert, de itinere Sabbath., , 1670 ; Walther : Dissert, de itin. Sabbat, rhes. nov. theol. phil. s. sylloge diss. exeg. ad V. el N. T. loc. ex mus., Th. Hassaei et P. ii. Lug. Bat., 1732, pp. 417, 423) ; the art. ibatweg," in Rhiem's Handworterb. des bibl. thums ; Zuckermann, in Frankel's Monals- % Breslau, 1863, xii. 467 sq.]. leyeer. BBATH LAWS. See Sunday Legisla- BBATHAISM. See Israel, p. 1129. BBATHARIANS, or NEW ISRAELITES, is ame of a religious sect founded by Joanna icott (b. about 1750, at Gittisham in Dev- re), who regarded herself as the bride of the 3, and declared herself, when sixty-four years of age, pregnant with the true Messiah, the " Sec- ond Shiloh," whom she would bear Oct. 19, 1814. She surrounded herself with prophets, and in order to prepare the way for the new dispensation ordered the strictest observance of the Jewish law and sabbath. A costly cradle was kept in readiness for the reception of the Messiah, and for a long time she waited for his birth. At last a supposititious child was declared to be he. But the fraud was detected, and those who partici- pated in it were led around with the picture of Southcott in the public street. Joanna died in her self-delusion, Dec. 27, 1814 ; but her followers, who at one time nmnbered a hundred thousand, continued tiU 1831 to observe the Jewish sabbath and the ceremonials of the law in order to receive the hoped-for Messiah in a worthy manner. Her writings number sixty separate publications, of which the best known is the Book of Wonders, London, 1813-14, 5 parts. Comp. Blunt : Dic- tionary of Sects, s.v. " Southcottians; " Matthias : J. Southcott's Prophecies and Case staled, London, 1832. SABBATICAL YEAR AND YEAR OF JUBI- LEE. (I.) The Sabbatical Year. — The laws re- specting the sabbatical year embrace three main enactments, — rest for the soil, care for the poor and for animals, and remission of debts. The first enactment (which is comprised in Exod. xxiii. 10, 11 ; Lev. xxv. 2-5) enjoins that the soil, the vineyards and the oliveyards, are to have per- fect rest : there is to be no tillage or cultivation of any sort. The second enactment (which is contained in Exod. xxiii. 11 ; Lev. xxv. 5-7) en- joins that the spontaneous growth of the fields or of trees is to be for the free use of the poor, hire- lings, strangers, servants, and cattle. The third enactment (which is contained in Deut. xv. 1-3) enjoins the remission of debts in the sabbatical year. It has been questioned whether the release of the seventh year was final, or merely lasted through the year. The former is in general the Jewish view (cf . Mishna Shebiith, x. 1), and was also Luther's view. Seven such sabbatical years closed with (II.) The Year of Jubilee (Lev. xxv. 8-11), which is to follow immediately upon the sabbatical year. It was to be proclaimed by the blast of a trumpet on the tenth day of the seventh month. Like the sabbatical year, it was to be celebrated by (1) giving rest to the soil (Lev. xxv. 11, 12). While the law enjoins, that, as on the sabbatical year, the land should be fallow, and that there be no tillage nor harvest during the jubilee year, yet the Israelites were permitted to gather the spontaneous produce of the field for their immediate wants, but not to lay it up in their storehouses. Another law connected with this festival was (2) manumission of those Israelites who had become slaves (Lev. xxv. 39-54), and (3) reversion of landed property (Lev. xxv. 13-34, xxvii. 16-24). Houses which were not surrounded by walls were treated like landed property, and were subject to the law of jubilee (Lev. xxv. 31), whilst such as were built in walled cities, in case they had not been redeemed within a year after the sale, became the absolute property of the pur- chaser (Lev. xxv. 29, 30), and the jubilee year had no influence upon it. The houses of the Levites in the forty-eight cities given to them (Num. XXXV. 1-8) were exempt from this general law of SABBATICAL YEAR. 2090 SABELLIUS. house-property. The only exceptions to the gen- eral rule were the houses and the fields consecrated to the Lord. If these were not redeemed before the ensuing jubilee, instead of reverting to their original proprietors, they at the jubilee became forever the property of the priests (Lev. xxvii. 20, 21). As to the design of the sabbatical and jubilee year, we may say that the spirit of this law is the same as that of the weekly sabbath. Both have a beneficent tendency, limiting the rights, and checking the sense of property : the one puts in God's claims on time ; the other, on the land. The land shall " keep a sabbath unto the Lord " (Lev. XXV. 2). This is the main idea. Man, by withdrawing his hand from the cultivation of the soil, and putting it at the disposal of Jehovah's blessing, hereby actually acknowledges the exclu- sively divine right of possession. At the same time, the land pays a debt to Jehovah (cf. Lev. xxvi. 34; 2 Chron. xxxvi. 21), and thus returns, in a certain sense, to that condition which it had before the words of Gen. iii. 17 were pronounced : yea, more, the sabbatical year points typically to that time when the creature itself shall be deliv- ered from the bondage of corruption (Rom. viii. 21). The jubilee year, in which the sabbath cycle completes itself, takes up in itself the idea of the sabbatical year, but has its special signification in the idea of the redeeming restitution, and of bringing back the theocracy to the original divine order, where all are free as servants of God, and where every one enjoys the fruits of his inaliena- ble possession. God, who once redeemed his peo- ple from Egypt's bondage, appears here again as their Redeemer, by giving liberty not only to the slave, but also by providing for the poor a certain portion of the heritage of his people, since there was to be no poor among the covenant people (Deut. XV. 4). To bring about such a year of grace, sins had to be forgiven : therefore the year of jubilee was proclaimed on the day of atons- ment. As the year in which the restitution of all things will take place, the year of jubilee in the prophecy of Isa. Ixi. 1-3 (fulfilled in Christ, Luke iv. 21) is taken as a type for the messianic time of salvation, in which, after all the battles of the kingdom of God have been victoriously fought, the dissonances of the history of mankind will be lost in the harmony of the divine life, and, with the rest that remaineth for the people of God (Heb. iv. 9), the acts of history will' be closed. As to the practicability of the system of these institutions, it was possible, provided the people were willing to sacrifice all selfish interests to the divine will. In how far this order was executed in the post-Mosaic period, we know not ; but that the sabbatical year was not celebrated in the last centuries before the exile, we know from 2 Chron. xxxvi. 21. After the exile, the people took it upon themselves to obsei-ve the sabbatical year (Neh. X. 31) ; and from that time on it seems to have been observed (cf . 1 Mace. vi. 49, 53 ; Joseph., Antt. XIIL 8, 1, XIV. 10, 6, XV. 1, 2 ; War, I. 2, 4). As for the year of jubilee, its laws seem not to have been carried out ; yet there might have existed an era according to jubilee periods. The rabbinic laws concerning the sabbatical year are contained in the Mishna treatise Shebiith ; but these laws had only reference to Palestine itself, because it is said (Lev. xxv. 2), " When ye come into the land." Outside of Palestine there was no sabbatical year. Comp. the arts. " Jubel- jahr " and " Sabbathjahr," in Winer's Realworter- bucJi, where the literature is also given; Hdg: Ueber das mosaiscke Gesetz vom Juheljahr, in Zeil- schrift fur das Erzbisthum Freiburg, i. 1; the essays by Keanold and Wolde : De Anno Hebrceorum Jubilceo, 1837 ; and [arts. " Sabbath- jahr," in Riehm's Handworterbuch, and "Sabbath- und Jobel-jahr," in Hamburger's Seal-Encydo- pcidie]. OEHLEE. (B. PICK). SABBATIER, Pierre, b. at Poitiers, 1683 ; d. at Rheims, March 22, 1742. He entered the Bene- dictine order in 1700, and is famous" for his edition of the Itala version, Bibliorum sacrorum Latince versiones antiquce, seu Veins Italica (Rheims, 1743- 49), which was published under the supervision of Ballard and Vincent de la Rue. > SABBATIUS, a converted Jew, who was or- dained priest by the Novatian bishop of Constan- tinople, Marcian, but afterwards, in the last years of the fourth century, caused a schism in the Novatian sect. By the synod of Paz in Phrygia, it was decreed that Easter should be celebrated at the same time as the Jewish passover ; and this decree was accepted by Sabbatius, who at the same time commenced to aspire to the episcopal dignity, and to form a party in Constantinople. Meanwhile the Novatian bishops of Constantmo- ple, Nice, Nicomedia, etc., convened a synod at Sangarum in Bithynia, by which the difference as to the celebration of Easter was declared an adiaphoron ; but Sabbatius was by oaths com- pelled to renounce his aspirations of episcopal consecration. He, nevertheless, continued his in- trigues, and was actually consecrated by some country bishops, but was then banished to Rhodes, where he died. His bones were afterwards brought to Constantinople ; and by his followers, the iSa6- batians (see Novatians), he was honored as a martyr. SABELLIUS is the most pronounced and most influential representative of the Jewish monothe- ism within the pale of the Christian Church. He knows only one divine substance ; and he also knows only one divine person, or one hyposta- sis. The two ideas of substance and person, or substance and hypostasis, are to him identical ; and he designates them with the same name, — the monad. This monad, he acknowledges, does not remain a mute unity. It develops into a triad; but the triad is not the unity of three persons, such as is the teaching of the orthodox church, but simply three different manners in which the one uniform substance is revealed, three different points of view from which it may be looked upon, three different relations in which God places him- self to the world. As an illustration, Sabellius reminds his pupils of the round globe of the sun (the Father), his power of light (the Son), and his power of heat (the Spirit). The three links of his triads appear in other places to be merely three stages in the divine self-evolution ; and, as soon as the whole course of that self-evolution has been perfected, the triad returns to, and be- comes fully absorbed by, the motionless monad. Of the writings of Sabellius, only a few fragments have come down to us in Hippolytus (Philos., IX., 11), Epiphanius (Hair., 62), and Athaxa- SABIANS. 2091 SACHS. Contra Arian oratio), [collected in Eouth : ice SacrcE^. Of his life also very little is 1. He was a presbyter, and seems to have a Libyan by birth, from the Pentapolis. 3nt some time in Rome in the beginning of ird century. His doctrine found adherents n Rome and in his native country, and in r 261 he was excommunicated by Bishop sins of Alexandria. But his influence, or the influence of the view he represented, iS down to Schleiermacher [and Bushnell. le art. Anti-Trinitarianism, and Schaff : ij of the Chi-istian Church, rev. ed. (1883), . pp. 580 sqq.]. tkechsel. ilANS. The name occurs for the first time : Koran (Sur. 2, 59 ; 5, 73 ; 22, 17). Its in the enumeration — Moslems, Jews, Sa- Christians, Magians, and Polytheists — that it there denotes a monotheistic people : doubt, refers to the Mendaeans ; which arti- I. How it afterwards came to be applied to m people settled in Northern Mesopotamia, especially in HarrSn, has been told us by an 3 writer from the ninth century, — en-Nedim , istian. The caliph el-Mamun (813-833) [ through that region on one of his expedi- igainst the Byzantine emperor, and all the s gathered to salute him. By thek long ad peculiar dress the people of Harr^n at- i his attention ; and he asked them whether vere Jews, or Christians, or Magians. As 3uld give no satisfactory answer, he allowed to consider the matter until his return, they would have to conform to one of iligions recognized by the Koran. They thrown into great consternation by this tion. Some of them adopted Islam, others im, others, again, Christianity ; but most m clung to their old Paganism, concealing ,ct by assuming the name of the Sabians. ialiph, however, never returned, and the an was dropped. But the name was con- se Sabians of HarrSn were Syrians by de- but, since the time of Alexander the Great, ous Greek colonists had lived among them ; irough its close contact with Greek mytholo- 1 philosophy, their Syrian Paganism had illy assumed a Greek coloring. Greek were used in their mythology, not as rep- lug the true Greek gods, but simply as ap- xj similar Syrian deities ; and in the same ir they had also introduced various biblical , no doubt in order to propitiate the Mo- edans. Some of them called Hermes, others la, and others again, Abraham, the founder ir religion. It was essentially a star-wor- To the sun, the moon, and the five planets rs, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, and Saturn — js of angular shape were erected, and suita- irifices (in pre-Mohammedan times also of 1 beings) were offered. To each of these ily bodies a peculiar metal was ascribed, — the sun, silver to the moon, etc., — and lys of the week were called after them. )esides those angular star-temples, round- 1 temples were buUt for the worship of cer- sities representing abstract ideas, — the first necessity, the soul, etc. ; and finally, also, ijid demons were worshipped. See Chwol- SOHN : Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus, St. Peters- burg, 1856, 2 vols. H. PETERMANX. SABINA, one of the most celebrated martyrs and saints of the Roman-Catholic Chui-ch ; lived as a widow of distinguished social position in Rome, or in some city of Umbria, in the middle of the second century, and was instructed in Christianity by Serapia, a young girl from An- tioch, and probably a slave. Both suffered mar- tyrdom, and are commemorated on Aug. 29. In 430 their remains were entombed in the church in Rome erected in honor of them. See Act. Sanct. Aug. 29. SABINIANUS, Pope (Sept. 13, 604-reb. 22, 605) ; succeeded Gregory the Great, as whose apo- crisiaj-ius he had acted in Constantinople, and is said to have introduced the announcement of the canonical hours by beUs. He was succeeded by Boniface HI. SACERDOTALISM. See Priesthood. SACHEVERELL, Henry, b. in Wiltshire, about 1672 ; d. in London, June 5, 1724 ; was graduated at Oxford, 1696, and appointed preach- er at St. Saviour's, Southwark, in 1705. In 1709 he preached two sermons, which, on account of their political bearing, gave the gravest offence to the ministry and the majority of Parliament (Whigs). He was impeached for libel by the House of Commons ; and in 1710 he was con- victed by the peers, and suspended for three years from the ministry. He was ardently sup- ported, however, by the Tories, the clergy, and the country squires ; and the excitement caused by his trial contributed much to the defeat of tlie Whigs in the general election of 1710 and the downfall of Godolphin and his colleagues. In 1713 he was made rector of St. Andrew's, Hol- born, in which position he died. See The Life of Dr. H. Sacheverell, London, 1711. SACHS, Hans, b. in Nuremberg, Nov. 5, 1494; d. there Jan. 20, 1576 ; was the son of a tailor, but frequented, from 1501 to 1509, the Latin school of his native city, in which he learned " Puerilia, Grammatica, und Musica, auch Rhetorica, Arith- metica, Astronomia, Poeterey, und Philosophia." He complains, however, that he soon forgot all that he had learned ; and, in spite of the compre- hensive and varied reading which his writings evince, he calls himself an " unlearned man, who understood neither Greek nor Latin." In 1509 he was apprenticed to a shoemaker, and in 1511 he commenced the professional wanderings which formed an important element of the education of a thorough n)echanic. He visited all the princi- pal cities of Germany, and in the guilds of his trade he studied at the same time the craft of his profession and the art of poetry. The master- singers were mechanics, and eveiy Sunday or holyday they assembled in the afternoon in the church or in the guild-hall. A " singing "-match took place ; and he whose poem won the prize received a wreath of silken flowers, or a woollen string with a silver coin bearing the image of King David. Hans Sachs felt that only among the master-singers he could find what he consid- ered enjoyment and amusement ; and in 1514, in Munich, he appeared for the first time among them as a " singer " with the poem, Gloria Patri Lob und Ehr. In 1516 he returned to Nurem- berg, settled there as a shoemaker, married, and, SACHS. 2092 SACK. while he sustained a numerous family with the proceeds of his professional labor, he developed a literary activity which soon made him the " prince and patriarch of the master-singers." Nurem- berg was at that time a free imperial city, and at the height of its prosperity. Charles V. often vis- ited it ; Luther praised it highly ; among its citi- zens were Albrecht Durer (d. 1528), Peter Vischer (d. 1529), Andreas Ossiander (1522-49), Peter Henlein (d. 1540), Lazarus Spengler (d. 1534), and others. Among these men, — known all over Ger- many, some of them all over the world, — Hans Sachs took rank. He became the representative poet of his age, and by the outspoken tendency of his poetry he occupied a place in the history of the German Reformation. It was the first rule of the Nuremberger master-singers, that nothing should be written against Luther's Bible ; and, when the competing poems were tested, one of the judges had the office of comparing their ideas and their language with that book. Hans Sachs was an exceedingly prolific author, and is in this respect surpass^ only by the Span- ish poet, Lope de Vega. His works consist of thirty-four large volumes in folio, written with his own hand, and containing 6,638 pieces, of which several hundreds are dramas, the rest epics and lyrics. The poetical tone of these pieces is very various, — ^ tragical and comical, humorous and sentimental, sarcastic and enthusiastic; but the .esthetical character is always the same, always .didactic : the ideal contents is some moral propo- sition, and the tendency of this proposition points directly towards the Reformation. Among his poems, which generally were printed on fly-leaves, and in that form scattered throughout all Ger- many, some of the most celebrated are his tran- scriptions of Luther's translation of the Psalms ; Die Wittemhergisch Nachlujall, in seven hundred verses, and giving an explanation of the differ- ence between " divine truth and human lies ; " Eyn wunderliche weijssagung, in thirty strophes, and with a preface by Ossiander, giving thirty pictures of the Pope in glory and in distress. It was for- bidden, and the poet was rebuked by the magis- trates ; but immediately after, appeared Inhalt zweierlei Predigt : Hcec dick Dominus Deus — Sic dicit papa, etc. His dramas comprise tragedies, comedies, farces, fables, and dialogues (Schwanke and Fassnachtsspiele), and were represented by himself and his brother-mechanics in the guild- hall or in private residences on festal occasions. Among his tragedies is one on the expulsion of Adam and Eve from paradise, in three acts and with eleven dramatis personce, 15.53 ; another, on the last judgment, in seven acts and with thirty- four dramatis personce, 1558, etc. Of his comedies, the most celebrated is Die ungleichen Kinder Eve, which he recast three times. The idea he took from Philip Melanchthon : God-Father visits Eve, takes her two sons on his knees, and examines them in Luther's Catechism. Abel answers every question correctly, Cain always goes wrong. (See Corpus Reform., Hi. Qo3 ; andK. Hase: Das geisl- liche Schauspiel, Leipzig, 1858, pp. 217-239.) Also his Hecasius is interesting in various respects. (See K. Goedecke : Every-man, Homulus und Hekas- tus, Ha.nover, 1865.) His dramas are often dia- logues between virtues and vices; and even his SchwSnke and Fassnachtsspiele, — such as The devil marrying an old woman. The pious nobility which alone has the right of robbery, The man who hears his loife confessing, etc., — although they certainly have not only the intention, but also the power of " dispelling melancholy," are, nevertheless, con- structed on a strictly moral plan and for a decid- edly moral purpose. ICing Louis I. of Bavaria put a bust of Sachs in the Rulimeshalle at Munich ; Kaulbach put him in the foreground of his great picture. The Ref- ormation; and in 1874 a bronze statue of the famous shoemaker was erected in the Spitalplatz at Nuremberg. [The earliest collective edition of his works appeared in Augsburg, 1570-79, 5 vols, folio, reprinted at Kempten, 1612-17, 4to; selections from his poems form vols, iv., v., vi., of Goedecke and Tittmann's Deutsche Dichter des 16. Jahrhunderls, Leipzig, 1870-72, 3 vols., new ed., 1874. A new edition of his poems by Adalbert V. Keller is in the Bibliothek des litteraischen Vereins zu Stuttgart, 1870 sq. (13th vol., 1883). His Fassnachtsspiele have been edited by E. Goetzb for the series Neudriicke deutscher Litteraturmerke d. XVI. u. XVn. Jahrh., Halle, Nos. 26, 27 (1880), 31, 32 (1881), 39, 40 (1883), and in the same series, for the first time, Der hurnen Seufried (a tragedy in seven acts). No. 29 (1880). The majority of his works have not yet been printed.] The most com- prehensive biography of Sachs is by Salomon Ranisch, Altenburg, 1765 : there is another by J. L. Hoffmann, Nuremberg, 1847. [See P. ScHULTHEiss r Hans Sachs in seinem Verhdltnisse zu Reformation, Leipzig, 1879, 45 pp.] HOPF. SACK, August Friedrich Wilhelm, b. Feb. 4, 1703, at Harzgerode, in the principality of Anhalt- Bernburg ; and d. in Berlin, April 23, 1786 ; was educated at Bernburg; studied theology at the university of Frankfort-on-the-Oder; visited, as tutor to a young nobleman, the universities of Leyden and Groeningen ; spent three years (1728- 31) at Hbbensleben as tutor to the young prince of Hesse-Homburg ; and was in 1731 called as third preacher to the German-Reformed congre- gation in Magdeburg. In 1740 he was made court-preacher in Berlin ; and in this position he opposed with great energy, but also with perfect tact, the French scepticism and English deism which through many channels found their way to the court of Friedrich II. In 1745 he was chosen a member of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin, and in 1750 he was made a member of the con- sistory. In 1748 he published his chief work, Vertheidigte Glauben der Christen, of which a sec- ond edition appeared in 1773 ; and from 1735 to 1764 he published six volumes of sermons, several of which were translated into Dutch, French, and English. His biography (Berlin, 1789, 2 vols.) was written by his son, Friedrich Samuel Cott" fried Sacl< (b. in Magdeburg, Sept. 4, 1738; d. in Berlin, Oct. 2, 1817), and his successor as court- preacher and in the consistory, with the title of bishop. K. H. SACK. SACK, Karl Heinrich, b. in Berlin, Oct. 17, 1790 ; d. at Poppelsdorf, Oct. 16, 1875. He was docent in the university of Berlin (1817), extraor- dinary professor in Bonn (1818), and ordinary professor (1832). In 1847 he was called to Mag- deburg as Consistorialrath, and later rnade Ober- consistorialrath. He was a representative of the so-called « right " of the Schleiermacher school. SACK. 2093 SACRIFICATI. i writings are umnerous. The chief are Chrisl- \e ApologetUc, Hamburg, 1829, 2d ed., 1841; ristliche Polemik, 1838 ; Die Kirche von Schott- d, Heidelb., 1844-45, 2 pai-ts ; Die evangelische 'che «, d. Union, Bremen, 1861 ; Geschickte d. idigt von Mosheim bis Schleieiinacher, Heidelb., 16, 2d ed., 1875 ; Theologische AufsiUze, Gotha, SACK, Brethren of the (Saccati, Saccitae, or :cophori), often, like the monks of Grammont, I Minims, the Cathari, and Waldenses, styled ij homines, formed an ecclesiastical order some- at similar to that of the Augustines. It was inded in France about 1200, and confirmed by : Pope in 1219. It received its name fi-om the k which its members used as a garment, and ead rapidly, not only in France, but also in gland. In 1275, however, it was dissolved by i Council of Leyden ; and in 1293 the remaining mbers were incoi-porated with other orders. In Enlwurf einer voUstdndigen Historie der Ketzc- in, i. p. 437, AValch places the Brethren of the ;k among the Encratites. They abstained from ;h and wine, held no property, went about bare- ged with wooden sandals on their feet, etc. ; t it was, no doubt, heretical views which caused I early dissolution of the order. Besides these '.tres saccati, there was also an order of sack- iring nuns, founded in 1261 by King Louis IX. France, on the suggestion of his mother, Blanca. ey called themselves " Penitent Daughters of ius," or, with reference to their garment. Sac- ice, and lived in nunneries near St. Andrew's in ris. But also this order was soon abolished, in while its founder was still living; though ire was in London, as late as 1357, a nunnery ose inmates wore sacks of hemp, and walked •efooted. klippel. SACRAMENT (from sacramentum, which in ssical usage means an oath, especially a mili- y oath, and also a gauge in money laid down court by two contending parties) is not, strictly aking, a scriptural term, but occurs repeatedly the Latin Vulgate as a translation of the Greek TTipvov, "mystery" (Eph. i. 9, ui. 3, 9, v. 32; Cim. iii. 16 ; Eev. i. 20). It came into techni-J ecclesiastical use with TertulUan at the close the second century and the beginning of the rd. It was first loosely employed for all sacred itrines and ceremonies, like the Greek iiva-riipiov, I then more particvdarly for baptism and the barist, and a few other solemn rites connected b Christian worship. In the Greek Church y are called " mysteries." St. Augustine de- ;s sacrament in the narrower sense to be the ible sign of an invisible grace (signum visibile licB invisibilis). To this was afterward added Protestants, as a third mark, that it must be tituted not only by the church, but by Christ iself, and enjoined upon his followers in the w Testament. Sacraments are also called as, seals, and means of grace and of public fession. The Reformed churches emphasize sealing character of these ordinances; the nan Church makes them the channels of all ine grace. The number of the sa'craments is by Protes- ts confined to two, viz., baptism and the Lord's >per (corresponding to circumcision and the soyer in the Old Testament); because these alone are instituted by Christ, and commanded to be obsei-ved to the end of time. The Roman Catholic and the Greek churches add to them five others, viz., confirmation, penance, extreme unction, ordination, and matrimony. The num- ber was so fixed by the schoolmen of the middle ages, who defended it by various illustrations taken from the sacredness of seven, — the seven needs of human life, the seven virtues, and seven sins or infirmities, etc. The Coui\cil of Trent anathematizes those who teach that there are more or less than seven sacraments (esse plura vel pauciora quam septem sacramenta'). As to the eificacy of the saci-aments, the con- fessions of the Reformed churches require faith as a subjective condition ; while the Roman-Catholic Church teaches that the sacraments work ex opere operate, i.e., by the inherent power of the institu- tion, or by the performance of the act, independ- ently of the moral character of the priest and the state of the recipient. Two of the sacraments, baptism and ordination, are supposed to confer an indelible character, and cannot be repeated: once baptized, always baptized; once a priest, always a priest. This does not exclude, however, the danger of losing the benefit, and consequent excommunication and deposition. There has been much controversy about the sacraments (especially the Lord's Supper, which is sometimes emphatically called the sacrament) between Protestants and Roman Catholics, and also between Luther, Zwingli, and their followers. Calvin occupied a mediate position between the two on the sacramental question, and his views passed into the Reformed Confessions. The Quakers reject the sacraments as external cere- monies, and hold only to internal baptism or re- generation by the Spirit, and internal communion with Christ. See Steitz, in Herzog xiii. 264r- 299, and arts, on the several sacraments, espe- cially Baptism and Lord's Suppek. Lit. • — Besides the treatment of sacraments in general theological works, see (1) for the Roman- Catholic side, Alex. Aurel. Pelliccia {De christ. eccles. prim., med. et noviss. aet. politia, Naples, 1777-81, 3 vols., new ed., Cologne, 1829, Eng. trans, by C. Bellett, London, 1S83), A. J. Bin- terim (i>je vorziiglichst. Denkwiirdigkeilen d. chrisL kathol. Kirche, Mayence, 1825-33, 7 vols.), J. H. Oswald (Die dogmatische Lehre von den heiligen Sakramenten der katholischen Rirche, Munster, 1855, 3d ed., 1870) ; (2) for the Protestant side, Bixgham (Origenes ecclesiaslicce, or the Antiquities of the Christian Church, London, 1708-22, 10 vols., best ed.. Pitman and R. Bingham, Oxford, 1855, 10 vols.), J. Ch. W. Augusti {Denkwiirdigkeiten aus der christlichen Archdologie, Leipzig, 1817-31, 12 vols.), and the pertinent articles in Smith and Cheetham {Dictionary of Christian Antiquities, London, 1875-80, 2 vols.). PHILIP schait. SACRED HEART, Society of the. See Jesus, Society of the Sacred Heart of. SACRIFICATI, in ecclesiastical antiquities, de- note a subdivision of lapsi; those, namely, who sacrificed to the Pagan gods in order to escape persecution.' In the time of Trajan the mere pro- fession of Christianity was considered a crime against the State ; but those Christians were for- given who declared themselves willing to recant, and offer up incense before the statues of the em- SACRIFICES. 2094 SADDUCBBS. peror and the gods {sacrificati et thurificati). Many Christians who shrank from actually sacrificing escaped, through the avarice of the Roman offi- cials, by buying certificates that they had complied with the law (libellatici). But even this was severe- ly rebuked by the Church; and, at least as long as the persecutions lasted and the Church had to guard against apostasy, rigid measures were en- forced against the sacrijicati. See Lapsi. SACRIFICES. See Offerings. SACRILEGE (sacrilegium) corresponds to blas- phemy, as acts to words, and denotes a crime against God. Canon law, or, more especially, the Koman casuists, distinguish between sacrilegium immedia- ium (a crime committed against that which by it- self is holy, such as unworthy participation in the Lord's Supper, robbery of a monstrance contain- ing the consecrated wafer, etc.), and sacrilegium mediatum (a crime committed against that which is sacred because it is devoted to God, such as church-robbery, molesting or hindering a clergy- man in the performance of his office, etc.). Sa- crilegium mediatum is further subdivided into personale, reale, and locale, but none of these dis- tinctions have any signification in modern legis- lation. Between the Mosaic law and the Koman, there is a striking difference with respect to their con- ceptions of sacrilege. According to the Mosaic law, sacrilege could be committed by a Jew only ; and the punishment which he incurred comprised complete restitution or compensation, a fine of one-fifth of his income, and an expiatory sacrifice (Lev. V. 15, 16, xxii. 14, 18). When the crime was committed by a non-Jew, the Lord himself was expected to avenge the deed (see 1 Sam. v. 6 ; the Philistines having taken the ark of the Lord, and brought it to Aslidod ; Jer. 1. 28, li. 11, and elsewhere). With the Romans the crime of sacri- lege became only so much the more aggravated by having been committed by a foreigner, and death was always the punishment. In the older Roman law sacrilegium comprised not only the appropria- tion of res sacrce to secular uses, but also the ap- propriation of objects not sacra; which had been deposited in the temple, or in other ways placed under the guardianship of the gods. (See Cice- ro : De legibus, i. 16.) Afterwards, by decrees of Severus and Antoninus, a distinction was made between the stealing of res sacrce in a sacred place and the stealing either of res sacrce in a profane place or of objects not sacred in a sacred place : only the first case was defined as sacrilegium ; the two last, as simple theft (furluni). In the Chris- tian Church the crime appeared very early ; and complaints occur that clergy and laymen took away from the churches wax, oil, etc. The decrees of the Mosaic law were applied, and excommuni- cation was added (Can. Apost., c. 72, comp. c. 73). But the crime spread, and is more and more fre- quently mentioned in the decrees of the synods, the writings of the Fathers, the penitentials, etc., though at the same time the penalties became heavier and heavier (Regino : De synodalihus causis, lib. ii. c. 276 sq.). By degrees, as the Germanic element became prominent in the legis- lation of the nations of Central and Western Europe, the Germanic conception of sacrilege as violation of the sacredness of the church pre- vailed, and the Roman distinction between res sacrce and non sacrce was abolished (Lex Ribuaria tit. Ix. cap. 8 ; Lex Alamannorum, tit. v., vii. ; Lex Bajuvariorum, tit. i. cap. 3, 6 ; Capitulare Pader- brunnense, a. 785, c. 3, in Pertz : Monum. Germa- nice, t. iii. fol. 48). In Lex Frisionum we even find an old law concerning the sacredness of the Pagan temples applied directly to the Christian churches. Of great interest is the legislation of Charles V. on this point (1532). Here is a return to the distinctions of the Roman law, though in such a way that the appropriation of res sacrce or of res non-sacrce, deposited in a sacred place, never becomes a simple theft ; and this aggrava- tion of the crime, when it becomes sacrilegious, is adopted by all modern legislations. SACRISTY and SACRISTAN. The sacristy is sometimes a separate building belonging to a church or convent, sometimes only an apartment in the main structure, in which the sacred vessels are kept, and in which the ecclesiastics who are to take part in the service assemble. The person who has charge of that room or building is the sacristan. SACY, Louis Isaac Le Klaistre de, b. in Paris, March 29, 1613 ; d. Jan. 4, 1684; studied at Beau- vais together with Antoine Arnauld ; was ordained priest in 1648, and became in 1650 confessor and spiritual director of the recluses of Port-Royal. During the persecution of the Jansenists he lived concealed in the suburb of St. Antoine ; but, as he continued to correspond with the nuns, his residence was discovered, and May 13, 16G6, he was imprisoned in the' Bastille. Oct. 31, 1669, he was released, and returned to Port-Royal : but in 1679 he was once more compelled to leave the monastery ; and the last days of his life he spent in the house of his cousin, the Marquis of Pom- ponne. He is principally known by his trans- lations of the Bible. In 1667 appeared his Le Nouveau Testament, traduil en Franfciis, generally called Nouveau Testament de Mons, though it was printed in Amsterdam by the Elzevirs. It was ve- hemently attacked by several bishops, condemned by Pope Clement IX. (April 20, 1668), defended by Arnauld and Nicole, and caused a controversy which lasted twenty years. La Sainte Bible, con- taining the Vulgata, a translation into French, and notes (Paris, 1672, 32 vols.), was often repub- lished, rnd is still widely used in France. Les Psaumes de David, also with notes, appeared in 1679. See Sainte-Beuve : Port-Royal, vol. ii. SADDUCEES. All sources agree in putting Sadduceeism in opposition to Pharisaism. It is not the name of a sect, but of a party which refused to adopt the exaggerations of ritualistic' and ascetic formalism of Pharisaism. In a certain sense the Pharisees were the innovators. Their peculiar teachings were additions to the law, which the Sadducees regarded as sole authority ; and thus only can we understand the reluctance of the latter against the traditional system, and its religious and ascetical requirements, as well as the rejection of the doctrine of the resurrec- tion. Being forced by the natural course of things to make an opposition in the field of public and social life, the Sadducees were finally entangled in political difficulties, till they thus became the opponents of the Pharisees in matters of which they had not thought at the beginning. Less favored by the people, they easily accommodated SADDUCEES. 2095 SADDUCEES. slves to make political connections with ners, as the misfortunes of the nation re- it, and to live in peace \\ith a world which ould neither conquer nor with which they assimilate themselves. They took things as 'ere ; they went their own way, and had no ,thy with the people, which from the very ras pharisaically inclined, because the Phari- ad the appearance of greater piety, and be- they hated every thing foreign. Thus the icees became at last only a political coterie, ith the destruction of Jerusalem they dis- r from history. From a political point of it must be said that they were wiser and far-seeing than the Pharisees, and that they t be blamed for the final catastrophe. It be said of them that they refused to gain luence by hypocritical demagogy which they not gain by straight measures : still, this lUst be said, that most of them, by befriend- lemselves with Greeks and Romans, and g a foreign policy, had their personal inter- view, and cared just as little for the reli- interests of the nation as for the civil, s brings us back to our assertion that the icees, still less the Pharisees, formed a sect, rds the Pharisaic Judaism they observed a eutrality ; and it is sufficient to say that the lasis of Judaism, the idea of the theocracy, olently shaken. The weakening of the theo- principle naturally led to giving up other connected with it : hence the messianic ind teachings, including the dogma of resur- 3, appeared to them as chimerical, he New Testament the Sadducees are men- . in Matt. iii. 7, xvi. 1, 6, xxii. 23, 34; xii. 18; Luke xx. 27; Acts iv. 1, v. 17, 6-8. From the Gospel narrative it seems evident that at that time these parties ;d' each other more on political grounds ; lis seems to be clear from the narrative in cts of the Apostles, where the Sadducees 3 opposed the Christians, while the Pharisees d them in many respects (Acts v. 17, 34). ire we to explain this phenomenon ? or are believe that Christianity, after the death of had degenerated into sheer Pharisaism ? let, however, seems to be this : the preach- f Jesus which concerned the inner life illy brought it into conflict with the Phari- But the moving power and vitality of the Ihristian Church was the messianic hope : is it ehared with the Pharisees, who beheld omething which they could utilize for their I purposes; whereas the Sadducees regarded something dangerous, because exaggerated, demagogical. isionally we also hear (Acts xxiii. 8) that adducees believed neither in angels nor , whereas the Pharisees believed in both ; is we explain best by bearing in mind, that, itical parties, one afiirmed what the other :. Passing over from the New Testament ephus, who has always been regarded as lin authority in this respect, we are led to pposition that the Sadducees were a school ilosophers; and for Greek readers every bhat concerned the future life belonged to here of speculation. But the Jewish his- studiously avoided giving his readers an 26 — III i inside view of the political pai-ty-machinery ; aud j that the Sadducees were philosophers was the ! more believed, since Josephus asserted that they denied the doctrine of fatalism, but contended for the freedom of the will. xVud whereas we will not deny that there were some speculating s]>irits among the .Sadducees, yet we nmst bear this in mind, that Josephus only mentions what serves his purposes, thus deceiving the inexperienced and inconsiderate readei'. And the scanty notices which wii find in the Talmud also lead us to the supposition that both Pharisees and Sadducees were nothing but parties ; that in the main they both stood on the gi-ound of the same Judaism as far as the inner relations were concerned, and that in this sphei'e there were no oppositions which had to lead to a rupture ; for evidently both parties were represented in the Sanhedrin, where they could defend their different ideas, but always with a view of gaining a victory which would need endanger the State. More confused are the notices which we find in the writings of the church Fathers, and especially in those of mediaeval Judaism. The Sadducees, as we have seen, were friends of the foreigners; and, as they mostly belonged to the aristocracy, it cannot be remarkable, that, by their aversion to asceticism, they gave offence by their luxury and immorality. But this did not necessarily belong to the party, and was also not the cause why later Jews called them Epicureans : for the latter name in rabbinic writings denotes all kinds of heresy; and we can easily perceive, how, with the increasing narrowness of the ecclesiastical hori- zon, such imputations could be made, and it is also very characteristical that Christian writers should have taken this up, and made the rab- binitic-Pharisaic mode of intuition their own. To this source belongs the myth concerning the origin of the Sadducees. Of a renowned teacher of the third century before Christ, Antigonus of Socho, we are told in the IMishna (Pirke Aboth, 1, 3), that he recommended to his disciples the exercise of virtue without any view of re\^ard. In the Gemara, and later by other authorities, we are told Antigonus had two disciples, Zadok and Baithos, who, he it advertently or inadvertently, drew the inference from their teacher's maxim that there is no reward and no future life. This is the origin of Sadduceeism. Whether and how the Sadducees and Baithoseans were the same or not, no one could rightly understand any more. Yet there are still some scholars who believe in the existence of Zadok and Baithos ; whereas the highest antiquity is silent concerning them, and prefers the etymological explanation of the name " Sadducees " [i.e., from Heb. for "just "]. Often the Sadducees have been identified with the Ka- raites, but the only relation between the two con- sists in the rejection of the Pharisaic-rabbinitic system of tradition. Lit. — Jo. Reiske : De Sadducceis, Jena, 1666; J. H. Willemer: De Sadducceis, Wittenb., 1680; CoNR. Ik EN : De Sadducceorvm in Judaica genie auc- toritate in Symhl. lit. brem., i. 299 sq. [B. W. D. Schulze] : Conjectiirce hist, crilicce Sadducceomon Sectce novarn lucem accendentes, Hal., 1779 ; Chr. Glob. Lebr. Grossmaxn : De philosopliia Sad- ducceorum, Lips., 1836 sq. pp. i.-iv. ; [MUller: Pliarisaer und Sadducaer, odcr .Tudnismiis iind Mosn- SADOLETO. 2096 SAINT-MARTIN. ismus, Wien, 1860; Geiger: Urschrift u. Ueber- setzungen der Bibel, pp. 101-158 ; the same, in Sadducaer und Phariscier (in JiXd. Zekachrifl, vol. ii., 1863, pp. 11-54); the same: Das Jadenihum und seine Geschichte, i. (2(1 ed., 1865), pp. 86 sq. ; Gkaetz : Geschichte der Juden, iii. 71 sq., 455-463 ; Derenboueg: Histoire de la Paleslixie, pp. 75-78, 119-144, 452-456 ; Hanne : Die Pharisder und Sadducaer als politische Parleien (Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftl. Theologie, 1867, pp. 131-179, 239- 262); Keim: Geschichte Jesu, i. 230-282 (Eng. trans., pp. 321 sq., London, 1873) ; Holtzmann, in Weber und Holtzmann, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, ii. 124-135; Hausrath: Zeitgeschichte, i. 117-133 ; the same, in Schenkel's Bibellexikon, iv. 518-529 ; SchUrer : Lehrbuch der Neutesia- mentlichen Zeitgeschichte, Leipzig, 1873, pp. 423 sq. ; the same, in Riehm's Handiobrterbuch des Bibl. Alterthums, pp. 1321 sq. ; Wellhausen : Die Pharisder und die Sadducaer, Greifswald, 1874; Baneth : Ueber den Ursprung der Sadokder und BoHthosaer (in Magazin fiir die Wissenschaft des Judenthums, 1882, 1-37, 61-95 ; Ed. Montet : Essai sur les origines des partis saduceen el pharisien et leur histoire jusqu'a la naissance de Jesus Christ, Paris, 1883, reviewed by SchUrer, in Theolog. Literaturzeit., 1883, col. 169 sq.] ED. EBUSS. SADOLETO, Jacopo, b. at Modena in 1477 ; d. in Rome, Oct. 18, 1547; studied philosophy and rhetoric at Pisa, Ferrara, and Rome, and became secretary to Leo X. in 1514, and bishop of Car- pentras in 1517. During the reign of Adrian VI., who had no taste for literature, Sadoleto, who was best known for the elegance of his style, and as author of some poems, lived at Carpentras ; and, although Clement VII. called him to Rome as his secretary, he soon again returned to his epis- copal see. During the next ten years he wrote ■ — besides De liberis rede insliluendis liber, Inlerpreta- tio in Psalmum, Miserere mei Deus, etc. — his chief work. In Pauli epistolam ad liomanos Commentario- rum libri tres. It gave offence in Rome on account of its Semi-Pelagian views, and Sadoleto under- took to alter it. In 1536 Paul III. again called him to Rome, made him a cardinal, and employed him frequently in diplomatical negotiations with Francis I. and Charles V. He was very active, and very successful as an administrator and diplo- matist, but continued to cultivate his literary and philosophical tastes. His Phcedrus sive de Philoso- phia appeared in 1539. The best collection of his works, including his letters and his biography by Fiordibello, was published in Verona, 1737-3», 4 vols. fol. See Pericaud : Fragments biogra- phiques sur Jacob Sadolet, Lyons, 1849 ; Joty : J^tude sur Sadolet, Caen, 1857. Ronchini edited a supplement to the existing collections of Sado- leto'S letters, Modena, 1872. SAGITTARIUS, Kaspar, b. at Luneburg, Sept. 23, 1643 ; d. at Jena, March 9, 1694 ; was educated in the gymnasium of Lubeck ; studied theology and philology in the university of Helmstadt ; was appointed rector of the school of Saalfeld in 1668, and professor of history in the university of Jena in 1671. He was possessed of an almost encyclo- pedic knowledge, travelled much in Germany and Denmark, examining the archives and libraries, and published a number of valuable works relat- ing to the history of Thuringia and Saxony. In 1691 he published at Jena his Theologische LeTir- sdtze von dem rechlmdssigem Pietismo, in which he protested against the use of the term " pietism " as a nickname, as the religious stand-point there- by denoted was indeed the true representative of Christianity. The book was hotly attacked, es- pecially by superintendent Johann Schwartz of Querf urt ; but Sagittarius left none of his adver- saries without an answer: Theses apologeticm theo- logicce (1692), ChristUcher NeurJahrs-'Wunsch an alle evangelische Theologos (1692). He also wrote Historia vitce Georgii Spalalini (1698), and Introduc- tio in Mstoriam ecclesiasticam. See J. A. Schmid: Commentarius de vita et scriptis Caspari Sagillarii, Jena, 1713. neudecker. SAHAK. See Armenia (Literature, p. 142). SAILER, Johann Michael, b. in the village of Aresing, near Schrobenhausen, Bavaria, Nov. 17, 1751 ; d. at Regensburg, May 20, 1832. In 1770 he entered the Jesuit college at Landsberg, and after the dissolution of the order, in 1773, he studied theology and philosophy at the university of Ingolstadt. In 1777 he was ordained priest, and appointed repetitor jmblicus in theology and philosophy. In 1780 he was made professor of dogmatics, and in 1784 he moved to Dillingen as professor of pastoral theology. But on Nov. 4, 1794, he was suddenly dismissed, accused of par- ticipation in secret political intrigues, and of connection with the Illuminati; and for many years he lived in retirement in Munich or at Ebersberg, developing, however, a great literary activity. His orthodoxy had long been suspected by the Ultramontanists, but the suspicion was entirely without ground. However much he at times was harassed by doubts (see his book, Der Friede, 1821), he never swerved from that which forms the essential and vital points of the Roman- Catholic faith ; and his opposition to the ration- alism and indifference of the age was energetic and successful. Meanwhile his works — Briefe aus alien Jahrhunderten, Grundlehren der Religion, Gluckseligkeitslehre (afterward entitled Moralphi- losophie), Ueber Erziehung fiir Erzieher, Die Weis- heit auf der Gasse, etc., — gathered a considerable number of disciples around him. Without form- ing a theological school, he wielded a great reli- gious influence, and he received tempting ofEers from abroad. In 1818 the king of Prussia offered him the archiepiscopal see of Cologne. But he declined : he would not leave Bavaria. In 1821 he was made capitular at Regensburg ; in 1822, coadjutor to the bishop ; in 1829, bishop. A col- lected edition of his works, consisting of forty vol- umes, was commenced in 1820, but not completed until after his death. The most prominent among his disciples was Melchior Diepenbrock (q. v.). See lives of Sailer by Bodeman (Gotha, 1856), and Aichinger (Freiburg-i.-Br., 1865.) HEEZOG. SAINT ALBANS, the seat of an English bishop- ric, a town of Hertfordshire, twenty miles north- west of London. Population in 1871, 8,803. The cathedral-like abbey-church was part of a Bene- dictine monastery, founded in 795. S A I N T J O H N , K n ights of . See Military Reli- gious Orders. SAINT-MARTIN, Louis Claude de, lepMlosophe inconnu, b. at Amboise, Jan. 18, 1743 ; d. in Paris, Oct. 13, 1803 ; the only noticeable theosophist the French tongue has produced. He grew up iji ^ devout home, was educated in an ecclesiastical LINT-SIMON DE ROUVROY. 2097 SAINTS. ition, studied law, entered afterwards the and became, while a young oflBcer in the on of Bordeaux, an enthusiastic adherent of Martinez de Pasqualis. The pupil, how- loon separated from the master, entered into ction with Cagliostro, studied Swedenborg, ed his position in the army, wrote books attracted much attention" — Des erreurs la verite (1775), and Tableau naturel des Hs entre Dieu, I'homme, et I'univers (1782), — ravelled extensively in England, Italy, and any, making everywhere intimate acquaint- with the mystical spirits of the age, Wil- Law, Best, the Galatzin family, and others. 1788 to 1791 he lived in Strassburg, his .dise ; " and while there he studied Jacob ne, and wrote L'/wmme de de'sir (1790), Ecce (1792), and Le nouvel homme (1792). The h Revolution he hailed with great enthusi- but he soon discovered the utter lack )ral responsibility which characterized its nents, and he sent out a word of warning, a un ami (1796), Eclair sur I'association ne (1797), Esprit des chases (1800) ; but his were not read, and his last independent Minisiere de I'homme Esprit (1802), was etely thrown into the shade by Chateau- i's Genie du Christianisme. In the last of his life he was much occupied with a h translation of Jacob Boehme, which, lering the enormous difficulties, is remark- well done. Most of his own works were ated into German and commented upon by z von Baader. His life has been written 5NCE (1824), L. MOREAU (1850), Saixte- E, in Causeries du Lundi, vol. x.. Card ), ScHAUER (who published his correspond- 1862), and Matter (1862). A consistent iphical system he did not give; but deep ses of Christian tnith sparkle everywhere ; books-in close proximity to singular ex- ons of the prejudices and the fanaticism of ne. G. BiJCHSE2SrSCHiiTZ. NT-SIMON DE ROUVROY, Count Claude , b. in Paris, Oct. 17, 1760; d. there May 125. He was educated for the army, and t with bravery in the American War of In- deuce. But from early youth his brain was (vith great social schemes. In Mexico he sed to cut a canal through the isthmus ; in he proposed to connect Madrid with the During the Revolution he speculated in :ated estates, made a fortune, kept a mag- it establishment in Paris, squandered all hes, and found himself penniless just as he lished his gTeat plan of a complete social re- zation, — the consummation of the Re vol u- He proposed to Madame de Stael-Holstein, ler to have her' as a partner in his gp-eat 3 of revolutionizing society ; but she declined ef. And from that moment till his death en had to fight against actual starvation. Doks attracted no attention, — Lettres d'un It de Geneve, 1802 ; Introduction aux travaux res du 19 Steele, 1808, 2 vols. ; De la re- lation de la socie'te europe'enne, 1814; L'in- , 1817, etc., — though he found enthusiastic among men like Augustin Thierry and Aug. . In despair, he attempted to commit sui- ut was fortunately prevented. On his bed of suffering he wrote his two best books : Cate- chisme politique, 1523-24 ; and Nouveau Christia- nisme, 1825. In many respects he was far in advance of his time. He had not the prejudices of many of his contemporaries. He was aware of the part Christianity has played in the history of civilization, and he spoke with respect of the labor of the lower clergy. But his knowledge was utterly incomplete, and led him to extremely wrong views. He considered the Reforniatiou a retro- gTade movement. Most influence he has exercised through his disciples, Olinde Eodrigues, Bazard, Enfantin, and others. His life was written by G. Hubbard, Paris, 1857. g. buchsenschutz. SAINTS', Day of All. See All-Saints'-Day. SAINTS, Worship of the. The apostolic desig- nation of ChristiaTJS as "saints" (Rom. i. 7 ; 1 Cor. i. 2) was used down to the days of Irenseus and Tertullian. The inclination early developed it- self to apply the term in a peculiar sense to such Christians as had lived exemplary lives, and had witnessed a steadfast confession in life and death, often a martyi-'s death. As early as the second part of the second centurj-, congTegations were celebrating the memory of martyrs. The day of their martyrdom was called the day of their birth (yevMia tuv /tapTvpuv), and set apart for special ser- vices ; and the place where the remains of a martyr were interred was regarded as consecrated. There the story of his sufferings and death was related once a year, and the Lord's Supper celebrated in token of the communion of saints. Eusebius (IV. 15) states that the Church of Smyi-na hon- ored the hones of Polycarp above silver and gold. In the fourth century a yearly festival of all saints and martyrs was appointed by the Eastern Church. One of Chrysostom's homilies (De martyrihus totius orbis) was delivered on this festival. The "Western Church did not appoint an all saints' day till the seventh century. The respect for the memory of the saints grad- ually degenerated into a worship of saints and their relics. The monkish system, which began in the third century, was the occasion of exagger- ated accounts of the piety and power of men who spent their lives in caves, devoting themselves to the most severe ascetic practices. IMiracles were associated with their names. Cj'prian, Gregory of Nyssa, Gregory Nazianzen, Ambrose, Augus- tine, and others exalted their memories [in trea- tises and sermons on the saints called Panegyrics'], and attributed to them a part in the judgment and power, by their intercessions, to become pro- tectors of men on earth. It was taught that they not only interceded for the pardon of sins, but for the relief of physical infirmities (Ambrose : De Viduis 9). Chapels and churches were erected over their bones, and relics were carried as amu- lets. Their aid was sought at the inception of journeys, for ships at sea, etc. Special saints were associated with different cities, lands, and occupations. Peter and Paul are the patrons of Rome ; James, of Spain ; Andrew, of Greece ; Gregory of Tours, of France ; Luke, of painters ; John and Augustine, of theologians ; Ivo, of j urists ; Crispin, of shoemakers, etc. Vigilantius of Bar- celona protested vigorously in the fifth centuiy against such worship as idolatry, but Jerome de- fended the practice with vigor. The worship of saints was fixed in the Oriental SAKYA MUNI. 2098 SALT. Church by the Second Nicene Council (787), John of Damascus having before argued for the practice. The theologians of the West took up the subject, and advanced arguments in favor of the custom. Peter Lombard, Alexander of Hales, and Thomas Aquinas display much skill in this direction, but distinguished between the worship {\aTpua, adora- tio) due to God, and the worship {6ovMa, invocado) due to saints. Thomas demanded for Mary an honor lower than that due God, and yet higher than that due the saints Qiuperdulia). The in- creasing host of the saints was divided into six classes ; and the Roman Breviary ordains that they shall be addressed (" Apostles, martyrs, etc , pray for us ") at all other times than the high festivals. The art of the middle ages was likewise devoted to bring out the emblems and peculiarities of the saints. Peter was pictured with the keys, John with a lamb upon his arm, Paul with a sword, Bartholomew with a knife, etc. On account of the smuggling-in of martyrs, the Pope was called upon to declare who were saints ; and in 973 John XV. canonized the first saint in the person of Bishop Ulrich of Augsburg. In the eleventh century Guibert, abbot of No- gent raised his voice against the abuses of saint- worship in his work, De pignoribus Sanctorum. Wiclif ridiculed those who sought the interces- sion of any other than Jesus Christ. Nicolaus of Clemanges, in his De novin celebritatihus non in- siiluendis, advocated a return to the practice of the early ages, when the worship of the saints did not prevail to the exclusion of the worship of God. The Reformers lifted up their voices in sternest protest against the practice of the church, and the confessions deny all scriptural warrant for it. The Council of Trent (XXV.) established it, condemning all who denied the efficacy of the in- tercession of the saints. Modern Roman-Catholic divines endeavor in vain to find a scriptural war- rant for it in Rev. v. 8, viii. 3, xx. 4 ; and, if they appeal to the Disciplina Arcana of the first cen- turies, Protestants reply by giving a different explanation of that secret discipline. The legends of the saints form a large litera- ture, which is full of fancies and falsehoods. Calendars and Martyrologies dating back to the eighth century are in existence. The collection most highly prized in the East is that of Simeon Metapiirastes of the twelfth century. The Legenda Aurea of Jacob de Voragine is highly prized in the West. The most important of the later works is the Acta Sanctorum, edited by the BOLLANDISTS, [Antwerp, 1643 sqq., Paris, 1875; Mrs. Jamieson : Sacred and Legendary Art, Lon- don, 1848, 2 vols. ; Legends of the Monastic Orders, 1850; Baring-Gould: Lives of the Saints, Lon- don, 1873-77, 15 vols.]. See arts. Acta Mae- TYRUM, Canonization. GELTSTEISEN. SAKYA MUNI. See Buddhism. SAL'AMIS, the largest and most important city of the Island of Cyprus ; situated on the eastern shore, with an excellent harbor ; was the first place in the island visited by Paul and Barnabas, who preached the gospel in the synagogue (Acts xiii. 5). SALEM WITCHCRAFT. See Witchcraft. SALES, Francis de. See Francis of Sales. SALIC, Christian August, b. at Domersleben, near Magdeburg, April 6, 1692 ; d. at '\^^olfen- buttel, Oct. 3, 1738. He studied at Halle and Jena, and published, besides other works, a Voll- standige Historic der Augsburgischen Koiifession (Halle, 1730-35, 3 vols.), and a VollstiindUje Gc- schichte des Tridentinischen Conciliums, which, how- ever, did not appear until after his death (17-11-45 3 vols.). His biography was written in Latin by Ballenstedt, Helmstadt, 1738. SALISBURY, or NEW SARUM, capital of Wilt- shire, Eng., seventy-eight miles west-south-west from London ; population in 1871, 12,903. It is the seat of a bishopric, transferred from Old Sarum in 1217, where it had been established prior to 1078. Its cathedral was commenced in 1220, and finished in 1258 : it has been since 1868 completely restored. See W. II. Jones : Salisbury, London, 1880. SALISBURY, John of. See John of Salis- bury. SALMANTICENSES. Towards the close of the sixteenth and in the beginning of the seventeenth century the hostility between the Dominicans and the Jesuits became very intense in Spain. Pope Paul V. commanded the contending .parties to keep silence : but the controversy continued ; and at Salamanca, the headquarters of the Dominican camp, the professors took an oath to give a pure representation of the views of Augustine and Thomas Aquinas, without any Semi-Pelagian col- oring. For this purpose the celebrated Collegii Salmanlicensis cursus theologicus was published, Salamanca, 1631 sqq., 9 vols. ; Lyons, 1679, 12 vols. ; new ed., Paris, 1871 sqq , 20 vols. It was directed against Molinos. The principal authors were Antonius de Olivero, Dominicus a S. Theresia, and Johannes ab Annuncia- tione. zocklee. SALMASIUS, Claudius, b. at Semurin Burgun- dy, April 15, 1588 ; d. at the baths of Spaa, Sept. 3, 1653; one of the greatest scholars of his age, and famous for his Defensio regia pro Carolo /. (1649), which called forth the sharp answer of Milton. He studied at Paris and Heidelberg; wasin 1632 appointed professor of classical literature and lan- guage at Leyden ; and went in 1650 to Swedpn, on the invitation of Queen Christine. Among his works several — De primatu papce, De episcopis et presbyteris, De transsubstantiatione, Super Heroile infanticida, etc. — have theological interest. SALMERON, Alphonso, b. at Toledo in Octo- ber, 1515 ; d. at Naples, Feb. 13, 1585. He studied at Alcala and Paris; joined Ignatius Loyola, and became one of the founders and most active mem- bers of the Society of Jesu. Fanatical in his resistance to tlie Reformation, he visited almost every country in Europe, was present at the Coun- cil of Trent as papal theologian, and wrote com- mentaries on most of the books of the New Testament. SALT (nSn, uAof) plays in the Bible an impor- tant part: in the Old Testament through its use in all sacrifices (Lev. ii. 13; Mark ix. 49), and in the New Testament through its symbohcal application to the position of Christians in the world (Matt. v. 13). The ]\Iosaic injunction rests upon the Oriental custom of eating salt, on the ratification of a covenant, as the pledge of perpetual and mutual friendship between the con- tracting parties, because of its property of preser- vation : hence a lasting covenant was called "a covenant of salt" (Num. xviii. 19; 2 Chron- SALT SEA. 2099 SALVATION ARMY. ). The salt of the sacrifice symbolized uiness of the boud between Jeliovah and But salt was also strewn over a cursed ;o indicate that nothing could anv lono-er )wed to grow there, because there" can^be etation \yhere the ground is saturated with )eut. xxix. 23 ; Judg. ix. 45 ; Zeph. ii. 9) : "a salt land" was a barren land (Job 6; Jer. xvii. 6). The necessity of em- y salt in cooking is expressed in Job vi. 6. lus {Anliq. XII. 3, 3) states, what of course be understood, that in the temple there ways a great quantity of salt. It was also e in tlie temple-marts (Mai: Diss, de unt tiessen, 1692). salt thus used was obtained principally ,he valley of sajt (2 Sam. viii. 13), south Dead Sea, where the soil is entirely cov- ith salt, left there every year on the reces- f the waters ; from Jebel Usdum, two or miles south of the Dead Sea, substantially ntain of rock-salt, about seven miles long, b mile and a half to three miles wide, and I hundred feet high, and by evaporating Sea water. According to Josephus, only mitish " salt could be used in the temple ^RPZOV: Appar., p. 718]. The reasons of gulation were, (1) that this salt was a wit- I the terrible consequences of God's wrath, constant exhortation to repentance, and was a product of the Holy Land itself, nee Oriental salt contains many mineral ties, by exposure to rain or dampness it se its savor : hence our Lord's expression V. 13; Mark ix. 50; Luke xiv. 3i). Chris- ose their savor by undue exposure to the world. [By " salt-pits " (Zeph ii. 9) are such pits as the Arabs still dig on the shore Dead Sea in order that they may be filled he spring freshets cause the sea to overflow, when the water has evaporated, the sides pits are found to be incrusted with salt 1 thick.] MILHELM PRESSEL. T SEA (Deut. iii. 17; Josh. iii. 16, xii. 3), )nly, although never in the Bible, called the )ea. The Bible writers also call it the "sea plain " (Deut. iv. 49), the "east sea" (Joel Ezek. xlvii. 18; Zech. xiv. 8), and "vale lim " (Gen. xiv. 3). The designation " Dead ^as given by early Greek writers : so the call it, more commonly, howevei', Bahr Lut e of Lot"). It is sixteen miles east from lem, is forty-six miles long, and ten and a ?ide at the widest part, and covers nearly lundred square miles. In shape it is ob- on each side are mountains. The Jordan s into it, as do also several minor streams ; e lake has no outlet: hence the water is :nated with mineral substances, containing, iverage, twenty-five per cent of solid sub- ;, half of which is common salt, and has •dinary buoying qualities, and a specific ■ of from 1.021 to 1.256. From the pres- " chloride of magnesium the water gets- its aste ; from chloride of calcium, its smooth y touch. The lake is surrounded by " un- desolation." But it is not true that birds Dver it drop dead, for there are numerous !s of birds on its shores ; but no fish can it. The bottom of the lake is gradually sinking. See Lieut. "\V. F. Lynch : Narrative of the United States Expedition to the Ricer Jordan and the Dead Sea, Phila., 1849, 9th ed., 1853; F. de S.^VLCY ; Xurratire of a Journey round the Dead Sea in 1850 and 1851, London, 1853, 2 vols. ; E. H. Paljier : The Desert of the Exodus, 1871, 2 vols. ; Canon Tristram : The I^and of JMoah, London and New York, 1873; Romxsox : Researches, ScHAFF : Bible Lands, pp. 283-295. SALTZMANN, Friedrich Rudolph, b. at, Strass- burg, March 9, 1749 ; studied jurisprudence and history ; travelled as tutor to Baron von Stein, afterwards Prussian minister of state ; settled in 1776 in his native city, and began publishing a political paper, but was suspected of aristocratic tendency, and compelled to flee in 1793. After the fall of Robespierre he returned, and resumed his activity as an editor. But in the mean time a gi'eat change had taken place in his inner reli- gious life. He had become acquainted with the French and German mystics ; and though he kept aloof from the so-called spiritists, Mesnier, Cag- liostro, etc., he became himself a pronounced mystic. Of his religious writings, Es icird alles neu icerden (1802-10), Das christl. Erlauungshlatt (appearing from 1805 for several year.';), Blicke in das Geheimniss des Rnthschlusses Goltes (1810), Relirjion der Bihel (1811), found many readers on both sides of the Rhine, and even in Northern Germany. He died after 1820. MATTER. SALVATION. See Redemption. SALVATION ARMY, The, is a body of men and women, joined together after the fashion of an army, with a general, colonels, nuijors, cap- tains, and lower officers, under whom are the privates, bent, as they claim, upon presenting the gospel in a manner to attract the attention of the lowest classes. Its organizer and leader is M'illiam Booth, by baptism a member of the Church of England, but.bj' conversion a "Wes- leyan, and afterwards a minister of the IMethodist New Connection. In this latter capacity he had gTeat success ; but in 1861 he withdrew from the regular ministry, and devoted himself to inde- pendent evangelistic work. In 1865 he came to the east of London, and there began the move- ment which resulted in the organization of the " Salvation Army " in 1876. The name comes from the methods adopted and the object aimed at. The army studiously avoids, as far as may be, religious phraseology, calling its places of meeting " Salvation AVarehouses " and " Salvation Stores," puts its notices in military or startling terms, and deliberately adopts peculiar posters and window placards to announce its presence and work. Its object is everywhere to make a sensation. The expenses of the army are borne by collections. Cai'e is taken to have its pecuniary affairs as public as possible, and its expenses low. In doc- trine it is broadly evangelical. It does not teach sinless perfection, but the possibility of " a heart from which the blood of Christ has cleansed away all unrighteousness." It does not seek to draw persons from existing churches ; but it desires to make converts among the most abandoned classes, who lie outside of religious influences. Much noise and confusion attend its operations, but these it considers necessary accompaniments. The memheis of the army wear a peculiar though plain unirorra, parade the streets with martial SALVE. 2100 SALZBURG. drumming, banners, and singing, are obligated to go anywhere they may be sent, and exhibit courage bordering upon recklessness. In Novem- ber, 1883, according to report of the army's " com- missioner for the United States of America," the army had 500 stations, l',400 officers wholly paid by the work in England. It had spread all over Great Britain, the North of Ireland, the United States of America, and had entered Sweden, France, India, Africa, and New Zealand. In the United States it had 50 stations, including 3 in California, 99 permanently engaged officers, and during 1882 and 1883 had purchased, by con- tributions of " those blessed through the work of the army," nine properties valued at $38,000. Tke War Cry, the army's organ, had a circulation of twenty thousand weekly. See All about the. Salcation Army, London, 1883, 28 pp. In 1883 the army was expelled from several cantons of Switzerland (Geneva, Bern, and Neu- chatel) as disturbers of the peace. SALVE, a salutatory formula of great solem- nity, is used as the opening word in many cele- brated Latin hymns, of which we mention. Salve, caput cruentatam, one of the seven passion-hymns by St. Bernard, translated by Mrs. Charles {Chris- tian Life in Song), " Hail, thou Head ! so bruised and wounded;" by AUord {Year of Praise), " Hail ! that Head with sorrows bowing ; " by Baker {Hymns, Ancient and Modern'), " O sacred Head, surrounded." — Salve, festa dies, toto venera- bilis e guhernatione Dei, often called De providentia, written about 451, first edited by Brassicanus,' Basel, 1530, a defence of divine Providence, some- what resembling the De civitate Dei by Augustine ; nine letters to different persons. Collected edi- tions of his works were published by Pithoeux (Paris, 1580), Baluzius (Paris, 1669), [C. Halm (Berlin, 1878), F. Pauly (Wien, 1883). There is a French translation by Gregoire and Colombet, Paris, 1834. See also F. Pauly : Die handschrift- liche Ueberlieferung des Salvianus, Wien, 1881 (41 pp.).] HERZOG. SALZBURG. From Bohemia, the Hussite movement penetrated into the diocese of Salz- burg, and in 1420 Archbishop Eberhard III. was compelled to employ very severe measures in order to suppress that heresy in his countries. Appar- ently he succeeded. Nevertheless, the very first writings of Luther caused a singular commotion throughout the whole population ; and when Stau- pitz, Paul Speratus, Stephan Agricola, and Georg Scharer had successively preached the views of the Reformation in the country, the archbishop Wolfgang Dietrich, found it necessary not only to silence and expel a number of preachers, but to cleanse the very flocks. In 1588 he issued a decree ordering the inhabitants of the city of Salzburg either to return to the Roman-Catholic faith, or to leave the country within a month ; and in 1614 the edict was extended to the whole country, and enforced by means of a swarm of Capuchins and a troop of soldiers. Again, for some time, the country seemed on the right path, until in 1685 a priest in the Teiferegger valley discovered a whole congregation of secret Luther- ans. They used the Bible, Luther's Catechisms, Spangenberg's postils, and Urban Rhegius's See- lenarzeney (medicine for the soul) for their edifi- cation and instruction ; and they assembled often in the dead of night for common prayer and singing. The archbishop, Maximilian Gandulph, ordered them to present their confession of faith; but, the confession being a very simple statement of purely biblical views, it was found utterly heretical ; and, in spite of the interference of the elector of Brandenburg and the diet of Ratisbon, the archbishop gave his subjects the option be- tween recantation and exile. The next year, however, Gandulph died ; and the question was dropped by his successor. But in 1728 Leopold Anton ascended the episcopal chair, and his prin- cipal object was to amass power and wealth for himself and his family. The heresy question seemed to him a suitable point of operation; and he declared that he would have the heretics out of the country, even though all the field should be covered with thorns and thistles. The Jesuits were let loose on the population, and chicaneries very rapidly turned into actual persecutions. The old conditions were revived, — i-ecantation, or exile ; and, in order to suit the purposes of the archbishop, exile was made to mean confiscation of property, and renunciation of family. As such measures were utterly at variance with the stipu- lations of the peace of Westphalia, complaints were made both to the emperor in Vienna, and to the diet at Ratisbon; and Prussia, Denmark, Holland, and England interfered. The arch- bishop charged a committee with investigating the whole matter, and placing it on a legal foot- ing. The committee travelled from county to county to register the names of the Protestants, and hear their complaints ; and as it gave golden promises of religious freedom, and justice in every respect, the Protestants were not slow in coming forward. But, when the archiepiscopal govern- ment discovered that no less than 20,678 persons wished to separate from the Roman-Catholic Church, it immediately changed its policy. Aus- trian troops were sent for, and quartered upon the Protestant households ; and a kind of dragon- ades was introduced. Only with great difficulty could the Protestants obtain permission to leave the country, and their children and property were retained. In this great emergency the kmg oi Prussia came to the aid of his co-religicnists. He threatened to adopt a similar policy towards his Roman-Catholic subjects, and formally invited SAMARIA. 2101 SAMARIA. ilzburg Protestants to come and settle under eptre. The archbishop was compelled to and a regulai- emigration was arranged, is than 18,0Q0 people were removed to Prus- id Leopold Anton lived to see thorns and ;s cover large tracts of his country. See [XG: EmigratiomgescUclite der Salzb. Lulh., ig, 1734; Panse : Geschichte der Auswander- er evangelischen Salzburger, Leipzig, 1827; scs : Die Ausio. d. prot. gesinnt. Salzb., Inns- , 1864; and Erdmann, in Hekzog^, vol. ip. 323-335.] KOSTER. iflARIA AND THE SAMARITANS. Sama- the name of a city of the province. 1. City. s, according to 1 Kings xvi. 23, 24, built iri, the sixth king of Israel, who, after the ig down of his palace at Tirzah, bought a rom a certain Shemer, on which he built which he called Shomron, after the former sor. Samaria continued to be the metropolis ael for the remaining two centuries of that om's existence ; was twice besieged by the is (1 Kings XX. 1 ; 2 Kings vi. 24^vii. 20), ithont effect, till at last it was taken by Shal- ler (2 Kings xviii. 9, 10), and the kingdom '. ten tribes was destroyed. After this cap- Samaria appears to have continued, for a time st, the chief city of the foreigners brought upy the places of the departed natives. At ne of the Maccabseans, Samaria was again fied city ; for Josephus describes it as a very ; city (Ant., XIII. 10, 2). John Hyrcanus t after a year's siege, and razed it (Joseph., I. 2, 7, Ant., XIII. 10, 2). By directions binius, Samaria and other demolished cities rebuilt (Ibid., XIV. 5, 3) ; but its more lal rebuilding was undertaken by Herod reat, who called it Sebaste, in honor of the ror Augustus. It was colonized by six lud veterans and others, for whose support ■ict surrounding the city was appropriated. te is to-day a poor village. 'rovince. As such, Samaria is first mentioned c. X. 30, then in the New Testament (Luke 1; John iv. 4 sq. ; Acts i. 8, viii. 1, 5, ix. 31, and by Josephus ( War, III. 3, 4). Two hours Samaria, towards the south-east, lies Xablus, icient Sichem, the seat of Samaritan cult, , for a very long time, the Samaritans, or, ly call themselves, the Shomerim, i.e., cus- s of the law, lived. iamdrilans. When Cjnrus permitted the to rebuild the temple, the colonists of ia asked to be permitted to take part in )rk of building (Ez. iv. 2). On being re- to do so, the Samaritans succeeded in pre- g the erection of the temple for twenty and offered the same imrelenting opposition lemiah, when in 445 he set about rebuild- le walls of Jerusalem, which till now had 1 ruins. They welcomed with open arms fugees from Jerusalem, who for crime, or ipe the strict Mosaic rule there established, wish to leave their country (Jos. : Ant., XI. No doubt the stem reforms introduced by liah on his second visit (Neh. xiii.) were distasteful to many who preferred the which had crept in during his absence, and ie an asylum was always open at Shechem. Jienation between the two nations was finally completed when the Samaritans at last succeeded in erecting a rival temple on Gerizim, and endeavored to transfer thither the prestige of the older one of Jerasalem. The immediate occasion of the undertaking was the refusal of Manasseh, brother of Jaddua the high priest, and son-in-law to Sanballat the Samaritan governor, to dissolve his irregular marriage in obedience to the admonition of the Jewish elders. To reward him for his constancy, Sanballat exerted himself to erect a rival sanctuary, and there established him in the high priesthood. With this the sepa- ration between the Jews and Samaritans became final, and up to this day they have perpetuated their mutual hatred. On the troubled scene of politics which opened after the death of Alexan- der the Samaritans suffered equally with the Jews. Under Ptolemy Lagi, a colony of Jews and Sa- maritans was deported into Egypt. Under John Hyrcanus, their temple was destroyed about 130 B.C. ; and many Samaritans emigrated to Damas- cus, where they built a temple. Under the Ro- mans, they first enjoyed many liberties ; but their unquiet spirit caused them often great troubles. Under Vespasian, a revolt was quelled with the loss of 11,600 persons, and Sichem received a gar- rison and the name Flavia Neapolis. The rest which they enjoyed under the rule of the Anto- nines was interrupted under Commodus, Septimius Severus, Constantine, and Constantius. Quieter times fell to their lot under Julian, Yalentinian, and Valens : their fortunes varied under the later emperors. Laws unfavorably affecting theii- posi- tion were passed by Honorius and Theodosius II. The latter even forbade them to erect new syna- gogues. The hatred with which they had formerly regarded their Jewish rivals began to concentrate itself upon the Christians, now that the new faith had become that of the empire. In the year 484, while under the rule of Zeno, they attacked the church at Xablus, maimed the bishop, and mur- dered many of the worshippers, committing the like atrocities at Csesarea also. Under Anastasius and Justinian, fresh troubles broke out. In 529 a general revolt of the Samaritans took place against the Christians. The seveiity with which this was put down by Justinian, followed by the enactment of severe laws against them, completely crushed the Samaritan people. Many fled to Persia; many became Christians. In 636 they fell under Mo- hammedan rule. During the time of the crusades they came, in 1099, into the power of the cru- saders ; and, with the exception of some temporai-y occupations by the Saracens, remained under the Christians till 1244, when they again became sub- ject to Mohammedan rule. Since 1517 they have been imder Turkish rule. Brief notices of the Samaritans and their country appear in the works of Benjamin of Tudela (twelfth century). But little was known of them till the close of the six- teenth century, when Joseph Scaliger first opened communications with them, addressing a letter to the congregations at XablOs and Cairo. Answers arrived in 1589, but not till after Scaliger's death. In 1671 Robert Huntington, bishop of Raphoe, chaplain to the English factory at Aleppo, paid a visit to NablOs, procured from them a Pentateuch, and in conjunction with Thomas Marshall, rector of Lincoln's College, Oxford, carried on a corre- spondence with the Samaritans, which lasted, with SAMARIA. 2102 SAMARIA. intervals, till the latter's death, in 1685. About this time a few lettevs also passed between them and the celebrated Job Ludolf; and then, with the exception of one letter addressed, in 1790, to their " Samaritan brethren " in France, nothing more is heard of them till 1808, when the bishop and senator Gregoire set about making inquiries with regard to them by means of the French con- sular agents in Sj'ria. These letters are of high value; and, togetherwith notices which we find in the works of modern travellers, they give us an insight into tlieir literary and religious state. As to their Doctrines, they are strict monotheists, and reject all images. They believe in angels and asti'olo- gy. They believe in a day of retribution, when the pious will rise again, false prophets and their followers will be cast into the fire, and burned. The coming of the JMessiah is to take place imme- diately before the day of judgment, or six thou- sand years after the creation of the world. As these have now elapsed, he now, though all un- known, is going about upon earth. The Samari- tans expected in 1853 a great political revolution, and that in 1863 the kings of the earth would assemble the wisest out of all nations, in order, by mutual consent, to discover the true faith. From the Israelites, i.e., .Samaritans, will one be sent; and he will be the Taeb. He will gain the day, lead them to Geriziin, where under the twelve stones they will find the Ten Commandments (or the whole Thorah), and imder the stone of Bethel the temple utensils and manna. Then will all ^believe in the law, and acknowledge him as their king, and Lord of all the earth. He will convert and equalize all men, live a hundred and ten years upon earth, then die, and be buried near Gerizim ; for upon that pure and holy mountain, which is fifteen yards higher than Ebal, no burial can take place. Afterwards will all the earth remain some hundreds of years more, till the seven thousand are completed, and then the last Judgment will come on. Usages. — At the present day the Samaritans celebrate seven feasts in the year; though only one, the passover, is observed with its former solemni- ties. [A minute and interesting account of the ceremonies of this feast is given by Stanley : His- iorij of the Jeioisli Church, i. pp. 134- sq., 559 sq. The Liturgy for this feast is very rich; thus every evening during the feast the "dream of the priest Abisha " is read, to hear which only the elders are permitted. This dream is contained in Cod. 19007, Add. MSS. Brit. Museum. There are passover hymns composed by the high priests Marka, Pinchas, and Abisha, given by Heiden- heim : Vierteljahrsschrift, iii. 94 sq., 357 sq., 475 sij. There exists also a ■ History of the. Exodus, a so-called Pesach-Haqr/adah, which Di-. S. Kohn published, with a German translation, in Ahhand- lunf/en der Deutschen Morgenl. Gesellschafl, 1876, X(i. 4.] The second feast, celebrated on the 21st of Nisan, or last day of unleavened bread, is marked by a pilgrimage to Gerizim. The third feast is Pentecost; the fourth, that of Trumpets; the fifth is the Day of Atonement. The first and eighth days of tabernacles count for the remain- ing feast-days. The sabbath, moreover, is kept with great strictness : the years of jubilee and re- lease are also still observed. The Samaritans have two more days of assem- bly, though they do not count them as holidays, termed Summoth, on which the number of the congregation is taken; and, in return, every male over twenty years of age presents the priest witlr half a shekel, in accordance with Exod. xxx. 12- 14, receiving from him a calendar for the coming six months, prepared from a table in his posses- sion. From these offerings the priest gains his living. He may consecrate any of his family that he pleases to the priesthood, provided the candidate be twenty-five years of age, and never have suffered his hair to be cut. Like other Ori- entals, he never removes his turban, and thus is not easily to be distinguished from the rest of the congregation ; but, in accordance with Lev. x. 6, he does not " rend his clothes " by wearing a slit on his sleeve, as other Samaritans ; and, when the roll of the law is taken from the ark, he, like his assistants, places a cloth, which they call tal- lith, around his head. They wear white turbans; ordinarily they are compelled, by way of distinc- tion from Mohammedans, to wear them of a pale- red color. They may cut their hair, or not, as they please, but not their beards, this being for- bidden in Lev. xix. 27, xxi. 5. Women must let their hair grow, and wear no ear-rings, because of them the golden calf was made. For fear of scandalizing the Mohanmiedans, none but the old ones venture to attend the sy]iagogue. When a boy is born, great rejoicing is held : his circum- cision always takes place on the eighth day alter birth, even though it be a sabbath. Boys many as early as fifteen or sixteen, girls at twelve. The Samaritans may marry Christian or Jewish girls, provided they become Samaritans. When a man has a childless wife, he may take a second, but, if she also be barren, not a third. Divorces, though permitted, are uncommon. The dead are prepared for burial by their own friends : the whole body is washed, but especially the hands (thrice), mouth, nose, face, ears, both inside and out (all this is Mohammedan fashion), and lastly the feet. The burial takes place, if possible, be- fore sunset the same day, accompanied with the recitation of the law and hynms. [The following is a part of a litany for the dead: — "Lord Jehovah, Blohlra, for thy mercy and for thine own sake, and for thy name, and for thy glory, and for the sake of our lords Abraham and Isaac and Jacob, and our lords Moses and Aaron and Blea- zar and Ithamar and Phinehas and Joshua and Caleb, and the holy angels, and the seventy elders, and the holy mountaui of Gerizim, Beth El. If thou accept- est this prayer, may there go forth from before thy holy countenance a gift sent to protect the spirit of thv servant N., the son of N., of the sons of N., . . . daughter . . . from the sons of N. ... Lord Je- hovah, in thy mercy have compassion on him (or her), and rest liis (lier) soul in the garden of Eden, and forgive him (or her) and all the congregations of Israel who flock to Mount Gerizim, Beth El. Amen. Through Moses the trusty. Amen. Amen. Amen. J These readings are continued every day to the next sabbath, the women of the family watching near the grave. On the sabbath it is visited by the whole congregation, except the near relations, who eat there together, reciting part of the law, and singing hymns, finishing the recitation later in the day with the relations. Of the Old Testament they only have The Pentateuch.— The text differs in many SAMARIA. 2103 SAMARIA. iges from the pieseiit Hebrew text, often sing with the Septuagint. It is reprinted | e London Polyglot. [The whole Pentateuch fided into nine hundred and sixty-four para- ds, or kazzin, and is halved in Lev. vii. 15 horized Version and Hebrew text, viii. 8). 3 its critical character, tliere has always been | Eerence of opinion ; and for nearly two hun- j years one of the most extraordinary conti'o- es on record was kept up. The leader in i controversy -was J. Morin, who placed the i iritan Pentateuch far above tlie received text ; in this opinion he was followed by men like illus and others. Others, as De Dieu, Hot- sr, Buxtorf, took the opposite view ; and while maintained the superiority of the Hebrew yet in doubtful cases, when the Samaritan } an "unquestionably clearer" reading, they id adopt it. Here the matter rested until . when Gesenius abolished the remnant of authority of the Samaritan Pentateuch by ishing his De Pent. Sam. Orirjine, Indole el uritate. The subject was taken up again by hheini, and of late by Kohn.] As to their unciation of the Hebrew, it differs somewhat 1 the usual. [According to Petermann's tran- ition, the first verse in Genesis would read : " Baraset bara eluwem it assamem wit s. "] Besides the Hebrew text of the Penta- h, the Samaritans liave also versions of the >. The most important is the imaritciii Version [published by A. Briill, in rew characters, in 1875]. lie Samarilan, in Greek (jo Sauapei-iKov), probar the same which is mentioned in the Hexapla )rigen. he Arabic cersion of the Samaritan Penta- h, made by Abu Said in Egj-pt, on the basis tie Arabic translation of Saadia. An edition his version was commenced by Kuenen at ien. Genesis was published in 1851; Exodus Leviticus, in 1854. he other literature of the Samaritans is very oportant. They have ten prayer-books for sabbaths and feasts, besides two collections lymns, which they call Durran ("string of Is ") and Defter (" book "). Of their chroni- we mention the Samaritan Chronicle, or Book oshua (sent to Scaliger by the Samaritans of in loSi: it was edited by Juynboll, Leyden, i), the Chronicle of Abid-Fath, full of fables, containing little useful matter [published re- ly by Vilmar, with the title Abulfathi Annales arilani, etc., Gotha, 1865]. •.cts. — Concerning the sects, Abul-Fath's state- t is as follows: A sect appeared calling them- ;s "Dostan," or "The Friends," which varied nany respects from the traditions of their ers respecting many religious matters. Thus held for impure a fountain into which a dead 3t had fallen, altered the time for reckoning purification of women and commencement easts, forbade the eating of eggs which had 1 laid, allowing those only to be eaten which ! found inside a slain bird, considered dead :es and cemeteries as unclean, and held any whose shadow fell upon a grave as impure for n days. They rejected the words "Blessed ur God forever," and substituted Elohim for jvah ; denied that Gerizim had been the first sanctuary of God ; upset the Samaritan reckoning for the feasts, giving thirty days to each month, rejecting the feasts and order of fasts, and the portions due to the Levites. They counted the fifty days to Pentecost from the sabbath, the day after the first day of the passover, like the Jews, not from the Sunday like the other Samaritans. Their priests, without becoming impure, could enter a house suspected of infection, as long as they did not speak. When a pure and a doubtful house stood side by side, the condition of the latter was decided by watching whether a clean or unclean bird first settled upon it. On the sab- bath they might only eat and drink from earthen vessels, which, if defiled, could not be pm-ified : they might give no food or water to their cattle ; this was done on the day previous. Their high priest was a certain Zara, who had been turned out of his own comnmnity for immorality. At a later period lived Dtisis. Being con- demned to death for adultery, he was respited on the promise of sowing dissension among the Samaritans by founding a new sect. He went to Asker (near >sablus), and formed a friendship with a Samaritan distinguished for his learning and piety. Compelled, however, to fly for his life on account of a false accusation which he had brought against his friend, he took shelter at Shueike with a widow-woman named Amentiu, in whose house he composed many writings ; but, finding that a hot pursuit after him was still maintained, he re- tired to a cave, where he perished of hunger, and his body was eaten Ijy dogs. Before his depar- ture, however, he left his books with his hostess, enjoining her to let no one read them unless he first bathed in the tank hard by. Accordingly, when Levi, the high priest's nephew, aiTived with seven others in search of him, they all bathed, one after the other, in the tank ; and each, as he emerged from the water, exclaimed, "I believe in thee, Jehovah, and in Dusis thy servant, and his sons and daughters ; " Levi adding, when his turn came, •' Woe to us if we deny Dflsis, the prophet of God! " Thej' then took the writings of Diisis, and fovmd that he had made many alterations in the law, more even than Ezia. They concealed them, and on their return to Xablus reported that Busis had disappeared before they arrived, they knew not whither. At the next passover, Levi had to read out Exod. xii. 22 in the synagogue ; but for " hyssop" he substituted "thyme." Cor- rected by the congregation, he still persevered, crying, " This is right, as God hath said by his prophet Dusis, on whom be peace ! Ye are all worthy of death for denying the prophetic ofiice of his servant Dusis, altering the feasts, falsifying the great name of Jehovah, and persecuting the second prophet of God, whom he hath revealed from Sinai. Woe unto you that you have rejected and do not follow him ! " Levi was stoned. His friends dipped a palm-leaf in his blood, and or- dained that whoever would read Dusis' writings, and see the leaf, must first fast seven days and nights. They cut off their hair, shaved their beards, and at their funerals performed many strange ceremonies. On the sabbath they would not move from their place, aud kept their feasts only on this day, during which they \\ould not remove their hands from their sleeves. When one of their friends died, they would gird him SAMARIA. 2104 SAMSON. ■with a girdle, put a stick in his hand, and shoes on his feet, saying, " If we rise, he will at once get up ; " believing that the dead man, as soon as he was laid in the grave, would rise and go to paradise. As to the age in which Dusis lived, it must have been long before Origen ; for this Father, in his Commentary on John xi'd. S7 (ed. Lommatzsch, ii. 49), tells us that a " certain Dosi- theus arose, and claimed to be the Messiah. His followers are called Dositheans, who have his books, and tell wonderful stories of him, as if he had not died, and is still alive somewhere." This agrees with the statement of Abul-Fath concern- ing Dusis. According to Origen, Dositheus must have lived long before him, probably in the first, or at least in the second century of the Christian era. That he was the teacher or pupil of Simon Magus, as some have asserted, is an untenable conjecture. [Lit. — On the Samaritan Literature cf. Peter- MAJMx : Versuch einer hebr. Formenlehre nach der Aussprache der heutigen Samarit. (Leip., 1868), in- troduction ; JuYNBOLL : Commentarii in Historiam Genlis Samaritance (Lugd. Bat., 1846), pp. 58 sq. ; NoLDEKE : Ueher einige samaritatis.-arab. Scliriften (Gottingen, 1862) ; Geigek : Die Hebr. Grammaiik bei der Samaritanern, in Zeitschrift der Deutsch. Morgenl. Ges. (1863), xvii. 748 ; Heidenheim : Vierleljalinssclirifl, iv. 184 sq., 347 sq. ; Pick : art. " Samaritan Literature," in McClintock and Strong's Cyclop. — On the Samaritan Liturgy, including their ritual, doctrines, and usages, cf. Gesenius : Theolog. Samarit. (Halte, 1822) ; An- ecdota Exon. (Lipsise, 1824) ; Kirchheim: Karme Shomron, -pTp. 16 sq; Nctt : Sketch of Samaritan History, pp. 65 sq., 142 sq. ; Feiedrich : De Christolof/ie Samarit. (Lipsiae, 1821); Langen: Das Judenthum in Palestina (Freiburg, 1866), pp. 90 sq., 183sq.,232sq.,299sq.,407sq.; Appel: Qucestiories de rebus Samaritanorum (Gottingen, 1874) ; Pick : art. " Samaritan Liturgy," in McClintock and Strong's Cyclop. — On the Samaritan Penta- teuch, we quote from the very large literature only the following : Gesenius : De Pentateuchi Samarit. origine, indole et aucloritaie (Halae, 1815); Frankel: Vorstudien (Leip., 1841), and Ueber der Einfluss der palastinischen Exegese (Leip., 1851) ; Kirchheim ; Karme Shomron, or Introductio in Librum Talmud icum " De Samaritanis" (Yr&xikt., 1851, in Heb.); Kohn: De Pentateuclio Samarilano (Lipsise, 1865); Geiger: Nachgelassene Scliriften (Berlin, 1877), iv. 54 sq. ; Pick : HortB Samari- tance, or A Collection of Various Readings of the Samaritan Pentateuch compared with the Hebrew and other Ancient Versions, in Bibliotheca Sacra (Andover, 1876-78); by the same, the art. " Samari- tan Pentateuch," in McClintock and Strong's Cyclopcedia. — On the Samaritan Sects, cf . jSTutt : Samaritan History, pp. 46 sq. ; Basnage : i/is- toii-e des Juifs (Taylor's trans.), pp. 94 sq. ; JoST : Geschichle des Judentltums u. seiner Sekten, i. 62 sq.; De Sacy : Chrestom. Arabe., i. 334 sq. ; Pick : the art. " Samaritan Sects," in McClintock and Strong's Cyclopaedia. — On the Samaritan Ver- sions, cf ., besides Gesenius, Winer : De Verslonis Pentat. Samar. indole (Lips., 1817); Samuel Kohn: De Pentat. Samarilano, pp. 66 sq. ; Samaritanische Studien (Breslau, 1868), also Zur Sprache, Litera- tur und Dogmatik der Samaritaner (Leip., 1876) ; Brijll: Zur Geschichie und Literatur der Samari- taner (Frankfort, 1876, 25 pp.); Kaulen : Ein- leitung in das A . Test. (Freiburg, 1876), i. 91 sq. ; NoLDEKE, in Geiger's Zeitschrift, vi. 204 sq. ; Barges : Notice sur deux Fragments d'un Penta- teuque Hebreu-Samarit., 1865, pp. 15 sq. ; Nutt : Sketch of Samaritan History, pp. 106 sq. ; Pick ; art. " Samaritan Versions," in McClintock and Strong's Cyclop. — On the Samaritan Language cf . G. J. NiCHOLLS : A Grammar of the Samari- tan Language with Extracts and Vocabulary, London, 1858 ; Petermann : Breois linguce Samaritans gramrnatica, titteratura, chrestomathia cum glossario, Berlin, 1873]. i-i. petermantst. (B. pick.) SAMARITAN PENTATEUCH. See Samaria. SAMOSATA, Paul of. See Monarchianism. SAMPS/EAN. See Elkesaites. SAMSON (i.e., the destroyer) was an Israelite of the tribe of Dan (Judg. xiii. 2). His birth was announced to his mother, who had long been barren. He was to be a Nazarite from his birth. The mother was directed, accordingly, to conform her own regimen to the tenor of the Nazaritish law, and strictly abstain from wine and all intoxi- cating liquor, and from every species of impure food. Samson was born at Zorah (Josh. xv. 33, xix. 41). When he was grown up, he staid at the camp of the Danites (Judg. xiii. 25), between Zorah and Eshtaol, where "the Spirit of the Lord began to move him at times." From this time his career commences, and his deeds may be divided into six parts. 1. Samson's Wedding. — Samson goes to Tim- nath, where he met one of the daughters of the Philistines: "it was of Jehovah." The parents object to such a union at first, but at last yield to their son's wish. On his first visit to his future bride, he slew a lion without a weapon ; and on his second visit, to espouse her, he found the skeleton, denuded of the flesh by the birds and jackals, occupied by a swarm of bees (Judg. xiv. 1-8). At his wedding-feast he propounded a riddle, the solution of which referred to his obtaining a quantity of honey from the carcass of a slain lion ; and the clandestine manner in which his guests got possession of the clew to the enigma cost thirty Philistines their lives (Judg. xiv. 10-20). 2. Samson's Vengeance (Judg. xv. 1-8). — The ill treatment which he had. received at the hands of his father-in-law,' who, upon a frivolous pre- text, had given away his daughter in marriage to another man, prompted Samson to a vindictive deed, which was executed by securing a multi- tude of jackals, and, by tying firebrands to their tails, setting fire to the cornfields of his enemies. The indignation of the Philistines, on discovering the author of the outrage, vented itself upon the family of his father-in-law, who had been the re- mote occasion of it, in the burning of their house, in which both father and daughter perished. This cruelty provoked Samson, and he smote them "hip and thigh with a great slaughter." 3. The Battle Ramath-lehi, i.e., at the lifting-up of the Jawbone. — Having taken his residence at Etam, he was thence dislodged by consenting to a pusillanimous arrangement on the part of his own countrymen, by which he agreed to surren- der himself in bonds, provided they would not themselves fall upon him and kill him. Being brought, in this apparently helpless condition, to a place called, from the event, Lehi (" a jaw "), his SAMSON, 2105 SAMUEL. itematural potency suddenly put itself forth, i snapping the cords asunder, and snatching the jawbone of an ass, he dealt so effectually 3ut him, that a thousand men were slain on the )t. Wearied with his exertions, Samson be- ne faint from thirst. God heard his prayer, i caused a stream to gush from a hollow rock rd by ; and Samson gave it the name of En-hak- ■e (i.e., the well of him that heareth). l. The Gates of Gaza at Hebron (Judg. xvi. 1-3). Samson suffered himself weakly to be drawn the company of a woman of loose character Gaza. The inhabitants attempt to detain him Gaza by closing the gates of the city, and mak- ;■ them fast ; but Samson, apprised of it, rose midnight, and breaking away bolts, bars, and iges, departed, can-ying the gates to a hilltop ir Hebron. 5. The Attempted Outwitting in the Valley of rek (Judg. xvi. 4-14). — Here he lived with lilah. Tempted by the bribe of the Philis- es, she employs aU her arts to worm from him ! secret of his strength. Three times he de- ved her, abashing at the same time the Philis- es lying in wait. 3. Samson's Self-treachery and Death (Judg. xvi. -31). At last, in a moment of weakness, Sam- 1 disclosed to Delilah the fact that his strength in his hair, — not that it really lay in his hair, t in the fact that it arose from his relation to d as a Nazarite. The Philistines, having de- ved him of sight, at first immured him in a son, and made him grind at a mill like a slave. the process of time his hair recovered its )wth, and Samson experienced the help of lovah (Judg. xvi. 28). A feast was celebrated aonor of Dagon, and Samson was ordered to be )ught out to be made a laughing-stock for the mense multitude. He grasped the massive pil- s ; and, bowing with resistless force, the whole tiding fell upon the lords and upon all the )ple that were therein. " So the dead which slew at his death were more than they which slew in his life." His brethren buried him iween Zorah and Eshtaol, in the burying-place his father. Lit.— Winer: Real-Worlerb.,\\. 466^69; Com- ilaries on Judges by RosENMiJi,LEK, Studer, RTHEAU, and Cassel (in Lange) ; Roskoff : '. Simsonssage, Leip., 1860. L. DEBSTEL. >AMSON, Bernhardin, a Franciscan monk ;ed for his traflBc in indulgences in Switzer- d. He was a native of Milan, but the dates his birth and death are not known. He en- sd Switzerland as the agent of Cardinal Forli, had charge of the sale in that region ; but behavior caused much scandal, and after some astrous encounters with Zwingli and BuUinger was recalled by Leo X. Nothing further is )wn of him. See Hottinger : Helvetische •chengeschichte, Ziirich, 1708 (iii.)- lAMUEL was born as the son of Elkanah, an hrathite, at Raraathaim-zophim, in the moun- 1 of Ephraim, and was of Levitical descent; not only did he perform priestly functions, but descendants also, like Heman his grandson, 1 of the chief singers in the X.evitical choir, are nted as belonging to the Levites. His mother, nnah, for a long time childless, sought from i the gift of a son, whom she dedicated to the Lord before his birth, to the office of a Nazarite. When the son was born, she called him Samuel, " the asked, or heard of God." As soon as he was weaned, she brought him unto the house of the Lord (1 Sam. i. 24), where he afterwards re- mained. He was dressed in a sacred garment, an ephod of white linen ; and his mother gave him every year a little mantle reaching down to his feet. And " the child Samuel grew on, and was in favor both with the Lord, and also with men" (ii. 26). Samuel's Call. — Times looked rather gloomy in Israel. Eli the high priest was a weak charac- ter ; his sons prostituted the sanctuary ; the peo- ple served idols ; and the oppressive power of the Philistines was felt. Thus it was that Samuel had no idea how the Lord revealed himself to the prophets, the messengers of his word (1 Sam. iii. 1, 7). While he was sleeping, he received his first revelation, or communication, — the doom of Eli's apostate house (iii. 11-14). Other revelations speedily followed this. The frequency of God's messages to the young prophet established his fame : his words were treasured up, and Shiloh became the resort of those who came to hear him (iii. 19-21). Samuel was not only a prophet like others, but he is also the first of the reg-ular suc- cession of prophets (Acts iii. 24). His influence at the beginning of his career — " and the word of Samuel came to all Israel " (1 Sam. iv. 1) — paved the way for his judicial administration ; and, although he was neither called nor elected to this oflice, yet " Samuel judged the children of Israel in IMizpeh " (vii. 6). But the zenith of his prophetical activity was the election, rejection, and second election of the theocratic king (viii.- xvi.), which was mediated by his office. After haviug anointed David as king (xvi. 13 sq.), he retired to his house at Ramah ; and, besides his death (xxv. 1), only his apparition at Endor is recorded (xxviii.). Samuel's prophetic activity was not confined to a mere receiving and com- municating the divine word, but he also founded and guided those societies which are known as the schools of the prophets. The spirit of prophecy, it seems, had in the time of Samuel gained pos- session of many. In order to keep away all im- pure elements, it was necessary to conserve and purify those of whom the Spirit had thus taken a hold by teaching and discipline ; and to achieve this Samuel formed them into 'one congregation near Ramah, where they lived in habitations (Heb., Naioth, xix. 19 sq.), Samuel "standing appointed over them " (xix. 20), ruling and lead- ing them by the power of his spirit. Samuel's Judicial activity was not only the out- growth of the prophetic office, but was also con- stantly guided by it. We must not only suppose that he dispensed judgment with prophetic wis- dom, but that he also pleaded the cause of the people as a man who had the spirit of God. Al- though Samuel had never drawn the sword, except in one case (1 Sam. xv. 33), yet he was a hero. He was the first who gained such a decisive vic- tory over the Philistines, that all the days of Samuel they never again attacked the Israelites (vii. 13) ; and the Eben-ezer stone was the sign of victory which Samuel put up. As to the man- ner in which Samuel exercised his judicial office, we know that he annually visited, in discharge SAMUEL. 2106 SAMUEL. of his duties as ruler, tiie three chief sanctuaries, — Bethel, Gilgal, and jMizpeh (vii. 16). At other times he lived at Ramah, and exercised his func- tions there (vii. 17). When he became old, he appointed his sons Joel and Abiah as judge.s, not to take his place, but to relieve him. They were judges at Jieersheba (viii. 2). But these sons possessed not their father's integrity of spirit, but " turned aside after lucre, took bribes, and per- verted judgment" (viii. 3); so the elders of the people came to him and said. " Behold, thou art old, and tliy sons walk not in thy ways : now make us a king "(viii. 5). Although the Lord fulfilled the desire of the people, yet the people sinned in preferring the splendor of an outward, visible kingdom to the glory of the invisible kingdom of Jehovah (viii. 7, x. 19, xii. 12, 16 sq.). At the command of God, Samuel anointed and made Saul king, and then retired from public office (xii.). Saul proved himself incapable of lead- ing the people. Samuel's help was often needed. When after the rejection of Saul, and David's anointing to the throne, Samuel felt assured that David was the man after God's heart, able to build up the kingdom of Israel, he retired entirely from public life. Only once again lie came forward before his death to defend the anointed of the Lord against the rejected by the Lord (xix. 18-24). It may be that in his retirement Samuel put in writing what is called (1 Chron. xxix. 29) the "Book of Samuel." Samuel's Prieslhood. — In this direction Samuel only filled a gap out of necessity. Eli was dead, and his two sons also. The ark was taken, Shiloh was desolated. In this time of need Samuel re- stored the orphaned priesthood by building an altar at Ramah (1 Sam. vii. 17). Here, as well as at Mizpeh (vii. 5), Gilgal (xi. 15), and Bethle- hem (xvi. 2 sq.), he offered sacrifices. His priestly function, however, consisted not merely in sacri- ficing, but more especially in praying for the peo- ple (vii. 5, 8, viii. 6, xii. 18-23) ; and the efficacy of the power of his prayer is often mentioned (Ps. xcix. 6; Jer. xv. 1). In reviewing the whole career of Samuel, we notice that he forms a transition period. He is the last judge, and mediates the reconstruction of the theocracy by founding the royal and propheti- cal offices, which again were of the greatest influ- ence for the formation of the priestly office. Some regard Samuel as a type of John the Baptist. It cannot be denied that there are many striking parallels between both, but the Baptist's activity was not as comprehensive as Samuel's. John was nothing but a voice of one crying in the wilder- ness, whilst Samuel had to reform and to guide the whole religious and political life of the na- tion. Samuel died at Ramah (1 Sam. xxv. 1, xxviii. 3). All Israel lamented him. He was buried in his house at Ramah. See the works of Knobel : Prophet d. Hebr., ii. 28 sq. ; Kostek : Die Propheien des A . und N. T.; Bruch : WeislieilMehre der Hebrcier, 1851, pp. 38 sq. ; Ziegler : Hislor. Enla-iclelung der gbltl. Offenbarunc;, 1841, pp. 168 sq. ; Schlier: Die Kbnige in Israel, 1859, pp. 1 sq. ; Das Evangelium des Reiches von Christianus, Leip., 1859, pp. 158 sqq; [Geikie: Hours loilli the Bible, vol. ii.]. E. NAEGELSBACH. SAMUEL, Books of, so called because he is the prominent figure in their history, not because he was their author. They originally formed one book, as the Massoi'etic note to 1 Sam. xxviii. 24 which states that this verse is the middle of the' book, incontestably proves. In the Septuagint they are called " The First and Second Book of the Kings." Daniel Bomberg was the first to in- troduce the division into the printed Hebrew text (Venice, 1517). The Book of Samuel links itself directly to Judges, which presents the confusion of that period by showing how the monarchy arose, and reached its height. It divides itself into three principal parts: (A) The history of Samuel, the last judge and the prophetic founder of the monarchy (1 Sam. i.-xii.); (B) The history of Saul, the first king of Israel (xiii.-xxxi.); (C) The history of David (2 Sam. i.-xxiv.). The death of David is given in 1 Kings. The book is a unit, but flows not fi'om one source, but from several, which the author combines, without, how- ever, being able always to disguise the fact. But the modern critics overdo the matter when they find everywhere contradictions. And they do not agree in tracing the sources. For instance, M. Duncker, Seinecke, and Reuss try to make out that the history of Saul's elevation to the monarchy rests upon three different and mutually exclusive accounts: (1) xi., which they say is the original historical account; (2) ix. 1-x. 16; (3) viii., x. 17-27. Dillmann and Wellhausen trace it to two sources: (1) ix. 1-10, 16, x. 27''-xi. 11, 15; (2) viii. 10, 17-27», xi. 12-14. Wellhausen considers the second account as unhistorical, and of exilian or post-exilian origin. Dillmann maintains that one or the other must be false. But since the editor of the book, if he did really make up his history out of two different sources, evidently considered them of equal value, and mutually supplementary, the first question to be answered is, Was he not right? Of course, if there is no living God who regulates the future in its smallest details, and can reveal it, then both accounts are equally unhistorical. But, if there be such a God, then there is no difficulty in accepting both ac- counts as true, and fitting together. It is true that in First Samuel there are told several similar stories, — Saul's inspiration (x. 10- 12 and xix. 22-24), his rejection as king (xiii. 8-14 and XV. 12 sqq.), his madness (xviii. 10 sq. and xix. 9 sqq.), David's sparing of Saul (xxiv. and xxvi.), David's flight to the Philistines (xxi. 10-15 and xxvii. 1 sqq.); but the second stoiy is not an exact repetition of the first. The circumstances were similar : hence the same general result fol- lowed, yet they were not identical in the two. It is also true that there are genuine repetitions and breaks, formal incongruities and contradic- tions, transpositions, etc. Cf. vii. 12, 13 with ix. 16, X. 5, xiii., which is intelligible only on the supposition that there was a fresh attack of the Philistines (xi. 15), or that Sanmel's victory was temporary. Again : in David's early history there is some confusion. In Second Sanmel, otherwise more imited, there are some such phenomena: e.g., 2 Sam. vii. 1, 9, speaks of David's peace resulting from the wars mentioned in the next chapter; between xiv. 27 and xviii. 18 nothing is said about Absalom's death. The present Hebrew text of the book is defective and faulty : e.g., 2 Sam. xxi. 8, Michal for Merab ; the name of Goliath's brother, missing in 2 Sa;m. xxi. 19, is to SANBALLAT. 2107 SANCHEZ. upplied from 1 Chvon. xx. 5. But the at- Dts (Thenius and Wellhausen) to make up iiencies by the aid of the LXX. are conjectural, more or less arbitrary. 'hile the author of Kings regularly names his ces, the author of Samuel does this only once lam. i. 18). But it is probable that the author recourse to the official records spoken of in iron. xxix. 29. The book contains Ps. xviii. the "last words of David" (2 Sam. xxiii. |. The time of composition was after David's h (2 Sam. v. 5), after the separation of the jdom, but before the downfall of Judah (1 Sam. ii. 6;. Many rabbis make Jeremiah to be the lor. But in truth, neither author nor definite ! can be assigned to it. The author is, how- •, no mere compiler, but one, who, in the true jhetic spirit, made thorough use of the sources. : book takes high rank in literary and histori- ■espects. The style is classic and graphic. The est and impartial character of the prophetic lor comes out in his statement of many things cli were in plain contradiction to the Mosaic , and in his faithful and unvarnished account )avid's failings, notwithstanding his prejudice lis favor. IT. — • See the Commentaries, especially those Thenius (2d ed.,1864), Keil (2d ed., 1864), JMASX (in Lange, 1873); the Introductions by r. Stahelix (1862), 1)e Wette-Schrader 39), Keil (3d ed., 1873), Bleek-Wellhausex 78) ; the History of Israel, by Ewald (3d ed., 4, trans.), AVellhausex (1878), Reuss (1881); I K. H. Graf: Die gescliiclitlicJien Biicher des m Testaments, 1866 ; Wellhausex : Der Text Biicher .Samuelis, 1871. v. ORELLI. ANBAL'LAT (Heb., oSa^p, or 1373^0, so Baer Delitzsch ; LXX., ^ava3cMuT- a name, proba- , of Assyro-Babylouian origin, i.e., Sin-uballit, n [moon-god] bestowed life ") is mentioned ;he following passages of the Bible, all in the ik of Nehemiah: Xeh. ii. 10, 19, iv. 1 sq. (Heb. 33 sq.), iv. 7 sqq., cf. 15 {Heh. iv. 1 sqq., cf. vi. 1-5 sqq., 12-14, xiii. 28. He headed the osition which Nehemiah encomitered in car- ig out the plan of rebuilding Jerusalem, and stablishing there a Hebrew national life. See EIEMIAH. V^e are told that Sanballat, and Tobiah " the rant, the Ammonite," were greatly displeased he news of Xehemiah's coming, because of his irest in " the welfare of the children of Israel " ih. ii. 10). On learning of the determination ned by the Hebrews to build the walls of the , these two, with ■' Geshem the Arabian," rhed scornfully, and contemptuously accused n of a rebellious purpose against the king, axerxes (ii. 1); i.e., Artaxerxes Longimanus. en, in spite of this, Sanballat found the work lally in progress, although still contemptuous, jrew very angry, and roused the hostility of s brethren and the army of Samaria" (iv. 1 = Heb. iii. 33 sq.). At" length he conspired I Tobiah "and the Arabians and the Ammon- and the Ashdodites " — hostile peoples on ous sides of Jerusalem — to go up and hinder work by force (iv. 7 sqq. = Heb. iv. 1 sqq.). ! plot, however, became known to Nehemiah, was abandoned (iv. 1.5 = Heb. iv. 9). After wall was finished, Sanballat, Tobiah, and Geshem endeavored to secure the person of Nehe- miah by inviting him to a conference. Four messengers in succession, followed by a letter, in which Sanballat mentioned riunors that charged Nehemiah with treason, failed to entice the latter (vi. 1-5 sqq.) ; and even the expedient of bribing a man to prophesy danger, and so to induce Nehemiah to shut himself up in the temple, was fruitless (vi. 12-14). After this we hear nothing more of Sanballat, except that a son of " Joiada, the son of Eliashib the high priest," was his son- in-law. This alliance seems to have taken place during an absence of Nehemiah from Jerusalem (cf. xiii. 6), and probably betokens a scheme of Sanballat to gain influence among the Hebrews, since he could not successfully oppose them by force (cf. xiii. 4, 7, 8). It remains to inquire who Sanballnt was. He is called "the Horonite" (Heb., "J'inn ; LXX., 6 'Kpuvl and 'rov Ovpav'nov) (Neh. ii. 10, 19, xiii. 28). We cannot be sure whether this appellation is derived from Horonaim, a city of Moab (Isa. xv. 5, etc., and Mesha-stone), or Beth-horon, in Ephrar im (Josh. xvi. 3, 5, etc.). In favor of Horonaim is the association of Sanballat with Tobiah the Ammonite and Geshem the Arabian, and more particularly the fact that his daughter's marriage with the high priest's grandson is classed with the marrying of " wives of Ashdod, of Ammon, and of Moab" (Neh. xiii. 28, cf. 23, 29). Against Horonaim is the lack of the term " ]Moabite '' in connection with Sanballat, although this may be due to the fact (see below) that he did not prop- erly belong to that people. In favor of Beth- horon is Sanballat's apparent residence in the teiTitory of Samaria, and particularly his endeav- or to have a meeting with Nehemiah at Ono in Benjamin (see vi. 2 and cf. xi. 31, 35), which can- not have been very far from Beth-horon. In any case his name points to Assyria or Babylonia as the original home of his family. They may have been among the colonists transported to the " western country " by Saigon or Esarhaddon (see those arts.). There is no evidence that Sanballat held any official position in Samaria under the Persian king. He seems to be distinct from " the governors beyond the river" (ii. 7, 9); and a Persian ofiicial would hardly have ventured to oppose so persistently one who, like Nehemiah, brought a commission from the king. We know nothing definite about " his brethren and the army of Samaria " (iv. 2 = Heh. iii. 34) ; but it seems to have been personal influence, and not official authority, which he exercised over them. The Sanballat (^ava^a^Mrr/r^ whom Josephus (Ant., XI. 7, 2 sq.) names as satrap of Samaria was a contemporary of Alexander the Great. It is interesting to notice, however, that Josephus calls him a Cuthsean (cf. Cuthah, Cuth, a Babylo- nian city, 2 Kings xvii. 24, 30), and says he gave his daughter in marriage to jNlanasses, brother of Jaddus, the high priest, that he might concili- ate the favor of the Jewish nation. There may be here some confusion with the earlier biblical Sanballat. fr.vncis beo\vn. SAN BENITO. See Ixquisitiox. SANCHEZ, Thomas, b. at Cordova, 1550; d. at Granada, May 19, 1610; entered the Society of Jesus in 1566; studied theology, philosophy, and jurisprudence; became director of the school at SANCHUNIATHON. 2108 SANCTION. Granada, and acquired great fame as a moral phi- losopher by his i>e sacramenio matrimonii (Geneva, 1592), though it was severely attacked by sorne on account of its cynicism and rudeness. His collected works appeared in Venice, 1740, in seven volumes. SANCHUNIATHON, an old Phoenician scholar living before the Trojan war, is mentioned by Athenseus, Porphyry, and Suidas; and Eusebius adds that Philo translated one of his works into Greek {(powtuKu). Neither the original nor the translation is extant; but Eusebius gives some extracts, which have been collected and edited by Orelli (Leipzig, 1826) and by C. Mueller, in his Fragmenta historicorum grcecorum (Paris, 1849, iii. pp. '51)0-575). The trustworthiness of these frag- ments, even the very existence of the author, has been much debated. (SeeLoBECK: Aglaophamus, ii. 1273.) It is now generally agreed, however, that they really contain true historical materials. See EwALD, in Abhandlungen d. Gotlinger Gesell- scJiaft der Wissenschaften, 1851, vol. v. ; and Rbnan : Me'iaoire sur Sanchonialhori, Paris, 1858 ; Baudissin: Studien, i., 1876, pp. 1-46 (" Ueber den religionsgeschichtlichen Werth der phoni- cischen Gesohiohte Sanchuniathon's "), and his art. in Hekzog ^, vol. xii., pp. 364-372. SANCROFT, William, D.D., English prelate; b. at Freshingfleld, Suffolk, Jan. 13, 1616 ; d. there Nov. 24, 1693. He was educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, where he obtained a fellow- ship in 1642, which, however, he lost in 1649 for refusing to sign the Solemn League and Cove- nant. On leaving Cambridge he retired to the Continent ; returned at the Restoration ; became successively chaplain to Cosin, bishop of Durham (1660), university preacher, D.D. and master of his college (1062), dean of York (1663), dean of St. Paul's (1664), archdeacon of Canterbury (1668), and archbishop of Canterbury (1677). lie attended Charles II. on his death-bed (February, 1685), and crowned James II. (May 3, 1685). He would not act on James's ecclesiastical conunission, and was one of the famous seven bishops (Bancroft of Canterbury, Turner of Ely, Lake of Chichester, White of Peterborough, Trelawny of Bristol, Ken of Bath and Wells, and Lloyd of St. Asaph) who refused to read James's Declaration of Indulgence, and in consequence were confined in the Tower, and tried, but were triumphantly acquitted. (See Stoughtost: Religion in England, new ed., vol. iv. 138-156.) Bancroft also i-efused to take the oath of allegiance to William and Mary, 1688, and was deprived February, 1691. He retired to his native place. His Predestinated Thief (Latin, 1651, Eng. trans., 1814), Sermons (1694), Occasional Sermons (1703), and Nineteen Familiar Letters (1757), have been published. See his life by George D'Oyly (London, 1821, 2 vols., 2d ed., 1840) and by Miss Agnes Strickland, in Lives of the Seven Bishops (1866, pp. 1-103). SANCTIFICATION is, according to the Scrip- tures, the fundamental principle of religious morality. Its roots strike down into the holiness of God, which is the main element in the Old- Testament conception of God. Jehovah is the Holy One (Isa. vi.), who not only is free from all sin and impurity, but institutes a holy people, and develops it through the Holy Spirit. Christ addressed God as the Holy Father (John xvii. 11); and it is because God is holy that we are urged to sanctify ourselves, or become holy (Lev. xi. 44, 45- 1 Pet. i. 16). This vocation to become holy was symbolized in the arrangements and furniture of tiie temple, which was altogether holy, and con- secrated to the Lord. Sanctification consists in withdrawal from' the world, and presentation to God. Christ, who was holy from his birth, also sanctified himself for the world (John xvii. 19), completing the work by his self-sacrifice on the cross. Christians are desig-nated "saints" (holy ones, Acts ix. 32 ; Rom. xv. 26), not only because they are called to become holy, but because they receive with their faith in Christ his holiness or righteousness as their own. Christ is made unto believers sanctification (1 Cor. i. 30). Sanctifi- cation is ti-eated of, now as an act of God, or Christ, or the Holy Spirit, now as an act of man. God sanctifies (John xvii. 17), and man enters into the redeeming, justifying, sanctifying econo- my of God (Eph. i. 4; 1 Pet. i. 15). The Roman-Catholic Church confounds sancti- fication with justification. The Council of Trent (VI. 7) says that justification is not only forgive- ness of sin, but the sanctification and renewal of the inner man. The Apology of the Augsburg Confession, on the other hand, defines justification to be a forensic act, a declaration that a person is righteous. But inasmuch as this forensic act is an actual forgiveness of sins, and a reception into the new life, it is also a creative act. What the Protestant confessions insist on is the clear dis- tinction between the instantaneous act of justifi- cation on the part of God and the continued and gradual process of sanctification. By the act of God's justification the believer is made a creature of God : in sanctification he carries on what God has begun, and realizes the Christ in his own life. Justification is the germ of our new life, a single act : sanctification is a gradual process, the devel- opment of this new life. J. P. lange. SANCTION, Pragmatic (Pragmatica sanciio, or sAmTply pragmatica), was in the later Roman ijnpe- rial times a rescript of the emperor, couched in formal -language, partioulai-ly one i-especting the public law, issued on request of a city, province, or church (Cod. Justin., 1. 12, § 1 de ss. eccles., i. 2). It was called "pragmatic" because it was issued after consultati on an d treaty concerning the matter (wpily/ia). The term through the middle age, and down to modern times, has been especially used of laws respecting weighty matters. Of pragmatic sanctions affecting the church, the chief are, — 1. That of Louis IX. of France (1268), which was the first ordinance of the thirteenth century designed as a check to the undue extension of Papal power and to the misuses of the curia, par- ticularly to the excessive demands for tithes, and to the enlargement of Papal reservations respect- ing benefices. It consists of six articles. It al- lows all prelates, patrons, and ordinary collators of benefices, the fullest exercise and unhindered preservation of their jurisdiction, and forbids simony. This sanction was the first important law on the side of " Galilean liberty." The oppo- nents of Gallicanism have, therefore, always en- deavored to show that it is a forgery (comp. R- Rosen : Die pragmatische Sanction, welche unter dem Namen Ludwigs JX., etc., Miinchen, 1853); but, after Soldan's exhaustive essay (Zeilsckr. SANDEMAN. 2109 SANDWICH ISLANDS. '.ist. TheoL, 1856, pp. 371-450), the attempt be given up. See the text of the edict in SI, 23, 1259. That of Charles VII. of France (La prag- ue de Bourges), issued July 7, 1438, in con- mce of a national council which indorsed eform edicts of the Council of Basel, but of- . certain modifications respecting the French ch. The edict consists of twenty-thi-ee arti- and enforces the decrees of the council. It ts the superiority of oecumenical councils to Pope, and confirms the admired usages, ob- mces, and statutes of the French Church. It ds Papal encroachments. It was, however, an iion of the ecclesiastical by the civil power, ccount was taken of the Pope in the issuing le edict. Accordingly, Pius II. (1458-64) ired it to be an infringement of the Papal )gatives, and demanded of the French bishops ring about its repeal. Charles VII. replied 1 appeal to a general council. It was, indeed, iled by Louis XI. in 1461, to get the Papal tance in making good his claims upon Naples ; he Parliament of Paris refused to assent to [ing's action ; and, as he did not get the de- Papal help, he let the matter drop. In 1499 s XII. renewed the sanction, and it has not since really withdrawn. See the text in /"ilerault: Ordonnances, 13, 267 sqq.; and ). Hefele : Conciliengeschichte, vii. 762 ; P. iCHius : Kirchenrechi, 3, 409 sqq. The so-called German Pragmatic Sanction le diet of Frankfort in 1439. The designa- is misleading. It is not a law ; since it was ipproved by the kings present, and never pro- led as a law of the empire : it is rather a isional act of union between some German !es who took exception to the findings of the icil of Basel respecting certain alterations in ifEairs of the German nation and its compo- parts. Comp. Puckert : Die kurfiirstiiche ralitdt wdrend des Baseler Concils, Leipzig, P. HINSCHIUS. [nDEMAN and the SANDEMANIANS. Eob- andeman — b. at Perth, Scotland, 1718; d.at 3ury, Conn., America, 1771 — was a son-in- jf John Glass (see art.), and an elder of the site Church in Edinburgh, but removed in to London, where he formed a congTegation, in 1764 to America, where he continued active he propagation of his ideas. The sect, how- called " Glassites " in Scotland, and " Sande- ians " in England and America, never attained high degree of prosperity, and at present it ly numbers more than two thousand mem- Doctrinally they distinguish themselves by ing faith as 'a mere assent to the teachings workings of Christ. With respect to liturgy, ,1, and discipline, their differences are more ounced. They celebrate the Lord's Supper a week ; hold love-feasts, which consist in a non dinner, every Sunday between morning evening service; abstain from blood and T thing strangled ; and practise a kind of nunism, so far as the members hold their erty subject to the call of the church. Their 1 are best learned from the writings of Sande- : Letters on Theron and Aspasio (Edinburgh, ), Thoughts on Christianity, Sign of the Prophet h), Honor of Marriage, etc. See also Fuller : Letters on Sandemanianism. John Glass's Trea- tise on the Lord's Supper (Edinburgh, 1743) was reprinted, London, 1883. SANDWICH (or HAWAIIAN) ISLANDS, The, a group of eight inhabited and four uninhabited islands in the Northern Pacific Ocean, were first discovered by the Spanish navigator Gaetano, 1542, and visited by Capt. Cook, 1778, and Vancouver, 1792-94. The largest island is Hawaii, one hun- dred by ninety miles, with two active volcanoes, Kilaua and j\Iauna Loa; the last eruption being in 1868. Mauna Kea, the highest mountain, rises 13,805 feet above the sea. The capital, Honolulu, situated on the Island of Oahu, is 2,100 miles from San Francisco, and has a population of about 15,000. The city has a good harbor and water- works, is well laid out, and has a number of churches and public buildings. The Hawaiians belong to the Polynesian race, and are allied to the New-Zealanders, Tongans, etc. The popula- tion was estimated by Capt. Cook at 400,000, and in 1823 at 142.000. The census of 1836 gave 108,579; of 1860, 69,700; of 1872, 56,897; of 1878, 44,088. The religion of the Hawaiians, before the arrival of the missionaries, was indistinct, but superstitious, permitting human sacrifices, the worship of idols, etc. Polygamy was universal. No word was found in the language for chastity. Infanticide was very prevalent, and Dibble calcu- lated that two-thirds of the children were killed by their parents. The tabu system, by which things and days were set apart as sacred, and in- dividuals were refused contact with each other, was a prominent feature of the life on the islands, aud a source of great power to the reigning family and priesthood. The reigning king, Kalakaua, was elected by ballot in 1874. The first missionaries arrived in the Sandwich Islands March 30, 1820. They were Hiram Bing- ham and Asa Thurston, both graduates of An- dover Seminary, at whose ordination, at Goshen, Conn., Sept. 29, 1819, Rev. Hemau Humphrey preached from Josh. xiii. 1, "There remaineth yet very much Innd to be possessed." The Sandwich Islands had boen before the eyes of the Christian public before this. A native, Obookiah by name (b. 1795), was brought to New Haven in 1809. He there met Samuel Mills, and became one of the first pupils at the Missionary Institute at Cornwall, to whose opening his presence had con- tributed. Obookiah died a Christian in 1818. Nine Hawaiians were educated in the school be- fore its discontinuance in 1826, and some of them returned to their native land as teachers. Much to their surprise, Bingham and Thurston found that the idols had been destroyed, the priesthood abolished, aud human sacrifices discontinued. They had ready access to the people, and by 1822 had reduced the langTiage to writing. That year a printing-press was set up. Mr. Ellis, the de- voted Polynesian missionary and traveller, visited the islands, and rendered the American mis- sionaries valuable assistance in acquiring the na- tive tongue. In 1823 the missionaries Bishop, Stewart, Richards, Ely, and Goodrich arrived from the United States. The queen-dowager, Keop- nolani, was baptized in 1823. The king and queen died, of measles, on a visit to England in 1824. The first Roman-Catholic missionaries arrived in 1827, were banished at a later time, but reinstated SANDYS. 2110 SANH^EDRIN. in 1839 by the French guns. By 1830 twenty books had been printed in the Hawaiian language. In 1834 there were 50,000 learners in the schools. The translation of the Bible was completed on Feb. '25, 1839. Revivals have swept tbrough the island at various times. In 1853 the natives sent missionaries to the Marquesas. In 1863 the Hawaiian Evangelical Association was formed ; the churches being declared independent, so far as government was concerned, of the American Board. The entire expense of the mission up to 1869, when the aid of the American churches was declared no longer necessary, was $1,220,000. The total number admitted to communion up to 1870 was 55,300. At the present time the entire population is Christian. The Roman Catholics have made some headway. The Church of Eng- land has a bishop of Honolulu and a handful of converts. The Congregational Church is still dominant. On June 15, 1870, a jubilee celebra- tion was held in the large stone church of Hono- lulu ; three thousand crowding into the building, and as many more unable to get admittance. The eloquent Rev. Mr. Kuaea preached in Hawaiian, the king being present. Leprosy prevails upon the islands. The Island of Molokai has been set apart for them, and has a population of 800 lepers. Lit. — Dibble (missionary): Hiatory of the Sandwich Islands, Lahainaluna, 1843; Bingham (missionary): A Residence of Twenty-One Years in the Sandwich Islands, Hartford, 1847 ; Hopkins : Hawaii, Past, Present, and Future, London, 1866 : Bishop of Honolulu : Five Years' Church- Work in the Kingdom of Hawaii, London, 1868 ; RuFUS Anderson : History of the Sandwich-Islands Mis- sion, Boston, 1870 ; Titus Coan : Life in Hawaii, New York, 1882. See also T. G. Thrum : Hawai- ian Almanac for 1883, Honolulu. SANDYS, Edwin, archbishop of York; b. near Hawkshead, Lancashire, 1519 ; d. at York, July 10, 1588. He was educated at St. John's Col- lege, Cambridge; was converted to Protestantism; elected master of Catherine Hall (1547); was im- prisoned in the Tower for espousing the cause of Lady Jane Grey, and then went into voluntary exile until Elizabeth's accession ; was bishop of Worcester (1559), of London (1570), and arch- bishop of York (1576). He took part in the preparation of the Bishops' Bible, and in the revis- ion of the Liturgy. See T. D. Whitaker : Life of Edwin Sandys, prefaced to an edition of the Archbishop's Sermons, London, 1812 ; also the Sketch by Joiix Ayre, in his edition of the Ser- mons for the Parker Society, Cambridge, 1841. SANDYS, Ceorge, son of an archbishop of York ; b. at the palace there in 1577 ; d. at Bex- ley Abbey, Kent, March, 1644; was educated at Oxford; travelled in the East, 1610-12; was in Virginia, 1621-24, as colonial treasurer, building there "the first water-mill, the first iron-works, and the first ship ; " and was for some years an attendant of Charles I., and ended life in schol- arly retirement. He published a much-valued Relation of his Oriental journey, 1615; translated Ovid's Metamorphoses, partly at Jamestown, Va., and Grotius' Christ's Passion, 1640 ; and para- phrased the Psalms (1636), Job, Ecclesiastes, etc. (1638), and the Song of Solomon (1641). These were nearly inaccessible till H. J. Todd issued in 1839 a Selection from them, with prefatory Life : a complete edition was prepared 1872 by R. Hooper. In James JMontgomery's opinion " his psalms are incomparably the most poetical in the English language, and yet they are scarcely known." Charles I., when a prisoner in Caris- brooke Castle, " vastly delighted to read " thein. Fragments of one or two of them may be found in some of the hymn-books. Dryden called Sandys " the best versifier of the former age," and Pope thought English poetry much indebted to iiis translations. F. M. bird. SANHEDRIN (Matt. v. 22, xxvi. 59 ; Mark xiv. 55, XV. 1 ; Luke xxii. 66 ; John xi. 47 ; Acts iv. 15, V. 21,27, 34, vi. 12, 15, xxii. 30,xxiii. 1,6, 15, 20, 28, xxiv. 20) was the supreme council of the Jewish nation [in and before the time of Christ]. There were two kinds of Synedria, viz., the su- preme or metropolitan Sanhedrin, called the Great Sanhedrin, and provincial councils called the Small Sanhedrin, of which we shall speak farther on. We begin with 1. Number of Members, and their Classif cation in the Sanhedrin. — It consisted of seventy-one members : hence it is also called the Sanhedrin of seventy-one, to distinguish it from the provincial Sanhedrin, which consisted of twenty-three. The members were in part pj-iests (Matt, xxvii. 1 ; John vii. 32, xi. 47, xii. 10), in part laymen, the elders of the people, and in part scribes (Matt. xxvi. 3, 57, 59, xxvii. 41; ^Mark viii. 31, xi. 27, xiv. 43, 53, XV. 1; Luke ix. 22, xx. 1, xxii. 66; Acts V. 21, vi. 12, xxii. 30, xxv. 15). The mem- bers belonged either to the Pharisees or Saddu- cees : the scribes probably belonged to the former (Acts V. 17, 34, xxiii. 6). Included in the seventy- one was the president, the Nasi, but not the nota- ries. The king was not to be president ; but the high priest could be, as may be seen from Actsv. 21, 27, xxiii. 2, not, however, because of his dig- nity as priest. On the right hand of the presi- dent sat the ab lelh din [i.e., the father of the house of judgment, probably the vice-president] ; on the left, the liachani,_ the sage [referee]. Without the assent of the vice-president, the president could not ordain. The other members of the Sanhedrin sat to the right and to the left, in a semicircle ; while the two notaries stood before them, one to the right, and the other to the left. Before them sat three rows of disciples, in places appropriate to their respective attainments. The president assembled the council through his messengers; and, when he entered with his assistants he was received with special ceremony. Qualifications for membership were, that the applicant had already been a member of the smaller council, and that he was morally and physically blameless. He had to be a father of children, good-looking, and learned. 2. Time of Sessions. — The Sanhedrin sat every day, from the termination of the daily morning sacrifice till the daily evening sacrifice, with the exception of the sabbath and festivals. 3. Place of Session. — They generally met in the Hall of Squares, which was built by Simon ben- Shetach. It was a basilica twenty-two ells long and eleven ells wide. Forty years before the destruction of the temple, the sessions of the San- hedrin wei'e removed from the Hall of Squares to the Halls of Purchase (Aboda Sara, fol. 8, col. 2). After the destruction, the Sanhedrin was removed SANHBDRIN. 2111 SANHBDRIN. mniah or Jabneh : it was thence transferred sha [under the presidency of Gamaliel II., imon ir., A.D. 80-116], conveyed back to ;, and again to llsha, to Shafran [under the lency of Simon III., ben-Gamaliel II., A.D. 63], to Beth-shearim and Sepphoris, under •residency of Jehudah I., the Holy [A.D. 93], and finally to Tiberias, under the presi- ' of Gamaliel HI., ben-Jehudah I. [A.D. 193- where it became more of a consistory, [but •etaining, under the presidency of Jehudah en-Simon III. (A.D. 220-'270), the power of amunication] : while under the presidency imaliel IV., ben-Jehudah II., it dropped the lation Sanhedrin, and the authoritative de- is were issued under the name of Beth Ham- ish. Gamaliel VI. [A.D. 400-425] was the resident. With the death of this patriarch, vas executed by Theodosius II., for erecting synagogues contrary to the imperial inhibi- ;he title Nasi, the last remains of the ancient jdrin, became wholly extinct in the year 425. Mode of Conductinij Trials, Punishments, etc. casional intimations in the Gospels (Matt. 62 sq. ; Mark xiv. 60 sq. ; Luke xxii. 67 ; vii. 51,xviii. 19 sq. ; Acts iv. 7 sq., v. 27 sq., 1), and the canons laid down in the Tal- 3 treatise Sanhedrin, chaps, iii.-v., give us an )f the mode of procedure of the Sanhedrin. pital offences, it required a majority of at two to condemn the accused, and the vei-dict ilty had to be reserved for the following The verdict of acquittal could be given on ime day. Jurisdiction of the Great Sanhedrin. — This had, (1) charge over all matters pertaining igion and the different religious institutions, 2) to give decisions in matters concerning a ! tribe [when it was accused of having de- i from the living God], a high priest, a dis- ent Sanhedrist, false prophets and seducers e people, blasphemers, etc. It determined ler a war with any nation contemplated by ing was to be waged, and gave the sovereign ission to do so. It also appointed the pro- il Sanhedrin, or courts of justice, and regu- the calendar. It inflicted not only bodily hments (Acts v. 40), but also capital pun- ints, as stoning, burning, beheading, and jling. According to the Gospel of John, ver, the Jews declare " it is not lawful for put any man to death " (John xviii. 31), I agrees with the remark (Sanhedrin, fol. 24, ), " Forty years before the destruction of the e, the power of inflicting capital punish- was taken away from Israel," which means, without the confirmation of the sentence on irt of the Roman procurator, the Jews had le power to carry the sentence of the Sanhe- into execution. This is not only confirmed sephus (Ant., XX. 9, 1), but by the appeal of to the chief captain (Acts xxii. 25-30), and ially by the whole manner in which the trial ius was conducted. The stoning of Stephen 54 sq.) was the illegal act of an enraged tude. Origin and Date of the Great Sanhedrin. — ■ding to the Talmud, the Sanhedrin was cited by Moses (Sanhedrin, 1, 6) when he ap- jd seventy elders, who, together with him as 27- TTT their president, were to act as magistrates and judges (Num. xi. 16). According to the Talmud (Mudd Katon, 26 a). King Saul was president of the Sanhedrin in his reign, and his son Jonathan was vice-president. After the exile, the Sanhedrin, which existed even in the Babylonian captivity, was re-organized by Ezra. Whatever may be the claims of tradition, there seems to be little doubt that this supreme court, as it existed dur- ing the second temple, developed itself while the Greeks ruled over Palestine ; and to this fact points the name avviSpujv, awcSpivciv, by \ihich it has come down to us, as this word belongs to the Macedonian period. It is true that Josephus does not mention the Sanhedrin before the con- quest of Judaea by Pompey (B.C. 63); but the very fact that it had such power in the time of Hyrcanus II. as to summon Herod to answer for his imjust conduct (Jos. ; Ant., XIV. 9, 4) shows that it must then have been a very old institution to have acquired such development and authority. 7. The Small Sanhedrin. — Any town or village which had no less than a hundred and twenty representative men had a provincial court, which consisted of twenty-three members. In Jerusa- lem there were two such courts. They had the power to judge such capital offences as came not within the jurisdiction of the supreme court. They sat evei-y Monday and Thm-sday, being market-days, in a room adjoining the synagogue. Before the exile, these com-ts of justice were held in the market-place. There was no appeal to the Great Sanhedrin against the decision of this lesser Sanhedrin. Only when the opinion of the judges was divided did they themselves consult with the supreme court. The stripes to which offenders were sentenced were given in the syna- gogue by the sexton (cf. Mark xiii. 9 with Matt. X. 17, xxiii. 34). Besides these two courts, there was also one consisting of three Judges. There were in Jerusalem alone three hundred and ninety such Sanhedrins. Within the jurisdiction of this court came suits for debts, robbery, bodily in- juries, compensation for damages, thefts which involved a twofold, fourfold, or fivefold value to the proprietor. « Lit. — Treatise Sanhedrin, in Ugolino, Thes., XXV. 1-302, 339-1312; Selden; De Ifynedriis et priefecturis, etc., Lond., 1650: Bucheri Synedr. magn., in Ugol., I.e. pp. 1161-1194 ; Ht WiTSius : Diss, de synedr. Hebr., in Ugol., I.e. pp. 1195-1234; Misc. sacr. Hehr. (1712), pp. 519 sq. ; Carpzov : Apparat., pp. 550 sq. ; Lukdius : Jiidische Hei- iigthilmer (Hamburg, 1704), pp. 461-482 ; Otho : Lex. rabbin. (Gen., 1675), pp. 627 sq. ; Reland: Ant. Sacr., ii. 7; Hartmann : Enge Verbindung d.A. T. m. d. N., pp. 166-225 ; [Puideaux : His- torical Connection of the Old and New Testaments (ed. Wheeler, Lond., 1865), ii. 380 sq. ; Sachs : Ueber die Zeit der Entstehung des Synhedrins (Frankel's Zeilschrift, 1845, pp. 301-312); Saalschutz : Das mosaische Recht (2d ed., 1853), i. 49 sq., ii. 593 sq. ; Archdoloqie der Hebrder, ii. (1856), pp. 249 sq.,271 sq., 429-458; Levy: Die Prdsidentur im Synedrium (Frankel's Monats- schrift, 1855, pp. 266-284, 301-307, 339-358); Herzfeld : Geschichte des Volkes Israel, vol. ii. (1855), pp. .380-396 ; Jost : Geschichte des Juden- thums u. seiner Sekten, i. pp. 120-128, 270-281, ii. pp. 13 sq., 25 sq. ; Geiger : Urschrifi u. Uebersetz- SANTA CASA. 2112 SARGON. wige/i der Bibel, pp. Hi sq. ; Keil: Handbuch der bibUschen Archaologie, ii. pp. 257-260; Langen: Das judische Synedrium u. die riimische Procuratur in Judcia (Tubingen Theol. Quartalschrift, 1862, pp. 411-463) ; Graetz : Geschichte der Juden, vol. iii. (2d ed.), pp. 88 sq., 492 sq. ; Ewald : Gesch. d. Volkes Israel (3d ed., 1864-68), iv. 217 sq., v. 56, vi. 697 sq. ; Kuhn : Die stddtische und bilrgerliche Verfassung des romischen Reiclis, \'oL ii. (1865), pp. 336-361 ; Kuenen : Over de samenslelUng van het Sanhedrin (Verslagen en Mededeeliugen dev kouinkl. Acad, van Weteuschappen, Amst., 1866, pp. 131-168) ; De Godsdienst van Israel, ii. (1870), pp. 572-575 ; Derenboueg : Histoire de la Palestine (1867), pp. 83-94, 465-468 ; Hausrath : I^eulesia- mentliche Zeitgesclu, i. (1868), pp. 61-70 ; SoHtJRER : Handbuch d. Neutestamentlichen Zcitgesch. (1874), pp. 395 sq. ; Hoffmann : Der oherste Gerichlshof in der Stadt des Heiliglhums (Jahresbericht fiir 1877-78, Berlin)]. LEYREE. SANTA CASA. See Loreto. SARCERIUS, Erasmus, b. at Annaberg, 1501; d. at Magdeburg, 1559. He studied at Leipzig and Wittenberg ; was very active in introducing the Reformation in Nassau (1538-48) ; and was appointed pastor at Leipzig in 1549, and at j\Iag- deburg in 1553. He was a very prolific writer. His principal works are. Condones annuce (1541, 4 vols.). Loci communes Theologim, Von einer Dis- ciplin (1555), Pastorale (1559), etc. SAR'DIS, the magnificent capital of Lydia, stood in the rich and fertile plain watered by the Pactolos, with its acropolis built on an almost inaccessible rock, a spur of the Tmolos, and was, in the Lydian and Persian period, one of the prin- cipal cities of Western Asia in military, commer- cial, and industrial respects. After the conquest by Alexander the Great, it lost its prominent position, and under the Romans it began to fall into decay. During the reign of Tiberius it was almost completely destroyed by an earthquake, but was rebuilt by the aid of the emperor. Under the Mohammedan rule its ruin became complete, and it is now only a heap of debris. Jews set- tled early in the city (Josephus : Antiquit., 14, 10, 24), and it was the seat of a Christian congrega- tion (Rev. i. 11, iii. 1). SAR'GON (Heb., p'JiD, better |uip_so Baer and Delitzsch; LXX. , 'Apvii, corrupt form, cf. 'ApKeavov, Can. Ptol.; Assyr., Sar-uldn, "He [a god] established the king "), a powerful Assyrian king, successor of Shalmaneser IV., and father of Sennacherib, who reigned B.C. 722-705, is men- tioned only once in the Bible (Isa. xx. 1) : " In the year of [the] Tartan's coming to Ashdod, when Sargon, king of Assyria, sent him, and he fought against Ashdod and took it," etc. In con- trast with this solitary and incidental notice, the Assyrian inscriptions dating from Sargon's reign are numerous, and our knowledge of his achieve- ments fairly complete. From the facts that he never calls his prede- cessor his father, and yet that he, his son Sen- nacherib, and his gi-andson Esarhaddon, all speak of royal ancestors, it is probable, that, while not in the direct line of descent, he belonged to a branch of the royal family. An ancient Baby- Ionian king bore the same name, so that the Assyrian Sargon is often called Sargon II. He .succeeded Shalmaneser IV. during the siege of Samaria, and it was in the first year of his reien (B.C. 722) that the city fell. (See 2 Kings xvii. 6, where nothing indicates that " the king of Assyria " is different from the one mentioned in v. 7. See Shalmaneser.) His inscriptions men- tion this conquest repeatedly ; and in one account there seems to be a reference to the estabhsh- ment of foreign colonies in the territory of Sa- maria, in place of the Israelites who were carried away captive (cf. 2 Kings xvii. 24). A confirma- tion of this appears in the Annals of Sargon, according to which, in B.C. 721 he transported inhabitants of ' Babylonia to the land of Hatti (properly Hittites, but under Sargon of wider application). Another inscription speaks of liis sending colonists from other places to " the land of the House of Omri" (Samaria); and the Annals are authority for the further statement that still other colonists were transported to " the- city of Samaria" in B.C. 715. It was in the year 721 that Sargon conquered for the first time Mero- dach-baladan of Babylon (see the art.). 720 was a famous year for Sargon. He conquered Ja-u-bi'di of Hamath in a battle near Karkar, he overthrew Humbanigas of Elam, he defeated Seveh (So), king of Egypt, at Raphia, and took prisoner Hanno of Gaza. The years 719 and 718 were employed in successful campaigns against little known princes, — " Mitatti of Zu'kirtu " and " Kiakku of Sinuhta." In 717 occurred a cam- paign against Pisiri of Gargamis (Karkemish). 716 was spent in subduing a revolt of tributary princes in Armenia. In 715 the king's attention was divided between Armenia, where disturb- ances continued, and Media; and in this year occurred one of the transportations of colonists, that, to Samaria, referred to above. In this year, also, Sargon came for the second time in contact with the Egyptian kingdom, which in the person of its Pharaoh paid him tribute. The Arabian prince Samsieh and the Sabean It'amar did the same. B.C. 714 found Armenia again in revolt, but the result was not successful. In 713 and 712 there were less important campaigns in the East and the West, followed in 711 by the expe- dition against Azuri, king of Ashdod, resulting in the fall of the city, to which Isaiah refers in the passage cited above (xx. 1). Sargon dwells on this at some length, and it was doubtless a critical campaign for his dominion in south-west- ern Asia. The occasion of it was the refusal of Azuri to pay tribute to Assyi-ia, backed by a league with neighboring princes. This dangerous move- ment called down the speedy vengeance of the Assyrian king. Azuri was dethroned, and his brother, Ahimit, made king in his place. " The men of Qatti " (the term used here also in a wide sense, see above) rejected this new ruler, and made a certain Jaman their king. Forthwith the Assyrian army came. Jaman fled to Egypt, and Ashdod was captured. We are told further that the king of Ethiopia was terrified at this success of the Assyrians so near the Egyptian frontier, and that he not only commissioned am- bassadors to sue for peace for himself, but also gave up the fugitive Jaman, and even sent hira in chains to Assyria. It is quite in keeping with the overweening vanity of an Assyrian monarch, that Sargon, in this account, gives no credit to SARPI. 2113 SATISFACTION. irtan, or general, who commanded the army Ashdod, and narrates this conquest in the lerson. But at all events his record gives 'elcome light on the relation of the fall of id to the prophecy contained in Isa. xx. 2- intimates a close connection between the tines and Egypt at the time of the revolt of rmer. It was doubtless in dependence upon rom Egypt that the revolt had been under- It is probable that Ashdod had attempted iw Jerusalem into the conspiracy, and Isa- prophetic act and word were designed to the reckless folly of any such combination w of the overwhelming power of Assyria, igyptian party at Jerusalem had always an ipromising opponent in the prophet, the years 710, 709, Sargon's attention was to Babylonia again by the hostilities of the ^tigable Merodach-baladan. The result was Gond overthrow of the latter, and Sargon's ption of the title " King of Babylon " in 709. this year and the three years following, clay 3 are in existence bearing a double date, — (lith, 15th, or 16th) year of Sargon, king iyria, and 1st (2d, 3d, or 4th) year (as) king bylon." This is very important, because anon of Ptolemy also gives the first year \.pKcavoQ," king of Babylon, as 709 ; and we liave one point in the Assyrian chronology with absolute definiteness. Sargon's name lued to inspire terror far and wide ; and ive especial record of a Cypriote embassy waited upon him this year in Babylon, rought him tribute. He graciously replied e present of an insci-ibed block of stone, has been discovered in the Island of IS. B.C. 708 a campaign against Kummuch agene) took place, and this was followed by ,ry expeditions of less consequence. The years of Sargon's reign, beginning even as as 712, were largely occupied with the build- f a great city, Diir-Sarrukin (" Fortress of n"), modern Khorsabad, about fifteen miles ■east from Mosul. The chief building in this fas his own magnificent palace, where most J records of his deeds were preserved. By plendid work he raised a monument to the ing memory of the conqueror of Babylon, er a reign of seventeen years he died — per- by violence, but we do not certainly know — 3. 705, and was succeeded by his son Sen- rib. (See the art.) '. — E. ScHKADER : Die Keilinschriften u. d. Veslament, Giessen, 1872, 2d ed., 1883, Eng. in process, 1883 ; Die Sarqonstele de.-' Berliner ims, Berlin, 1882 (Abhandl. der Berl. Akad. Viss., 1881); D. G. Lyon :_ Keilschrifltexte n's, Konigs von Assyrien, Leipzig, 1883; C. [E : Hours with the Bible, Lond. and N.Y., r., 1882; G. Rawlinson : Five Great Mon- s of the Ancient Eastern World, 4:^ ed., Lond., N.Y., 1880. FRANCIS BKOWN. ^PI, Paolo, generally known as Fra Paolo, idre Paolo I b. at Venice, Aug. 14, 1552; ire Jan. 15, 1623. He entered the order of ervites in 1566, and was ordained a priest 74, and in 1579 elected provincial of his In the controversy between Venice and Paul V. he took a prominent part. He excited the ire of the curia by his views of the secular government as divinely instituted, of eccle- siastical exemption as merely a privilege grant- ed by the king, of papal excommunication as depending for its validity upon its justice, etc., which he developed in his Considerazioni sopra le censure di P. Paolo V. (Venice, 1606), Storia par- ticolare delle cose passate fra Paolo V. e la repub- lica di Venezia (Lyons, 1624), De interdicli Veneti historia (Eng. trans, by Bedell, 1626). He was summoned before the Inquisition of Rome, but refused to come. He was excommunicated, but freed from the ban by the peace between the Pope and the Republic in 1607. He was, nevertheless, persecuted as long as he lived, and attacked by assassins even in his own monastery. His most celebrated work, however, is his History of the Council of Trent, which first appeared at Gene- va, 1619, and was translated into English (1676), French, and German. It is written with pro- nounced opposition to the Roman system, and, if not Protestant, is at least reformatory in its fun- damental principles. Collected editions of his works appeared at Venice, 1677 and often, Geneva, 1687, Jfaples, 1790. His life was written by Bi- ANCHi GioviNi (Zurich, 1836), Cornet (Vienna, 1859), A. Campbell (Florence, 1875), and Gaeta- NO Capasso, in Rivista Europea, 1879-80. Besides the works mentioned above, there is an English translation of his History of the quarrels of Pope Pius V. with the stale of Venice (London, 1626), History of the Inquisition (1655), and of his His- tory of ecclesiastical benefices and revenues (^^'est- uiinster, 1727). SARTORIUS, Ernst Wilhelm Christian, an able and learned theologian of the Lutheran Church ; b. at Darmstadt, May 10, 1797 ; d. at Kdnigsberg, June 13, 1859. He studied theology at Gottingen, and was appointed professor at Marburg in 1821, and at Dorpat in 1824, and superintendent-genera' of the province of Prussia in 1835. His principal wi'itings are Beitrage zur evangelischen Rechtglau- bigkeit (1825), Lehre von Christi Person (1831), Die Lehre von der heiligen Liebe (1840-56), Soli deo gloria, posthumously published in 1860. He was also a steady contributor to Hengstensberg's Evan- gelische Kirchenzeitung. SARUM USE, the liturgy put forth (A.D. 1087) by Osmund, bishop of Sarum, based on the Anglo- Saxon and Norman liturgies, which was gradu- ally incorporated into the ritual books of various parts of England, more palrticularly in the south ; " was used a good deal in France, and until quite lately in Portugal." It is supposed that the bloody opposition of the monks to the style of chanting invented by William of Fescamp, when Thurstan, abbot of Glastonbury attempted (1083), to introduce it, called Osmund's attention to the varieties of use, and led him to revise the ritual upon the occasion of opening his new cathedral. See F. Procter and Ch. Wordsworth : Sarum Breviary, Cambridge, 1882 ; Procter : Hist. Book of Common Prayer, 11th ed. p. 5 ; HoOK : Church Dictionary, s.v. "Use." SATAN. ..See Devil. SATANAEL, in the mythology of the Bogo- miles the first-born son of God, but an apostate, who seduced thousands and thousands, until he was deprived of his power by the incarnate Logos. SATISFACTION. See Atonement. SATURNINUS. 2114 SAUL. SATURNINUS, one of the most celebrated mis- sionaries and martyrs of the third century ; was a native of Italy, and was in 245 sent as a mis- sionary to Gaul iDy Pope Fabian. He settled at Toulouse, and labored with considerable success, but was killed by an infuriate mob some time between 250 and 260. He is conmiemorated on Nov. 29. See that date in Act. Sanct. SATURNINUS THE GNOSTIC. See Gnos- ticism, p. 880. SAUL, the first king of Israel, was a son of Kisli the Benjamite (cf. 1 Sam. ix. 1), of Gibeah. Saul, i.e., the "desired," is described as "a choice young man, and a goodly : and there was not among the children of Israel a goodlier person than he : from his shoulders and upward he was higher than any of the people" (ix. 2). At the desire of the people for a king, Samuel is illumi- nated by the Spirit of the Lord as to whom he was to anoint. Saul, who had gone out to seek the asses of his father, is advised by his servant to consult the " seer " at Ramah as to the fate of the asses. At the gate they met the seer for the first time. It was Samuel. A divine intimation had indicated to him the approach and future destiny of the youthful Benjamite. Surprised at his language, but still obeying his call, they as- cended to the high place ; and in the inn, at the top, they found a company, in which Saiil was especially distinguished. "WHien Saul was about to return home, Sanmel poured over Saul's head the consecrated oil, and with a kiss of salutation announced to him that he was to be the ruler of the nation. From that moment on, a new life dawned upon Saul ; and at every step homeward it wa-s confirmed by the incidents, which, accord- ing to Samuel's prediction, awaited him (x. 9, 10). As only Samuel and Saul knew of what had taken place among themselves, Samuel convened an as- sembly at Slizpeh, and lots were cast as to who was to be king. Saul was named, and by a divine intimation found hidden in the circle of baggage around the encampment (x. 17-24). His stature at once conciliated the public feeling ; and the people shouted, "God save the king!" (x. 23, 24.) The murmurs of the worthless part of the community, who refused to salute him with the accustomed presents, were soon hushed by an occa- sion arising to justify the selection of Saul. He was on his way home, driving his herd of oxen, when tidings reached his ears of the tlireat issued by Nahash.kingof Ammon, against Jabesh-gilead. " The Spirit of the Lord came upon Saul," and in this emergency he had recourse to the expedient of the earlier days. He sent throughout Israel as a message the bones of two of the oxen which he was driving. All the people " came out with one consent" (xi. 7) at Bezek ; and Saul, at the head of a vast multitude, totally routed the Ammonites, and obtained a higher glory by exhibiting a new instance of clemency, which those experienced who had formerly despised him. Under the direction of Samuel, Saul and the people betook themselves to Gilgal, where with solemn sacrifices the victori- ous leader was reinstalled in his kingdom (xi.). At Gilgal Samuel resigned his office as judge, and warned both the people and Saul of the danger of disobedience to the commands of God (xii.). In the third year of his reign Saul collected a stand- ing army of three thousand men, of whom two thousand were at Michmash with the king, and a thousand, under the command of his son Jonatlian, at Gibeah. Israel's old foe, the Philistines, had' again lifted up his head, and tried to regain the former supremacy. Even a Philistine officer had been stationed in Saul's own land (x. 5, xiii. 3). This officer was slain by Jonathan ; and the Philis- tines now marched against Israel, and encamped at Michmash. The people panic-stricken fled to rocks and caverns for safety. Saul called tte people together at Gilgal, and waited there for Samuel. When the seventh day had come, Saul at last ordered sacrifices to be offered. Just after the sacrifice was completed, Samuel arrived, and pronounced the first curse on his impetuous zeal (xiii. 5-14). Samuel, having announced the dis- pleasure of Jehovah and its consequences, left him, and Saul returned to Gibeah. Meanwhile the adventurous exploit of his son bi-ought on the crisis which ultimately drove the Philistines back to their own territory. Jonathan having assaulted a garrison of the Philistines, Saul, aided by a panic of the enemy, effected a great slaughter; but by a rash and foolish denunciation he impeded his success, and, unless prevented by the more en- lightened conscience of the people, would have ended with putting Jonathan to death for an act, which, being done in total ignorance, could involve no guilt. The expulsion of the Philistines at once placed Saul in a position higher than that of any previous ruler of Israel. Saul was at the zenith of his glory. He was now able not merely to act on the defensive, but to attack the neighboring tribes of Moab, Ammon, Edom, Zobah, and finally Amalek (xiv. 47). The war with Amalek is twice related, — first briefly (xiv. 48), and then at length (xv. 1-9). Its chief connection with Saul's history lies in the disobedience to the prophetical com- mand of Samuel, shown in the sparing of the king and the retention of the spoil. This rebellion against the directions of Jehovah was now visited by that final rejection of his family from suc- ceeding him on the throne which had before been threatened (xiii. 13, 14, xv. 23). Samuel, after having slain Agag, withdraws to Ramah, mourn- ing for Saul (xv. 35). David, whom Samuel had secretly anointed as king, was filled with the Spirit of God, which departed from Saul to make room for an evil spirit (xvi. 14). David, who was a cun- ning player on the harp, is brought before the king in order to divert his melancholy. David's music had such a soothing effect upon the king that he loved him greatly. When, however, after the victory which David had gained over Goliath, the people shouted, "Saul hath slain his thousands, and David his ten thousands," Saul's love towards David was turned into hatred, — a hatred which wished David's death under any circimistances (xix. 1). Saul would have carried out his murder- ous intentions, were it not for the intercession of his son Jonathan, the intimate friend of David. Indeed, Jonathan succeeded for a time in bringing about a friendly relation between his father and his friend; but this was of but a short duration. David was compelled to assume the position ot an outlaw. A portion of the people were base enough to minister to the evil passions of Saul (xxiii. 19, xxvi. 1); and others, perhaps, might color their fear by the pretence of conscience (xxiii. 12). But his sparing Saul's life twice, when SAUMUR. 2115 SAVONAROLA. as completely in his power, must have de- ed a;ll color of right in Saul's conduct in the s of the people, as it also did in his own con- ce (xxiv. 3-7, xxvi.). At last the monarchy which he had raised up broke down under veakness of its head. The Philistines re- ed the country. Saul, forsaken of God, who him no oracles, had recourse to necromancy livination, although he had formerly executed enalty of the law on all those who practised things (xxviii. 3). He consults a woman J at Endor, who conjures up the spirit of lel. From Samuel he heai-s that his doom lied. In the battle which took place on Gil- Saul, after his three sons had been killed, tied by his own sword (xxxi. 4). The body, 3ing found by the Philistines, was stripped iecapitated. The armor was deposited in jmple of Astarte; the head was deposited in imple of Dagon (1 Chron. x. 10). The corpse emoved from Beth-shan by the gratitude of ahabitants of Jabesh-gilead, who carried ofE odies, burned them, and buried them (1 Sam. 13). After the lapse of several years, his and those of Jonathan were removed by i to their ancestral sepulchre at Zelah in imin (2 Sam. xxi. 14). The Old Testament nothing about the length of Saul's reign, lets xiii. 21 states it as forty years. Comp. lER : Die Kbnige in Israel (Stuttgart, 1855), p. ilwALD : Geschickte d. Volkes Israel, ii. pp. 502 [Stanley : Jewish Church, ii. lect. xxi. ; ARDSON : Saul, King of Israel (Edinburgh, ; Joseph A. Miller : Saul, First King of (London, 1853, new ed., 1866) ; Brooks : Said (a tragedy. New York, 1871) ; James : The Kingdom of all Israel, London, 1883. L. Kamphausen : Die Chronologie der hebra- KSnige, Bonn, 1883]. E. naegelsbach. JMUR, a town of France, on the Loire, in epartment of Maine-et-Loire, now famous 3 manufactures of rosaries ; was the seat of elebrated Protestant academy founded in by the national synod of Montpellier, and essed by a royal edict of Jan. 8, 1685. The my, which developed the first fertile school ticism in modern theology, owed to a certain t both its existence and its scientific charac- ' Duplessis-Mornay, who was the governor ! place, and watched the young institution freat tenderness. The Scotchman Cameron le one of its first professors, and he brought lim that spirit of free and independent re- i which afterwards characterized the acade- iring the whole course of its life. Three 1 disciples became professors there nearly at ime time, — Moyse Amyraut (Amyraldus), 84, Josue de la. Place (Placaeus), 1633-65, ouis Cappel, 1614-58. Amyraut is the far if the system of hypothetical universalism, upon the two propositions, that God has absolute ahd arbitrary decree excluded no om being saved by the death of Christ, but ily made persevering and unfailing faith Saviour an indispensable condition of sal- . The system was denounced by Pierre ulin, professor of the academy of Sedan, as ack upon the divine majesty of God ; but tional synods of Alencjon (1637) and Char- (1645) supported Amyraut. Placseus main- tained that original sin consists simply in that corruption to which the offspring of Adam is heir, and that the first sin of Adam is not im- puted to us. The national synod of Chaienton condemned those propositions; but several pro- vincial synods held that the national synod had acted a little hastily, and refused to carry out its decree. Of still greater importance were the researches of Louis Cappel concerning the integ- rity of the various documents of the Old Testa- ment. The strict Calvinists were fully aware, that, if the results of those researches were to be accepted, the doctrine of the literal inspiration of Scripture had to be given up, and a hot contest ensued. After the death of Amyraut, PlacKus, and Cappel, it was apparent that the fame of the academy of Saumur had passed its zenith : still men like iStienne Gaussen, Claude Pajon (the father of Pajonism), and fitienne de Brais, con- tinued to throw lustre over the academy, and attract gTeat numbers of students. See Amy- raut; ScHWEiZER : Protest. Centraldogmen (Zu- rich, 1856), ii. 439 sqq. ; Schaff : Creeds of Christendom,^. 477 sqq. SAURIN, Elie, b. atUsseau, in Dauphiny, Aug. 28, 1639 ; d. at Utrecht, Easter-Day, 1703. He studied theology at Die, Nlmes, and Geneva, and was appointed pastor of Delft in 1665, and of Utrecht in l670. He is best known on account of his controversy with Jurieu, which grew so hot that the synod of Leuwarden (1695) forbade both parties, though in vain, to write any more on the matter. His principal works are Examen de la thcologie du M. Jurieu, The Hague, 1694, 2 vols. ; Defense de la veritable doctrine, Utrecht, 1697, 2 vols. ; Reflexions sur' les droits de la con- science, Utrecht, 1697. See Frank Puaux : Pre- curseurs de la tolerance, Paris, 1881. SAURIN, Jacques, the gi-eatest orator of the French-Reformed Church; b. at Nimes, Jan. 6, 1677; d. at The Hague, Dec. 30, 1730. He was ed- ucated at Geneva, served four years in a regiment of volunteers in the coalition against Louis XIV. (1694-97), studied theology at Geneva, and was appointed pastor to the French-Reformed Congre- gation in London (1700) and at The Hague (1705), where he gathered immense audiences by the earnestness, energy, and eloquence with which he preached the gospel. Besides his Discours (Am- sterdam, 1720), whose second volume (Amster- dam, 1728) gave occasion to some disagreeable misunderstandings, he published five volumes of Sermons (1707-25), and after his death seven more volumes were published by his son. Collected editions were several times issued. The best is that of The Hague, 1749; the latest, that of Paris, 1829-35. One volume of an English translation of his Discours appeared in London, 1723. The best English translation of his sermons is edited by BuRDER, London, 1824, 6 vols., New York, 1860, 2 vols. See Van Oosterzee : Jacques Saurin, Bruxelles, 1856 ; Gaberel et Deshours- Farels: Saurin, 1864; Berthault: Sauri7i et la predication protesiante, 1875. SAVONAROLA, Hieronymus, often called Fra Girolamo, b. at Ferrara, Sept. 21, 1452; d. at Florence, May 23, 1498 ; the originator and the victim of an ecclesiastico-political reform move- ment, sometimes wrongly represented as an in- spired prophet, and wonder-working saint, but SAVONAROLA. 2116 SAVONAROLA. sometimes, also, as an ambitious demagogue and deluded fanatic. He was by his parents destined to study medicine: but a steadily deepening im- pression of the corruption of the world in gen- eral, and the church especially, concentrated the whole force of his character on the one point, the salvation of his soul; and in 1475, in the twenty-third year of his age, he left the parental home, and sought refuge in a Dominican monas- tery at Bologna. The conversion was in strict harmony with the mediseval ideas of monasticism, and involved no reformatory impulse at all. He simply wanted to become a lay-brother, and do the mean work of the house ; but his superiors determined that he should study theology, aiid in course of time he became thoroughly conversant with the Bible, — which he knew almost entirely by heart, and of which especially the Old Testa- ment and the Revelation inspired him with pas- sionate sympathy, — and also with the writings of Thomas Aquinas the great Dominican doctor, of St. Augustine, and others. He also began to preach, but at first without any success. Sud- denly, however, at Brescia, his powerful eloquence broke forth in all its wealth ; and in 1490 he was sent as lector to the Dominican monastery of San Marco in Florence. He taught first in his cell, then in the garden of the cloister, finally in the cathedral ; and im- mense audiences thronged to hear him expound the Revelation. "Your sins make me a prophet," he said to them; and from the depths of that stir- ring, brilliant, half-pagan life which the Medicis had called forth in Florence, he conjured up a stinging sense of its emptiness and desolation. The reformer began to work. A radical, doc- trinal reform, however, as was achieved by Luther and Calvin, Savonarola never dreamed of : in all essential points he agreed with the traditional system of the Church of Rome. AVhat he wanted was simply a moral regeneration of the church, hand in hand with a political regeneration of Italy, more especially of Florence. In 1491 he was elected prior of San iVIarco, and Lorenzo the Magnificent soon became aware of the strong fas- cination the prior exercised upon the people. But Lorenzo died, April 8, 1492 ; and his son Pietro had neither his sagacity nor his self-control. When in August, 1494, Charles VIII. of France crossed the Apennines at the head of a powerful array, Savonarola believed that the moment for action had come. The 'Medicis were expelled from the city, and the re-organization of the state after a theooratical model was intrusted to him. He seemed to succeed. With the new constitution a new spirit awakened. Love to Christ seemed to have become the predominant impulse. Dead- ly foes fell upon each other's bosoms. Property illegitimately held was returned. All profane amusements ceased. The monasteries filled up. The churches were thronged. "Indeed," says a contemporary writer, "the people of Florence seem to have become fools from mere love of Christ." It was the idea of Savonarola, with Florence as a basis, to push the reform farther through all Italy, and he consequently soon began to direct his attacks against the chief seat of the corrup- tion, Rome. In 1492 the monster Alexander VI. had ascended the Papal throne. He was afraid of the preacher, and offered him the archbishop- ric of Florence and a cardinal's hat, if he would keep silent; but the oifer was declined. Then he changed tone, and summoned the reformer to Rome to defend himself ; but the summons was not obeyed. Finally, in the fall of 1496, he issued a brief, forbidding, under penalty of exooniniuni- cation, the prior of San Marco to preach, because he had undertaken to prophesy and reform with- out any authorization from the church. But Sa- vonarola entered the pulpit with the Papal brief in his hand, and demonstrated, by a singular train of reasoning, that it came, not from the Pope, but from the Devil. Meanwhile, political affairs began to give trouble. The campaign of Charles VIII. proved a failure. Famine and the plague visited Florence in 1497. The jealousy of the Franciscans broke out into open opposition. The intrigues of the banished Medicis became more and more active, and a re-action set in against the popular enthusiasm for the reformer. Alexan- der VI. was not slow in utilizing these difficulties. In May, 1497, he formally excommunicated Savonarola ; in October of the same year he forbade all Christians to hold any kind of con- verse with him ; and towards the close of the year he threatened to lay the interdict on the city, unless the people delivered up the seducer. In this critical moment Savonarola challenged an ordeal. Standing on the balcony of the cathe- dral, with the host between his hands, he asked God to destroy him by fire, if he had preached or prophesied lies. A Franciscan monk accepted the challenge. Savonarola hesitated, but was pressed onwards by the enthusiasm of his party. On April 7, 1498, the ordeal was destined to take place. Two pyres were formed in the market-place. They were even lighted, when a quarrel between the Franciscans and Dominicans, whether the comba- tants should carry the cross or the host through the fire, caused some delay. A rain-storm, in the mean time, put out the fires ; and the whole dis- appointment of the frenzied multitude of specta- tors fell upon Savonarola. From that moment he completely lost his power over the people, and even became an object of pity and contempt. Arrested by his enemies, and put' to the torture,, he confessed whatever he was demanded to con- fess; and, though he afterwards retracted, he was. by the Papal commissioners condemned as a here- tic, and surrendered to the civil authorities for punishment. He was burned at the stake, — erected in the form of a cross, — together with two of his most zealous adherents. The Dpmini- oan order, however, has since taken great pains to have him canonized. He left several works in Latin and Italian. The treatise on Ps. li., which he wrote during his imprisonment, was re- published by Luther in 1523. Of special interest for his own life is his Compendium Revelationnm, written in 1495. His principal theological work is his Inonfo della Croce, a defence of Christianity against the sceptical tendencies of the Medicean epoch, written in 1497 (English Translation, Tri- umph of the Cross, London, 1868). In 1882 a bust of Savonarola was placed in the Hall of the Five Hundred at Florence. ' Lit. — His life was written by Pacifico Bdr- LAMACCHi (d. 1519), ed. by Mansi, Lucca, 1761 (Italian) ; Joan. Franc. Pico, a nephew of Pioo de Blirandula, 15.30, edited by Quetif, Paris, 1674 SAVOY CONFERENCE. 2117 SCHAUPFLER. in) ; Bartoli, Florence, 1782 (Italian) ; A. UDELBACH, Hamburg, 1835 (German) ; Fr. L Meier, Berlin, 1836 (German); Karl s, in Neue Propheten, Leipzig, 1851 ; F, T. tENS, Paris, 1853, 2 vols., 3d ed., 1859 (French 3ermau trans.); R. R. Madden, Lond., 1854, s. (English); P. Villari, Florence, 1859-61, s. (Italian, this is the chief work; French ., Paris, 1874, 2 vols.); Schuster, Hamb., (German); Sickixger, Wurzb., 1878 (Ger- 87 pp.); W. R. Clark, Lond., 1878 (EngUsh); ."Bayoxxe, Paris, 1879 (French) ; E. War- Lond., 1881 (English). See also G. Capponi : 2 delta republica di Firenze, Florence, 1875; E. CoMBA : Storia della reforma in Italia, ince, 1881, pp. 465-501. He has also several \ been made the subject of poetical treatment, J Lenau, in a great epic bearing his name, by Alfred Austlx in his tragedy, Savona- in -nhich Lorenzo de' Medici and Sa\onarola ie chief characters ; in the long preface the 3r dares to draw an irreverent, not to say ihemous, parallel between Savonarola and it, between the tragedy on the Piazza della jria, May 23, 1492, and the crucifixion of Lord), Lond., 1881 ; and figui-es prominently 50RGE Eliot's Romola. PHILIP schaff. VOY CONFERENCE. See Coxfekexce. YBROOK PLATFORM. See Congrega- .\LiSM, p. 538. :ALICER, Joseph Justus, b. at Agen, on the nne, Aug. 4, 1540 ; d. at Leyden, Jan. 21, He studied in Paris, and was in 1592 ap- ed professor at Leyden. He was the most ed man of his age, understood thirteen lan- es, and was well versed not only in philology listory, but also in philosophy, theology, juris- ;nce, mathematics, etc. Most of his writings Dhilological ; but his Thesaurus temporum sterdam, 1658), the fii'st system of chronology formed, and his Expositio numismalis Con- ni (Leyden, 1604), have considerable interest 3 church historian. APEGOAT. See Atonement, Day of. APULARY (from the Latin scapula, the ulder-blade ") means a narrow shoulder- , of various colors, and adorned with a pic- of the Virgin, or a cross, which is worn by al monastic orders and religious fraternities e Roman-Catholic Church. As a piece of it has no particular purpose, but it is be- 1 to be a preservative against death by water 3. According to the bull Sahbatina the Vir- las personally promised Pope .John XXI. any one who wears a scapulary with her 3 shaU be delivered from purgatory on the Saturday after death. HADE, Georg, b. at Apenrade in Sleswick, 8, 1711; d. at Kiel in Holstein, April 10, He was practising as an advocate in Alto- olstein, when in 1760 he published in Berlin ^eipzig Die unwandelbare und ewige Religion, lich he gave strict mathematical evidence metaphysics was the only true theoretical, morals the only true practical, religion, idiately after appeared a refutation of that by Eosenstand Goisce, professor at the uni- ;y of Copenhagen; but the refutation was ntly a mere trick by which 'to draw atten- to the book. Frederik V. of Denmark, to whose dominion Holstein at that time belonged, did not relish the joke, however, but put the author in C'hristiansoe, the Danish Bastille, from which he was not released until 1775, under Christian "\'II., when he was allowed to settle as an advocate at Kiel. See J. A. Bolten: His- torische Kirclien-Nachrichten von der Stadt Allona, which also contains a fuU list of Schade's otlier writings. L. HELLER. SCHADE, Johann Caspar, b. at Kiihndorf in 1666 ; d. in Beriiu, July 25, 1698. He studied at Leipzig, where he became an intimate friend of Francke ; and was in 1690 appointed preacher at the Church of St. Xicholas, in Berlin, where Spener was provost. In 1697 he published Praxis des Beichtstuhls und Abendmalds, which occasioned a rescript from the goyernment, according to which, private confession ceased to be obligatory in the Prussian Church. SCHAEFFER, Charles Frederick, D.D.,b. Sept. 3, 1807 ; d. Xov. 23, 1880; an eminent theologian of the Lutheran Church, son of Frederick David Schaeffer, D.D., pastor in Philadelphia; was a graduate of Pennsylvania L'niversity ; pursued his theological studies under his father and the Rev. Dr. Deirvme ; served, 1832 to 1S55, congrega- tions at Carlisle, Hagerstown, Red Hook (N.Y.), Easton (Penn.). From 1840 to 1845 he had charge of a professorship in the theological seminary, Columbus, O. ; was in 1855 called to the German professorship in Pennsylvania College, and in the theological seminary at Gettysbui'g, Penn., and in 1864 to the chair of dogmatic theology in the newly established theological Lutheran seminary at Philadelphia, where he conscientiously per- formed his duties until 1879. He was a repre- sentative of the strictly consei-vative tendency, adhering to the symbols of the Lutheran Church according to their original meaning. Of his solid scholarship his publications bear witness, — his- torical, homiletical, and doctrinal articles in the Gettysburg Evangelical Review ; translation of Lechler's Commentary mi the Act.'^, in Schaff's edition of Lange's Bible-ivork; translations of John Arxd's True Christianity, and of H. Kurtz's Sacred History. w. J. MAXTJ. SCHALL, Johann Adam, b. at Cologne, 1591; d. in China, Aug. 15, 1666. He was educated in the Collegium Germanum in Rome ; entered the order of the Jesuits, and was in 1628 sent as a missionary to China, where he remained to his death. He acquired the confidence of the Chinese Government (which proved of gi-eat advantage to the mission), and translated into Chinese many mathematical ti'eatises, interlarded with religious and Christian discussions. He also wrote Historica missionis Societatis Jesu apiid Chinenses, Vienna, 1665, and Ratisbon, 1672. G. H. klippel. SCHAUFFLER, William Gottlieb, D.D., LL.D., missionary and Bible-translator ; b. at Stuttgart, Wiirtemberg. Germany, Aug. 22, 1798; d. in New- York City, Friday, Jan. 26, 1883. In 1804 his father removed to Odessa, South Russia. At fifteen he was confirmed in the Lutheran Cluu-ch ; at twenty-two, converted. He then determined to be a missionary. But his educational advan- tages had been small, though diligently improved, and the way seemed hedged up. But in 1826 lie met the famous missionary, Joseph Wolff, who took him to Constantinople, there to be fitted for SCHBFFLBR. 2118 SCHBLLING. missionary labors ; and from there he went to Smyrna, where Jonas King induced him to go to America. For five years he studied at Andover, became an American citizen, and then, under the care of the American Board, went to Constantino- ple (1831), where, with the exception of a few years spent elsewhere, he resided and labored. He was particularly interested in the conversion of the Jews, and for their benefit revised and super- intended the publication of the Old Testament, in Hebrew-Spanish, at Vienna, 1839-42. But his great work was the translation of the whole Bible into Osmanli-Turkish, the language of the edu- cated Tui-ks. This occupied him eighteen years. In 1867 Halle gave liini the degree of D.D., in ex- press acknowledgment of this work. In 1861 his peace-making between two high dignitaries at Constantinople was acknowledged by a decoration sent him by King William of Prussia. In 1877 he was made a doctor of laws by Princeton Col- lege. He was a remarkable linguist, being famil- iar with some nineteen languages, and able to preach extemporaneously in six (German, Italian, French, English, Spanish, and Turkish). He pub- lished Meditations on the Last Days of Christ (Bos- ton, 1837, several editions). . SCHEFFLER, Johann (Angelus Silesius), b. at Breslau in 1624; d. there July 9, 1677. He stud- ied medicine at Strassburg, Leyden (where he first became adjuainted with Jacob Boehrae's writ- ings), and Padua (where he took his degree), and was in 1649 appointed body-physician to tlie Duke of Wiirtemberg ; but he remained only three years at the court of Oels. In 1653 he returned to Breslau, and embraced Romanism. In 1657 he published his two most celebrated works : Cheru- binische Wandersmann (a collection of minor poems, almost of the character of proverbs), and Geisl- liche Hirtenlieder (a collection of hymns), both characterized by a peculiarly deep and sweet mys- ticism. His polemical writings show quite a dif- ferent character. In 1661 he was ordained a priest : and from that time he spent the rest of his life in a series of violent, sometimes almost unseemly, attacks on the Reformers and the Re- formed churches; which (thirty-nine treatises) wei-e collected under the title Ecclesioloc/ia, and appeared at Glatz, 1677, 1 vol. fol. See Kahlert : Anr/elus Sdesius, Breslau, 1853. DBYANDEB. SCHELHORN, Johann Georg, b. at iVJemmin- gen, Dec. 8, 1694; d. there March 31, 1773. He studied at Jena, and settled then in his native city as preacher and librarian. Of his writings the following have great interest to the church his- torian: Aincenitates historicm eccl. (Leip., 1737-46, 3 vols.). Acta hist.-eccl. Saec. XV. el XVI. (Ulm, 1762-64, 4 vols.), De vita Camerarii (1740, etc.). SCHELLING, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von. I. Life and Writings. — He was b. Jan. 27, 1775, at Leonberg, near Stuttgart, where his father was pastor; d. in Ragatz, Switzerland, Aug. 20, 1854. In his sixteenth year he entered the uni- versity of Tiibiugen to study theology, together with Hegel and the mifortunate poet Holderlin. Lessiug, Herder, and Kant were the leaders of these young men; and especially the influence of Herder is seen in Schelling's academic dissertation, Antiquissimi de prima malorum origine pliilosophe- matis explicandi Gen. Hi. tentamen crilicum (1792), as vrell as in the essay on Myths, Historical Le- gends, and Philosophemes of the earliest timeii (1793). In the year 1796 he went to Leipzig to study natural science and mathematics, and began in 1798 to lecture at Jena as a colleague of Fichte whose doctrines had so far been of the most de- cisive influence upon the development of his own philosophy. Here he came also in contact with Goethe and the other great men of literature. In 1801 he was appointed professor of philosophy at Wiirzburg, where he remained till 1806. In 1807 he was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences at Munich ; lectured in Erlangen, 1820- 26, in Munich, 1827 ; was called, 1841, to Berlin to lecture on mythology and revelation. His principal writings are. Idea of a Philosophy of Nature, 1797; Of the World-Soul, eto., 1798; Si/s- tem of Transcendental Idealism, 1800; Lectures on the Method of Academical Study, 1803; Philosophi- cal Inquiries concerning the Nature of Human Free- dom, 1809 ; Lectures on Mythology and Revelation, in his complete Works, published after his death. II. Schelling's Doctrine in its Gradual Development. 1. Schelling as a Follower of Fichte. — Schelling, in whose philosophy two great periods may be distinguished, cannot be fully understood without a precise knowledge of the preceding philosophers ; and, because his first philosophical endeavors are based entirely on the ground of Kant-Fichte's idealism, it is necessary to sketch this in a few lines. Kant, who calls his own philosophy "criticism," had by a thorough scrutiny of our faculty of knowledge come to the conclusion that our knowledge of the world exte- rior to us is merely subjective, that we never know the "things in themselves," but only through the forms of space and time which we add to them as the only medium of our perception. But, while our faculty of knowledge is thus very limited in regard to objects of experience, we enjoy a realm of freedom as moral beings. Pure practical rea- son has therefore the primacy over the speculative reason. On our moral consciousness only, our con- victions of freedom, of immortality, and of the existence of God, are founded. An ethical theism was thus the result of Kant's doctrine. This idealism was carried to its furthest conse- quences by Fichte. Pie accepts the critical result of Kant, that the Ego is theoretically limited in regard to the object as the Non-Ego. But this Non-Ego has no reality without us : it is, as well as the forms (space and time) by which we per- ceive it, the result of the activity of the Ego, the production of an unconscious intuition. This creative Ego is not the individual, but the abso- lute Ego. The Non-Ego is therefore the same with the Ego, which is thus not limited by_ an outward reality, but by itself. Yet every limit is a contradiction to the infinite nature of the Ego, its independent, free activity ; and so an infinite striving at every hinderance is revealed to us. In this striving the nature of practical reasoning consists; and the antithesis of both — the limited theoretical and the infinite practical reason — con- stitutes the empirical Ego, the individual. This, however, could not be understood if the true na- ture of the Ego was not absolute activity. Under the gi-ound of all actions of the individual lies the activity of the absolute Ego, in which both subject and object are yet one. This pure, abso- lute Ego may only be comprehended by an iutel- SCHELLING. 2119 SCHELLING. al iutuition. It is, according to Ficiite, the ist principle of philosophy, the moral order le world, without personality and self-con- sness, -— God. And this, the absolute, he ! his point of departure in his later specula- ith the enthusiasm of youth, Schelling ac- id this ethical Pantheism in the earliest d of his thinking ; but very soon we see him ig his own ways. Schelling's "Philosoph/ of Nature" and "Tran- 'ental Idealism," 1796-1800. — It is in this d that Schelling creates a new epoch in Ger- philosophy, a new form of dogmatism with lative knowledge, instead of the critical one ant-Fichte. To Schelling's rich mind, open e impressions of nature, it could not remain ;aled that nature took only a subordinate ion in Fichte's system, — the position of an al medium of the individual. The great thought which Schelling introduced now was that nature is a form of the revelation of bsolute Ego as well as intelligence. Nature ible mind, and mind is invisible nature. The 5st end of Nature (i.e., to reflect herself) is fested through all nature, but is reached in man, where she becomes wholly objective srself. Philosophical reasoning can there- not end with nature: it is driven to the •pole of the absolute, — to Ego, the intelli- E. In his Sysleni of Transcendental Idealism, Uing tries to give a history of the Ego, or the lopmenfc pf self-consciousness. Similar to process of nature, to come to self-conscious- there are diiferent stages of development in tfe of the Ego, the highest of which is art. • the harmony of the conscious and uncon- s is reached, and the Ego comes to the high- ituition. le absolute identity of subject and object, li Schelling found embodied in the works of begins now to be the starting-point of his dug in — The Period of the System of Identity. — At the of this system he places the notion of the ab- e, and defines it as absolute reason, the total Eerence of subject and object. The highest )f its existence is absolute identity (A = A). y thing that exists is this absolute itself: ing exists outside of it ; and so it is the uni- : itself, not the cause of it. As both subject )bject are contained in the absolute, and the ute must posit itself as subject and object, 1 may be a preponderance of either the sub- or of the object, although the absolute will fs be contained in both of them. In this he obtains mind on one side, nature on the •: the difEerent stadia of mind and nature otencies of the subject-object. is in this period, and especially in his Lectures cademical Study, that Schelling for the first brings reUgion and Christianity into the 1 of his system. Corresponding to the an- iis of real and ideal, of nature and history e universe, there is a similar antithesis in ry itself. The ancient world and ancient re- i represent to us the preponderance of natm-e theism) ; while in Christianity the ideal is led in mystery. In the progress of history iree periods to be distinguished, — the period of nature, which found its bloom in Greek religion and poetry; the period of fate, at the end of the ancient world ; and the period of providence, which entered with Christianity. God became ob- jective for the first time in Christ. This incarna- tion is not a temporal, but an eternal act. Christ sacrifices in his person the finite to enable by this the coming of the Spirit as the light of a new world. By speculative knowledge alone, Schel- ling expects a regeneration of esotei-ic Christian- ity and the proclamation of the absolute gospel. Thoughts similar to these are expressed in the essay on Philosophy and Religion (1804). This and his Philosophical Inquiries concerning Human Freedom show us, 4. Schelling in the Transition to his Later Doc- trine, which is characterized by his inclination to theosophic speculation and the influence of Chris- tian mysticism, especially of Jacob Bohnie. Kan1>Fichte's idealism had, according to Schel- ling, not given a sufficient notion of freedom, because it lacked the basis of realism. Such a realism is contained in his philosophy ; because he distinguishes in God a basis, the nature in God, iu which all beings, and therefore man also, have their cause. This nature in God, a dark, blind will, is an eternal yearning to produce itself, and rests also at the ground of our existence. But God produces in himself a perception of himself, which is understanding, the expression of that yearning. Both together, eternal yeaniing and understanding, are then in God that loving, al- mighty will which creates all things. In man we find both principles united, — the principle of nature, and the principle of light and understand- ing. As a part of that dark will, he has a will of his own : as gifted with understanding, he is an organ of the universal will. The separation of both principles is the possibility of good and evil, which presupposes human freedom. The predomi- nance of man's particular will is the evil. The decision of man for the evil is an act, but an eter- nal act, because it was done before time. Only through God can the particular and the universal will be united again. And it is done by revela- tion, or by God's adopting of man's nature. The philosophy of religion, which Schelling has given here in broad outlines, is finally completed in — 5. Schelling's Later Doctrine. — Schelling begins with a distinction of negative and positive phi- losophy. As negative philosophy he describes the philosophy of Hegel, which is unable to give us a full knowledge of reality. Because it is the desire of human reason, as well as the object of true philosophy, to find the absolute Being, and because Schelling wants to obtain the notion of an absolute Spirit, he distin- guishes three potencies in the divine essence, — the possibility of being {Sein-Konnen), pure being {reines Sein) without the possibility of being (actus purus), and absolute free being, which is neither of the two, but their unity, i.e., subject-object. Yet these three forms of being are not being (Sein) itself : they are only attributes of the general be- ing, which is one, or the absolute Spirit. This absolute Spirit, which has the freedom of existing outside of himself, reveals himself, ac- cording to his three potencies, in the world, as causa materialis, causa efficax, and causa fnalis of SCHBLLING. 2120 SCHINNER. the world. Only through creation, which is an act of his will, not of his nature, God comes to a full knowledge of himself. Schelling believes that his notion of God is also the original notion of monotheism ; and, based upon his theory of the three potencies in God, he develops also the Christian doctrine of the Trinity. The three persons of the Trinity, who proceed from the potencies by a theogonic process, are, the Father as the creator, who gives matter to the creatures ; the Son, begotten of the Father, who contributes the forms; and the Spirit, who is the completion of creation. But only at the end of creation Son and Spirit become perfect personali- ties, -yet both are in God, so that we have only one God in three personalities. In man, as the image of God, we have the same three potencies and a similar freedom, which may separate the harmony of the potencies. The sep- aration of the potencies has become actual in the fall of man. In order to restore the harmony, and bring the fallen world and man back to the Father, the Son himself must become man. But the Son can at first realize this only as a natural potency, which is done in the mylhoLogical process. After having overcome here the anti- divine principle, he can act also according to his will, as the ideal potency; and this free personal acting is revelation. It is impossible to follow Schelling here into his elaborate construction of mythology, which is rich in deep and grand thoughts. Revelation finally broke through mythology, as it appears even in the Old Testament, by Christ's incarnation. The person of Christ is the centre of Christianity. Here the second potency divests itself of the " form of God," which it had in the raythologic consciousness (Phil. ii. 6-8), and becomes man, suffei-s and dies, not only to bring freedom to men, but to become by obedience one with the Father (1 Cor. xv. 28). Schelling closes his philosophy with a glance at the history of the church. He distinguishes three great periods, and names them after the charac- ters and names of the thi-ee apostles, — The Pe- trine Period, or Catholicism ; The Pauline Period, or Protestantism ; and The Johannean Period, or the "church of the future." [While Schelling stands, on one side, in the most intimate connection with the gi-eat poetic and philosophic movements of the last century ; while especially his earlier philosophy is but a philo- sophic expression of that yearning to comprehend the absolute as it appears above all in Goethe's Faust; and while his system is the highest glorifi- cation of genius as celebrated by the romantic school, — we have on the other side, in Schelling's later philosophy, the greatest endeavor of modern philosophy to construct the system of Christian doctrine. His thoughts have had great influence upon modern German theology (and upon Cole- ridge), especially his idea of the three ages of church history. His philosophy is an illustration of his own saying, " The German nation strives with her whole nature after religion, but, ac- cording to her peculiarity, after a religion which is connected with knowledge, and based upon science."] Lit. — Sche.llincfs Complete Worls, Stuttgart and Augsburg, 1856-01, 14 vols.; Aus Schelling's Lehen, Leipzig, 1869-70 ; Rosenkranz: Sc/icffinj, Dant- zig, 1843. Compare accounts of his system in the historical works of Michelkt, Erdmann, Uebek- WEG, and others, — Schelling und die Offenbdrung, Kritik des neuesten Reaclionsversuchs gegen die freie Philosophie (Leipzig, 1842), Differenz der Sch'schen u. Hegel'schen Phil. (Leip., 1842). Marheineke: Kritik der Schelling' schen Offenharungsphilosophie, Berlin, 1842 ; Salat : Schelling in Miincken, Hei- delberg, 1845; Noack: Schelling und die Phil, der Romantik, Berlin, 1859 ; Mignet : Notice historigue sur la vie et les travaux de M. de Schelling, Paris, 1858; E. A. Webek; Examen critique de la phil. religieuse de Sch., Strassburg, 1860; also Eduard V. IIartmann: Schellings positive Philosophie als Einheit von Hegel und Schopenhauer : Dr. August. Dorner : Schelling zur hundertjiihrigen Fcier, 1875, "Jahrbuch fiir d. Theol.," xxx. ; Constantin Frantz : Schellings positice Philosophie, Ciitheii, 1880. HEYDER. (DR. .JULIUS GOEBEL.) SCHELWIG, Samuel, b. at Polish Lissa, March 8, 1643 ; d. at Danzig, Jan. 18, 1715. He studied theology at Wittenberg, and was appointed pro- fessor at Danzig in 1675. In the great Pietist controversy he sided with the orthodox Luther- ans, and published a great number of violent polemical tracts, in which he actually treated Spener as a heretic. The most important are Catechismus-Reinigung (Danzig, 1684), Synopsis controversiarum (Danzig, 1701), Pe Novalianismo (1702), Manductio ad August. Confess (1711), and Mon. ad Form. Concord. (1712). SCHEM, Alexander Jacob, b. in Wiedenbriick, Westphalia, Maroli 16, 1826 ; d. at West Hoboken, N.J., May 21, 1881. He studied philology and theology at Bonn and Tubingen, 1843-46 ; M'as a priest of the Roman Church, but became a Prot- estant and emigrated to America, 1851; did lit- erary work, and taught ancient and modei'n lan- guages ; was professor of the same at Dickinson College, Carlisle, Penn., 1854-60 ; was regular con- tributor to ApplktO's's New American Cyclopadia from 1859 to 1868; to the Annual Cyclopaedia, in the foreign and religious departments, from its first number (1861) to 1872 ; and to jMcClintock and Strong's Cyclopaedia, 1867-81 ; foreign ed- itor of the Tribune (newspaper), 1864-66 ; editor of the Deutsch-amerikanisches Conversations-Lexi- con, 1869-74, 12 vols. ; assistant superintendent of public schools, New- York City, 1874 till his death ; with Henry Kiddle edited a Cyclopcedia of Education, 1877, and the supplements, Year-Book of Education, 1878 and 1879. He also published the American Ecclesiastical Year-Book, 1860, and an Ecclesiastical Almanac, 1868 and 1869. SCHINNER, Matthaus, b. at Miillibach, in the canton of Vaud in Switzerland, in 1470; d. in Rome, Oct. 2, 1522. He was educated at Zurich and Como, and became bishop of Sitten in 1509. Employed by Pope Leo X. in Swiss politics, he was very successful in bringing about an alli- ance between the Pope and the Union against France, and received as a reward the cardinal's hat, in 1511. In 1514 he went as legatus a latere to. England to stir up a war between Henry VIII. and Francis I., and the latter acknowledged that Schinner had been one of his worst enemies, not only in the diplomatic, but also on the battle field. Zwingli's works give several striking de- scriptions of the great impression the cardinal SCHISM. 2121 SCHLEIBRMACHBR. e on the soldiers. When the Reformation e out in Switzerland, he seemed to be in per- harmony with the movement. He offered ler a place of refuge and support in 1519, and inued for a long time to befriend Zwingli. his close connection with the Church of le, and worldly regards, at last got the better im, and he turned against the Reformation, in Faber met him in Rome in 1521, he agreed him that the Reformation should be put 1 by force. carl pestalozzi. ;HISM, from the Greek axla/ui, has, according iuon law, a double sense : one, more general, ily denoting a deviation from the orthodox ch, with respect to organization or discipline, as the schisms caused by Felicissimus, Kova- Meletius, and others; and one more special, ting a split in the highest authority of the ch, such as the great Papal schism, 1378- . See Urban VI., Boniface IX., Benedict .., etc., and the Council of "Constance. JHLATTER, Michael, missionary, and found- the synod of the German-Reformed Church e United States ; was b. of a respectable fam- i St. Gall, Switzerland, July 14, 1716 ; d. near idelphia, October, 1790. He studied in the aasium of his native town, and probably also shnstadt ; was for some time a teacher in Hol- , where he was ordained to the ministry ; and r45 was assistant minister at Wigoldingen, s native country. In 1746 he was commis- id by the deputies of the synod of North and h Holland a missionary to the destitute Ger- churches of Pennsylvania, with special direc- to visit the scattered settlements, to organize )ral charges, and, if possible, to form a coetus, nod. blatter arrived in America on the 1st of Au- 1746. Before the end of the year he was i to the pastorate of the Reformed Church hiladelphia. Though he accepted the call, intinued to prosecute his special mission with lordinary energy. From the year 1747 to the ming of 1751 he travelled, as he informs us in ournal, a distance of not less than eight thou- miles, — not reckoning his passage across the 1, — and preached six hundred and thirty- imes. According to his own estimate, there at this time thirty thousand German Re- ad people in Pennsylvania, with fifty-three '. churches, and only four settled pastors. ,tter formed the congregations into pastoral :es ; and on the 29th of September, 1747, the rs and delegated elders met, at his instance, liladelphia, and organized the German-Re- ;d coetus, or synod. 1751 Schlatter went to Europe; at the request e coetus, to solicit aid for the destitute Ger- Reformed churches of America. He was very ssful, especially in Holland, where a fund stablished from which the churches received assistance. In 1752 he returned to Ameri- 3companied by six young ministers. He ;ht with him seven hundred large Bibles for bution to churches and families, die Schlatter was in Europe, he published, itch, a Journal of his missionary labors, con- ig a tender appeal in behalf of the Germans aerica. It was translated into German, and 3hed in Fresenii Pastoral JS'achrichien, and also separately. Rev. David Thomson, English minister in Amsterdam, translated the book into English, and became the chief promoter in Eng- land of a movement for the establishment of schools among the Germans in America. A large sum of money (JIuhlenberg says twenty thousand pounds sterling) was collected for this purpose, and placed in the hands of a Society for the Promo- tion of tlie Knowledge of God among the Germans. Unfortimately, in the effort to enlist sympathy, the picture of German destitution was greatly overdrawn, and the Germans were represented in a manner that could not fail to be painful to a high-spii'ited people. In 1755 Schlatter was in- duced to resign his church in Philadelphia, and to become superintendent of the proposed " charity schools." This was a mistake; for by this time the movement had to some extent become politi- cal. An attempt was made to use the " charity " as a means of breaking the tacit alliance which had hitherto subsisted between the Quakers and the Germans, and of inducing the latter to sup- port the favorite measures of the government party. Christopher Sauer, the celebrated German printer, exerted liis immense influence in opposi- tion to the " charity schools," which, he claimed, were intended to prepare the way for an estab- lished church. The Lutheran and Reformed min- isters for a while supported Schlatter in his woi-k ; but at last the popular feeling of opposition be- came irresistible, and the undertaking proved an utter failure. The manner in which the charity was offered had caused it to be regarded as an in- sult. Seidensticker says, " Schlatter's failure was due to his connection with the cause after it had assumed this unfortunate complexion. U the affair had remained on the basis on which he had with honest zeal and decided success originally placed it, the history of these schools would have been very different." On the failure of the school-movement, Schlat- ter, in 1757, accompanied an expedition to Nova Scotia against the French, as chaplain of the Royal American regiment, and was present at the taking of Louisburg. He subsequently lived in retuement at Chestnut Hill, neai- Philadelphia. During the American Revolution he was an ear- nest patriot, and was for some time imprisoned for refusing to resume-his position of chaplain in the British army. Lit. — Rev. H. Harbaugh, D.D. : The Life of Rev. Michael Schlatter, Phila., 1857 ; Dr. O. Sei- densticker : Die beiden Chris. Sauer ; a series of arts, in D. Deutsche Pionier, vol. 12 ; H. W. Sjiith : Life and Correspondence of Rev. William Smith, D.D., Phila., 1879, vol. 1. JOS. henry dubbs. SCHLEIERMACHER, Friedrich Daniel Ernst, b. in Breslau, Nov. 21, 1768; d. in Berlin, Feb. 12, 1834. I. Life. — Schleiermacher's father was chaplain of a Prussian regiment in Silesia, and belonged to the Reformed communion. To his mother, a very intelligent and pious woman (as her few let- ters embodied in Schleiermacher's correspondence abundantly prove), he confesses himself mainly indebted for his early training, his father being frequently absent on professional journeys. Sub- sequently the family removed to the country, where he lived from his tenth to his fourteenth year, mostly under the instruction of his parents SCHLEIERMACHER. 2122 SCHLEIERMACHER. and of a teacher who first inspired him with enthusiasm for classical literature. At that time ha had already con) nienced the struggle against a ■"strange scepticiam," which he calls a "peculiar thorn in the flesh," and which made him doubt the genuineness of all the ancient writings. In 1783 his parents sent him, his brother, and sister, to an excellent Moravian school at Niesky in Upper Lusatia. Two years afterward he entered the Moravian college at Barby. The childlike piety, the wise mixture of instruction and amuse- ment, and the rural quietness of these institu- tions, made a deep and lasting impression on his mind. He ever remembered that time with grati- tude, and kept up a familiar intercourse with the society through his sister Charlotte (who had become one of its regular members), and through his intimate friend and classmate, Von Albertini, of the Grisons, subsequently bishop of the fra- ternity, and a distinguished hymn-writer. The type of Moravian Christianity can be clearly traced in his enthusiastic personal devotion to the Saviour, and in the strongly christological character of his dogmatic system. In his Weih- nachls/eiei; 1803 (an imitation of the Platonic Symposion), Christ appears as the living centre of all faith and true religion. But his consti- tutional scepticism seriously tormented him, and led to a temporary rupture with his teachers, and even with his father. The correspondence between them is highly honorable to both. With all his filial i-everence and affection, the son re- fused to yield to mere authority, and insisted on his right of private judgment and personal inves- tigation. 'J'he father learned to respect the manly independence and earnest mental struggles of the son. Both were at last fully reconciled. With the consent of his father, he left Barby, and entered the university of Halle in 1787. His studies wei-e rather fragmentary. He attended the lectures of Semler, the father of German neology, and of Wolff, the celebrated Greek scholar, studied modern languages and mathe- matics, and read the philosophical works of Spinoza, Kant, Fichte, and Jacobi. His mind was very impressible, yet too independent to follow any one teacher or system. The age was thoroughly rationalistic, and German theology was then undergoing a revolution as radical as the political revolution of France. Pie left tbe university, after a two-years' course, without a fixed system of religious opinions, yet with the hope of "attaining, by earnest research, and patient examination of all the witnesses, to a reasonable degree of certainty, and to a knowl- edge of the boundaries of human science and learning." In 1790 he passed the examination for licensure, and accepted a -situation as private tutor in the family of Count Dohna, where he spent tlu-ee years. In 1791 he was ordained to the ministry, and became assistant to his uncle, a superannuated clergyman at Landsberg on the Warta. In 1798 he was appointed chaplain at the Charite (hospital) in Berlin, and continued in this position till 1802. During these six years he moved mostly in literary circles, and identified himself temporarily with the so-called romantic school of poetry as represented by Friedrich and Wilhelm Schlegel, Tieck, and Novalis. In 1799 he published his first important work, the Dis- courses on Religion. It had a stirrhig effect upon the rising generation of theologians (as Neander and Harms from different stand-points testified from their own experience), and marks the transi- tion of German theology from an age of cold speculation to the restoration of positive faith. He appears here as an eloquent high priest of natural religion in the outer court of Christian revelation, to convince educated unbelievers that reUgion, far from being incompatible with intel- lectual culture, as they thought, was the deepest and the most universal element in man, different from knowledge and from practice, — a sacred feeling of relation to the Infinite, which purifies and ennobles all the faculties. Beyond this he did not go at that time. His piety was strongly tinctured with the pantheism of Spinoza. His Monologues followed in 1800, a self-contemplation in the face of the world, and a description of the ethical ideal which floated before his mind, and was influenced by the subjective idealism of Fichte. In 1802 he broke loose from his aesthetic and literary connections, much to his own benefit, and removed for two years to Stolpe in Poniera- nia, as court-preacher. There he commenced his translation of Plato, which he had projected with Friedrich Schlegel in Berlin. The completion of this great undertaking in six volumes (1804-26) gave him a place among the best Greek scholars in Germany. His searching Criticism of all Former Sgsletns of Moral Philosophy, which opened a new path in this science, belongs to the same period (1803). In ISOi he was elected extraordinary professor of philosophy and theology in Halle. After the temporary suspension of this university in 1806, he spent some time on the Island of Riigen, then returned to Berlin as minister of Trinity Church, and married the widow of his intimate clerical friend Willich (1809), with whom, notwithstand- ing the great disparity of age (he might have been her father), he lived happily to the close of his life. He took an active part in the organization of the university of Berlin, which was founded in 1810. He was elected its first theological pro- fessor, and also pastor of Trinity Church. In this double office he continued to the close of his life, and unfolded his greatest activity to an ever- widening circle of pupils and admirers. For a quarter of a century he and his colleague and former pupil, Neander, were the most influential teachers of theology, and the chief attraction in the university of the literary metropolis of Ger- many. At the same time he felt a lively interest in public affairs. He roused from the pulpit the sense of national independence during the deepest humiliation of Prussia, and nrged the people to the war of liberation against Napoleon. He ad- vocated liberal political opinions after the Con- gress of Vienna (1815), and ran the risk of sharing exile with his friends De Wette and Moritz Arndt. He was no favorite with Frederic William III- 1 but a few years before his death he received from the king the order of the red eagle, which he never wore. They agreed, however, in zeal for the union of the Lutheran and Reformed churches, which was inaugurated in 1817, at the third tercentenary celebration of the Reformation. Schleiermacher did all he could to promote it. SCHLEIBRMACHBR. 2123 SCHLBIERMACHBR. ^as free from all sectarian bigotry. " Christ," id, " is the quickening centre of the church. 1 him comes all; to him all returns. We Id, therefore, not call ourselves Lutherans, or rmed (Calvinists), but Evangelical Christians, his name and his holy gospel." He favored ntroduction of the Presbyterian form of gov- lent. He was one of the compilers of the Berlin hymn-book (1829), which, with all efects, opened the way for a hymnological m. Notwithstanding this extraordinary ac- 1, he mingled freely in society, and was the e of a large number of friends at his fire- Many of his witty sayings and charades, rse and prose, were transmitted by oral tra- n in Berlin, and are still remembered. the beginning of February, 1834, he was d by a severe cold, which fell on his lungs, in a few days terminated in death. In his lours he summoned his family around his bed, with clear consciousness and calm serenity irated the holy communion. He himself dis- ted the elements, and solemnly confessed his icit faith in Christ his Saviour, and in the ing eflScacy of his death. It was a worthy of his relig-ious career, which began in the m of Moravian piety. It was felt throughout ermany that a truly representative man, and )f the brightest luminaries of the age, had rted. The funeral-orations of Steffens (a itian philosopher), Strauss (his colleague court-chaplain), and Marheineke (a specu- 3 theologian of the Hegelian school, and his fonist), gave public expression to the uni- i\ esteem and regret. His literary remains intrusted to his friend and pupil, Ur. Jonas, ist his only son, Xathanael, in his early youth ; the funeral-address which he himself deliv- at the grave is one of his most remarkable touching compositions. He bases there his of immortality solely on Christ as the resur- Dn and the life. bleiermacher was small of stature, and slight- iformed by a humpback; but his face was 3, earnest, sharply defined, and expressive of ligence and kindly sympathy ; his eye keen, ing, and full of fire ; his movements quick animated. In his later years his white hair ; him appear like a venerable sage of olden 3, yet his mind retained its youthful vitality freshness to the close. He had perfect com- i over his temper, and never lost his calm losure. His philosophy and theology were ntly as.«iailed by orthodox and rationalists ; le kept aloof from personal controversy, and ■ed the esteem even of those who widely dif- [ from his views. He was the Plato and Origen srmany in the nineteenth century. His Character and Works. — Schleiermacher a many-sided man, and a master in several rtments of intellectual and moral activity. iss a public teacher and writer, a preacher, issical philologist, a philosopher, and a theo- n. I academic teacher he had that rare personal letism which drew the students at once into resistible current of thought, and roused all mental energies. They saw the process of sat genius and scholar unfolding his ideas, building up his system. He usually lectured two hours a day : first, on every branch of theology except the Old Testament and the Book of Reve- lation, and then, by way of recreation as it were, on every branch of philosophy in a certain order. He used brief notes, and allowed his genius to play freely under the inspiration of the lecture- room filled with attentive students.' All his post- humous works are based on fragmentary notes. As a preacher, he gathered around him in Trinity Church, every Sunday morning, the most- intellectual audiences of students, professors, officers, and persons of the higher ranks of so- ciety. Wilhelm von Humboldt says that Schleier- machei''s speaking far exceeded his power in writing, and that his strength consisted in the " deeply penetrative character of his words, w hich was free from art, and the persuasive effusion of feeling which moved in perfect unison with one of the rarest intellects." He never wrote his sermons, except the text, theme, and a few heads, but allowed them to be taken down by friends during delivery, and to be published after som& revision by his pen. As a theologian he ranks among the greatest of all ages. His influence is seen among writers of different schools ; and will long continue, at least in Germany, as a suggestive and stimulating" force. He was a unique combination of mysti- cism and criticism, of religious feeling and scepti- cal understanding. He believed in his heart while he doubted in his head. He was a panthe- ist as a philosopher, but a theist as a praying Christian. He built up as a divine what he destroyed as an historian, yet he knew somehow how to harmonize and to adjust these antagonis- tic tendencies. He learned from Plato, Spinoza^ Calvin, Fichte, Schelling, Jacobi ; but he digested all foreign elements, and worked them up into an original 'system of his own. He can be classed neither with rationalists, nor supranaturalists, nor mystics ; but he had elements from all. He re- jected the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity and Christology, of inspiration and the canon ; and he. taught an ultimate restoration, which he ingen- iously I'easoned out from the Calvinistic election theory, by an expanding process from the particu- lar to the general. His errors are as numerous as those of Origen. He was bold and unsparing in his criticism. He dissected historic documents with the sharpest knife, and sacrificed almost all the miracles of the Gospel history as unessential to faith. Yet he ever held fast to Christ as the greatest fact in history, as the one only sinless and perfect man in whom the Divinity dwelt in its fulness, and from whom saving influences emanate from generation to generation, and from race to race. In this central idea lies Schleier- macher's chief merit in theology, and his salutary influence. He modestly declined the honor of being the founder of a school ; and his best pupils, as Neander, Twesten, Nitzsch, Liicke, Bleek, Ullmann, Julius Miiller, went far beyond him in the direction of a positive evangelical creed. He was willing to decrease, that Christ might increase. The works of Schleiermacher, including his posthumous publications, cover nearly all the de- partments of philosophy and theology, — ethics, dialectics, psychology, politics, {esthetics, pedago- gics, dogmatics, Christian ethics, hermeneutics. SCHLEIERMACHBR. 2124 SCHLBIBRMACHER. biblical criticism, life of Jesus (posthumous lec- tures, exceedingly unsatisfactory), church history (likewise posthumous, and almost worthless), and a large number of philosophical, exegetical, and critical essays, and sermons. But the books which he published himself are by far the most finished and important, especially his masterly outline sketch of the course of theological study as an organic whole (1811), and his Christian Dogmatics (1821, 3d ed., 1835), which stands next to Calvin's Institutes as a masterpiece of theological genius. It is an original reconstruction of the evangelical system of faith on the basis of practical experi- ence and the consciousness of absolute depend- ence on God : it is in matter independent of all philosophy, yet profoundly philosophical in dia- lectical method and conclusive reasoning. But more of this in the next section. We only add, that it is Protestant to the backbone, yet re- markably conciliatory in spirit and tone towards diverging types of Christianity. It reduces the differences between Catholicism and Protestant- ism to this formula : " Catholicism makes the rela- tion of the believer to Christ to depend on his relation to the church ; Protestantism makes the relation of the believer to the church to depend on his relation to Christ." philip schaff. III. TheoloQij. — Sclileiermaoher's Reden iiber die Relic/ion was a strong word spoken to his time, and it suited the moment. At every point except one the German spirit was rallying from that debility and barrenness into which it had sunk ; in every direction except one the German mind was stirring with new issues : only religion seemed to have been entirely abandoned by the educated portion of the nation as a kind of self-contradic- tion. But the contradiction, the book said to its readers, between piety and cultiive, is a lie fabri- cated by people who know neither the one nor the other. That which they reverence as educa- tion is not education, but simply school-pedantry ; and that which they despise as religion is not reli- gion, but its shadow, its caricature. They con- sider religion as a means of maintaining social order, an instrument for the inoculation of good morals, an expression of a trite and vulgar view of nature and history. But religion is no such thing. Religion is that feeling of the universe iu which man discovers his own destination, that feeling of the infinite in which man discovers his own immortality, that feeling of the presence of a supreme power in which man discovers the exist- ence of God, though he may still shrink from ascribing the forms of the human personality to that being. Religion is a part of human nature. Every one has religion, whether he knows it or not ; and every one is compelled to recognize the truth of his religion, whether he will or not. So far the book is admirable'. By its exposition of the true nature of religion it forces the reader out of his religious indiffei-ence. But then it undertakes an exposition of religion considered as an historical fact ; for, although it admits that not every one may feel called upon to join one of the historically developed religions, development towards a positive form is, nevertheless, an mher- ent demand in the religious feeling. And here the question arises : Does this book really point in the direction of Christianity and the Christian church? It does, though not in the common sense of those words, nor in that in which the author later on came to use them, but when com- pared with the stand-point of the readers ■whom it addressed. When Schleiermacher wrote the pref- ace to the third edition of the book, in 1821 he observed that there was at that moment more reason for addressing the bigoted than the in- different. To the Reden correspond the Monolotjen as their ethical complement. They are written in a more lyrical style, giving freer scope to a merely sub- jective pathos ; .and they have a somewhat lighter character, in spite of the profound researches they contain concerning human freedom. From Schleiermacher's philosophy of religion, as developed in his Reden and Monologen, to his systematic representation of the positive doc- trines of Christianity, a transition is formed by his critico-exegetical writings, and more especially by his famous little book, Kurze Darstellung des Theologisclien Studiums, 1811. It was not any remarkable gi-asp of historical and antiquarian materials which distinguished hun as an exegete : but he was a good philologist, and an excellent translator; and his marvellous power of under- standing, and, so to speak, reproducing the whole mental process by which a literary monument has been produced, makes his criticism in the highest degree suggestive. For the Old Testament he had very little sympathy, and its close connection with the New Testament he did not understand. But his Sendsckreiben an J. Chr. Gass, 1807, con- cerning the First Epistle to Timothy, is the first thorough-going examination of that remarkable document, and has led the exegetes to appreciate the intimate relation between tlie pastoral epistles, — ■ a relation so intimate, indeed, that they must be accepted or rejected together. Of still greater importance was his Kritische Versuch iiber die Schriften des LuIms, 1821, though only the first volume bi the work on the Gospel of Luke ever appeared. Not that Schleiermacher here really achieved what he intended, viz., to represent the Gospel of Luke as a mosaic of a great number of different, previously existing narratives; but he contributed much to concentrate the interest of biblical scholars on the questions of the origin and formation of the Gospels. More successful was his hypothesis concerning the testimony of Papias (Eusebius: Hist. Eccl., in. 39). It has been used by many, accepted by more, and hardly neglected by any. In the Kurze Darstellung des theologisclien Stu- diums, the theological stand-point of Schleier- macher is clearly defined. The fundamental facts of the Christian faith he accepts, not because he feels compelled by any philosophical demonstra- tion, but simply because he finds them as facts in the consciousness of the Christian congregation. He then goes on to give an encyclopedic survey of those facts and their reciprocal relations,^ di- viding the theological science mto philosophical (apologetics-polemics), historical (exegesis-dogmat- ics), and practical theology. The book is neither a mere sketch nor an elaborate picture ; it is a drawing executed with consummate skill, and rich in illustration and suggestion. The ripest fruit of Schleiermacher's genius is Der christliche Glaube nach den GrundsUtzen der evangelischen Kirche im Zusammenhange dargestellt, SCHLBIBRMACHER. 2125 SCHMALKALD. , 2 vols. (2d ed., 1831, revised aud improved). ide an extraordinary, not altogether favora- impression at its first appearance. But it aally grew upon scholars ; and it now stands nonument of religious enthusiasm and philo- ioal reasoning which has no equal in the theo- al literature, after Calvin's Instituliones. It sts of a series of small paragraphs connected each other by intervening explications of a ; elaborate character. The feeling from which ion springs is here further defined as a feel- ■A absolute dependence on God; and. that ig — not the demonstrations of a dialectical ming, nor the letter of a scriptural text — is i the touchstone on which the dogma must be . He rejects the doctrine of the Devil and loctrine of the fall of the angels ; because, as leges, they do not aid in solving the problem le existence of evU, but rather make it more ult. He also rejects the doctrine of miracles, ist in the sense of a breach upon natural law ; use, as he protests, it is not demanded by true 3tian piety. It must not be understood, how- that, when he thus declines to bow before the il evidence of Scripture, he in any way gives the postulates of non-religious science. By eans ! Few theologians have been so success- is he in keeping the doctrines of Christian separate from the propositions of natural ,ce, without either bringing them into confiict each other, or mixing them together in an nplete harmony. In the centre of the whole m stands Christ and that which he has done tie salvation of man. The development runs een a double christological (Ebionism and itism) and a double anthropological heresy .gianism and Manicheism) : but the power of ition is in no way bound up with the chui-ch, h by itself is nothing but the community of aithful ; it resides solely and fully in the in- te union between the faithful and the Saviour, i while the idea of God is, so to speak, pre- osed as given in the very feeling of absolute ndence on him, and no special regard is paid s aberrations into deism or pantheism, the of Christ is developed with a completeness minuteness which testifies to the inner pas- from which it sprung. Generally the work be characterized as a combination of syncre- and pietism. Syncretism means the over- w of all ecclesiastical exclusiveness by a er conception of the doctrines in question : sm means the careful cultivation of the reli- 3 organ in which faith manifests itself, and by h it works. Originally these two tendencies, ipresented by Calixfcus and Spener, touched other but slightly ; but later times came to irstand that an actual combination of them necessary, and it was accomplished by Schlei- icher : hence his practical stand-point, — gh belonging to the Reformed Church, he red for its union with the Lutheran Church; hence his scientific character. Syncretism loped into rationalism, and pietism into su- aturalism. But Schleiermacher is neither a inalist nor a supernaturalist : he is a union of . The ethical complement to the work may )und in a number of exquisite minor treatises uty, on virtue, on the highest good, etc., fore- owed by his Kriiik alter bisherigen Sittenlehre, 1803, [abridged from the first edition of Herzog, vol. xiii. 741-784]. w. gass. [Lit. — S'CHLEIERMACHEK : Sdmmlliche Werke, Berlin, 1835-64, in three divisions, — theology (11 vols.), sermons (10 vols.), philosophy and miscellaneous writings (9 vols.). For his earlier life till 1794 -ne have his own autobiographical sketch, first published by Lom- matzsch, in Niedner's Zeitschrift fur Mstorisclie Theologie, Leipzig, 1851 ; L. Jonas and W. Dix-- THEY : Aus Schleiermacher' s Lehen, in Briefen, Berlin, 1858-61, 4 vols, (ti-anslated in part by Frederica Rowan, London, 1860, 2 vols.) ; AV. DiLTHEY : Lehen Schleiermacher' s, Berlin, 1867. Comp. also Lucke's Erinnerungen an Schleierm. in the " Studien und Kritiken " for 1834. Schleiermacher's character and system have been discussed by Braxiss (1824), Delbruck (1827), Baumgarten-Crusius (1834), Sack (1835), F. C. Baur (Gnosis, 1835), Rosen- KRANZ (1836), Hartexstein (1837), D F. Strauss (1839), Schallek (1844), M'eissen- BORN (1849), TwESTEN (1851), Neander, Haxne, Gustav Baur, Hagenbach, Auberlen {Schleiermacher, ein Charackterbild, 1859), Erbkam (1868), RiTSCHL (1874), W. Gass (Gesch. der protest. Dogmatik, 4th vol.), and W. Bender {Schleiermacher's Theologie mit ihren philosoph. Grundlagcn dargestellt, Nordlingen, 1876-78, 2 vols.). On the philosophy of Schleiermacher, see G. RuNZE (1877), and Ueberweg : History of Philosophy (Xew-York edition), ii. 244-254. Cf. also E. Stroehlix, in Lichtenberger's " Ency- clopedie des Sciences relig.," vol. xi. 500-525, where Schleiermacher is called " le plus grand theologien de I'Allemagne contemporaine ."~\ SCHLEUSNER, Johann Friedrich, b. at Leip- zig, Jan. 16, 1759 ; d. at Wittenberg, Feb. 21, 1831. He studied theology in his native city, and was appointed professor at Gottingen in 1784, and at AVittenberg in 1795. His principal works are lexicographical, — Lexicon Or. -Lai. in Nov. Test., 1792 (now superseded), and Thesaurus sive lexicon in LXX., 1821 (still in use). SCHMALKALD, League and Articles of. The League of Schmalkald was formed on Feb. 27, 1531, by nine princes and eleven imperial cities of Germany, under the leadership of the elector of Saxony and the landgTave of Hesse, for the purpose of defending Protestantism. It was soon after joined by five other princes and ten imperial cities, and comprised, indeed, the a^ liole of jSTorth- ern Germany and a large part of Central and Southern Germany. The immediate effect of the formation of the league was the religious peace of Nuremberg in 1532 ; but it was evident to all that the emperor, Charles V., yielded, only because he was too occupied at that moment with France and the Turks to carry through his own views. The league acted in the beginning with considera^ ble vigor. At a meeting on Dec. 24, 1535, it was determined to raise and maintain a standing army of ten thousand foot and two thousand cavalry ; and at another meeting, on Feb. 15, 1537, a com- mon confession, the so-called Articles of Schmal- kald, was signed by all the members of the league. It was occasioned by the bull of Paid III., con- voking a general council at Mantua, and is a vehement protest against the primacy of the Pope. It was drawn up by Luther, and became after- SCHMID. 2126 SCHMUCKBR. ■wards one of the symbolical books of the Lutheran Church. But soon internal jealousy between the princes began to weaken the actions of the league, and at Muhlberg its array was completely routed, April 24, 1547. It was Maurice of Saxony, and not the league of Schmalkald, which finally se- cured religious freedom by the treaty of Passau, July 31, 1552. See Hortledek: Kaiser Karl V. wider die Schmal. Bundesverwandten, Francfort, 1617, 2 vols. SCHMID, Christian Friedrich, b. at Bickels- berg in Wiirtemberg, 1794 ; d. at Tiibingen, March 28, 1852. He studied theology at Tubin- gen, and was appointed repelent there 1818, ex- traordinary professor in 1821, and ordinary in 1826, and given the degree of D.D. He lectured on exegesis and practical theology. He was a very modest scholar, and published very little. The two books by which he is widely known, his Biblische Theologie des Neuen Testamentes (ed. C. Weizsacker, Stuttgart, 1853 [4th ed. by A. Heller, 1868, Eug. trans.. Biblical T/ieolof/// of the New Tes- tament, Edinburgh, 1870]), and Christliche Moral (ed. by A. Heller, Stuttgart, 1861, 2d ed., 1867), were published after his death. But he exercised a great and powerful influence on the side of posi- tive Christianity, and as a counterpoise to his colleague, F. C. Baur; and through his pupils, especially Oehler and Dorner, he wields it still. Schniid's work upon the biblical theology of the New Testament is distinguished by its vniion of the historic sense and the thoughts of organic development with the most decided faith in the absolute revelation in Christ. It will long main- tain its present high position. For further infor- mation respecting Schmid, and for a list of his own publications (only essays), see the preface to his Biblical Theoloc/y. CARL WEIZSACKER. SCHMID, Konrad, b. at Kiissnach, in the canton of Zurich, 1476 ; was educated in the house of the Johannites in his native city, and became an in- mate there, 1519, after studying theology at Basel. Soon after, he became acquainted with Zwingli. In 1522 he began to preach in German, and against the Pope. In 1525 he presided at the disputation of Ziirich, in 1528 at that of Bern, and througliout he proved himself the true friend and co-worker of Zwingli. Like him, he fell in the second Cap- pel war, October, 1531. HAGENBACH. SCHMIDT, Oswald Gottlob, D.D., Lutheran divine, b. at Kaditz, near Dresden, Jan. 2, 1S21 ; d. at Werdau, Saxony, Dec. 26, 1882. He studied at Leipzig; in 1842 was licensed to preach ; taught in private families until 1845, when he became pastor, first at Schonfeld, then, in 1856, at Gi-eif- enhain ; and in 1866 he was elected pastor and superintendent at Werdau. He wrote, besides numerous articles in newspapers and reviews, Nicotaus Hausmann, der Freund Luthers, Leipzig, 1860 ; Caspar Cruciger (ii. 2) and Georg der Gott- seliger, FUrst zu Anhall (iv. 2), in Leben iter Altvater der lutherischen Kirche, 1861 sqq. ; Pelrus Mosella- nus. Ein Beitrag zur Geschickte des Humanismus in Sachsen, 1866; and the lecture, Blicke in die Kir- chengeschichte der Stadt Meissen im Zeitaller der Reformation, 1879 ; Luther's Belcanntsclioft mil den alien Classikern, 1883 (ed. W. Schmidt). For his contributions to this Encyclopadia, see Analysis. SCHMOLKE, Benjamin (more accurately SCHMOLCK), one of the sweetest and most productive of the German hymn-writers ; was b, in Brauchitschdorf, Lieguitz, Dec. 21, 1672 ; d. at Schweidnitz, Feb. 12, 1737. In 1693 he entered the university of Leipzig; four years later became his father's assistant as pastor ; and in 1702 be- came co-pastor at Schweidnitz, and pastor prima- rius in 1714. The parish was a large one, and Schmolke's position was rendered difficult hy the machinations of the Jesuits. His earnestness and sweetness of disposition, however, not only won the hearts of his parishioners, but disarmed the' Jesuits. In 1735 he was obliged by physical in- firmities, induced by paralytic strokes, to forego, active labor. Schmolke's hymns were published in small collections during his lifetime, and soon found a permanent place in German hymn-books. They are pervaded by Christian piety and fervor, and are written in a simple and dignified style. They breathe a warm, personal love to Christ, and were written without effort. [The one best known in English is Mein Jesu, loie dii willst, translated by Miss Jane Borthwick, "My Jesus, as thou wilt." She has also translated his fine lyric, "My God, I know that I must die." His Was Jesus thut das ist woldgethan has been rendered by Sir H. W. Baker (1861), " What our Father does is well."} Schmolke's works appeared at Tiibingen, 1740- 44, in 2 vols. A selection from his hymns and prayers has been published by Grote (2d ed., Leipzig, 1860), to which is prefixed a good me- moir. DEYANDER. SCHMUCKER, San^uel Simon, D.D., an Ameri- can Lutheran divine, son of Rev. J. G. Sehraucker, D.D. ; b. at Hagerstown, Md., Feb. 28, 1799; d. at Gettysburg, Penn., July 26, 1873. He was graduated at the University of Pennsylvania in 1817, and at the Princeton theological semi- nary, and was admitted into the ministry by the Lutheran ministerium of Pennsylvania in 1820. He was pastor at New Mai-ket, Va., 1820-26. He took a leading part in the organization of the General Synod and of the theological seminary at Gettysburg, in 1826. He was chosen its first professor, and continued to be chairman of its faculty till 1864, when he retired from official activity. The degree of D.D. was given him in 1830, simultaneously by Rutgers College, New Jersey, and the University of Pennsylvania. In 1846 he visited Germany, in company with Drs. B. Kurtz and J. G. Morris, with the double pur- pose of establishing, if possible, some commumoa- tion between the church there and the Lutherans in the United States, and of obtaining books for the library of the seminary. His doctrinal teaching was marked by indif- ference to the distinctive features of symbolical Lutheranism, which he held to be non-fundamen- tal, and by laying stress on the common doctrines and principles of Protestantism, which he called fundamental. He accepted substantially the Augs- burg Confession, but disliked the Formula of Concord. His mind was strongly impressed with the importance of mutual recognition and co- operative union among the various Protestant denominations. By his Fraternal Appeal to the American churches, first published in 1838, and circulated in England as well as here, he aided in preparing the way lor the organization of the Evangelical Alliance, and attended its first meet- ing in London, 1840, SCHNBCKBNBURGER. 2127 SCHOLASTIC THEOLOGY. chmucker was for many years the theolo- ampion of Low-Church American Luther- ffld one of the most active and influential rs of the General Synod of his church. He tter known outside of his denomination y other Lutheran minister. He prepared lore than four hundred young men for the y, and was highly esteemed for his per- laracter, self-denying labors, and Christian But some of his ablest pupils forsook his ical stand-point, and adopted a stricter Lutheranism, which is represented in the . Council. When he entered upon public found the Lutheran Church almost exclu- rerman, and in a comparatively stagnant m. He helped to revive, educate, and licize it, and prepared the way for its advanced position. )g his numerous publications, the foUow- the most important : Biblical Theology of id Flatt, trans, from the German, Andover, vols, (reprinted in England in 1845); s of Popular Tkeolofiy, Andover, 1834 (9th ladelphia, 1860) ; Fraternal Appeal to the in Churches on Christian Union, New York, Psychology, or Elements of a New System of Philosophy, New York, 1842 ; Dissertation ital Punishment, Philadelphia, 1845; 2'he m Lutheran Church historically, doctrinally, ciically delineated, Philadelphia, 1851 ; The n Manual on Scriptural Principles, or the •g Confession illustrated and sustained by e and Lutheran Theologians, Phila., 1855; theran Symbols, or Vindication of American nism, Baltimore, 1856 ; The Church of the '.r as developed within the General Synod Evangelical Lutheran Church, Baltimore, rV-ue Unity of Christ's Church, New York, W. J. MANN. tIECKENBURCER, Matthias, b. at Thal- i Wiirtemberg, Jan. 17, 1804; d. at Bern zerland, June 13, 1848. He studied the- ; Tiibingen, and was appointed preacher at jerg in 1831, and professor of theology in 1834. His principal works are, Uher eck d. Apostelgeschichte, Bern, 1841; Ver- de Darstellung des lutherischen und refor- Lehrbegriffs, edited by Giider, Stuttgart, vols. ; Neutestamentliche Zeitgeschichte, ed- Lohlein, Frankfurt-am-M., 1862; Die nffe der kleineren prot. Kirchenparteien, ed- Hundeshagen, 1863. The reason why his .ppeared so long after his death was the city of his widow, who kept his papers )ck and key. His chief merit lies in his il criticism, and comparative dogmatics olics. He most ably set forth the difier- tween the Lutheran and Reformed Con- . See, for further information, the full HuNDESHAGEN, in the first edition of (, xiii. 609-618. }BERLEIN, Ludwig Fried rich, b. atKolm- ar Ansbach, Sept. 6, 1813 ; d. at Gottin- y 8, 1881. He was successively repetent mvatdocent (1849), and ordinary professor ogy (1855, till death) in the university of sn; but from 1850 to 1855 he was ex- ary professor at Heidelberg. In 1862 he ointed Consisiorialrath, and in 1878 abbot elde. He was an orthodox Lutheran, but with a mystical tendency. His principal writings relate to liturgies ; but he also produced D. Grund- lekren d. Heils, entwickelt aits dem Prinzip der Liebe (1848), Die Geheimnisse des Glaubens (1872), Das Prinzip u. System der Dogmatik (1881). SCHOLASTIC THEOLOGY is often identified with mediaeval theology, and placed over against patristic theology as the theology of the primitive church. It is undeniable, that, with the close of the sixth or the beginning of the seventh century, Christian theology changed character; and it is perfectly correct to designate the period from that time, and down to the Reformation, as the theology of the middle ages. But it is, neverthe- less, inadmissible to use the terms " scholasti- cism " and " mediaeval theology " as synonymous ; for there is a most important difference between Isidore of Seville, Beda, Alcuin, Rhabanus Mau- rus, Paschasius Radbertus, and Scotus Erigena on the one side, and Anselni, Abelard, Peter the Lombard, Thomas Aquinas, and Duns Scotus on the other. Scholasticism forms only one period of the theology of the middle ages, — from the close of the eleventh century to the Reformation. The teachers of the primitive church are j ustly called the Fathers {patres). They produced the dogmas. Through their manifold doctrinal con- troversies and discussions they unfolded and developed the whole contents of the Christian faith, and by the decisions of their great oecu- menical councils they formulated and fixed the dogmas. But with the close of the sixth century the theological productivity ceased. The work was done. All the materials for the formation of a doctrinal system of Christianity were present. No essential element of Christian faith was left undefined. Then there came a time, — the attempt at building up new state organizations on the ruin of the Roman Empire, the exertions of the Germanic Barbarians to adopt and assimilate the Romano-Christian civilization, — a time of con- fusion and chaos, — national, social, political, — during which it was the task of the theologian to gather together the doctrinal materials acquired, to sift them, to preserve them. The theologians of that time, the first period of mediaeval theolo- gy, from the seventh to the eleventh century, — a Cassiodorus, an Isidore of Seville, a Beda, an Alcuin, — are not men of creative genius, but of encyclopedic knowledge, compilers, though com- pilers of enormous industry and deep conscien- tiousness. But of course the materials could not be gathered and kept together in a merely mechanical way, without any trace of individual treatment; and towards the close of the period complaints are heard, that people put more faith in Boethius — that is, in dialectics, in philosophy — than in Holy Writ. Indeed, Scotus Erigena is often mentioned as the father of scholasticism ; though he was a philosopher rather than a theo- logian, and though he lacks one of the essential characteristics of scholasticism, — recognition of the tradition of the church as absolute authority. In reality scholasticism begins with the contro- versy between Berengar of Tours and Lanfranc ; and Anselm is the first who fully represents its principles. Scholastic theology is something more than a mere preservation, or arrangement, or application of the dogmas ; it is an actual treatment. But SCHOLASTIC THEOLOGY. 2128 SCHOLASTIC THEOLOGY. the treatment is merely foi-mal. New dogmas were not added. Even those which received a farther development under the hands of the schoolmen — such as the doctrine of the offices of Christ, or the doctrine of the sacraments — had been fully defined by the preceding ages, at least with respect to their fundamental outlines. Nor were the dogmas altered with respect to their essential contents. The problem which the schoolmen undertook to solve was simply to give each dogma a rational substructure sufficient to elevate it from a mere matter of faith to a matter of science, and to form the whole mass of dogmas into a consistent and harmonious totality, a system. They were not palres: they were only doctores et magistri. The very name "scholasti- cism " shows the character of the movement. The dogma was transferred from the church to the school : the university became the hearth of scholasticism. A truly speculative conception of Christianity was not produced, however. It may be that the schoolmen really hoped to create the philosophy of Christianity ; to demonstrate Chris- tianity as rational, and the rational as Christian ; to fuse faith and science, theology and philoso- phy, into a perfect unity. But, if so, they failed. The principles of their theology prevented them from succeeding, no less than the principles of their philosophy. Theologically the schoolmen proceeded from the supposition that the whole contents of the Christian faith, that is, each single dogma, is absolute, divine truth ^ and the warrant for this supposition is sought for, not in the very essence of Christianity or in the inner nature of man, but in the authority of the Church and her tradition. The fault is here not the application of the principle of authority, but the external and superficial character of the authority appealed to. Of course, an attempt is made to demonstrate and prove the absolute and divine authority of the Church. But again mere ex- ternalities are resorted to, — her miracles ; and at every point this authority, rationally and philo- sophically so poorly established, bears the sway. Scholastic theology recognized a double rule of faith, — Scripture and tradition. Some of the schoolmen use the rules promiscuously, as, for instance, Anselm, Hugo of St. Victor, and Peter the Lombard. Others, as for instance, Abelard, Thomas Aquinas, and Duns Sootus, make a dis- tinction between the two rules, and give Scripture the precedence, but it is only theoretically, not in their practice. And how could they have done otherwise? They had not the original text of the Old and New Testament, but only the Latin translation, the Vulgate, and in their exegesis they were again fettered by the tradition, beyond which they were not allowed to make one step. To these theological principles the philosophical principles corresponded exactly. Having estab- lished the dogma on an external authority, that of the church, and made it absolutely transcen- dental to human reason, the schoolmen could employ philosophy only for subordinate purposes, — philosophia ancilla (handmaid) t/ieologice, — to analyze the contents of its dogma through defini- tions, distinctions, and questions ; to find out all the arguments /iro et contra; to form by means of the syllogism a bridge from one dogma to an- other, and to bring them all together in a visible, schematic combination. Anselm hoped by the syllogistic method to elevate the truths of faith into true scientific knowledge. But, in accordance with its very nature, the syllogism refers only to the formal relations between two given ideas ; of their inner truth and necessity it can tell us nothing. Anselm (1033-1109) was the first who clearly set forth the principle of scholasticism, and also the first who successfully employed it. That fusion of faith and knowledge, of theology and philoso- phy, which was the great aim of scholasticism, he tried to accomplish in opposition, on the one side, to a faith which simply excluded reason, on the other, to a reason which forgot its own natural bounds. The former stand-point was represented by the old positive theology of the prec,eding age, which never dreamed of a rational demonstration of the contents of faith ; the latter by Roscelin, whose nomijialism seemed to point in another direction than that indicated by the church. Among the successors or continuators of Anselm, Bernard of Clairvaux (1091-1153) leaned towards traditionalism; and Abelard (1079-1142), towards rationalism. But though Bernard considered the speculations of Abelard to be dangerous novelties, liable to bring the tradition of the church into con- tempt, he was himself by no means satisfied with the pure traditionalism of the old theologi posilivi. He demanded a fuller and deeper assimilation of the contents of the tradition ; and he found it in the mystical contemplation, which, with its ecs- tasy, is an anticipation of the life to come. Abe- lard, on the other hand, was very far from being a rationalist in the modern sense of the word. A pupil both of the nominalist Roscelin and the i-ealist William of Champeaux, he was also an adversary of both, and tried to form his own philosophical principle, the so-called " conceptual- ism." But though he complained very much of people who despised the dialectico-philosophical treatment of the dogmas, because they were liable to fall into superstition and fanaticism, and though his famous book, Sic el non, seems intencled to undermine the authority of tradition, he submitted unconditionally to the verdict of the church, and that both theoretically and prac- tically. A fine and harmonious union between the mysticism of Bernard and the dialectics of Abelard was effected by th e Victorines, — Hugo of St. Victor (1097-1141), and his disciple, Richard of St. Victor. The stand-point of Anselm is_ still retained so far as the church and the tradition are accepted as rules of faith, and the necessity is recognized of progressing from faith to reason in order to reach certainty. But Hugo of St. Victor differs from Anselm by his distinction be- tween necessaria, probabilia, mirabiUa, and incredi- hilia, of which he placed the first and the last group entirely without any relation to faith : while of .the two middle groups, the true domain of faith, only the probabilia, that is, the truths of the so-called natural religion, can receive any affirmar tion from reason ; tlie mirabilia, or alia supra ralionem, are completely inaccessible to reason. This, the first departure of scholasticism, reached its point of culmination with Peter the Lombard, the magister sentenliarum (d. in 1160). He united the po.sitive and the dialectical tendencies which he found combating each other on the theological SCHOLASTIC THEOLOGY. 2129 SCHOLASTIC THEOLOGY. ■ena, and employed dialectics as a means by hich to solve such contradictions as might occur L the positive statements of the authorities. is book recommended itself by its ecclesiastical irrectness and its dialectical adroitness, and it jcame the most used and most admired scholas- c text-book ever produced. But a true recon- liation between reason and revelation, philoso- ly and theology, it does not give; and, indeed, it lems as if the author studiously tried to avoid uching the point. The doctrines of Scripture, adition, and the church, he does not treat at all : 5 presupposes their absolute authority as an in- (ntrovertible axiom. Down to this time, only some of the logical ritings of Aristotle were known to the West in atin translations, but none of his works on lysics and metaphysics. The more intimate iu- rcourse, however, which sprang up between the ast and the West on account of the crusades, id more especially on account of the establish- ent of a Latin empire in Constantinople in 1204, id the introduction of the Arabian philosophy to e Christian world, soon put the schoolmen in pos- ssion of the whole of Aristotle. The Arabs had )t only translated and commented on all his orks, but they had even developed a philosophy of eir own on the basis of Aristotle and the Neo- latonists ; and, towai-ds the end of the twelfth id in the beginning of the thirteenth century, e Christian scholars of Western Europe became quainted with this Arabian philosophy through e Spanish Jews. At-first the Aristotelian writ- gs were looked upon with some suspicion. The iretical eccentricities of an Amalric of Bena or David of Dinanto were referred back to them as eir true source, and the Pope repeatedly forbade e study of them (1209, 1215, 1231). But the ner aflBnity between scholasticism and Aristotle nquered all opposition; and the influence of e renewed study of his works soon became visi- e on scholastic theology. The old questions of e true relation between reason and revelation, ience and faith, philosophy and theology, were leper put, and better answered ; and new ques- Dns arose, — of the true nature of Christianity comparison with other religions ; of the true laracter of theology, — whether a science or not, tether a theoretical or a practical science, etc. ot only ethics, but also physics, was incorporated ith the doctrinal system, so that the materials adually swelled into immensity. The form was ineraUy that of a commentary on the Sententim, ough sometimes, also, that of an independent mma , but in both cases the dialectical method a,s carried out in the minutest details, with its esis et antithesis, its pro et contra, its resolutio et •nclusio, etc. The first great representative .of this the second iparture of scholastic theology was Alexander ; Hales (d. 1245) ; but he was completely eclipsed r Albert the Great (1193-1280), in whose works 1 the principal characteristics of the age are ilpably present. By his enormous erudition, icompassing all sciences, he impressed people in meral as a kind of magician : on account of his ose imitation of Aristotle, he was by scholars ten called simia Aristotelis (" the ape of Aris- tle "). But, though he certainly lacked critical )wer, he was by no means without speculative ideas ; and his definition of theology as a practi- cal science, the science of God and his works, elaborated, not for the sake of knowledge, but for the sake of salvation, exercised a lasting influence. A complete theological system, however, he did not produce; but his fundamental ideas were taken up and developed by his pupil, Thomas Aquinas (1227-74), the greatest of the school- men, [and recommended by Pope Leo XIII. as the greatest of all the doctors of the church]. The contemplation of God, he teaches, is the highest good which can fall to the lot of man, the very acme of blessedness ; but, on account of the in- commensurability of the divine and the created, man can never reach that goal by his own natural reason. By reason man can only acquire an in- direct knowledge of God, such as can be demon- strated from his works. In order to obtain any direct knowledge of God, man needs a supernatu- ral aid, a revelation; and just as philosophy starts from the natural fact, and proceeds towards knowl- edge of God by the light of i-eason, so theology starts from the revealed fact, and proceeds to- wards knowledge of God by the light of faith. Theology and philosophy have the same method and the same goal, only the starting-points and the spheres are different. Bonaventura (1221- 74), a friend of Thomas Aquinas, added, perhaps, nothing to the common stock of ideas ; but the calm repose of his character and the sweet mys- ticism of his mind procured for his teaching a great influence ; while the fantastic formalism of Raimundus Lullus (1235-1315) had no other effect than the formation of a small school, which soon died out. With Duns Scotus (1260-1308) the great controvei'sy between Thomists and Scotists broke out. Thomas Aquinas belonged to the Dominican order. Duns Scotus, to the Franciscan ; and more than once the whole controversy between their adherents has been described as caused by mere jealousy and rivalry between their orders. It is true that it contributed nothing to the further development of scholastical theology ; but the scientific dissension between Thomas Aqui- nas and Duns Scotus is, nevertheless, fundamental and decisive. Duns Scotus dissolved that unity between faith and science, between theology and philosophy, which was the pride of scholasticism ; and in its stead he placed a positivism which has only to take one step in order to reach scepticism, — a step which Duns Scotus himself can justly be said to have taken by his peculiar quodlibet method, placing the pro and the contra over against each other without any mediation, and leaving the reader to make the decision for hinself . After Duns Scotus the decay of scholasticism begins, soon to end in complete dissolution. One of the reasons was the adoption of nominalism. Even Duns Scotus gave up the reigning realism, turning it into the so-called formalism. Durandus de Sancto Porciano (d. 1334) abandoned it alto- gether, and adopted nominalism ; and with Occam (1280-1347) the effects of this change of principle become visible. Realism — the doctrine that the general ideas were really present in the individual things, universalia in re — was indeed the band between theology and philosophy. As soon as nominalism — the doctrine that the universalia are merely the products of the human reason, nothing but forms of reasoning, voces, nomina — became SCHOLIUM. 2130 SCHROCKH. prevalent, and was actually carried through in ihe system, the band snapped, and theology and philosophy separated. From that time theology veigned alone, but it ceased to be a science : it became a mere commandment. The change is painfully apparent in the writings of Occam. When he undermines the Christian dogmas from end to end by his logic, and then ostentatiously retu-es to the faith of the church ; when from the doctrines of the church he draws logical inferences which directly run out into absurdity, or indirectly lead, into self-contradictious ; when he connects the most sublime ideas with scurrilous problems or ludicrous problems, — what is that all but fri- volity V The invention of a double truth, or the axiom that something can be true in philosophy though it is false in religion, and vice versa, cannot be fastened on Occam, nor on any of the school- men in particular. Nevertheless, when Roman- Catholic historians and critics ascribe it to the anti-scholastic philosophers of the fifteenth cen- tury, and quote its condemnation by the Fifth Council of the Lateran (1513) as an argument, they are certainly mistaken : it was openly avowed and violently attacked already in the fourteenth century. At all events, it became the stumbling- block of scholasticism : for, however firmly and decidedly repudiated, it is a simple and natural consequence of nominalism; and, after Occam, nominalism reigned uninterruptedly in scholastic theology. It was the principle of Gabriel Biel (d. 1495), generally styled the last of the school- men. LANDBRER. Lit. — For the various attempts at remodelling or regenerating scholasticism by Raymond of Sabunde, Nicholas of Cusa, and Gerson, see the respective articles in this work ; for more detailed representations of the history, character, and sig- nificance of mediaeval scholasticism, see K. D. Hampden : 2'he Scholastic Philosophy considered in its Relation to Christian Theolociy, London, 1832, 3d ed., 1838; the same : Life of Thomas Aquinas, a Dis- sertation of the Scholastic Philosophy of the Middle Ages, 18i8 ; Ritter : Geschichte der Philosophic, Hamburg, 1836-53, 12 vols., vol. 5-8, Christliche Philosophie; Cousin: Fragmens philosophiques ; Philosophic scolastique, Paris, 1840 ; Barthelemy HaurEau : Histoire de la philosophie scolastique, Paris, 1850, 2 vols., 2d ed., 1881; W. Kaulich: Geschichte der scholastischen Philosophie, Prague, 1st part, 1853 (all published) ; Pranti, : Geschichte der Logik im Abendlande, Leipzig, 1855-70, 4 vols. ; Dk Cupely : Esprit de la philosophie scolastique, Paris, 1868; Bach (R. C.): Die Dogmengeschichte des Mittelalters vom christologischen Standpunkte, oder die mittelalterliche Christologie vom 8. bis 16. Jahr., Wien, 1873-75, 2 vols.; Thomasius: Dog- mengeschichte des Mittelalters u. der Reformations- zeit, Erlangen, 1876 ; Lowe : Der Kampf zwischen dem Realismus u. Nomlnalismus im Mittelolter, Prag, 1876 (92 pp.); K. Werner: Die Scholastik des spdteren Mittelalters, Wien, 1881-83, 3 vols. ; the same : Die nominalisirende Psychologic der Scholas- tik des spdteren Mittelalters, Wien, 1882; W. T. TowNSEND : The Great Schoolmen of the Middle Ages, London, 1882. SCHOLIUM, The, occupies a middle position between the gloss or marginal note on a single passage and the commentary, or the full interpre- tation of the whole work. It may be defined as a string of notes made for the use of the school,, and it occurs in that sense in the works.of Cicero. As instances of scholia may be mentioned the commentaries of Nicholas of Lyra, the notes of Hugo Grotius, and more especially the Gnomon of J. A. Bengel (5th ed., Tubingen, 1835, 2 vols.). SCHONHERR, Johann Heinrich, b. Nov. 30, 1770, at Memel ; was the son of a Prussian ser- geant; in his fifteenth year he was apprenticed with a merchant at Konigsberg, but soon aban- doned commerce, and, after preparatory studies,, entered the university of that city as student of theology, 1792 ; turned from theology to metaphys- ics, and finding the views of Kant unpalatable, and unable to satisfy his eager thirst for light on the momentous themes of immortality and the destiny of man, made independent inquiries de- signed to harmonize nature and reason with the declarations of Holy Scripture, and published the results of his investigations in two pamphlets {Sieg- der Giittlichen Offenbarung, Konigsberg, 1804). He was wont to unfold his views to a small circle of friends : and the attempt to suppress their meet- ings as inimical to the teachings of the church, and sectarian, proved unsuccessful ; for the Minis- terium for Cultus declared (1814) that his notions,, being clearly meant to sustain the doctrines of the Bible, were ethically not only not dangerous, but beneficial. The presentation of his unsystematic system in different German universities had but little encouragement ; and after six years spent as a private tutor he returned (1800) to Konigsberg, and settled thei'e, lecturing in private on his favorite themes, and died in Spittelhof, Oct. 15, 1826. He and his philosophy were soon forgot- ten ; but, in consequence of the Religious Suit (1835-42), the whole subject came up again, and gave rise to numerous publications, of which a fuller account is given in Ebel (q.v.). The whole literature, with full particulars of the cosmogony and peculiar teaching of this theosophist, may be seen in Faith Victorious, being an Account of the Life and Labors, and of the Times, of the Venerable Dr. Johann Ebel, etc., N.Y., 1882, 'by the present writer. See art. by Erbkam, in the first edition of Herzog, xiii. 620-647. J. i. mombbet. SCHOOLMEN. See Scholastic Theology. SCHOTT, Heinrich August, b. at Leipzig, Dec. 5, 1780 ; d. at Jena, Dec. 29, 1835. He studied theology in his native city, and was appointed professor there in 1805, at Wittenberg in 1809, and at Jena in 1812. His principal work is his Theorie der Beredsamkeit, Leipzig, 1815-28, 3 vols. SCHOTTGEN, Christian, b. at Wurzen, March 14, 1687 ; d. at Dresden, Dec. 15, 1751. He was school principal in Fraucfort (1716), Stargard (1719), and of the " Kreuzschule " at Dresden (1727). He wrote De secta Flagellantium com- men(., Leipzig, 1711; Vom Ursprung des Gregorius- Fests, Francfort-am-0., 1716; Horm Ebraica eC Talmudicce in universum N. Testamentum, Dresden and Leipzig, 1733, 1742, 2 vols. ; Jesus der wahre Messias, Leipzig, 1748 (in gi-eat part merely a German reproduction of the preceding); Novum lexicon gr.-lat. in N. T., Leipzig, 1746, last edition by Spohn, Halle, 1819 ; Triturm et fullonim, Leip- zig, 1763 (reprinted from Ugolino's Thesaurus). SCHROCKH, Johann Matthias, a distinguished church historian ; was b. of Protestant parents in Vienna, July 26, 1733 ; d. at Wittenberg, Aug. 2, SCHULTENS. 2131 SCHWEGLBE. 308. In 1751 he entered the university of Got- ngen, where he came under the moulding influ- iice of Mosheim and Miehaelis. After spending jveral years in literary labors in connection with is uncle, Professor Karl Andreas Bell, at Leip- i^, and in lecturing as decent until he was ap- ointed professor in 1761, he left Leipzig to accept call to the professorship of poetry at Witten- erg, from which he was transferred to the chair f church history in 1775. He gave three lec- iires a day in his department, and to these labors dded a rare diligence of authorship. He died [1 consequence of a fall from a step-ladder while e was reaching up for some books in his library, lis great work, a monument of immense industry Leipzig, 1768-1S12), was his Ausfuhrliche Gesch. . chrisll. Kirche (Complete History of the Chris- lan Church), in 45 vols. The last two volumes of tie ten upon the period since the Reformation were ompleted by Tzschirner. They cover the history f eighteen centuries. Other church historians ave written in a better style, and have under- tood certain periods and movements more fully ; ut up to this time we have no other work covering uch a long period, combining so many excellen- es. A handbook of church history {Historia relig. I eccles. Christi adumbrala in iisum lectionum) ap- leared in Berlin, 1777, passed through five edi- Lons (fifth, 1808) during the author's lifetime, nd was issued by Marheinecke for the seventh Lme, 1828. He also prepared the Allgemeine iiographie, 1767-91, S vols. See K. L. Nitzsch : Jeber J. M. SchrdclcJi' s Studienweise u. Maximen, Veimar, 1809 ; Tzschirner : Ueber Johann M. tchi-ockh's Leben, Karakler, und Schriften, Leipzig, 812. G. H. KLIPPEL. SCHULTENS, Albert, the father of modern lebrew grammar ; was b. at Grbningen, in 1686, nd early destined to a theological career. He tudied the original languages of the Bible, lebrew and Greek, with which he afterwards ombined the study of Chaldee, Syriac, and Kab- linic. The first-fruit of these studies was a lublic disputation, which he held with Gusselius i?hen only eighteen years of age, and in which le maintained that the Arabic is indispensably lecessary to a knowledge of Hebrew. After com- peting his studies, he visited Leyden and Utrecht, ,nd became acquainted with Reland, who edited lis Animadversiones Philologicm in Jobum, Utrecht, .708 In the year 1709 he was promoted as dec- or of theology, and in 1711 he took charge of he pastorate at Wassenaer, which, however, he oon exchanged for the chair of Oriental lan- ;uages at the academy in Franecker. In 1729 he vas called to the theological seminary at Leyden, md died there Jan. 26, 1750. The services which Schultens rendered to phi- ology are of great value. He was the first to >vertum the notion that Hebrew is the original anguage given to man by God, and showed that he Hebrew was nothing but a branch of the Shemitic stem, and that Arabic was an indispen- able means for the understanding of the Hebrew. Chus he opened a new path in Hebrew grammar md biblical exegesis, advancing at the same time he study of Oriental languages. Of his works vhich pertain to Hebrew grammar and biblical iterature, we mention, Origines Hebrcece, etc., h-anecker, 1724-38, 2 vols., and a preliminary work, De Defectibus Hodiemce Linguce Hebrcece, Franecker 1731 (new edition of both works, Ley- den, 1761) ; Instiiuliones ad fundamenla Ungues HebraiccB, etc., Leyden, 1737, 1756 ; Vetus et regia via Hebraizandi, etc., Leyden, 1738 (a rejoinder to his opponents, which he carries further in Excur- sus ad caput primum vial veteris et regice, Hebrai- zandi, etc., Leyden, 1739) ; Liber Jobicum nova versione, Leyden, 1737, 2 vols. ; Proverbia Salomo- nis, etc., Leyden, 1748, an abridgment of which was published by G. J. L. Vogel, Halle, 1769. Ten separately printed dissertations and addresses were collected and published by his son, in Opera minora, etc., Halle, 1769. In manuscript he left commen- taries on different books of the Old Testament, a H e- brew lexicon, and an Aramaean gTammar. Comp. Vriemoet: Eulogium Schullensii, in AtJience Frisi- acce, pp. 762-771; [Lichtenberger : Encyclo- pe'die des Sciences Religeuses, s.v. ; Furst : Bibl. Judaica, iii. p. 294 ; Steinschneider : Biblio- grapliisclies Handbucli,^. 129]. AENOLD. SCHWARTZ, Christian Friedrich, b. at Sonn- enburg, Prussia, Oct. 26, 1726 ; d. at Tanjore, Feb. 13, 1798 ; one of the most energetic and successful missionaries of the manuscripts of Michael Brdce (1746-67: see Appendix), intrusted, after the author's death, to Logan, and by him basely used, and published as his own. The Paraphrases are marked by a dry neatness and precision of style, which excludes whatever could offend the most sober taste, and leaves little room for lyrical or devotional fire. Their eminent respectability and long service have made them household words in Scotland, and they have been constantly and largely drawn upon by English and yVmerican hymnals. F. M. BIRD. SCOTLAND, Churches of. See Presbyte- rian Churches. SCOTT, Elizabeth, the author of many once popular and useful hymns ; was b. at Norwich, SCOTT. 2133 SCOTTISH PHILOSOPHY. ig., pi-obably in 1708 ; and d. at Wethersfield, inn., June 13, 1776. She refused the hand, but tained the friendship, of Dr. Doddridge, who troduced to her a distinguished Xew-Englander, >1. Elisha Williams (1694-1755), once (1726-39) jtor of Yale College. Having married him in 51, she migrated to Connecticut. In 1761 she irried Hon. William Smith of New York. After 5 death, in 1769, she lived with relatives of her st husband at Wethersfield, Conn. Her hynms ire begun at her father's suggestion, and most them written probably before his death in 40; but they did not see the light till much Ler. A few of them appeared in Dr. Dodd's iristian Magazine (1763-64), twenty-one in Ash d Evans's Collection (1769), and eight of them, th twelve more, in Dob ell's New Selection 806). Her entire poetical manuscript is in the irary of Yale College. F. m. bird. SCOTT, Levi, D,D., senior bishop of theMeth- ist-Episcopal Church ; b. near Cantwell's Bridge ow Odessa), Del., Oct. 11, 1802 ; d. there Thurs- ly, July 12, 1882. He was licensed, 1825, and eeived into the Philadelphia Conference, 1826. •om 1840 to 1843 he was principal of Dickinson rammar-School, Carlisle, Penn. ; was a member every General Conference from 1837 to 1852 ; in e latter year he was elected bishop, and served e church with great ability and faithfulness. SCOTT, Thomas, brother of Elizabeth Scott, t to be confounded with his namesake the com- sntator ; was a dissenting minister at Lowestoft Suffolk, Ipswich (1737-74), and Hopton in Nor- Ik, where he d. 1775. Apart from some ser- ans, all his publications were poetical : the chief them are, The Book of Job in English Verse r71), and the meritorious and interesting volume Lyric Poems, Devotional and Moral (1773). lese are designed '• to form a kind of little poeti- 1 system of piety and morals," and cover in care- 1 order the whole ground of what he considered jst important in natural and revealed religion. is opinions seem to have been semi-Arian ; and 3 hymns have been chiefly, though by no means clusively, used by Unitarians. The most f amil- • of them are, " Hasten, sinner, to be wise," and Angels, roll the rock away." F. M. BIRD. SCOTT, Thomas, Clmrch of England; b. at ■aytoft, Lincolnshire, Feb. 16, 1747 ; d. at Aston ndford, Buckinghamshire, April 16, 1821. He IS oi'dained priest in 1773 ; and in 1781 he suc- sded John Newton, who had converted him to ilvinism, as curate of Olney. In 1785 he he- me chaplain of the Lock Hospital, London, and 1801 vicar of Aston Sandford. His first pub- ation was The Force of Truth: a Marcellous irralive of Human Life, London, 1779 (10th ed., linburgh, 1816), an account of his religious ange. His most important work, and that for lich he is so celebrated, is A Family Bible with ^tes, 1788-92, 5 vols., repeatedly re-issued and jrinted, several American editions. This has ig been considered a model family Bible, and s been read more widely, perhaps, than any ler. It speaks volumes for Scott's industry and ill, that without early educational advantages, pressed by poverty, and compelled for years be- ■e his ordination to earn his living as a farm- )orer, he yet was able to acquire considerable irning, and to present it in so popular a way. See Alliboxk, s. v., for bibliographical and criti- cal remarks respecting this Commentary. Scott's Essays on the Most Important Subjects in Religion were published in 1793, 15th ed., 1844. His Works, edited by his son, appeared in 1823, 10 vols. See his Life, London, 1822, New York, I8.-56. SCOTTISH PHILOSOPHY has several very marked features, determined by the bones rather than by the flesh. First, It professes to proceed by the method of induction, that is, by the observa- tion of facts. In this respect it is like the phj'si- cal sciences, and differs entirely from the ancient and niediseval systems, which sought to discover truth by analysis and deduction, from the joint dogmatic and deductive method of Descartes and his school, from the critical method of Kant, and the dialectic of Hegel. Second, It observes its facts, not by the external senses, but bj' self- consciousness. In this respect it differs from phj-sical science and from the materialist and physiological schools of our day. It does look at the brain and nerves (Reid and Brown, and, in our day, Calderwood, looked at these), but it is merely' to aid it in investigating purely mental phe- nomena falling under the eye of consciousness. Third, By the observations of consciousness it discovers principles working in the mind prior to and independent of our observation of them or of our experience : these it calls reason in the first degree as distinguished from reasoning, in- tuition, common sense (Reid), fundamental laws of thought (Stewart). This is its important char- acteristic, distinguishing it from Locke, and from empiricists who discover nothing higher than the generalization of a gathered experience ; whereas the Scottish school discover principles above ex- perience, and regulating experience. Mental phi- losophy is in a sense inductive, as it is by induction we discover fundamental laws and their mode of operation ; but these laws exist prior to induc- tion, and guide to and guarantee primitive truth. The influential philosophy, when the Scottish school arose, was that of Locke, whose Essay on Human Understanding was published in 1690. The early Scottish metaphysicians express their great obligations to Locke, and never differ from him without expressing a regret that they are obliged to do so. But, in order to keep his expe- riential philosophy from drifting into scepticism, they call in certain primitive principles. Francis Hutcheson (1694-1746), an Irishman of Scottish descent, and professor of moral philoso- phy in the University of Glasgow, is entitled to be regarded as the founder of the school. In "his Inquiry into the Original of our Ideas of Bea,uty and Virtue (1725), and in A n Essay on the Nature and Conduct of the Passions and Affections, with Illus- trations of the Moral Sense (1728), he calls in a moral sense, after the manner of Shaftesbury, to oppose the defective ethical theory of Locke. David Hume appeared in the mean time (1711- 76). As Berkeley had denied the existence of matter as a substance, so Hume denies the exist- ence of mind as a substance, and reduces every thing to sensation and ideas, with relations dis- covered between them ; that of cause and effect being merely that of invariable antecedence and consequence. (See his Treatise of Human Nature, 1739.) In An Inquiry concerning the Principles of SCOTTISH PHILOSOPHY. 2134 SCOTUS BRIGBNA. Morals he represented virtue as consisting in the agreeable and useful. The Scottish metaphysi- cians had now to defend truth from the scepti- cism of their countryman. Thomas Reid (1710-96) may be regarded as the fittest representative of the school. He was a professor, first in Aberdeen, and then in Glas- gow. He published An Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common .S'eiise, in 1764, followed by Essays on the Intellectual Powers of Man, in 1785, and Essays on the Active Powers, in 1788. In these works he opposes vigorously Locke's views as to idea, which had culminated in the idealism of Berkeley, and shows tliat there is in the mind a reason in the first degree, or a com- mon sense, which gives us a foundation of truth and morality. A number of other writers ap- peared in Scotland about the same time, such as James Beattie (1735-1802), author of Essay on Truth, and George Campbell (1710-06), author of Philosophy of Rhetoric, — all attacking Hume, and defending the truth on much the same principles as Reid. Dugald Stewart (175;)-1828) was the most illus- trious disciple of Reid, and sought to establish what he called the "fundamental laws of human belief." By his clear exposition and his elegant style he recommended the Scottish metaphysics to the English people. Towards the end of the last century and the beginning of this, the phi- losophy of Reid and Stewart had a powerful influ- ence in France, where it was used to check the sensationalism of Condillao, and in the United States of America, where it was taught in nearly every college, and was employed to defend the great truths of natural, and so to supply evidence in favor of revealed, religion. Thomas Brown (1778-1820) rebelled against the authority of Reid and Stewart, who were charged by him with introducing too many first principles. He was influenced to some extent by Destutt de Tracy, and the ideologists of France. He allowed to Hume that the relation of cause and effect was merely that of invariable ante- cedence and consequence, but argued, in opposi- tion to Hume, that the relation was discovered intuitively. He thus kept up his relationship to the genuine Scottish school, and defended the great truths of natui'al religion. In his lectures on the Philosophy of the Human Mind, published posthumously, he discoursed brilliantly on sug- gestion and on the emotions. Thomas Chalmers was a devoted adherent of the philosophy of his country. He expounded with great eloquence the views of Butler as to the nature and supremacy of conscience. None of the Scottish metaphysicians opposed religion — Hume did not belong to the school ; but Chalmers was the first who brought the philosophy of Scot- land into harmony with the evangelical faith of the nation. He argued from the moral power in man, as Kant did, the existence of God and of man's responsibility and immortality, and, from the nature of the moral law, the corruption of man's nature and the need of an atonement. Sir William Hamilton is, always with Reid, the most noted philosopher of the Scottish school. As Reid was distinguished for his observation and shi-ewd sense, Ha:nilton was for his erudition and his logical jiower. AVhile he belongs to the Scottish school, he sought to combine with it some of the principles of the philosophy of Kant. In Note A, a dissertation appended to Reid's Col- lected Works, he shows that common sense, by which he means our primary beliefs, has been held by all the most profound thinkers of ancient and modern times. In his Logic he sought 'to restore the old system, but sought, after the man- ner of Kant, to improve it, especially by insisting on the universal quantification of the predicate. In his Metaphysics he has a good classification of the faculties of the mind. Some members of the school do not approve of his doctrine of the rela- tivity of knowledge and the negative doctrines of causation and infinity expounded in his Discus- sions. The Scottish school has several excellent quali- ties in its relation to religion. All its members seek to unfold with care the properties and laws of the mind, and thus furnish the best antidotes against materialism. They find in the mind it- self grand laws or principles which guarantee truth, such as the necessary principle of cause and effect, implying the existence of God, and the moral power implying an indelible distinction between right and wrong. While thus furnish- ing an introduction to religion, and aiding it, it does not seek to absorb it, as do the idealism of Schelling and the dialectic of Hegel. The Scot- tish metaphysicians have always been somewhat suspicious of the higher speculations of certain German philosophers. Hamilton, in his Discus- sions, cuts down the idea of the absolute as de- fended by Schelling and Cousin, by showing that it involves contradictions. (For accounts and criticisms, see Dissertations on the Progress of Metaphysical and Ethical Philosophy by Dugald Stewart, Ecole jScossasse by Cousin, and espe- cially The Scottish Philosophy Biographical, Ex- pository, Critical, frmn Hutcheson to Hamilton, by James McCosh.) james McCOSH. SCOTUS ERIOENA, John. The date and place of his birth cannot be made out with 'cer- tainty, but it is probable that he was born in Ireland between 800 and 815. He came to the court of Charles the Bald as a man of mature age ; and he made there the acquaintance of Pru- dentius, who left the court in 847. He came from Ireland, in one of whose flourishing cloistral schools he had been educated; and his surname, Scolus or Scotigena, applied to him by his con- temporaries, — Pope Nicholas I., in his letter to Charles the Bald ; Prudentius, in his De Prcedes- linatione; the synod of Langres (859), etc., — yields no argument against his being a native of that country, as its original Latin name was Scotia Major. His other surname, first occurring in the oldest manuscripts of his translation of Dionysius Areopagita, points directly to Ireland in both of its derivations, — lerugena, from the Greek lepoii (" born in the island of the saints "), and Erigena, from "Erin," the old native name of the country. Similar uncertainty prevails with respect to the place, date, and circumstances of his death. Ingulf, in his Hisloria Ahbatiae Croylandensis, Simeon of Durham, in his De Regihus Anglorum et Danorum, William of Malmesbury, and others, tell us that he was invited to England by Alfred the Great, probably shortly after the death of Charles the Bald, about 88,3; that he w.as ap- SCOTUS BRIGBNA. 2135 SCRIBES IN NEW TESTAMENT. linted teacher at the school of Oxford, and after- ards abbot of Malmesbury ; and that he finally, robably about 891, was killed by his own pupils, id in the church. Mabillon, in Acl. Sanct. Orel. . Bened., Natalis Alexander, in his Hist. Ecd. ace, ix., the Histoire Liu. de la France, v., and ihers, reject this report as fabulous ; because it iems impossible to them that a man who had sen condemned by a pope and a synod for hold- ig heretical opinions should afterwards be made a abbot : but the argument is not of any great eight. At the court of Charles the Bald he was re- sived with great honor. He enjoyed the particu- X favor of the king, was made director of the ilatial school, and became intimately acquainted ith all the scholars of the court, — a Hincinar, Lupus, an Usuard, a Ratramnus, and others. [e appears to have held no ecclesiastical ofiice in ranee ; nor is it probable that he belonged to ay of the monastic orders, though he may have iceived priestly ordination. In France he wrote lost, perhaps all, of his works. The translation E Dionysius'Areopagita, which became the bridge 3ross which Neo-Platonism penetrated into West- rn Europe, he undertook on the express request E the king. It gave him a great fame for learn- ig among people in general, but it also made im suspected in the eyes of the Pope. His prin- ipal work is his De Dioisione Nalur(e, a kind of atural philosophy or speculative theology, whicli, ;arting from the supposition of the imity of phi- isophy and theology, ends as a system of ideal- itic pantheism ; philosophy having, in the course E the development, entirely absorbed theology. It cannot be made out with certainty what part Irigena took in the controversy concerning the ord's Supper which had broken out between Pas- lasius Radbertus, Rabanus Maurus, Ratramnus, ad others, before his arrival in France. It is ;rtain that the book De Eucliarislia, which for a ing time was ascribed to him, belongs to Ratram- Lis ; but it is as certain that he stood entirely on le side of the latter. From some newly disoov- •ed fragments of his commentary on the Gospel I John, and from some notices in Hincraar's De 'rmdestinatione (c. 31), it is evident that he con- dered the bread and wine in the Lord's Supper ! mere symbols of the presence of Christ in the icrament, — a view which is in perfect harmony ith his whole system, in which the Lord's Sup- 3r is left almost unnoticed. The only thing subtful is, whether he has written an inde- sndent treatise on the subject, or whether he is merely touched it incidentally in his other ritings. Clearer and more important is his participation L the controversy of Gottschalk concerning pre- 3stination. When Prudentius, Ratramnus, Ser- itus Lupus, Remigius, and others took the side : Gottschalk, at least partially, Hincmar sum- loned Erigena, the celebrated dialectician, to his d ; and Erigena obeyed the summons so much le more willingly, as it gave him an opportunity : developing one of the fundamental ideas of his 'Stem,— his idea of evil. In 851, or between the rst and the second synod of Chiersy (849 and 53), he wrote his book De Prcedestinaiione, in hich he teaches that there is only one predesti- ition, namely, that to eternal bliss. With respect to evil and its punishment, he says there is no predestination, even not a prescience : for evil is a nihil, and has no real existence ; it is only a lack, a fault in the realization of good. Of course Hincmar was rather frightened by an auxiliary of this character. Soon remonstrances and refu- tations began to pour in. Venilo, archbishop of Sens, wrote against Erigena ; also Prudentius, Florus, and others. The second synod of Chiersy (853) partially indoi'sed the views of Erigena; but the synod of Valence (855) absolutely condemned them, and the condenmation was confirmed by the synod of Langres (859) and Pope Nicholas. It is not known, however, that the audacious philoso- pher was subjected to any direct persecution. Lit. — The collected works of Erigena are found in Migne : Patrol. Latin., vol. 122. Mono- graphs on his life and system have been written by Peder H.iort (Copenhagen, 1823), Stauden- MAiER (Frankf., 1884), Tallandier, Paris, 1843), N. MoLLEK (Mayence, 1844), Christlieb (Gotha, 1860 ; [R. Hoffmann : De Joannis Scoti Erigenm vita et doctrina, Halle, 1877, 37 pp.; G. Anders: Darstellung u. Kritik d. Ansicht von J. Scotus Eri- gena, dass die Kntegorien nicht auf Gott anwendbar seien, Sorau, 1877, 39 pp.]. TH. CHRISTLIEB. SCOTUS, Marianus, b. in Ireland, 1028; d. in the monastery of St. Martin, Mayence, 1083. He left Ireland in 1052, studied in Cologne and Fulda, and was ordained a priest at Wurzburg in 1059, but was in the same year shut up in the monas- tery of Fulda to do penance for sins committed. In 1069 he was released, and removed to Mayence, but was again imprisoned for the same reason. He wrote a Chronicon in three books, — I. The World's History till the Birth of Christ; II. The History of Christ and the Apostles ; III. The His- tortj of the Church till 1082. Edited by G. Waitz, inPERTz: Mon. Germ.,y. NEUDECKER. SCRIBES IN THE NEW TESTAMENT. The name "scribe," which already occurs in Jer. viii. 8, Ez. vii. 6, 11, is mentioned very often in the New Testament, either in a good, ideal sense (Matt, xiii. 52, xxiii. 34), or, what is more frequently the case, in a bad sense (Matt, ii, 4, v. 20, vii. 29, xii. 38, etc.), and designates those scribes who at the time of Christ, having themselves lost the true knowledge of the law and the prophets, became blind leaders of the people (Luke xi. 52; Matt. XV. 14). The scribes (sopherim, or -ypa/ii^aTdc) were originally merely writers or copyists, of the law ; but eventually they became the doctors of the law, and interpreters of the scriptures. According to the Talmud, these teachers were called " sophe- rim," because they counted every letter, and classified every precept of the law. The period of the scribes begins with the re- turn of the Jews from the Babylonian captivity. Though there were popular teachers of the law dur- ing the Babylonian captivity, as is evident from Ez. viii. 16, yet the altered state after the return required new enactments, and demanded that an authoritative body of teachers should so regulate the religious life as to adapt it to present circum- stances. Hence Ezra, who re-organized the new state, also organized such a body of interpreters, of which he was the chief. It is for this reason, that besides the appellation "the priest," he is also called "the scribe" (Ez. vii. 6, 11, 12). The skilled in the law, both from among the tribe of Aaron SCRIBES IN NEW TESTAMENT. 2136 SCRIBES IN NEW TESTAMENT. and the hiity, who with Ezra and after liis death thus iuterpreted and fixed the law, were denomi- nated ■'sopherini," or "scribes."' In synagogues, whicli probably at this time were built here and there, they expounded the law, either on festival and sabbath days, or on Monday and Thursday, the market-days. The most famous teachers were not only members of the Sanhedrin, but formed also a kind of spiritual college, the so-called " Great Synagogue," the last member of which was Simeou the Just. It is characteristic of the scribes of the earlier period, that, with the exception of Ezra and Zadok (Neh. xiii. 13), and of Simeon, we have no record of their names ; and Jost is probably correct in ascribing this silence to the fact that the one aim of these early scribes was to promote reverence for the law, to make it the groundwork of the people's life. They would write nothing of their own, lest less worthy words should be raised to a level with those of the oracles of God (Judenlhum uml s. Sekten, i. 42). They devoted themselves to the exposition and careful study of the law; aud, when interpretation was needed, their teaching was orally only. As these decisions, or halachoth, could not be traced to any certain author, they were called the precepts of the scribes, also of the elders, or sar/es (irnpadoOTif tuv ■Kpeafiv- repuv, Matt. xii. 5, xv. 3 sq. ; ^lark vii. 2 sq. ; also -KUTpLKal nnpadoauc. Gal. i. 14). The scribes of this period probably fixed the canon of the Old Testa- ment and the textus receptus. Thus they became the bearers of the theocratic tradition, as were the prophets in the pre-exile period, but with this difference, that the former, perhaps with the ex- ception of Ezra and those who were with him, represented the letter, which killeth ; while the latter were organs of the spirit, which maketh alive. The recorded principle of the men of the Great Synagogue is given in the treatise Ahoth, i. 1 . "Be cautious in judging, train many disci- ples, and set a fence about the law." They wished to make the law of Moses the rule of life. But, as the infinite variety of life presents cases •nhich the law has not contemplated, expansions of the old, and additions of new, decisions came in vogue, till finally the " words of the scribes " were hon- ored above the law, and it was a greater crime to offend against them than against the law. Side by side with development of the halachoth, an- other development took place. The sacred books were not studied as a code of laws only. To search into their meaning had from the first belonged to the ideal oSice of the scribe. But here also the book suggested thoughts which could not logically be deduced from it; and, where the literal inter- pretation could not help, recourse was taken to an interpretation which was the reverse of the literal. The fruit of this effort to find what was not there appears in the ]Midrashim; and the process by which the meaning, moral or mystical, was elicited, was known as Har/ailah, i.e., saying, opinion. Room being once left to speculation, mysticism and fanciful speculations, which culmi- nated in the Cabala, developed themselves. Side by side with this esoteric, gnostic, dogmatic ten- dency of the Hagadah, we also find an ethical, pop- ular one, as is best represented in Ecclesiasticus. The later scribes, better known as the Tanaim, or " teachers of the law," fixed and formularized the views and expositions of their predecessors, and as they accunudated they had to be compiled and I classified. A new code grew out of them, a second corpus juris, the jNIishna (Sevrcpuiaic, Epiph., Uier. 13, 1; 15, 2). In this time, when the successive ascendency of the Persians, Egyptians, Syrians, and Konians over Palestine, greatly influenced the habits and conduct of the Jewish people, dif- ferent views, which finally branched out into different parties, were advanced as to how the law could and should be kept most carefully, and how every thing foreign which was in opposition to it ^could be eliminated. In the Books of the Macca- bees frequent allusions are made to this tendency, which was especially represented in the Chasidint (•Amdaioi, 1 Mace. 1., 62, ii. 29, 42, vii. 12 sq. ; 2 j\Iacc. xiv. 6). To the Chasidini belonged two scribes, — Jose ben-Joeser of Zereda and Jose ben-Jochanan, — both disciples of Antigonus of Soho (about 190 B.C.), himself a disciple of Simeon the Just (Pirke Abolh, i. 1). These two are the first of the five pairs of teachers of the law, who, as propagators of the orthodox tradi- tion, distinguished themselves in the last centuries before Christ. They were succeeded by the two contemporaries of John Hyrcanus, — Joshua hen- Perachja and Xithai of Arbela (between 140 and 110 B.C.), in whose doctrinal views the opposi- tion to Sadduceeism first shows itself. To them succeeded, in the time of Alexander Jannaeus and Alexande]-, Simon ben-Shetach, a hero of Pharisaism, who twice broke the influence of the Sadducees in the, Sanhedrin, and Judah ben- Tabai. In the time of the last Maccabseans, and in the first years of the Idumfean rule, the two great doctors of the law were the two sons of proselytes, Shemaja (Sameas, Joseph., Ant., XIV. 9, 4) and Abtalion (Pollio, Joseph., Anl., XV. 1, 10, 4), the two magnates of their day. The last pair was presented by Hillel and Shamniai. The most famous scribes at the time of Christ and the apostles were, besides Xicodemus (John iii.), Simon, the son of Hillel; Gamaliel, the grandson of Hillel; Jochanan ben-Zaccai; and Jonathan, the son of Uzziel, the Chaldee paraphrast. From Mark iii. 22, vii. 1, John vii. 15, we learn that a celebrated high school of the scribes existed at Jerusalem in the time of Christ. The questions which often brought about a conflict between Christ and the scribes and Pharisees, such as con- cerning divorce, oath, the sabbath, etc., were the same which occupied the scribes, more especially the license to teach and the introduction of new academical degrees. The scribe, who already oc- cupied a high position over and against the un- learned, and even the priests, now- rose to greater prominence since the introduction of the ordina- tion, or promotion as teacher of the law, and mem- ber of the court. The candidate, having passed through a certain curriculum in the school of fa- mous teachers, was licensed and set apart by ordi- nation ; the presiding rabbi giving to him as the symbol of his work tablets on which he was to note down the sayings of the wise, and the "key of knowledge " (comp. Luke xi. 52), with which he was to open or to shut the treasures of divine wisdom. So admitted, he took his place as a clia- ber, or member of the fraternity. This state ol things created not only a fondness for titles (Matt, xxiii. 7), but, above all, a spiritual hierarchy, to which the people had to succumb. The scribes SCRIVER. 2137 SCULPTURE. the people a new spiritual country, » king- of heaven, which was not limited by space, to give them a kingdom of heaven in which 3s and the prophets are fulfilled was beyond • powers ; and, because they did not enter jin themselves, they prevented the people also I entering therein (Matt, xxiii. 13). The influ- of the scribes was very far-reaching. They ! found iu the court-room, in the colleges, but 5 especially in the synagogues. In the latter es they occupied the uppermost seat-s (Matt. i. 6), read and explained the law. Tliey were not wanting in the feasts {Ibid.): in short, ■ were everywhere; and it was a very easy g to influence by their own opposition the )le against Jesus. For a long time they tried ain to get hold of him (Matt. ix. 3, xii. 38, . 35; Lnke v. 30, vi. 7, x. 25, xi. 54, xv. -2, 19 sq.); but they accomplished at last his con- nation and crucifixion (Matt. xxvi. 57, xxvii. The essence and character of rabbinism 3 such that it necessarily came in conflict with IS. The scribes could not bear to hear the h out of his mouth, and thus was fulfilled ,t is written in Isa. xxix. 10-11. That there e also exceptional cases among the scribes, we in "Zenas the lawyer " (Tit. iii. 13). IT. — Th. Chr. Liliexthal : De vo/UKoigjur. usque ap. Hebr. doclorib. prio., Halle, 1710; S. jiiDT : De Cathedra Mnsis (Matt, xxiii. 2), a, 1612; Vitringa : De Hynarjoge Vetere ; T : Geschichte rfes Judenthums ii. s. Sekten, i. 90 120 sq., 168 sq., 197, 310, 362 sq. ; Herzfeld : r.h. des Volkes Israel, i. 25 sq., ii. 129 sq., 261 G06 ; EwALD : Geschichte, vols, iv.-vii. ; Reuss Steixschn eider: arts. Judenthum und jii- he Literatur, in Ersch. u. Gruber's Encijklop.; 5JER : Real- Worlerbuch, s. v. Schriftgelehrte, [ii. -42S] ; Hirschfeld; Geisl der talm. Auste- g der Bibel (i., Halachische Exeijese, Berlin, 0; ii., Hagadische Exegese, 1817) ; Zuxz : Die ssdienstlichen Vorlrage der Jiulen , Keil ; Arch- igie, § 132 sq. ; [Graetz : Geschichte der Juden, iii. ; Geiger : Urschrift und Uehersetzung der d, etc. (Leip., 1857) ; Schijrer : Xeuleslament. tgeschichle, pp. 437 sq.]. LETRER. CRIVER, Christian, an author of devotional ks; was b. at Rendsburg, Holstein, Jan. 2, 9 ; d. at Quedlinburg, April 5, 1693. In 1647 entered the university of Rostock; in 1653 made archdeacon of Stendal, and, fourteen rs later, pastor of St. James's Church, Magde- g. Here he continued to labor, in spite of g to Berlin and to Stockholm, as court-preach- antil a short time before his death, when, at ner's suggestion, he was appointed first court- icher at Quedlinburg. Scriver is known as dor of some useful works of devotion, as the lenschalz (1675). Gollhold's zufallige Andachten, 71, Eng. trans., Golthold's Emblems, by Menzies, nburgh, 1863], which consists of four hundred Eibles and meditations, and Siech u. Siegesbette, yhich are recorded the experience of his own :-bed and God's goodness. Pritius edited from papers Wiltwentrost. See Life by Pritius, pre- d to the Seelenschalz, and Christjiaxx's Biog- hy, Nurnberg, 1829. hagenbach. CUDDER, John, NI.D., missionary of the Re- ned Dutch Church in India ; b. at Freehold, ., Sept. 13, 1793; d. at Wynberg, South Africa, Jan. 13, 1855. He was graduated at the College of New Jersey, 1811, and at the College of Physicians and Sui-geons, Xew-York City, 1815 ; and practised medicine until 1819, being meanwhile a most earnest and devoted Christian. In the latter year, while iu professional attend- ance upon a lady, he took up in the anteroom a tract entitled The Coni-ersion of the World, or the Claims of Six Hundred Millions, and the Ability and Duly of the Churches respecting Them. His thoughts were turned more strongly than ever upon his personal duty toward the heathen, and as the result of his deliberations he gave his life to missionary labor. After licensure by the classis of' Xew York, he sailed, June 8, 1819 ; went first to Ceylon, where he arrived February, 1820; was ordained there May 15, 1821, by clergymen of the Congregational, Baptist, and Methodist denominations ; established a hospital at JafEnapatam ; in 1822 was foremost in organiz- ing a college there, and in 1824 was blessed by an extensive revival. In 1836 he and Miron \\'inslow were transfen-ed to Madras, India, in order that there he might print Scriptures and tracts in Tamil. In the first year they printed six million pages. Dr. Scudder fixed his resi- dence at Chintadrepettah, near Madras, and thus, imder his surveillance, there grew up the Arcot mission, which was received under the care of the American Board in 1852, and of the Reformed Dutch Church the next year. From 1842 to 1846 Dr. Scudder was in America, busily engaged, however, in arousing interest in foreign missions. In 1849 he was in the ^Madura mission ; but ^\ith this exception he gave his energies to the Arcot mission, and after the death of his wife and son Samuel (1849), wrought with redoubled zeal, as if called upon to make good their loss. Under this pressure his health gave way in 1854, and by medical advice he went to the Cape of Good Hope. j\luch benefited by the voyage, he was upon the point of returning to India when he was stricken down by apoplexy. Dr. Scudder is one of the heroes of foreign missions. He was tall, strong, and well-propor- tioned; slender iu youth, he became portly in later years ; originally of sound health, he ruined it by unsparing labor. He was a vigorous think- er, decided in his views, though without bigotry. Endowed with great perseverance, he carried through his project at whatever cost. Convinced that he was doing Christ's work, he cared noth- ing for the opposition of men. He endured hardness, and even severe pain, without com- plaint. His piety was carefully cultivated. Every Friday till noon he spent in fasting and prayer. The Bible constituted well-nigh his sole readmg. He went about doing good to body and soul, like his Master. He preached iu almost every lai-ge town in soutli-eastern Hindostau. It was his ambition '• to be one of the inner circle around Jesus in heaven." See his Memoir bv J. B. Waterhury, D.D., N.Y., 1870; Sprague : Annals, vol. ix. ; and CoRWix: Manual of the Reformed Church, pp. 445-452. SCULPTURE, Christian. A marked decline in art. both technically and witli respect to its sub- ject-matter, made itself manifest in the ancient world long before the conquest of Corinth by SCULPTURE. 2138 SCULPTURE. Mummius (B.C. 146). The subjugation of Greece by Alexander the Great signalized the first pros- titution of art from the noble ends of patriotism and religious faith to those of ostentation and personal egotism. The degrading of its inspira- tions seems to have gone hand in hand with its technical decline ; and when Greece, which in the Periclean age was the mistress of the world in art and all other cultures, came under the Roman yoke, the spirit of creative genius had perished, and the great masterpieces, which in their extant relics have taught the world through all subse- quent centuries, became almost forgotten monu- ments of the past. In considering, then, the almost puerile achieve- ments of art in the departments both of sculpture -and painting in the early Christian age, its long- antecedent decline must not be left out of the account. Irrespective of other causes, presently to be specified. Christian art in Rome, where it had its cradle-life (we can scarcely say its birth- place), lacked both masters and models fitted to cultivate it on a high plane. Two other causes combined to render the Chris- tian Church in the primitive age, not only indiffer- ent, but absolutely antagonistic, to art-culture. The first of these, and the mo.st important, was the prostitution of the art of ancient Paganism to idolatry. The Mosaic institutes and traditions, however modified by the early church with re- spect to many of the elements of a cumbrous ceremonialism, were literally interpreted in their relation to art, especially, it may be added, with respect to sculpture. Graven images contemplat- ing religious ends had ever been the abhorrence of the Jewi.sh, and were scarcely less so of the ear- liest Christian Church. The substitution, then, of materialism for the spiritual worship of the one invisible God was the one thing which primi- tive Christianity dreaded; and any compromise with this was regarded with jealousy, and any concession to its demands excited the bitterest intolerance. We have only to consider, in the second place, the prostitution of contemporary Roman art to the lowest passions of human nature — a fact evi- dencing itself with the most loathsome details in the relics both of painting and sculpture in Her- culaneum and Pompeii — in order to find another powerful influence in the same direction. It is not surprising, that in the welfare of the soul for the subjugation of the body, with its lusts and appetites — the primal end of life according to the teachings of Christ — the early disciples could find little or nothing in contemporary Pagan art which they could contemplate with complacency; and it seems, in the circumstances, only strange, that, at so early a peviod in the history of the Chris- tian Church, art in any form could have come to be regarded as a possible auxiliary to a pure spiritual faith and worship. Tertullian (d. A.D. 220) went so far as to declare the fine arts, more especially sculpture, to be the invention of the Devil. While this extreme judgment cannot be regarded as literally expressing the universal sentiment of the early church, it nevertheless rep- resented a very prevalent antipathy. The earliest decided concession is found in the memorials of the dead, sarcophagi, and sepulchral slabs and monuments, on which were carved in relief the simple emblems of Christian faith and the scenes of biblical history, many of which were intentionally employed as symbols of Chris- tian doctrine, especially that of the resurrection of tiie body. Of single extant statues representing sacred personages. Dr. Ulrici specifies but four impor- tant ones in the whole range of early Christian art down to the tenth century. These are the statue of Bishop Hippolytus, who suffered mar- tyrdom in the first half of the third century, the entire upper portion of which, is a modern resto- ration ; the famous bronze image of St. Peter, in the great Roman basilica named after him, a work probably executed in Constantinople in the fifth century ; and two marble statues represent- ing Christ as the Good Shepherd, whose date he places in the fifth or sixth century. A certain school of modern German criticism has sought to prove that the form of these latter was borrowed from the Mercury Criopheros (or ram-bearer), well known in the sculpture of ancient Greece. But a careful comparison of the Pagan and the Christian conception scarcely justifies this con- clusion. To mention no other considerations, it is to be remarked that the Pagan statue, so far as we are acquainted with it, was always undraped, a characteristic quite unknown in any extant Chris- tian sculpture representing the Pastor Bonus. If some suggestion as regards form might have been derived from Pagan statues with which the early Christians were familiar, there can be no doubt that the statues of the Good Shepherd, a large number of which doubtless existed in the primi- tive church, were original and deliberate endeav- ors to give a visible paraphrase of the Twenty- third Psalm, the parable of the lost sheep, and the tenth chapter of John's Gospel. Of the sepulchral reliefs of early Christian art which have been conserved to the present time, the most important is the famous sarcophagus of Junius Bassus (prefect of Rome, d. A.D. 359), now in the crypt of St. Peter's Church in Rome. It was probably executed in the fourth century, and contains five subjects fi-om the Old and New Testaments. Otlier examples of kindred char- acter are found in the Christian Museum of the Vatican, in the Campo Santo at Pisa, and in the crypt of the Cathedral of Ancona. Many ancient altar-tablets are found in the churches of Italy, especially at Ravenna (Cathedral, S. ApoDinari in Classe, S. Vitale, S. Francesco, etc.). A remarkable sarcophagus, though of much ruder workmanship than that of Junius Bassus, is in the Church of St. Ambrose in Milan ; its prin- cipal relief representing Christ teaching, sur- rounded by his disciples. In the representation of the scenes of biblical history by means of sepulchral reliefs, the Roman Catacombs furnished the most numerous exam- ples. Most of these Iiave been removed to the Lateran Museum. Both the Old and the New Testaments contributed the materials for these subterranean galleries of early Christian art; and many of the sculptures, for example, those hav- ing for their subjects the histories of Noah and Jonah, are so puerile as artistic performances to border on the grotesque. All, however, have a high and noble moral sig nificance, and were doubtless intended to sym- SCULPTURE. 2139 SCULPTURE. bolize great cardinal doctrines of evangelical faith. Only second to these in importance are the se- pulchral reliefs found in the Catacombs of Naples and Syracuse. The sculptural ornamentatio!i of ecclesiastical furniture, sacramental shrines, crucifixes, episco- pal chairs (a fine example is the chair of Arch- bishop Maximinian in the cathedral at Ravenna), goblets, diptychs, and ivory carvings for movable altars, and the covers of prayer-books and the Sacred Scriptures, constitutes an extensive thouo-h subordinate feature in the later art of this first period of Christian sculpture, vi'hich we may ex- tend in general limitation over ten centuries. Some of the most precious of these treasures, containing in the aggregate great wealth in the precious metals, fell a prey to the barbarian in- vasions of Italy, and are lost beyond recovery. Prominent examples of this vandalism, which robbed the world of some of the most costly relics of early Christian sculpture, were the plundering of the churches of St. Peter and St. Paul in Rome by the Saracens (A.D. 846) and of the churches of Constantinople in the conquest of that city by the Latins (A.D. 1204). What is called the Romanesque period of Chris- tian sculpture may be said to begin with the eleventh century ; and we remark in this period the most striking contrast between its magnificent architectural creations and its. limited fruitage in the departments both of sculpture and painting. The beginning of this period produced neither masters nor masterpieces of great importance. In subordinate departments of sculpture we may ' cite the famous relics in Hildesheim, — the bronze door of its cathedral with its sixteen reliefs, and the pillars standing before them, containing scenes from the life of Christ. These works, and others of kindred character (e.g., the magnificent bronze candlesticks in the Magdalene Church at Hildes- heim), are ascribed conjecturally to Bishop Bern- ward (d. 1023). The magnificent portal of the cathedral at Freiburg in Saxony (" the golden door," so called), with its fine reliefs, taken from a former edifice on the same site, is one of the most important works of this early period. Of similar works in France, the sculptured portals of the cathedrals of Aries, Bourges, and Chartres, must be men- tioned. Italy, however, gave to the church in the thir- teenth century a great sculptor, who in technical excellence caught something of the lost spirit of the antique. This was Moola Pisano, who be- tween 1260 and 1278 executed a series of works which may justly be regarded as foretokenings of the Renaissance age. Forerriost of these are the famous reliefs on the pulpit of the baptistery at Pisa, representing the Birth of Christ, the Adora- tion of the Three Kings, the Presentation in the Temple, the Crucifixion, and the Last Judgment. A modern German critic naively, but with some justice, observes that the figure of the Virgin in the Nativity reminds one of the Sleeping Ari- adne in ancient Roman sculpture. It need scarcely be said, that in the Gothic period, next following the Romanesque, archite.c- ture was the one interest in art which overshad- owed all others, and that almost all the sculpture of this age was simply an accessory of architec- ture. Ill Northern Europe the earnest spirit of the Romanesque period still prevailed, though the- names of no great masters have come down to us through their works. The noble reliefs in the Strassburg Cathedral,, representing the death and coronation of the Vii-gin, with the allegorical figures of the Chris- tian Church, are worthy of especial mention as being ascribed to Sabina von Steinbach, the re- puted daughter of the architect of this magnifi- cent Gothic temple. In Italy the spirit of Nicola Pisano, the great master of the Romanesque age,, was conserved in his son Giovanni (circa 1240- 1321) and his pupil Andrea Pisano (1273-1349). The names of Giotto and Orcagna, among the sculptors of this period, must not be omitted, al- beit painting was the art in \^■hich both excelled, and in connection with which their fame has been perpetuated. The high-altar at Arezzo, and th& fapade of the cathedral at Orvieto, may be cited as the chief works of Giovanni Pisano. On the southern door of the baptistery at Florence there is a series of panels representing the life of John the Baptist, which show Andrea Pisano to have been a worthy scholar of the great Nicola. The figure of Apelles, on the bell-tower of the Flor- ence Cathedral, is a curiosity, from the fact of its having originated with Giotto, the father of paint- ing in the Gothic age. It is customary with historians to divide thfr golden age of art, which in general terms may be said to include the fifteenth and sixteenth cen- tm-ies, into the Early and the High Renaissance. For the purposes of the present article, however, we may include both of these — the quatrocentO' and the cinquecento- — in the third great period of Christian sculpture. As applied both to litera- ture and art, the term "renaissance" signifies the revival of the antique ; and Italy was the grand theatre of its development. At the beginning of the fifteenth century but few of the sculptures of antiquity had been unearthed in Rome : but the good work, which was carried to full activity under Julius the Second and Leo the Tenth, and which has exercised such a mighty moulding in- fluence on all subsequent art, even down to the present day, had already commenced ; and there is manifest, even in tlie early masters of this wonderful age, a loyalty to nature and truth, as. distinguished from tradition and conventionalism, which sets them utterly apart from the sculptors of the middle ages. The gi-eat master of what may be called the Early Renaissance was Lorenzo Ghiberti of Flor- ence (1378-1455), who between the years 1403 and 1427 was employed on the north bronze doors- of the Florence Baptistery, whose I'eliefs plainly evidence some of the mediieval spirit yet linger- ing in art. The eastern doors of the same edifice, which he completed in 1552, whose panels contain representations of biblical history, form one of the greatest masterpieces of sculpture which any age has produced. It has been, perhaps, justly criti- cised as intruding too much upon the province of painting in attempting perspective effects. Other eminent masters in this period were Do- natello of Florence (1386-1466), his pupil, Andrea Verocchio (1432-88), and Luca della Robbia (1400- 82), whose terra-cotta reliefs, representing biblical SCULPTURE. 2140 SEABURY. scenes chiefly, are found in the museums and in several of the churches of Florence. Luca della Kobbia wrought likewise in marble and bronze ; and his famous marble frieze, representing singing and dancing children, originally executed for the organ-gallery of the Florence Cathedral, and now preserved in the Dffizi Collection, is pronounced by Burckhardt to be one of the finest works of sculpture produced in the fifteenth century. Among the sculptors of Italy in the beginning of the sixteenth century, the names of Sansovio (Baptism of Christ, in the Florence Baptistery), Lombardi, and Leonardo da Vinci, deserve men- tion, albeit no work of sculpture by the latter has been preserved. It need scarcely be said that the one name which glorifies the history of Christian sculpture in the sixteenth century is Michel Angelo Buonarrotti, who was born on the 6th of March, 1475, in the vicinity of Arezzo, and died in Rome on the 17th of February, 1564. His earliest important sculp- tural work was the well-known Pieta, now in St. Peter's Church in Rome, which he executed at the age of twenty-flve. Then followed the colos- sal statue of David, and lastly the statues which were designed for the magnificent mausoleum of Pope Julius the Second, a project of vast dimen- sions, which occupied the great master during a period of forty years, with occasional interrup- tions, but which was never fully carried out. "Besides the two figures of the Captives, now in the museum of the Louvre in Paris, the colossal Moses, in the Church of S. Pieti-o in Vincoli in Rome, is the one great feature of this famous sep- ulchre, and is, without doubt, the grandest crea- tion of modern sculpture. The Medici monuments in Florence are among the noblest \Vorks of memo- rial sculpture in the world. His statue of Christ, in the Church of S. Maria sopra i\Iinerva, executed about 1527, is perhaps the least successful of all the sculptural works of this Titan of art. The sculptors contemporary with Michel Angelo, of whom Giovanni da Bologna (1524-1608) and Ben- venuto Cellini (1500-70) were the most eminent, occupied themselves more with mythological than with Christian themes. Christian sculpture in Germany during the sixteenth century bears worthy comparison with that of Italy, chiefly through the name and works of Peter Vischer (d. 1529). The great work which has immortalized him is the noble gToup of bronze statues and re- liefs on the monument of St. Sebald in Nurem- berg. Adam Krafft, famous for his reliefs in Nurem- berg, representing the sufferings of Christ, and Veit Stoss, the father of wood-carving in the Re- naissance age, deserve mention as German mas- ters of only secondary rank. Various names have been employed to desig- nate that widespread degradation of sculpture in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, from truth to mannerism and ostentation, of which Lo- renzo Bernini (1598-1680) was the pioneer and the foremost representative. It is not necessary to specify these names in technical language. Let it suffice to observe, that the same thing which we often witness in the history of literatm-e and oratory, when a numerous horde of feeble aspi- rants set themselves to the task of imitating a great writer or speaker with extravagant expletives, startling metaphors, and wild gesticulation, canie to pass in the domain of art, particularly of sculp- ture, through the influence of Michel Angelo, when a whole generation of copyists, with large conceit and small faculty, ordained themselves apostles of a new age of pomp and sensationalism. Chiefly through this, among other causes, we look almost in vain, either in the seventeenth or the eighteenth century, for any really great work of Christian sculpture. The nineteenth century has witnessed, both in Italy and Northern Europe, a revival of Chris- tian sculpture with somewhat of the spirit of its golden age ; and the names of Antonio Canova (1779-1822), Bertel Thorwaldsen (1770-1844), and Christian Ranch (1777-1857), representing both extremes of the European Continent, are the glory of modern sculpture, both secular and Christian. With this illustrious trio the name of Ernst Riet- sohel, the designer of the great Luther Monument at Worms, deserves to be associated, as well as that of his most gifted pupil. Professor Adolf Donn- dorf of Stuttgart, still living, who, after the death of his master, completed some of the most important figures of the Luther memorial ; e.g., Savonarola, Peter Waldo, and the Mourning Magdeburg. Professor Donndorf has executed some of the finest sepulchral memorials in Ger- many, and has likewise won an enviable fame in America by the beautiful bronze drinking-fountain in Union Square, New York, which he finished about two years since, to the order of Mr. D. Willis James, who presented it to the city of his adoption. Lit. — The following works may be recommend- ed to those who desire to study the subject more in detail. LxJbke : Geschiclite der Plastik ; Dr. Kraus : Christliche Kunst ; De Rossi : Roma Sot- teranea (with Norti-icotb and Bkownlow's En- glish edition of the same); Burckhardt: Cice- rone in Ilalien. 3. LEONARD CORNING. SCULTETUS, Abraham, b. at Griineberg, Sile- sia, Aug. 24, 1566 ; d. at Emden, Oct. 24, 1624. He studied at Gbrlitz, Wittenberg, and Heidel- berg, and was appointed court-preacher in Heidel- berg in 1598, and professor of theology in 1618. Entangled in the misfortunes of the Elector Friedrich V., he lost his position after the battle on the White Mountain, 1620, but was appointed preacher at Emden in 1622. He was one of the most distinguished theologians of his time in the Reforrned Church. His principal works are, Medulla theologice patrum, 1605-13, 4 vols. ; a his- tory of the Reformation, of which, however, only the two first decades (1516-36) appeared, Heidel- berg, 1618-20; -and De curricula vita, etc., a kind of self-defence, published after his death, Emden, 1625. MALLET. SEABURY, Samuel, b. in Groton, Conn., Nov. 30, 1729; d. at New London, Feb. 25, 1796. I-Ie was a graduate of Yale College before he waa nineteen years of age, and soon after began the study of medicine. In 1752, though he had al- ready devoted himself to the clerical calling, he went to Edinburgh to complete his medical stu- dies, and there became acquainted with a remnant of the ancient Church of Scotland, which, though interdicted by the law, continued to maintain its worship in garrets and out-of-the-way nooks and corners. He was ordained deacon by Bishop SEABURY. 2141 SEABURY. Thomas of Lincoln, ministering on behalf of the aged Sherlock of London, to whose jurisdiction the colonial missions pertained; and two days afterwards the Bishop of Carlisle (Osbaldiston) advanced him to the priesthood (Dec. 23, 1753). He was appointed missionary to New Brunswick, N.J., and arrived there May 25, 1754. In 1757 he removed to Jamaica, L.I., influenced partly by a desire to be near his father, who was rector of St. George's, at Hempstead. But shortly after this, his father dying, he became rector of St. Peter's, Westchester. And now, the spirit of the Colonies being roused by the policy of the king's ministers and the provincial governors, the clergy of the Anglican Chm-ch were placed in a very trying situation. Seabury and most of his breth- ren were missionaries deriving their support from England. They had also, at their ordinations and inductions repeatedly taken the oath of allegiance to the sovereign personally; and how could these obligations be slighted without perjury? There was room for honest difference of opinion, in view of the constitutional revolution of 1688 and the conditional character which was thereby imparted to this oath, in the judgment of many jurists and learned men. But Seabury 's habits of thought inclined him to a different opinion ; and the re- bellions of 1715 and 1715 were yet fresh in the memory of all, as a practical warning. He ar- dently resisted, therefore, what he considered a rebellion against lawful authority ; and he was not the man to adopt such views of the case with passive principle only. He sustained what he supposed to be truth and right very vigorously by word and deed ; and The Letters of a Westches- ter Farmer, which called forth the efforts of Ham- ilton for their refutation, are commonly ascribed to him. In consequence, he was seized by a company of armed men, on the 22d of November, at his home in Westchester, and with violence and insult was taken into Connecticut, where he remained a prisoner till after Christmas. It was impossible for him, however, to continue his min- istrations in Westchester ; and he soon made his escape to Long Island. His church was dese- crated, and his parishioners reduced to great privations. It is needless to say that Seabury maintained his loyalty to the close of the struggle, and continued his sacred ministrations as well as he could, though forced to maintain himself, in large measure, by his skill as a physician. The acknowledgment of the Colonies as independent States by the king himself absolved him from his oath, and he now entered upon a new and more happy period of his life and labors. He was elected by the clergy of Connecticut to be their bishop, on the 25th"of j\larch, 1783, in an- ticipation of the actual peace, and sailed for Eng- land soon after the preliminaries had been signed, arriving in London on the 7th of July. The ap- peal of his diocese to the Archbishop of Canter- bury, which had been made for his ordination to the episcopate, was unsuccessful, however, because somewhat premature in its political bearings ; one of the difficulties being a natural fear on the part of the government that such a measure might be regarded as an interference with States now inde- pendent of the British crown. The archbishop could not proceed to the consecration without an act dispensing with the oath of allegiance; and this gave a civil aspect to the matter, with which the ministry was not prepared to be concerned. In this dilemma, recourse was had to the bishops in Scotland not yet relieved of their restraints by the death of the Pretender, but tolerated in view of that approaching event and in consideration of their long and patient sufferings. It was on Sun- day, the 14th of November, 1784, in the chapel of Bishop Skinner's residence in Aberdeen, that Sea- bury received the episcopate at the hands of three "nonjuring"pi-elates, and became the first bishop of the American succession. He always regarded it as an advantage that he was thus consecrated in a primitive and "purely ecclesiastical" manner, as he expressed it, because it assui'ed his country- men that his future labors had no dependence upon the crown of England, and that he held his order and office without any favor of Prince or Parliament. Before leaving Scotland he signed a Concordat with the Scottish bishops, by which he agreed to promote, so far as in him lay, those restorations of the (Eucharistic) Liturgy, which have accordingly become the characteristic fea- ture of the American Prayer-Book as compared with that of the Church of England. It has been necessary to give with some detail so much of Seabury's history as is essential to an explanation of his position and influence in tlie organization of the Protestant- Episcopal Church; but, referring our readers to the lately published memoir (by Dr. Beardsley, 1881) for a full ac- count of his life and labors, it is sufficient to add a brief outline of his episcopate. After a voyage of three months he reached his diocese June 27, 1785, and on the 2d of August following, at Mid- dletown, was received by his clergy with due solemnity. He held his first ordination on the following day. The subsequent consecration of three bishops in England, and the formation of a constitution for the church thus rendered inde- pendent and autonomous, occasioned much nego- tiation and correspondence, before the diocese of Connecticut became duly incoi'porated luider this constitution, with the dioceses south of New Eng- land ; and in all these agitating preliminaries the learning, piety, and moderation of Seabury, im- pressed a deep *espect for his character upon all his brethren, with the exception of a few whose political prejudices had survived the conflicts of the war. The Johannean qualities of Bishop White were precisely such as were requisite as a comple- ment to the Petrine spirit of Seabury, and to their sincere mutual regard and wise co-operation was largel}' due the good understanding that soon followed. The episcopate of Bishop Seabury was cordially recognized, and he united with his three brother-bishops of the Anglican line in consecrat- ing the first bishop of Marj'land (Dr. Claggett) ; and consequently no bishop has ever been conse- crated in this church without deriving his com- mission in part through the Scottish line of ecclesiastical ancestry. The bishop's life and labors in Connecticut have left a deep mark on the religious history of the State, and not less deeply has his influence been felt in the entire communion in which he was so conspicuous as an organizer and doctor. Two volumes of his sermons have been collected and published, and others have appeared in a fragmentary shape ; but valuable manuscripts remain as yet unedited. They evince SEAGRAVE. 2142 SEAMEN. a vigorous mind, and intrepid devotion to the doc- trinal standards of ancient catholicity. The writer of this brief notice was active in promoting the final deposit of Bishop Seabury's remains, in 1849, under the new and substantial church in New London, where they now rest ; and on that occasion he had the solemn office, in connection with Bishop Williams, now the succes- sor of Seabury, of laying his venerable relics in the place of their ultimate repose. A physician who attended to identify these relics when disinterred remarked on the massive proportions of the skull ; and the well-worn mitre preserved in Trinity College, Hartford, corresponds with these propor- tions so remarkably as to furnish in itself a strik- ing evidence of the fidelity of the half-length portrait of the bishop, from the pencil of Duche, which adorns the library of that college, and from which many popular engravings have been derived. BISHOP A. CLEVEL,\ND COXE. SEAGRAVE, Robert, an earnest evangelical minister and co-worker with Whitefield ; was b. Nov. 22, 1693, at Twyford in Leicestershii'e, and educated at Clare Hall, Cambridge. Having vainly endeavored to bring the Church of Eng- land to his position, he left her, or at least worked outside her pale. Besides sundi-y ser- mons and pamphlets, he published in 1742 fifty hynuis, which were reprinted by D. Sedgwick, 1860. The best of them is, "Rise, my soul, and stretch thy wings." He was living as late as 1759. F. M. BIRD. SEALS. See Rings. SEAMAN, Lazarus, D.D., a learned English divine ; b. at Leicester ; d. in 1675. He was educated at Emanuel College, Cambridge. In the civil war he took the Parliamentary side, and in reward of his services was appointed master of Peter House, Cambridge, a member of the Assembly of Divines at Westminster, and rector of Allhallows, London, from which living he was ejected in 1662. He was noted for his knowledge of church polity and controversial divinity. Be- sides sermons, he published A vindication of the judgment of the Reformed Churches and Protestant divines from misrepresentation concerning ordination and laying on of hands, London, 1637. His was the first, or one of the first, libraries disposed of in England by auction (1676), and brought seven hundred pounds. Portions of the catalogue are reprinted in Dibdin's Bibliomania, ed. 1842, 304- 308 n. See Neal : Hist, of the Puritans, Cooper : Biographical Dictionary ; Allibone : Dictionary of Authors. SEAMEN, Missions to. Rev. John Flavel (England, 1627-91) and English contemporaries (Ryther, Janeway, et al.), as also a few clergymen of the established and dissenting churches in England in the eighteenth century, preached occa- sional sermons, special and serial, some of which were printed, on behalf of seamen ; but the sec- ond half of the eighteenth century witnessed the first united efforts for their evangelization. An association, styled at first The Bible Society, was organized in London in 1780, to supply English troops in Hyde Park with the Holy Scriptures, whose field of labor was speedily enlarged to embrace seamen in the British navy. The first ship furnished with Bibles by this society was "The Royal George," sunk off Spithead, Eng., Aug. 29, 1782. The society's name was soo changed, becoming Tlie Naval and Military Bibi Society. It is still in operation, confines itself t its original specific object, the diffusion of th word of God, and has been of immense servie to the army and navy of Great Britain. Thi society had its influence in originating the Britisl and Foreign Bible Society, and the work of th latter led eventually to the formation of th American Bible Society. (Cf. art. " Bible Socie ties," Encyc. Brit., 9th ed. vol. iii. p. 649.) The need for Christian exertion among sailor was urgent. Destitute, as a class, of any access ti the Bible, to preaching, or to any service, instruc tion, or consolations of the church, their live passed, for the most part, without access to thi gospel of Christ. " It would be difiicult," say a well-informed writer, "to conceive of a deepe: moral night than that which for centuries ha( settled upon the sea." Early efforts made in England to furnish sail ors with the gospel, however, met with serioui opposition from Christian people, as well as fron unchristian officers in the royal navy. So lat( as 1828 the king was petitioned to abroga-te at order, then recently issued by the lord high ad miral, prohibiting the free circulation of tracti in the navy. But in 1814 the pioneers of th( movement for this end, Rev. George Charles Smith, a dissenting clergyman, once a sailor, anc Zebulon Rogers, a shoemaker of the Methodis' persuasion, established prayer-meetings for sea men, on the Thames, at London ; the first beinj held on the brig " Friendship," June 22 of tha year, by Mr. Rogers. These were multiplied ant sustained upon the shipping in the river. Marcl 23, 1817, the first bethel flag was unfurled on th( " Zephyr," Capt. Hindulph of South Shields, Eng The Port of London Society was organized Marcl 18, 1818, to provide for the continuous preachinj of the gospel to seamen in London, upon a float ing chapel (ship) of three hundred tons' burden and Rev. Mr. Smith ministered upon it with sue cess during the ensuing year. Nov. 12, 1819, Th Bethel Union Society was formed at London, which in addition to the maintenance of religious meet ings on the Thames, established correspondenc( with local societies that had been started by Mr Smith's exertions in various parts of the kingdom These two societies were subsequently united t( form what is now known as The British and For eign Sailors' Society. The Sailor's Magazine (London) merged, afte: publication for seven years by Rev. Mr. Smith into the New Sailor's Magazine, also issued b; him, was established in 1820. The monthl; magazine now issued by The British and Foreigi Sailors' Society is Chart and Compass (pp. 32), estah lished in January, 1879. It has presented th( facts, and discussed questions connected with thi evangelization of seamen, with fervency and force Up to April, 1883, Chart and Compass had cir culated 128,000 copies. In 1825 The London Mariner's Church and Rivet men's Bethel Union was organized to provide i church for seamen on shore. Rev. Mr. Smith be coming pastor. This church was for years tb centre of an extensive system of labor, includini a sabbath school, bethel prayer-meetings, trac and book distribution, magazine publishing, am SEAMEN. 2143 SEAMEN. open-air preaching to seamen on the wharves. Eev. Mr. Smith died at Penzance, Cornwall, Eng., in January, 1863. Existing seamen's missionary societies in the empire of Great Britain, distinct from local or- ganizations which limit the prosecution of work to their own ports, are, (1) The British and For- eign Sailors' Society {a.t Sailor's Institute, Shad well, London, E., with receipts from April 1, 1881, to AprU 1, 1882, of £10,123 18s. 8rf., and expendi- tures for the same period of £9,510 3s. 7d.), which in its sixty-fifth annual report (1882-83) names the ports of Rotterdam, Hamburg, Antwerp, Genoa, Naples, and Malta, outside England, and London, Milford-Haven, Falmouth,' and Barrow- in-Furness (English), as occupied more or less effectively by persons having entire or partial sup- port from its treasury, and devoting themselves to the spiritual and temporal welfare of seamen. (2) The London Missions to Seamen (Established English Church), whose operation^ are, for the most part, carried on afloat. Its chaplains are at twenty English and three foreign, its Scripture- readers at twenty-nine English and four foreign seaports. Local English societies for seamen are at Liverpool (formed in 1821), Glasgow, and other ports. Evangelical Lutheran missions to seamen are prosecuted with vigor by societies with headquar- ters in the Scandinavian countries, whence come, in our day, the larger number of sailors for the world's mercantile marine. The Norwegian so- ciety — Foreningen til Evangeliets Forkyndelse for Skandinaviske Somond i fremmede Havne, or, in English, The Society for the Gospel's Preaching to Scandinavian Seamen in Foreign Harbors — was organized at Bergen, Norway, Aug. 31, 1864, and now (1883) has stations at Leith, Scotland ; North Shields, London, Cardiff, Eng. ; at Ant- werp, Belgium ; Havre, France ; Amsterdam, Hol- land ; New York, U.S.A. ; Quebec, Can. ; and at Pensacola, Fla., U.S.A. Mission-work for seamen is also carried on by this society at Montrose, Scotland. Its aggregate working force consists of eleven ordained pastors, with five or six assistant missionaries, unordained. The society owns churches at all its stations, and publishes a monthly paper, Bud og Hilsen, now in its eighteenth year of issue. Receipts in 1881-82 were 103,855 kroner ;i expenditures, 58,297 kroner. The Danish seamen's mission society — Dankse Forening til Evangeliets Forkyn- delse for Skandinavike Sofolk i fremmede Havne, or, in English, The Danish Society for the Gospel's Preaching to Scandinavian Seamen in Foreign Ports — has its stations at Hull and Grimsby, London, Newcastle, and Hartlepool (Eng.), and at New- York City, U.S.A., with an aggregate of four ordained pastors. Three other ordained pastors perform some labor for sailors at Frederickstadt and Christianstadt (St. Croix, W.I.), and at St. Thomas and St. Jan, W.I. The same society supports a seamen's pastor at Madras, India ; and at Brisbane, Australia, an ordained pastor gives a portion of his time to the interests of Scandi- navian sailors. Its bi-monthly paper is Havnen, published at Copenhagen, Denmark. Receipts in 1882, 22,034 kroner ; expenditures, 10,421 kroner. > A kroner ie about twenty-six cents United-States currency. The Swedish society for home and foreign mis- sions — Forterlandsstiftelse — has sustained mis- sionary work for seamen since 1869, and has the following stations where such labor is performed by its agents, — Constantinople, Turkey ; Alexan- dria, Egypt; Liverpool, Grimsby, and Gloucester, Eng. ; Boston, Mass., U.S.A.; Marseilles, France; St. Ubes, Portugal, — with five ordained pastors. The State Church in Sweden has three ordained pastors laboring for seamen, at London and Hartlepool (Eng.), and at Kiel in Prussia. The Finland seamen's mission society, Forenningen for Beredande of SJaleward at Finska SJoman i Utlandska Hamnar, organized in 1880, has a sta- tion at London, Eng., with one ordained pastor in charge, and is about to establish another at Grimsby and Hull, Eng. The Swedish Evangelical Lutheran Augustana Synod in America has a sta- tion for Scandinavian seamen, with one ordained pastor, at Philadelphia, Penn., U.S.A. The synod for the Norwegian Evangelical Lutheran Church in America has a mission in Australia, with one ordained pastor. The total of stations occupied by the Scandinavian (Lutheran) societies is thirty-three, with twenty-nine ordained pastors and six unordained pastors as laborers. No organizations exist in North or South Ameri- ca, outside the United States, for the sole purpose of prosecuting religious labor among seamen. At Boston, Mass., the first society for this object was formed in May, 1812, but soon suspended opera- tions. The first religious meeting on behalf of sailors in New- York City (N.Y.) is believed to have been held in the summer of 1816, at the corner of Front Street and Old Slip. The Ma- rine Bible Society of New -York City was organized March 14, 1817, to furnish sailors with the Holy Scriptures. The Society for promoting the Gospel among Seamen in the Port of New York, common- ly known as The New-Yorl^ Port Society, a local organization, was formed June 5, 1818. This so- ciety laid the foundations of the first mariner's church ever erected, in Roosevelt Street, near the East River, which was dedicated June 4, 1820, Rev. Ward Stafford preacher and pastor. In 1823 The New - York Port Society set at work in that city the first missionary to seamen. Rev. Henry Chase. This society now sustains a church at Madison and Catharine Streets in New York, and a reading-room for sailors in the same edifice, employing in the year ending Dec. 31, 1882, nine missionaries. Receipts for 1882 were |11,667.04 ; expenditures, $10,682.07. The New-York Bethel Union, for the establishment and maintenance of religious meetings on vessels in the port (organized June 3, 1821), had but a brief existence. The movements noted — that at Boston, Mass., issuing in the formation of the earliest society of its kind in the world — led to similar action for the performance of local work for seamen at Charles- ton, S.C. (1819), Philadelphia, Penn. (1819), Port^ land. Me., and New Orleans, La. (1823), at New Bedford, Mass. (1825), and elsewhere. In the lat- ter year there were in the United States seventy bethel unions, thirty-three marine Bible socie- ties, fifteen churches and floating chapels for sea- men. There had been many conversions to Christ among sailors, and their evangelization was rec- ognized as among the most prominent and impor- tant of Christian enterprises. SEAMEN. 2144 SEAMEN. Accordingly, after its formal establishment in the city of New York (Jan. 11, 1826), succeeded by a new organization in its board of trustees (May 5, 1828, from which time its birth is dated). The American Seamen's Friend Society (80 AVall Street, New York, N.Y.), unquestionably the most wide- ly operative and efficient of existing missionary societies for seamen, came into being. Its first President was Hon. Smith Thompson, then sec- retary of the United-States navy; Rev. C. P. Mc- Ilvaine, afterwards Protestant-Episcopal bishop of Ohio, was its Corresponding Secretary; and Rev. Joshua Leavitt its General Agent. Article II. of its constitution provides : — " The object of this society shall be to improve the social and moral condition of seamen by uniting the efforts of the wise and good in their behalf, by promoting in every port boarding-houses of good character, savings-banks, register-offices, libraries, museums, reading-rooms, and schools, and also the ministration of the gospel, and other religious bless- ings " Its first foreign chaplain was Rev. David Abeel, who reached his field of labor at Wham- poa, the anchorage for ships trading at Canton, China, Feb. 16, 1830. In its fortieth year (1867- 68) its laborers (chaplains and sailor missionaries) were stationed at twenty foreign, and thirteen do- mestic, seaports, as follows : at Caribou Island on the Labrador coast, N.A. ; at St. John, N.B. ; in Norway, at Christiansand, Kragero, and Pors- grund ; in Denmark, at Copenhagen and Odense ; in Sweden, at Gottenberg, Warberg and Wedige, Wernersberg, and Stockholm ; in Belgium, at Ant- werp ; in France, at Havre and Marseilles ; in the Hawaiian Islands, at Honolulu and flilo ; at the Chincha Islands in Peru, at Valparaiso and at Buenos Ayres, S.A. ; and in the United States, at the following seaports: San Francisco, Cal., Nor- folk and Richmond, Va., Charleston, S.C, Mo- bile, Ala., Boston and Gloucester, Mass., and at New York, N. Y. Its missionary work was prose- cuted in 1882-83 on the Labrador coast of North America, in the countries of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark, at Hamburg in Germany, at Ant- werp in Belgium, in France at Marseilles and Havre, at Genoa and Naples in Italy, at Yoka- hama in Japan, in the Sandwich and Madeira Islands, at Valparaiso, S.A., and, in the United States, at Portland, Ore., and on the waters of Puget Sound ; also in the ports of Galveston, Tex., New Orleans, La., Pensacola, Fla., Savannah, Ga., Charleston, S.C, Wilmington, N.C., Norfolk, Va., and at Boston, Mass., as well as iu the cities and vicinities of New York, Jersey City (N.J.), and Brooklyn (N.Y.), including the United-States Navy-Yard, numbering forty-two laborers at thir- ty-one seaports (eighteen foreign and thirteen domestic) supported in whole or in part by the society. Its receipts in the first decade of its existence were, in round numbers, $91,000 ; in the second decade, $165,000; in the third, |229,000; in the fourth, $375,000 ; in the fifth, $655,000. Receipts for the year ending March 31, 1883, with small balance from previous year, $80,762.60 ; expendi- tures for same, $79,455.55 inclusive of an invest- ment of a legacy for permanent fund. The Churcli Missionary Society for Seamen in the City of New York (Protestant-Episcopal), in its Thirty-Ninth Annual Report (1882-88), states that the society sustains, as heretofore, two chapels, three mission-houses, with reading and lecture rooms, oversight being in the hands of three cler- gymen, with the assistance of a colportor at each station. Its total services- for the year were 628 ; visits to reading-rooms, 5,622; seamen supplied with Bibles, 204, with Testaments, 618, with the Book of Common Prayer, 621. The bishop of the diocese is its president. Besides the employment of chaplains, residents at seaports, and serving as Christian ministers, of Bible and tract distributers. Scripture-readers, colportors, and helpers, whose titles declare their functions, the missionary societies for seamen have usually wrought for their weKare by estab- lishing, and in part sustaining (temporarily). Sailors' Homes in various ports. In them are resident missionaries, who, besides their services in religious meetings, devote portions of their time to spiritual and charitable visitation among sailors on shipboard and shore, at sailor boarding- houses, and in hospitals, and, in some cases, to such service for the families of seamen. The Wells Street Sailors' Home at London (Eng.) Docks was established by Mr. George Greene in 1830, was opened in 1835, enlarged in 1865. In one year it admitted 5,444 boardei's, who, besides a home, had evening instruction, the use of a savings-bank, etc. The Liverpool (Eng.) Sailors' Homes were opened in 1844. The Sailors' Home at 190 Cherry Street, New York, is the property and is under the direction of the American Seamen's Friend Society. It was opened in 1842, reconstructed, refurnished, and re-opened in 1880, and is now unsurpassed by any sailors' home in the world. During the year 1882-83 it accom- modated 2,003 boarders. The whole number of boarders since the Home was established is 102,- 713, and the amount saved by it to seamen and their relatives during the forty-one years since its establishment has been more than $1,500,000. The systematic supply of carefully selected libra- ries, to be loaned to vessels for use at sea, by their officers and crews, is now largely carried on by these organizations, especially by iheAmerican Seamen's Friend Society. Its shipments of such libraries from 1858-59 to March 31, 1883, were 7,764, and the re-shipments of the same, 8,100 ; the total shipments aggregating 15,864. The number of volumes was 419,420, accessible by original shipment to 801,425 seamen. Of the whole number sent out, 943 libraries with 33,948 volumes were placed upon United States naval vessels and in naval hospitals, and have been accessible to 107,995 men : 106 libraries were iu 106 stations of the United States Life-saving Ser- vice, containing 3,816 volumes, accessible to 742 keepers and surf men. The Sailors' Magazine (32 pp., monthly), organ of the American Seamen's Friend Society, is now the eldest of the periodicals issued on behalf of seamen. It was established in September, 1828, is in its fifty-fifth volume ; and of its issues for 1882-83, 81,000 copies were printed and dis- tributed. In the same twelvemonth 18,000 copies of The Seamen's Friend (4 pp., annually), estab- lished in 1858, were issued by this society, for sailors ; and 145,000 copies of the Life-Boat (4 pp., monthly) for the use of sabbath schools. SEARS. 2145 SBBALDUS. Varied help is habitually extended to ship- wrecked aud destitute sailors by all these organi- zations. The establishment of savings-banks for seamen has ordinarily been due to their influence. The Seamen's Savings-Bank in New- York City (78 Wall Street) went into operation May 11, 1829. Sailors' asylums, orphanages, and " Rests " {houses of entertainment conducted upon tem- perance principles) are open in many seaports as the fruit of their existence. Miss Agnes Weston, from her "Rest" at Devonport, Eng., was distributing, gratis, by voluntary contribu- tion, in 1882, 15,000 monthly Blue Sooks (8 pp. temperance and religious tracts) in the English tongue ; and these were regularly translated into Dutch and German for the navies of Holland and Germany. It is impracticable to present detailed statistics as to results of Christian labor for seamen : the best general estimate fixes the number of Chris- tianized sailors at not far from thirty thousand. But to say that during the last half-century these men have been gathered into the church of Christ by thousands, that as a class sailors are now manifestly being lifted out of the ignorance and degradation in which they lived at the opening of the nineteenth century, and to attribute these •changes, realized aud still progressing, to the ex- ertions of these societies, is to speak with truth- ful moderation. The corporate and individual efforts of persons connected with them have often originated and made effective beneficent public legislation, in the interest of sailors, in Great Britain and in the United States. It is in place to add, that, with few exceptions, all seamen's missionary societies are administered upon a non-denominational basis. Lit. — Reports of various seamen's societies, passim; Sailor's Magazine (J^ .Y .), passim, Tpaxticu.- larly its arts. " Ocean Pioneers," in 1876, by Rev. C J. JojSfES ; Notes of Fifty Years' Efforts for .the Welfare of Seamen (New York, American Sea- men's Friend Soc, 1878) ; Haydn's Dictionary of Dates, art. " Sailors' Homes," 17th ed. (New York, 1833). H. H. McFAELAND (Am. S. Friend Soc). SEARS, Barnas, distinguished as an educator; b. at Sandisfield, Mass., Nov. 19, 1802; d. at Saratoga Springs, N.Y., July 6, 1880. He was •converted at the age of thirteen, joining the Bap- tist Church. Of independent spirit, he entered •at fifteen on self-support, and at sixteen began teaching school. He was graduated from Brown University in 1825, and from Newton Theological •Seminary in 1828. For a short time he was pas- tor of the First Baptist Church of Hartford, Conn. In 1829 he became professor of ancient languages in Hamilton (N.Y.) Literary and Theological Insti- tution, now Madison University ; and in this posi- tion he showed enthusiasm, learning, and power. He also served as pastor of the Baptist Church in Hamilton. In 1833 he went to Europe; spending two years in study in Halle, Leipzig, and Berlin, imder Neander, Tholuck, and other great teachers •of that period. He stands connected with an important chapter in Baptist history ; for in 1834, in the Elbe at Hamburg, he baptized the Rev. J. G. Oncken and six others, forming the first German Baptist Church in communion with the Baptists of England and America. To avoid arrest and imprisonment, the baptism was by night; and from this beginning, through many and severe persecutions, the German-Baptist com- munion has increased, till it numbers more than a hundred and twenty churches with upwards of twenty-five thousand members. He returned to Hamilton in 1835, but in 1836 became professor of theology in Newton Theological Seminary, where he remained twelve years, being for the last nine years president of the institution. His teaching was broad, comprehensive, scriptural, incisive, sug- gestive, and apposite. For several years he was the editor of the Christian Review. Deeply inter- ested in general education, he was appointed by Gov. Briggs a member of the Massachusetts Board of Education ; and on the resignation of Horace Mann, in 1848, he was made secretary of the board, resigning his position at Newton. In this new service he continued seven years, his energy and enthusiasm, with his dignity, tact, and genial manner, giving him power and popularity with teachers and citizens. In 1855 he succeeded Dr. Wayland in the presidency of Brown University, which position he held for twelve years. In 1867 he was made general agent of the Peabody Edu- cational Fund ; and having removed his residence to Staunton, Va., he remained till his death in the successful discharge of the important duties of this position. He was revered and admired by his pupils, honored by his associates, and held in highest regard by all who in any way came into acquaintance with him. He received the degree of D.D. from Harvard in 1841, and that of LL.D. from Yale in 1862. In addition to many review articles, reports, addresses, etc., he published a Life of Luther (1850), an edition of Roget's Thesaurus (1854), with several translations, compilations, etc. noemait fox. SEARS, Edmund Hamilton, D.D., b. at Sandis- field, Berkshire County, Mass., 1810; d. at Wes- ton, Mass., Jan. 14, 1876 ; graduated at Union College, 1834, and at Cambridge Divinity School, 1837; was pastor at Wayland, Mass., 1838--40 and 1847-65, at Lancaster, Mass., 1840-47, and at Weston, 1885-76. Though connected with the Unitarian body, he held Swedenborgian opinions, and often professed his belief in the absolute divinity of our Lord. He wrote largely for the Monthly Religious Magazine, and with Rufus Ellis edited it, 1859-71. He published Regeneration (1854), Pictures of the Olden Time (1857), Athana- sia, or Furegleams of Immortality (1858), The Fourth Gospel the Heart of Christ (1872), and Sermons and Songs of the Christian Life (1875). His writings are noted for their great spiritual power and beauty; and his two exquisite Christmas-hymns, "Calm on the listening ear of night," and "It came upon the midnight clear" (1834 and 1849 or 1850), are universally known. F. M. BIRD. SE8ALDUS, a Roman-Catholic saint; d., ac- cording to some, in 801, to others, in 901 or even later. The sou of a Danish king or a peasant, he began his studies in Paris at fifteen. He married the daughter of King Dagobert, but the day after the ceremony was released from his marriage-voyps ; spent ten years in the practice of an ascetic life, and was commissioned by Gregory II. as a preach- er of the gospel in Germany. He is said to have founded many churches in Bavaria, and at last to have settled down at NUrnberg, where the St. Se- baldus Church still preserves his memory. The SB BAPTIST. 2146 SEDGWICK. city has chosen him as its patron, and celebrates his memory Aug. 19. On account of the miracles performed by him alive and by his relics, he was canonized by Martin V., 1425. neudecker. SE BAPTIST. See Smyth, John. SEBASTIAN, a Catholic saint, and protecting patron against the plague; was b. in the third century, in Narbonne, and educated at Milan. Eager to render help to the persecuted Christians under Diocletian, he entered the ranks of the army as a secret Christian, and was appointed by Diocletian to a high position. When it became known that he was a Christian, he was condemned to death, and pierced with niiijiy arrows. Left for dead, a Christian, Irene, who was about to bury him, found him alive. He got well, but was again condemned, and flogged to death. A church was built to his memory at Rome, and was fol- lowed by the discontinuance of the plague. His day in the Roman calendar is Jan. 20; in the Greek, Dec. 18. Baronius, Tilleinont, and others lay particular emphasis on the ylcta S. Sebas- tiani. NEUDECKER. SECESSION CHURCH. See Presbyterian Churches (United Presbyterian). SECKENDORF, Veit Ludwig von, b. Dec. 20, 1626, at Herzogenaurach, near Erlangen ; d. at Halle, Dec. 18, 1692. He was educated at the court of Gotha ; studied law and philosophy at Strassburg, and held high positions in the service, first, of Duke Ernst of Gotha, then of Maurice of Saxony, and finally of the elector of Bran- denburg. His Compendium historim ecclesiasticm (Gotha, 1660-04, 2 vols.) was translated into Ger- man, and often reprinted. His principal work, however, is his De Lutlieranismo (Leipzig, 1688), written against Maimbourg's Hisloire de Luthera- nisme. His life was written by Schreber, Leipzig, 1737. G. H. KLIPPEL. SECKER, Thomas, Church of England ; b. at Sibthorpe, Nottinghamshire, 1693 ; d. in London, Aug. 3, 1768. He was graduated M.D. at Leyden, 1721, but then entered Exeter College, Oxford ; was ordained priest, 1723, rector of Houghton-le- Spring, 1724, of St. James's, London, 1783 ; ap- pointed chaplain to the king, 1732 ; consecrated bishop of Bristol, Jan. 19, 1735; transferred to Oxford, May, 1737, to which see was added the deanery of St. Paul's, 1750 ; and finally he was enthroned archbishop of Canterbury, April 21, 1758. He was a popular preacher and a faithful bishop. See Bishop Porteus' Review of his life, prefaced to his edition of his Works, London, 1770, 12 vols. SECOND ADVENTISTS. See Adventists (Appendix). SECOND COMING. OF CHRIST. See Mil- lenarianism, Premillenianism. SECRET DISCIPLINE. See Akcani Disci- PLINA. SECULAR CLERGY. See Clergy, p. 499. SECULARIZATION means the conversion of an ecclesiastical institution and its property into a secular institution with a secular purpose, or the transformation of a State organization with an ecclesiastical head into a State organization with a secular head, or the legal absolution from ecclesiastical vows. Secularizations of the first kind have occurred from time to time, — in the last days of the reig-n of the ISIerovingian dynasty in France, under Henry II. in Germany, during the Reformation in various countries, etc., — though always under the protest of the Church. The first instance of a secularization of the second kind was probably the transferrence of the Duchy of Prussia from the possession of the Knights of the Teutonic Order to the dominion of a prince of the German Empire (1525). But on a still greater scale secularization of this kind was carried on during the Napoleonic wars, especially by the Peace of Campo Formio (1797) and that of Lune- ville (1801). The word was first used by the French delegates during the negotiations preced- ing the Peace of Westphalia (1648). Seculari- zation of the third kind is a Papal prerogative. _ SECUNDUS, a gnostic of the school of Valen- tinus ; differed (by teaching, besides the thirty aeons, a double tetrad, — one to the right, and one to the left ; one of light, and one of darkness) so materially from his master, that he formed a school of his own, — the Secundians. But the notices of him which have come down to us through Irenseus {liwr., i. 11, 2), Hippolytus {Ref., vi. 38), Ter- tullian {Prmscript., 49), Epiphanius (Hcer., 32), and others, do not enable us to form any complete idea of his system. w. moller. SEDES VACANS, a term of canon law, — prop- erly speaking applicable only to the papal or to an episcopal see, because sedes (Opovoc) originally was used only in coimection with the predicate apos- tolica, though its use has gradually been extended to abbeys and other high dignities of church, — denotes the interval between the decease or depo- sition on translation or resignation of the occu- pant to the full legal instalment of his successor. During such an interval the administration of an episcopal diocese was originally confided to the presbytery, afterwards to an inlerces^sor, intervent- or, or oinilator, and finally to the cathedral chap- ter. If the vacancy is not absolute, but only partial, as, for instance, on account of the sick- ness of the occupant, the term sedes impedita (hindered) is applied, and a coadjutor is ap- pointed. H. F. JACOBSON. SEDGWICK, Daniel, the father of English hymnology ; b. in London, 1815 ; d. there March 10, 1879 ; was originally a shoemaker, of humble birth and limited education. Being fond of hymns, he bought the old books containing them one by one, and about 1840 began the systematic collection and study of texts and editions. He gradually acquired a unique library, and a knowl- edge of the subject long unrivalled. The popu- larity of Sir R. Palmer's (now Lord Selborne) Book of Praise, 1865, and the care Mr. Sedgwick had bestowed in making it a model of accuracy in texts, dates, and ascriptions of authorship, established his reputation ; and thenceforth the compilers of nearly every prominent English hymnal, of whatever creed or connection, required his help. His shop in Sun Street, Bishopsgate, was the chief source of hymnologic information for England and America. He published from 1859- to 1865, and usually at pecuniary loss, the only collection of Ryland's hymns, and the only relia- ble one of Toplady's, besides reprints of Mason and Shepherd's, Steele, W. Williams, Seagrave, Grigg, and several more. His six catalogues, and Compreliensive Index of names and authors, 1863, are valuable for reference. F. M. BIRD. ; SEDGWICK. 2147 SEEING GOD. iEDGWICK, Obadiah, English Presbyterian; in parish of St. Peter, Marlborough, Wiltshire, 10 ; d. at Marlborough, January, 1657. He 3 graduated at Magdalen Hall, Oxford; entered y orders; was chaplain to Sir Horatio Vere, ■on of Tilbury ; returned to Oxford, where in !9 he became "reader of the sentences." Soon sr, he began to preach at St. Mildred's, Bread- set, London, and until 1655, with the exception two years (1639-41) when he was at Coggeshall, sex, he preached in London, — in Breadstreet ;il 1646, and afterwards at St. Paul's, Covent rden. His ministry was popular and fruitful. zealously defended the Presbyterian cause. was one of the licensers of the press, and a mber of the Westminster Assembly of Divines. 1653 he was appointed by Parliament one of I " tryers " (examiners of the qualifications of listers), and in 1654 assistant to the commis- ners of London for the ejection of " scandalous i ignorant " ministers and schoolmasters. He s succeeded in his parish by Ms son-in-law, omas Manton. Besides numerous printed ser- ns (enumerated by Wood), he was the author The doubting Christian resolved, London, 1653 ; e humbled sinner resolved what he should, do to he ed, 1656 ; The Shepherd of Israel, 1658 (an ex- iition of the Twenty-third Psalm) ; Synopsis Christianity; Anatomy of secret sins, XQQO ; The lels of tender mercy sealed in the everlasting cove- it, 1661 ; A short catechism. See Wood : Ath. on., ed. Bliss, iii. 441-444. SEDULIUS, Cajus Coelius, or Caecilius, a Chris- a poet and priest of the fifth century ; lived ring the reign of Theodosius II. and Valen- ian III. Of his life nothing is known with tainty; but his Carmen paschale, written in sameters, was printed in 1473, and again in )9 and 1502. There are also later editions by Uandi, 1773, and Arevalo, 1794. 3EDULIUS SCOTUS, or SEDULIUS JUNIOR, s a Christian author of the eighth century, o wrote Collectanea in omnes epistolas S. Pauli, md in Bibl. Max. Lugd., vi. ; commentaries on ! first three Gospels, edited by A. Mai, in Script. Coll. nova, vs.. ; and a politico-religious treatise, rectoribus Christianis, edited by A. Mai, in Spicil. manum. SEEING GOD. It belongs to the deepest ieavors of all religions to make sure of the irness of the Deity : hence those places are lecially sacred where he is said to reveal himself, i the persons are holy who are found worthy that nearness, or have that higher faculty to ng others in a near relationship to the Deity. e highest degree of that desire is to see the ity in essential reality. In the Bible also we i such a desire expressed, which is one of the st deeply rooted instincts of the religious ,n. This instinct is satisfied (even the sensual •t of man may partake of it), but the mode seeing changes itself in the same degree as the nner ia which God appears. In this respect find, especially in the Old Testament, the ivalence of popular views. Thus the main a is tliis, that the common man (i.e., one whom special holiness protects) must die when he s God in the form peculiar to him. This form )ws itseK at first in the fiery appearances in iven. Lot's wife dies, because she curiously sees the fiery judgment of Jehovah (Gen. xix. 26). Gideon and ilanoah expect death, because they have seen the angel of the Lord in the fire (Judg. vi. 23, xiii. 22). For the same reason the people removed from Mount Sinai when they saw God in the cloud, smoke, and lightning (Exod. xx. 18, 19 ; Deut. xviii. 16). The explanation of that inca- pacity which makes it impossible for man to be- hold God when he shows himself in his power, lies in the fact of man's frail strength : he is flesh (Deut. V. 26). But the deeper knowledge of the divine will overcomes this hinderance. God will give blessing and grace. His appearances become by degrees the sign of this heavenly grace. The transition is made in the examples of Gideon, Manoah, and Hagar ; since that God who promises blessing and salvation cannot let the guiltless die. Yea, it is one of the strongest proofs of the grace of God in the theocratic covenant, that Jehovah himself leads his people in the pillar of fire and smoke : it is a clear proof of Israel's leligious superiority above all other nations, that it saw God in his peculiar gloiy, without dying (Deut. iv. 33, V. 24), or, as it is so emphatically expressed by Moses, " The Lord talked with you face to face " (Deut. v. 4). But the behavior of the peo- ple caused a limitation in the seeing of God. The stranger, or unclean, who approached the holy place, must die, as well as the Israelite who entered the sanctuary. Only God's elected, like those seventy elders who saw God (Exod.' xxiv. 9, 10), may see God. But the circle becomes smaller still : only the patriarch Israel has seen God face to face (Gen. xxxii. 30) ; only Moses, the mediator and man of God, speaks with Jehovah as a man speaketh unto his friend (Exod. xxxiii. 11). And, because none else has experienced such ful- ness of grace, Moses is also the highest prophet. Whereas others see God in visions and dreams, he sees God from face to face, and sees the si- militude of the Lord (ISTum. xii. 8). For God must have some kind of similitude, otherwise he could not be seen with the eye, — a similitude dif- ferent from the manner in which he appears in the storm and fire. This representation is popular (1 Kings xxii. 19 sq.) ; but it excludes every cor- poreity, and in its unreflected form it is rather the concrete expression, in part of the reality, in part of the personality, of God, and forms the neces- sary basis for the possibility of that seeing. But already in the history of Moses we meet with a peculiar narrative (Exod. xxxiii. 12-xxxiv. 7) which opposes that view which has thus far been advanced. In the first instance we are told that no man shall live who sees God (Exod. xxxiii. 20) : in the second instance we are told that God's face cannot be seen "at all (Exod. xxxiii. 20, 23). Instead of this, Moses hears an explana- tion concerning his goodness and his name, his volition full of mercy and grace. With this, the visible seeing of God is made impossible. And thus we find it in the psalms and prophets ; and the seeing of God is nothing else than the expe- rience of his helpful presence, which takes the habitation of Jehovah, the temple, for its start- ing-point (Ps. xlii. 3). Hence, also, the hope of Job (xix. 26), "I shall see God," i.e., I will experience his helpful grace visibly, not in the other life, but in this life ; thus, also, Hezekiah (Isa. xxxviii. 11). The highest fulfilment of all SEEING GOD. 2148 SEIR. religious wishes involves Ps. xi. 7 : " His counte- nance doth behold the upright." Especially in- teresting and much disputed is the passage Ps. xvii. 15 : "I will behold thy face in righteousness : I shall be satisfied, when I awake, with thy like- ness." Here, as in Num. xii. 8, the similitude of God appears as the object of the seeing of God, but only in so far as the strict carrying-out of the image makes it necessary, because it concerns here the real communion with the highest source of blessing. The awakening has no reference to the sleep of death, but is the symbol of the grace of God, which is new every morning. Among the prophets the seeing of God is already so much divested of its externality, that in a free manner it is used to express prophetic vision. In Ps. xviii. the theophany is the mediation for the singer's salvation; but in Isa. vi., Ezek. i. 26, Dan. vii. 9, it connects itself with the illumination of the prophet and his call. The image of the sovereign occupies the foreground ; but in Isaiah and Eze- kiel it is surrounded by the original appearances of the theophany in cloud, smoke, fire, etc. In Isaiah we also perceive the old fear of death because of the presence of Jehovah : he acknowl- edges he is " a man of imclean lips, and dwelling in the midst of a people of unclean lips." Human unwoi-thiness is here reduced, not to the fact that man is flesh, but to the idea of unclean- ness, which, however, by that addition, receives another signification. The lips mediate the, word which comes out of the heart : hence it refers to the sins of the heart and to sins committed by word ; they make the presence of Jehovah sitting on his throne, so long intolerable to men, until holy fire has purged him. By combining this idea with Ps. xi. 7 we ap- proach the word of Christ, " Blessed are the pure in heart, for they shall see God " (Matt. v. 8) : with this the hope of the fulfilment of the high- est religious desire, the deepest knowledge of God with the richest enjoyment of grace and blessed- ness, is given to them, only these goods receive a fuller and more particular meaning in the king- dom of Christ. With this corresponds what John regarded as the highest Christian goal : " For we shall see him as he is " (1 John iii. 2), for only like perceives like (1 Cor. ii. 11). Therefore, also, 1 John iv. 12, 20 makes the real seeing of God im- possible : it is a seeing mediated through love ; the seeing refers to the Son whom God hath sent. In him we see the Father (John xiv. 9), because in him grace and glory have been pei-sonifled (John i. 18). Yea, the Son himself is on the Father's bosom: he alone has seen the Father (John vi. 46) ; what the Father does, he does also ; the Father himself shows him the works which he should do. But that seeing of God in the old sense is not predicated even of the only-begotten Son, since the entire sphere of this conception is taken up into the higher spiritual realm. With this also correspond the familiar expressions con- cerning the invisibility of God (1 Tim. vi. 16 ; Rom. i. 20). Lit. — AuGUSTiN : Epislola ad Paulinam ; Rha- BANUS Maurus : De videndo deum (0pp. ed., Migne, vi. pp. 1261-1282) ; Lutz : Biblische Dog- malik, pp. 46 sq. ; Bunsen : Gott in der Gcschichte, i. pp. 169-176; Knobel on Gen. i. 26; Thoi.uck, Stier, Meyer, on Matt. v. 8 ; Li'CKE, Dustbr- DiECK, Ebrakd, on 1 John iii. ; Hupfeld on Ps. xi. 7 ; Hengstenberg on Ps. xvii. 17, and his essay on Balaam, pp. 49 sq. L. dibstel. SEEKERS, a small Puritan sect of the seven- teenth century, who professed to be seeking the true church, ministry, and sacraments, but who at the same time comprised, according to Baxter (Life and Times, p. 76), Roman Catholics and in- fidels, as well as Puritans. SEGNERI, Paolo, Italian Jesuit; b. at Nettu- no in the Campagna di Roma, March 21, 1624 ; d. at Rome, Dec. 6, 1694. He entered the Society of Jesus in his thirteenth (1638), was ordained priest in his twenty-ninth year; and from then until 1665 he taught in a Jesuit school at Pestoia. From 1665 to 1692 he spent half the year in retire- ment, and the rest in travelling as a missionary throughout Northern Italy. He became the " fore- most preacher among the Jesuits in Italy; " and in power over the multitudes who thronged about him, and who fairly worshipped him, he was lilfe Savonarola. He has been styled the " restorer of Italian eloquence." His sermons were modelled upon Chrysostom's, but without servility. They are, however, frequently marred by trivial remarks and stories. When the Jesuits at Rome perceived that Quietism (see art. Molinos) was slowly un- dermining Romanism, and particulai'ly Jesuitism, they sent him " a bundle of Quietistic books with directions to prepare an antidote to them." So in 1680 he published at Florence a small volume with the title, Concordia tra lafatica e la Quiete ("har- mony between effort and Quiet ") in which, without naming Molinos, or depreciating the contempla- tive life, he endeavored to show that the successful prosecution of Quietism was possible only to a few. " He insists that the state of contemplation can never be a fixed or permanent state, and objects therefore to closing the middle way; " i.e., now meditation, now contemplation. His book raised, however, a storm of opposition from the then powerful Quietists, and was put into the Index. He prudently remained away from Rome. In 1692 Pope Innocent XII. called him to Rome as his preaoher-in-ordinary, and theologian of the peni- tentiary. Lit. — Segneri : Opere, Venice, 1712, 4 vols., several editions and reprints; best ed., Milan, 1845-47, 4 vols., with portrait. His best-known work is II Quaresimale (thirty-four Lenten ser- mons), Florence, 1679; Eng. trans, by James Ford, London, 1857-61, 3 vols. ; 4th ed., 1869, reprinted New York, 1872, 2 vols. Besides this, there have been translated, Panegyncs (London, 1877), Manna of the Soul (1879, 2 vols.). Practice of Interior Recol- lection with God (1881). See Life of P. Segneri, London, 1851 ; John Bigelow : Molinos the Quiei- ist, New York, 1882, pp. 18-24 ; E. Paxton Hood r Lamps, Pitchers, and Trumpets, 1872, vol. i. pp. 154-161 (analysis and specimens of Segnen's eloquence). SEIR, or LAND OF SEIR (Gen. xxxii. 3), also MOUNT SEIR (Gen. xxxvi. 30), is the name of the mountain ridge extending along the east side of the valley of the Arabah, from the Dead Sea to the Elanitic Gulf. The southern part of this range now bears the appellation esh-Sherah. The height of the ridge is from between three thousand and four thousand feet, and the length from the north towards the south about twenty miles, and SBLA. 2149 SELDBN. the breadth from three to four miles. One of the highest points of the western range is Hor, with Aaron's tomb (Num. xxxiii. 38). Wadys break frequently through this mountain, and water fer- tile valleys, especially in the north-eastern part. The western part, bordering on the Arabah, is rather a desert. Mount Seir was originally in- habited by the Horites, or Tryglodites, who were dispossessed, and apparently annihilated, by the posterity of Esau, who "dwelt in their stead" (Deut. ii. 12). Though the country was after- wards called Edom, yet the older name, Seir, did not pass away (1 Chron. iv. 42 ; 2 Chron. xx. 10; Ezek. XXXV.). In the post-exile period the coun- try was taken by the Nabathseans, who again were subdued by the Mohammedans in the year 629 A.D. Now the country is inhabited by the Bedawin. In the fertile valleys, peasants, Fel- lahin, cultivate the land, and sell their produce to the pilgrims. The pilgrimage route from Da- mascus to Mecca runs on the eastern border of the country. leyree. SE'LA, or SE'LAH (rock: so in Greek form, Petra, "rock"), a city of Edom, literally hewn out of the rock, filling a valley three-quarters of a mile long, and two hundred and fifty to five hun- dred yards wide. It is now entirely deserted, but its ruins amply attest its former grandeur. It is situated halfway between the Dead Sea and the Gulf of Akabah, in a deep cleft of the Mount- Seir range, near the foot of Mount Hor. It is approached through a narrow defile on the east, a mile and a half long, called the SU: ("cleft") of Wadi MQsa, because the Arabs believe it was made by Moses' rod when he brought the stream through into the valley beyond (Num. xx. 8). The rock of red sandstone towers to a height of from one hundred to three hundred feet above the trav- eller's head as he rides along upon his camel, and in places the way is so narrow that he can almost touch the sides on either hand. Once the way was paved, and bits of the pavement can be seen. Abruptly the traveller comes upon the so-called Khaznet Fir'aun (" treasury of Pharaoh "), really a temple cut from the living rock, with a fagade eighty-five feet high, beautifully sculptured, and in remarkable preservation. Two hundred yards farther along the valley, which widens considerar bly at this point, is the amphitheatre, also entirely from the rock, thirty-nine yards in diameter, and with thirty-three tiers of seats, accommodating from three thousand to four thousand spectators. Farther on there are curious tombs, some very elaborate, other temples, chief of which is the Kasr Fir'aun (" palace of Pharaoh "), and a tri- umphal arch. But upon the city rests the curse of God (Jer. xlix. 16-18), and the place is deso- late. ' Selah is only twice directly mentioned in the Bible, — in 2 Kings xiv. 7, as captured by Amaziah, and called Joktheel (" subdued of God "), and in Isa. xvi. 1 : " Send ye the lamb to the ruler of the land from Sela to the wilderness, unto the mount of the daughter of Zion ; " although in several other passages the word "rock" with more or less probability referred to it (Judg. i. 36 ; 2 Chron. XXV. 11, 12; Isa. xlii. 11; Jer. xlix. 16-18; Obad. 3). The first wife of Herod Antipas, whom he divorced to marry Herodias (Luke iii. 19), was the daughter of Aretas, king of Petra. In King Amaziah's day, Selah was the capital of Edom ; but, after his capture and destruction of it, the headship passed to Bozrah. In this way its strik- ing omission in the Bible is accounted for. But in the fourth century B.C. the Nabathseans pushed their way eastwards, occupied the Arabah, and made Selah, under its Greek form Petra, their capital. The city rose into prominence, being upon the high-road between Arabia and Syria. The Seleucidas made vain attempts to take it. Pompey captured the whole region called by Greek writers Arabia Petrsea ; i.e., Arabia whose capital is Petra. In Petra, Hyi'canus II. and his sou Herod, afterwards Herod the Great, found a hiding-place (Joseph., Antiquities, XIV. 1, 4 ; War, I. 6, 2; 13, 8). In the first Christian centuries Petra was the capital of a Roman province, and it is from this period that the ruins date. It became an episcopal see, and its bishops are men- tioned as late as A.D. 536. But it apparently was destroyed by some desert horde shortly after this date; for it sank completely out of notice until Seetzen, in 1807, visited it, and gave the world the wondrous tale. Burckhardt followed him in 1812; Irby and Mangles, in 1818. It is now frequently visited. See the works of the travellers mentioned ; Eobinson : Researches, ii. 512; Palmer: Desert of the Exodus, pp. 366 sqq.; Ridgaway: The Lord's Land, pp. 139 sqq.; and the guide-books of Murray (Porter) and Bae- deker (Socin). SE'LAH, a musical term which occurs seventy- fom' times in the Bible (seventy-one times in thirty-nine Psalms, and also in Hab. iii. 3, 9, 13), and has been variously interpreted. In the Tar- gum upon the Psalms it is four times rendered " forever," so also Aquila ; while in the Septua^ gint the word used is diuipaX/ja, — itself ambig-uous. The rabbins followed the Targum, and explained "Selah" by "forever." Modern scholars are much divided. Gesenius interprets it as denoting a pause in the song while the music of the Levites went on. Ilengstenberg also renders it " pause," but refers it to the contents of the psalm, — pause to reflect upon what has been sung. Ewald, and, after him, Perowne, render it " strike up," — a direction to the musician to strike up in a louder strain. Others, again, refer the elevation, not to the music, but to the voice. Alexander thinks it is a pious ejaculation to express the writer's feel- ings, and to warn the readers to reflect. (See Wright's art. in Smith's Diet, of the Bible.} SELDEN, John, an erudite writer on law and Hebrew antiquities; was b. at Salvington, Sussex, Dec. 16, 1584 ; d at White Friars, Nov. 30, 1654. At the age of fourteen he entered Hart College, Oxford, where he took his degTee in 1602 and en- tered Clifford's Inn, and in 1604 the Inner Temple, for the study of law. He attained singular learn- ing in this department, and published several scholarly works upon legal subjects, as England's Epinomis and Jani Anglorum fades altera (both 1610). Another fruit of his earlier studies was the Analecton Anglo-Britannicon, relating to the history of England before the Norman Conquest, which was finished in 1606, but not published till nine years later. In 1617 he published his great work, De Diis Syris, which established his reputation on the Continent, and was republished at Leyden (with additions by Le Dieu and Heinsius), 1627, SBLDBN. 2150 SEMI-ARIANS. and Leipzig, 1662, 1680. In 1618 appeared tlie History of Tithes, which denied the divine right of the system, and called forth the wrath of the king, so that the author was obliged to revoke his posi- tions. Selden sustained an intimate relation with the political movements for thirty years. In 1621 he was called by the House of Commons to give his opinion concerning the dispute between it and the Crown, and strongly advised the Commons to insist upon its proper rights. In consequence of this advice he was imprisoned by the king. In 162-t he represented Lancaster in Parliament ; 1625, Great Bedwin ; and, after that, Lancaster in several Parliaments. He was active in the popular cause, signed the remonstrance for the removal of the Duke of Buckingham, and was a prominent supporter of the Petition of Right. In 1629 he was committed to the Tower, from which he was released in 1631 on bail, and in 1634 without surety. He succeeded in allaying the king's anger by his Mare clausum (1636) ; and ever after that he seemed to have lefused to enter heartily into any measures against royalty, and voted against the majority which condemned the Earl of Stafford. In 1640 he represented the university of Oxford in the Long Parliament. In 1643 he was chosen one of the members of the Westmin- ster Assembly, and the following year subscribed the Solemn League and Covenant, and was made master of Trinity Hall, Cambridge. His funeral sermon was at his request preached by his old friend. Archbishop Ussher. Selden was a man of immense learning and a prolific author. A tablet at Oxford calls him the coryphaeus in antiquarian studies (mitiquariorum- corijp/iccus). Two of his greatest works were written during the years of his imprisonment (1629-34), — De jure naturali el Gentium juxta dis- cipLinam Hehrceorum, in seven books, and De suc- cessicne in Pontijicatum Hebrceorum. His last work was De synedriis et prefecturis Juridicis veierum He- brceorum, in three books. Among Selden's other works were the Duello, or Single Combat (1610), Titles of Honor (1614), an elaborate account of king, duke, and other titles. His liable-Talk; which was published thirty-five years after his death, by Milward, who professes to have been his amanu- ensis for twenty years, is perhaps the best known of Selden's works outside of theological circles. The statement in Selden's will may be taken to indicate his faith. " With all Immility of heart," he says, " and with true repentance of my mani- fold sins and offences, I commend my soul and self into the gracious protection and preservation of my Creator, Redeemer, and Saviour, from and through whom only, with fulness of assurance, I expect and hope for eternal bliss and happiness in the world to come." Lord Clarendon says, " Selden was of so stupendous learning in all kinds and in all languages (as may appear in his excel- lent and transcendent v/ritings), that a man would have thought he had been entirely conversant amongst books, and had never spent an hour but in reading and writing; yet his humanity, cour- tesy, and affability were such that he would have been thought to have been bred in courts. ... In his conversation he was the most clear discourser, and had the best faculty of making hard things easy, and presenting them to the understanding, of any man that hath been known." His motta was, " Liberty concerning all things " (nepl n-avi T^ e^.evdspiav') . A splendid edition of Selden's complete worl furnished with elaborate indexes, was issued 1 David Wilkins, London, 1726, 3 vols, (the fii two containing the Latin writings, the third, tl English). For the biography of Selden, see ti Life (in Latin) prefixed to this edition ; and Joi- AiKiN, D.D, : Tlie Lives of John Selden, Esq., at Archbishop Ussher, London, 1812. SELEU'CIA (with the surname ad Mare, "( the sea," 1 Maoc. xi. 3), a city of Syria, stoi on the Mediterranean shore, north of the mou of the Orontes. It was built by Seleuous Nic tor in 300 B.C., and was especially celebrated i account of its excellent harbor, from which Pa set out for Cyprus on his first missionary to (Acts xiii. 4). There were in ancient days t( other cities of the name " Seleucia," of whic especially, Seleucia Ktosiphon, between the £ phrates and the Tigris, at one time was a ve flourishing place. SELEUCIDIAN ERA. See Era. SELNECCER, Nicolaus, b. Dec. 6, 1530, Hersbruck, near Nuremberg ; d. at Hildesheii May 24, 1592. He studied theology at Witte berg, and was successively court-preacher Dresden, professor at Jena, pastor in Leipzi and superintendent of Hildesheim, but sufferi much from the Crypto-Calvinists on the one sic and the Flacians on the other. He was a ve prolific writer; but only a few of his wor have any interest now, — his Commentary on t Psalms (Nuremberg, 1564, 2 vols.), and his Chri. liche Psalmen (Leipzig, 1587). See Mijtzel: Geistliche Lieder aus dem 16. Jahrhundert, Berli 1855, 3 vols. . HOLLENBBEG. SELWrN, George Augustus, D.D., Engli prelate ; b. at Richmond in 1809 ; d. at Liohfiel April 11, 1878. He was educated at Eton ai Cambridge. While curate at Windsor in 18d he was appointed first bishop of the Anglici Church in New Zealand. At his farew( sermon before leaving England, John Coleridj Patteson, then a youth of fourteen, was presei Besides attending to the spiritual wants of 1 colonial diocese, he extended his operations to t South Sea Islands, navigating his own vessel, t " Southern Cross," for this purpose. He broug youths from Melanesia to New Zealand, wh after receiving instruction, returned to enlighti their countrymen. In 1855 this branch of wo was intrusted to Bishop Patteson. In 1857 : obtained the division of his diocese, and ti years later became bishop of Lichfield. H administration of this new and trying sphei which comprised the so-called " Black Countrj was very \ igorous. His son has succeeded Bishi Patteson in Melanesia. See his Memoir by Re H. W. TuCKF.u, London, 1879, 2 vols. SEWll-ARIANS. This name occurs for the fii time as the name of a party in the period wh the decided Arianism of Aetius and Eunonii asset ted itself, and such men as Ursaoius, Valer and Eudoxius of Antioch, who were influenti with Constautius, favored a modified form Arianism. At this time men like Basil of A cyra, Eustathius of Sebaste, and Macedonius Constantinople, arose, opposing Arianism by_(3 daring the generation of the Son to be a distil SEMINARIES. 2151 SEMI-PBLAGIANISM. conception from ai-eation, and affivming that the Sou resembled the Father in his essence (ofioioc; xaf obaiav). In essential particulars this was the view which Eusebius of Caesarea had represented at Nicsea. The Logos is God of god, and Light of light, but at the same time only the brightness of the first light, the image of the first substance, and different from it. The Son was not abso- lutely eternal (uirAuf cudtogY for his existence pre- supposes the existence of the Father. In fact, the conception of Eusebius was a re-announce- ment of the subordination view of Origen. After the Council of Nicaea this mediate view prevailed in the East, which refused to accept either Arian- ism or the Nieene definition. Attempts were made by this party to formulate the doctrine of the sonship of Christ in such a way as to unite all the parties. The statement of the synods of Antioch (340), Philippopolis, and the first synod of Sirmium (351), condemn, on the one hand, the Nieene definition as leading to Sabellianism, and, on the other hand, the Arian doctrine of the creation of the Son as unscriptural. According to the synod of Antioch, God the Father alone has absolute being, and the Son, though begotten before all time, was begotten by the free will of the Father, and not by virtue of necessity, and is subordinate to him. At the second synod of Sir- mium, Ursacius and Valens sought — by the sup- pression of the words in dispute (avaia, dfioiiiaioQ, o/ioioiaioc), the definition that the Son is like, the Father, and the statement that the manner of his •conception is inexplicable — to put a stop to the controversy. Eudoxius'at a synod in Antioch explained this decree in an Arian sense, but all the more positively did the Semi- Arian synod of Ancyra (358) oppose Eudoxius. Constantius wished to settle the dispute by summoning a general council. Dissuaded from this plan, the two synods of Ariminum in Italy, and Seleucia in Isauria, were held, in which the Orientals and Occidentals were kept apart. It was hoped both synods would agree to the so-called third Sirmian formula, which had been agreed to in 358 by Ursacius and Valens on the one hand, and Basil of Ancyra, and Georgius of Laodicea on the other, at the court at Sirmium. Both councils were ready to declare in favor of the Nieene formula, the Seleucian synod, however, excepting the word ijioovauog (of the same substance). But they fi,nally gave way to the court party, and accepted the Sir- mian formula. The court influence understood how to render the Semi-Arians harmless, and Eudoxius was raised to the see of Constantinople. The Semi-Arians gradually approached the advo- cates of the Nieene doctrine ; and Basil, Gregory Nazianzen, and Gregory of Nyssa, contributed . very much towards the currency of the Nieene views. At the Second Council of Constantinople (381), the Nieene theology was adopted, and Semi- Arian as well as Arian views were condemned. See Arianism, Macedonius, etc. w. mollee. SEMINARIES, Theological, Continental, a,re divided into four classes : (1) The Roman-Catholic, according to the plan of the Council of Trent, in which boys of twelve years are received, trained in theological and secular studies apart from all worldly influences, and remain until they are ordained priests ; (2) The evangelical seminaries in the kingdom of Wurtemberg, which receive boys of fourteen years, train them until they are eighteen, then send them to the university of Tubingen for further theological study, whence they issue as assistant pastors; (3) Institutions which receive the candidates for- the ministry after they have finished their theological studies at the universities, and train them in practical ministerial duties ; (4) Institutions which give training in homiletics and catechetics. I. Before the Council of Trent, the institutions of the first class were called " schools," or " col- leges." The discipline was monastic. The prin- cipal was an abbot, or, in the case of schools directly under episcopal control, a "scholasticus," who was always a clergyman. The rise of the universities destroyed these schools ; but the Jes- uits restored them, and after Trent they were called "seminaries." Instruction is given in grammar, singing, the ecclesiastical calendar, the Scriptures, service-books, the homilies of the saints, the ceremonies of the sacraments, and other matters relating to the services. Mass must be daily heard, and confession and communion be monthly. Every bishop must have such a school attached to his cathedral or metropolitan chuich. II. The first seminary in the Protestant sense was in the Kingdom of Wiirtemberg. It was modelled upon the cloister idea. Next to these comes Loccum, in Hanover. In 1593 the entire cloister there went over to Protestantism, but retained its organization intact, except that it undertook the special work of educating minis- ters. In 1820 it was revived and enlarged. Its head is still called "abbot." In 1817 Frederick William III. of Prussia founded a seminary in Wittenberg, to honor the Luther city, which had been deprived of its university. The Reformed seminary. at Ilerborn replaced the old "Orange and Nassau high-school." In 1837 the seminary at Friedberg was founded. The Moravians have seminaries in Gnadenfeld and Nazareth (Pennsyl- vania, U.S.A.). III. In Greece the future priests are instructed by deacons or other clergy, under the supervision of the bishops. In Russia most priests are the sons of priests : if the sons of a layman enter the service of the church, they generally become monks. The schools for the education of priests' sons are of three grades, — schools, seminaries, academies. In the lowest, the scholars enter at seven, and remain until twelve years old. In the latter years of their stay they are taught Latin and Greek ; so that, even if they do not go to a semi- nary, thej' can serve as reader or chorister in vil- lage churches. There may be several such schools in a parish, but there can be only one seminary. The latter is under immediate episcopal direction. The principal is a monk, archimandrite, or aspirant to a bishopric. The professors are partly monks, and partly laity. Their number is great, for there are sometimes as many as twenty in one seminary : but the number of scholars is also great, since every priest has the right to send his sons thither; and, as there are not enough churches for the priests thus educated, many of the scholars go into other callings. palmer. SEMINARIES, Theological, of the United States. See Theological Seminaries. SEMI-PELAGIANISM, a term invented by the schoolmen, denotes a view which was developed SEMI-PEL AGIANISM. 2152 SBMI-PBLAGIANISM. within the time of the Fathers, and which tries to follow a middle course between Augustine and Pelagius. In the West the powerful personality of Augustine, the vigorous proceedings of the African Church, the assent of the see of Rome, and the effective aid of imperial rescript, procured the victory for the views of Augustine; but in the East the Greek Church continued its course, unconcerned by what took place' in the West, even after the condemnation of the Nestorians, and implicitly also of the Pelagians, by the synod of Ephesus. Soon, however, it became apparent, that, even in the West, there were many people who took offence at the rigorism of Augustine, and still more who believed that they were fol- lowing him, though they had really no idea of the consequences which his doctrine involved. The discrepancy became patent before Augus- tine died. His two pupils and friends, Prosper of Aquitaine, and Hilary, informed him by let- ters (Aug. Ep. 225 and 226) that the monks of Massilia accused him of having, in his contro- versy with Pelagius, set forth propositions which contradicted the docti-ines of the Fathers and the church in general. In the letters the Massilian monks are described as holding, that by faith and baptism any one can be saved, if he only will; that the will to be saved is implanted in human nature by the Creator himself ; that predestina- tion either must presuppose a difference of human nature, or lead into fatalism, etc. It is evident that those monks simply wanted to find a middle way between the Augustinian doctrine of predes- tination and the Pelagian doctrine of the free will of man. At their head stood John Cassianus, a pupil of Chrysostora, and for some time an inmate of an Egyptian desert monastery, whose writings, glowing with monkish fervor, show marks of in- fluence from the Greek theology. The report of Prosper and Hilary called forth the two treatises of Augustine, De prwdestinatione sanctorum and De dono perseverantice ; but they did not succeed in convincing the Massilian monks. Shortly after (430), Augustine died, and Prosper found himself the chief opponent of the Semi-Pelagian move- ment. He repaired to Rome, and induced Pope Celestine to address a letter to the bishops of Gaul (Mansi: Coll.. Concil., iv. p. 454). The letter is unconditional in its defence of Augustine, and full of reproaches against those bishops of Gaul who introduced novelties, and put forward indiscrimi- nate and useless questions. But it is strikingly silent about the real point at issue. Nor did Sixtus, the successor of Celestine, find it suitable to be more explicit on the matter. Meanwhile Prosper wrote his various books against the Semi- Pelagians (see the respective articles), and others came to his aid. The De vocatione gentium, gener- ally, though hardly on sufficient grounds, ascribed to Leo the Great, and found among his works, is an attempt at reconciliation. The expressions are very much mitigated ; but, as nothing of the principle has been given up, it exercised no influ- ence. On the contrary, the Augustinian doctrine of predestination now began to be attacked, even with great harshness, by people who did not belong to the Semi-Pelagian camp; and its adher- ents, though never condemned by the church as a sect, were marked out by the Semi-Pelagians as prmdestinali. Interesting in this respect is the Prce- destinatus sice prcedestinatorum hceresis, first edited by Sirmond, Paris, 1643, and by him ascribed to the younger Arnobius. It consists of three books : the first contains a catalogue of heresies ending with that of the prcedestinati , the second, a repre- sentation of that heresy ; and the third, its refu- tation from a Semi-Pelagian point of view. For some time the controversy seems to have been brought to rest, or to have been forgotten, on account of the great political disturbances under which Gaul suffered during the fifth cen- tury. In the latter half of the century, however, it once more comes to the foreground with Faus- tus, bishop of Reji (Riez), and the presbyter Luci- dus. The latter was a passionate adherent of the doctrine of predestination, and, as friendly expos- tulations led to nothing, Faustus publicly attacked him, and invited him to a disputation in the pres- ence of the assembled bishops. The disputa- tion took place, probably, at the synod of Aries (475) ; and Lucidus declared himself defeated, and recanted. Shortly after, Faustus published his De gratia el humance mentis libera arhitrio, which was received with great applause; so that the whole of Gaul seemed to have been conquered by Semi-Pelagianism. In the beginning of the sixth century, however, a sudden change took place in the state of affairs. Those Scythian monks, who, during the reign of Justin I. and Justinian, preached theopaschitism in Constantinople, were naturally opponents of Pelagius. Having tried in vain to introduce themselves to Pope Hormis- das, they sent a confession of faith to the African bishops who lived in exile in Sardinia. It is found in BiU. Max. Patri., Lyons, ix., and ends up with a condemnation, not only of Pelagius, but also of Faustus. Fulgentius of Ruspe, the most prominent of the African bishops, responded with his De incarnatione et gratia, in which he com- pletely refuted Semi-Pelagiauism, though without mentioning the name of Faustus. The case at- tracted the attention of the emperor Justinian, and he asked Hormisdas to pronounce his opinion on it. The answer of the Pope (520) is very diplo- matical (Mansi: Coll. Cone, viii.). It defends Augustine, it defends Faustus, it defends every thing; but it was very unoeiemoniously handled by Johannes Maxentius, the leader of the monks, in his liesponsio ad epistolam Hormisdce {Bill. Max. Patr., Lyons, ix.), who demonstrated, that, if Augustine is right, Faustus must be wrong. The tide was now turning. Even in Gaul, Semi-Pela- gianisra found influential adversaries ; an Avitus of Vienne, a Cajsarius of Aries, and the synod of Orange (.i.rausio), actually condemned it (Mansi : Con. Coll., viii.). The decrees of the synod of Orange were afterwards confirmed, by Pope Boni- face II. and the synod of Valence, and officially Semi-Pelagianism was denounced. This must not be understood, however, as if it had been really extinguished. By the decrees of the synod of Orange, the expressions of Augustine were ac- cepted; but how far people w'ere from really embracing his principles is shown by the contro- versies of Gottschalk, of the schoolmen and the monastic orders, of the reformers, of Arminius, of the Jesuits and the Jansenists, etc. Lit. — The sources are found in the writings of Cassianus, Puospek or Aquitaine, Faus- tus OP Re.ii, Fulgentius ok Ruspe, and others. SEMITIC LANGUAGES. 2153 SEMITIC LANGUAGES. For modern treatment of the subject, see litera/- ture to art. Pelagianism, and J. Gefpken : Hist. Semipelag., Gottingen, 1826. w. mollee. SEMITIC LANGUAGES. I. Name.— Up to the latter part of the last century, before Sanskrit was known to Europe, or attention had been directed to the Central and Eastern Asiatic tongues, or those of Africa (except Coptic), the title "Oriental languages " signified only Hebrew and its sister dialects: these alone, with the exception of Coptic, had been the object of scientific study. Up to this time, all study of non-classical languages was connected with the Bible ; and it is to biblical students that we owe what was done in Hebrew, Arabic, Ethiopic, and the related tongues, for the preceding three hundred years. But when the linguistic circle began to \yiden, and attempts were made at classification, the need of special names for the different linguistic groups was felt ; and, for the more general divisions, recourse was naturally had to the genealogies in the table of nations in Gen. x. The credit, if such it be, of having originated the name " Semitic " (from Noah's son Sem, or Shetn) for the Hebrew group, is to be given either to Schlozer or to Eichhorn, — to which of the two is doubtful. The first known use of the term is in Schlozer's article on the Chaldseans, in Eichhorn's Repertorium, 8, 161 (1781), and he seems to claim the honor of its invention ; but a similar claim is made by Eich- horn himself, without mention of Schlozer, in his Allgemeine Bihliolhek, 6, 772 (1794). Eichhorn, however, appears to have been accepted as the author of the name : he is so said to be by Ade- lung (Mithridates, I. 300; 1806), from whose manner of speaking of it we may infer that it had not then come into general use. In a short while, however, it was everywhere adopted, and is now the recognized name of this group of lan- guages. In Germany and France, and to some extent at least in England (so Coleridge, Table- Talk, 1827), the form " Semitic " was employed (after Septuagint and Latin Vulgate, and Luther's " Sem," instead of Hebrew " Shem ") ; while some English and American wi-iters prefer the form " Shemitic," after the more accurate translitera- tion of the Hebrew. Between the two there is little to choose. The shorter form, now the more common one, is preferable to the other, because it is shorter, and in so far as it is farther removed from genealogical misconception. The once popu- lar but unscientific threefold division of all the languages of the world into Japhetic, Shemitic, and Hamitic, is now abandoned by scholars. " Shemitic " is misleading, in so far as it appears to restrict itself to the languages spoken by the peoples mentioned in the table of nations as descendants of Shem ; while it in fact includes dialects, as the Phoenician and Philistine, which are assigned in the table to Ham. The form " Semitic " (in English, but not in German and French), as farther removed than "Shemitic" from " Shem," may, perhaps, be more easily treated as in itself meaningless, and made to accept such meaning as science may give it. On the other hand, as meaningless, it is felt by some to be objectionable ; and other names, expressing a geographical, or ethnical, or linguistic differen- tia of the languages in question, have been sought, e.g., Western Asiatic, Arabian, Syro- Arabian : but none proposed have been definite and euphonic enough to gain general approbation, and it is likely that " Semitic " will retain ite place for the present. If a new name is to be adopted, some such term as " Triliteral " -would be th& most appropriate ; since triliterality of stems is- the most striking characteristic of this family of languages, and is found in no other family. II. Territory. — In ancient times (c. B.C. 1000) the Semites occupied as their proper terri- tory the south-western corner of Asia; their boundaries, generally stated, being, — on the east, the mountain range (modem Kurdish) running about forty miles east of the Tigris River, and the Persian Gulf ; on the south, the Indian Ocean ; on the west, the Red Sea, Egypt, the Mediterra- nean Sea, and Cilicia ; and, on the north, the Taurus or the Masius Mountains. The nortlr and east lines are uncertain, from the absence of full data in the early Assyrian records. Not long before the beginning of our era, Semitic emi- grants from Southern Arabia crossed the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, and occupied the part of Africa: lying just south of Egypt, their territory being- about that of the modern Abesinia : these were- the Geez (" emigrants," " freemen "), or Semitic- Ethiopians. The main Semitic region thus lay between the tenth and thirty-eighth degrees of north latitude and the forty-fourth and sixtieth degrees of east longitude, with an area of over a million square miles. Semitic colonies estab- lished themselves early in Egypt (Phoenicians in- the Delta, and perhaps the Hyksos), arid on the- north coast of Africa (Carthage and other cities)- and the south coast of France (Marseilles) and Spain, but probably not in Asia Minor or in Greece. In modern times, Syrian Semites are found in Kurdistan, as far east as the western shore of Lake Urmi (lat. 37° 30' N. ; long. 45°^ 30' E.) ; but it is doubtful whether this region was Semitic before the beginning of our era. A large part of the Semitic territory was desert. Only those portions which skirt the banks of rivers and the shores of seas were occupied by settled populations ; the desert was traversed by tribes of nomads, -whose life was largely predatory. Se- mitic speech is interesting, not from the size of the territory and population it represents, but from the controlling influence it has exerted on human history through its religious ideas. The original seat of the Semites is unknown. There must have been a primitive Semitic race and a primitive Semitic language, which existed before the historical Semitic peoples and dialects had taken shape ; but of this primitive race we can say no more than that it goes back to a re- mote antiquity ; since of one of its daughters, the Babylonian people, there are traces in the fourth millennium B.C. It has been attempted to de- termine the habitat of the Semites, before they broke up into sepai'ate nations, from their tradi- tions, and from the vocabulary of the primitive tongue made out by a comparison of the existing dialects; but no trustworthy result has been reached. The oldest accounts say nothing defi- nite. In Gen. xi. 2, for example, we have the statement that the whole body of the descendants of Noah journeyed " eastward " (so DIpD is to be rendered), that is, toward the Tigris-Euphrates region ; but we are not told from -what point they SEMITIC LANGUAGES. 2154 SEMITIC LANGUAGES. came, uor is there here any thing of a separate Semitic people. Again : in the same chapter, the assembled human race is said to have been scat- tered from the city Babel, without, however, any indication of the points to which the descendants of Noah'.s three sons severally went. At most, we may see here a dim feeling that the Semites had once lived together in the Tigris-Euphrates val- ley ; but this might be referred to the fact that the Hebrews knew that they themselves had come from that region to Canaan. No other Semitic people has, so far as we know, any an- cient tradition on this point. The evidence from the primitive Semitic vocabulary is equally vague. Its terms for land, mountains, rivers, seas, metals, grains, fruits, and animals, do not allow us to fix on any particular spot in Western Asia as the locality where such terms must have originated. We are obliged, therefore, to reject the hypotheses which make the mountains of Armenia, or the lower Tigris-Euphrates valley, or the Arabian Desert, the cradle of the Semitic race, and to leave the question at present unsolved. The Semitic territory was enclosed by that of gTeat rival peoples, Indo-Europeans (Persians and Greeks) on the east and the west, and Egypt on the south. In ancient times, however, the lan- guage was very little affected by foreign influence, except at one point. According to the view now held by most Assyriologists, the Babylonian-As- syrians, conquering the non-Semitic Aceadian- Sumerians, who preceded them as occupants of the Tigris-Euphrates valley, in adopting the civ- ilization of the conquered, adopted a number of their words, some of which are found in Hebrew also, and in others of the dialects. Hebrew made a few loans in early times from the Egyptian, and at a later period, possibly from the Indian, and then from the Persian, Greek, and Latin ; and the ecclesiastical Aramaic was naturally greatly affected by Greek and Latin. The loan-words are easily recognized, except those which come from the Accadian-Sumerian. All the Semitic nationalities, except the Ara- bian and the Geez (Ethiopia), died out before the second century of our era. The Babylonian- Assyrian disappeared from histoi-y in the sixth century B.C., and their language survived only a few centuries. The Phceiiicians lingered in Asia till the time of the Antonines, and tlieir language in Africa (Carthage) till toward the iifth century of our era (mentioned by Augustine and Jerome). The Syrian Aramaeans lost their independence in the eighth century B.C., but continued to exist, and their dialect revived in the second century A.D. as a Christian language; and the Jewish Aramaic continued for some centuries (up to the eleventh century A.D.) to be the spoken and literary tongue of the Palestinian and Babylonian Jews. The Jewish people, broken up by the Romans in the first century A.D., and scattered over the world, have carried Hebrew with them as a learned, artificial tongue. The Arabians did not appear as a nation till the sixth century. Geez proper died out about the sixth century A.D., remaining, however, as the ecclesiastical and learned language ; and the nationality is stUl in existence. III. Divisions. — The various Semitic dialects closely resemble one another, there being, for ex- ample, between no two of them such dissimilarity as exists between Greek and Latin ; but the family is divided into two well-defined groups and several sub-groups, the difference between which, in vocabulary and forms, is considerably greater than that between any two members of the same group or sub-group. The relations of the dialects may be seen from the following table, which is designed to include all Semitic forms of speech that can lay claim to linguistic individuality, except a few modern jargons men- tioned below. I. North Semitic. II. South Semitic, 1. Eastern. 1. Northern. a. Babylonian. Arabic. b. Assyrian. 2. Southern. 2. Northern. a. Sabjean, or Him Aramaic. yaritic. a. East Aramaic. Mahri. o. Syriac (Dialect of Hakili (Ehkili). Edessa). b. Geez, or Ethiopic. /3. Maudean. a. Old Geez. y. Nabathean. p. Tigre. b. "West Aramaic. y. Tigi-iiia. a. Samaritan. d. Amharic. p. Jewish Aramaic «. Harari. (Daniel, Ezra, Targums, Talmud). y. Paluiyrene. s. Egyptian Aramaic 3. Western. u. Phoenician. Old Phoenician. Late Phoenician (Punic). b, Plebrew. c. Moabitish and other Canaanitish dialects. Of these the following are now spoken : (1) A):amaic, by the Nestorian and Jacobite Chris- tians in Upper Mesopotamia, near Mosul, thence eastward to the western shore of Lake Urmi, and nortliward in the Kurdish Mountains (Ndldeke, Neusyr. Gram. Einleitun(j) \ and by the remnant of the Mandeans in Lower Mesopotamia (Ndldeke, Mand. Gram. Einieitung). (2) Arabic is the only Semitic dialect that has now any real life. It is spoken in various sub-dialects, — by the Bedawin of the Arabian Desert ; in Egypt, and, as eccle- siastical language, in Turkey ; in the Magreb (north coast of Africa) ; in Syria ; in Malta, where the vernacular is a strange mixture, with Arabic as its basis, but many Italian and other words; on the coast of Malabar (the Mapuli jargon). The Mosarabic, a Spanish- Arabic jargon formerly spoken in the south of Spain, became extinct in the last century. (3) Geez: the four dialects, Tigre, Tigriiia, Amharic, Harari, are still spoken in Abesinia. (4) Hebrew is studied by the Jews as a sacred language, and by a few of them, chiefly the older orthodox bodies in Germany and Austria, is to some extent written and spoken. This spoken language contains a large admixture of modern European terms. The literary Hebrew of to-day occupies about the same position among the Jews as Latin among us. Of languages which have been strongly affected by Semitic tongues may be mentioned the Iranian I-iuzvaresh, or Pahlavi (the language of the Bunde- hesh), which is greatly xiramaized ; the Iranian Persian, whose vocabulary is largely Arabic, and even its syntax appears to have been somewhat Semitized ; the Indian Hindustani, which, de- veloped under Moslem influence, also contains a large number of Arabic words ; and the Turkish, SEMITIC LANGUAGES. 2155 SEMITIC LANGUAGES. especialljr the literary and learned language of Constantinople, which in like manner, and for the same reason, has a large infusion of Arabic. IV. Characteristics. — These may be di- vided into formal (gi-ammar), material (vocabu- lary), and stylistic (rhetoric and thought). (1) Grammar. The Semitic phonetic system has a marked individuality. It is probable that the original Semitic alphabet was nearly identical with that of the classical Arabic, containing six gutturals (Alef, Ha, Ha, Ha, Ayin, Gayin), five uvu- lars (Kaf, Ta, Za, Sad, Dad), two palatals (Kaf, Gam), two linguo-dentals (Ta, Dal), two labials (Pa, Ba), six liquids (Ra, Ya, Lam, Waw, and the nasals Mim, Nun), three sibilants (Sin, Sin, Zayin), and perhaps six spirants (Kaf, Gam, Ta, Dal, Pa, Ba). No existing dialect has all these letters, but there are traces of most of them in all. Thus, comparison of Assyrian and Arabic makes it probable that the former contained all these h-sounds (ha, ha, ha), though only one of them (ha) is now found in it. Hebrew (Septua- gint transliteration) seems to have possessed Gayin, as well as Ayin ; the South Semitic group shows all the uvulars, and the Hebrew all the spirants. It may be, however, that the parent Semitic speech had fewer uvulars and spirants, and that the Southern group developed the for- mer, and the Northern the latter. It is doubtful whether Hebrew Samek and Sin represent two different sounds. It is likely, also, that not all the sounds above mentioned are original, i.e., some of them may be merely modifications of earlier and simpler sounds ; but we are concerned here only with the consonantal material possessed by the primitive Semitic tongue, and not with the material out of which its alphabet may have been formed. The Semitic alphabet is thus seen to be characterized by fulness of guttural, uvular, and spirant consonants. In the several dialects, the movement has been towards a diminution of the number of gutturals and uvulars; namely, by changing these into similar letters pronounced farther forward in the mouth. Assyrian, Gali- lean Jewish Aramaic, and Mandeau threw ofE the most of the gutturals; modern Arabic has diminished the number of its uvulars ; and Geez, of its uvulars and gutturals. This is a tendency, observable in all languages, to bring forward the consonants, and thus facilitate their pronuncia^ tion. — The vowel material of the primitive Se- mitic was simple, consisting, probably, of the three vowels, a, i, u, with the corresponding long a, I, u. These have been variously modified in the different dialects. Assyrian has e ; Aramaic, e, ; Hebrew, a, 6, e, 0, o ; modern Arabic, 6, e, a (aw), 0; Geez, 6, e, o. — Morphologically, the Semitic languages belong to the class called in- flecting, standing in this respect alongside of the Indo-European. Their most marked peculiarity is their triliteralism : most stems consist of three consonants, on which, by prefixes, affixes, and in- ternal vowel-changes, aU derived forms are roade. The noun has gender (masculine and feminine), number, case. The verb has gender, number, person, but properly no distinction of tense (in the sense of time), instead of which there are two forms which denote respectively completedness and ingressiveness of action. The notions of re- flection, intensity, causation, are expressed by de- rived verbal stems made by prefixes and infixes. • — The Semitic syntax is marked by great sim- plicity of articulation. The different clauses of the sentence are, for the most part, connected by the most general word " and ; " there is little or no inversion and transposition for rhetorical effect ; and there are no elaborate periods. The structure is commonly and properly described as monumental or lapidary. The most striking special pecidiarity of the syntax is the phonetic abridgment of the noun (status constriictus} to show that it is defined by the following word or clause. The absence of compounds (except in proper names) is another marked feature, — an illustration of the isolating character of the thought. The whole conception of the sentence is detached, isolated, and picturesque. Of these general Semitic characteristics, the Hebrew and Assyrian, which first produced literatures, show the most, and the Aramaic and Arabic, whose literary life began late, the least. (2) Vocabulary. The Semitic word-material differs greatly accord- ing to the periods and the circumstances of the various peoples. The pre-Christian literary re- mains are very scanty. From the Israelites we have only a few prophetical discourses, historical books, and sacred hymns, and ethical works, to- gether with several law-books, — no secular pro- ductions (unless the Song of Songs be so regarded) ; from the Assyrians, somewhat more, — royal and commercial inscriptions, geographical, astionomi- cal, giammatical, and religious works, and frag- ments of epic and other poems ; from the Phoeni- cians, a few short inscriptions ; and from the others, nothing. The Hebrew literatm-e is full in terms relating to religious feelings and acts, scanty in philosophical and artistic terms and in names of things pertaining to common life : the Assyrian has more of the last, but is equally de- ficient in the first. In later times, however, the Aramaic (classical and Jewish), and the Arabic under Greek influence, created larger vocabula- ries, and developed some power of philosophical expression. From the nature of the national cul- ture, these languages, though their vocabularies are sometimes (the Arabic especially) very large, do not satisfy the needs of western life. They multiply words for objects and acts which we do not care to particularize, and are deficient in terms for those which we wish to express with precision . (3) The above description of the vocabulary and syntax will serve to characterize the style and thought of the Semitic tongues. The highest artistic shape they have not, either in prose or in poetry. They do not readily lend themselves to philosophy proper or to art. But in the simple expression of emotion, and the condensation of practical wisdom into household words, they are not surpassed by the most highly developed Indo- European languages : in these respects the Bible has an aclcnowledged pre-eminence. v. Literary Products. — ■ It wiU be suffi- cient here to .mention briefly the general charac- teristics of the literature of the Semitic languages : for more particular accounts see the articles on the different languages. Of the different forms of poetry, the Semites have produced only the lyric; such as the Old-Testament Psalms, the SEMITIC LANGUAGES. 2156 SEMLER. Syrian hymns, and the Arabian Kasidas. What has sometimes been described as Semitic epos and drama is either not Semitic (as the Assyrian Izdubar epos, which was derived from a non- Semitic people; and the drama of the Jewish poet Ezekiel, which is an isolated imitation of the Greek), or not epos or drama (as the Book of Job, which is not a drama, but a religious argu- ment carried on in the form of alternate speeches; and the Arabian romance of Antar, which is a string of loosely connected stories). The subjec- tive character of the poetic thought is obvious : no action or phenomenon in outward nature or in human life is described for its own sake, but always as a part of the feeling of the writer. As poetry it takes high rank. The Hebrew lyrics are sonorous and rhythmical; the Arabian are ingenious and lively; the Syrian, however, are tame. The historical writing of the Semites has never attained a scientific or artistic form. It is either baldly annalistic (as parts of the Old- Testament Book of Kings, the Assyrian royal in- scriptions, and the Arabic histories), or, when it attempts more connected pi'esentation of the facts, it is subjective and pragmatic, arranging the his- torical facts so as to point a moral, or support a theory. In one department, prophetic discourse, the Semitic literature is unrivalled : there is noth- ing in any other family of languages like the prophetic oratory of the Old Testament, or the declamation of the Kuran. In otlier departments, as fiction and philosophy, the Semites have never been original, but always imitators {Thousand and One Nights, the Arabian philosophy. The Per- sian Arabic is, of course, not to be considered here.) VI. Relations to other Families of Lan- guages. — So far as our present knowledge goes, it is doubtful whether the Semitic family is ge- netically connected with any other in the world. Various attempts have been made to show a re- lationship between it and its neighbors, especially the Indo-European and the Egyptian. In respect to the former, the attempt may be said to be wholly unsuccessful. The case is somewhat dif- ferent with the Egyptian, between whose personal pronouns and the Semitic thei-e is a remarkable resemblance ; though this isolated point of con- tact, considering the very great diiferences be- tween the two families in other respects, gives an insecure basis for comparison. There is a simi- lar resemblance between the structure of the Semitic verb and that of the Cushite group of languages (the Galla, Saho, and others, near Abe- siuia), but nothing definite. At most, we may conjecture an original Semitic-Hamitic family, out of which these two have grown ; but in that case their separation took place so long ago, and their paths since that time have been so different, and the traces of kinship have been so far oblit- erated, that it is hard to see how any valuable results can be drawn from a comparison between them. One main obstacle in the comparison of Semitic words with others is the triliteralism of stems of the former ; and it has therefore been at- tempted to reduce these to biliterals, but hitherto with indifferent success. It need not be denied that this problem may hereafter be solved, and ■comparisons instituted between Semitic and other families, that may be of service to aU. VII. Lit. — 1. Works on the Science of Lan- guage. — J. C. Adblung: Mithridates, Berlin, 1806-17 ; B. W. Dwight : Modern Philology, 2d ed., N.Y., 1860 ; H. Steinthal : Charakteristik der hauptsachlichsten Typen des Sprachbaues, Berlin, 1860; Max MiJLLER: Science of Language, N.Y., 1865; W. D. Whitney: Language and'the Study of Language, N.Y., 1873 ; A. Hovblacque : La Linguistique, Paris, 1876 ; A. II. Sayce : Intro- duction to the Science of Language, Lond., 1880. 2. Introductions to the Old Testament. — H. A. C. Haveunick, Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1852; T. H. Horne : edited by S. Davidson, London, 1852; S. Davidson, London, 1863; F. Bleek, Eng. trans., London, 1875 ; W. M. L. DeWettb, 8th ed., by E. Schrader, Berlin, 1869; K. F. Keil, 3te Auflage, Frankfurt-a.-M., 1873; K. F. Keil, Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1871; F. Bleek, edited by J. Wellhausen, Berlin, 1878. 3. Works on the Grammar, Lexicography, and History of the Se- mitic Languages. — Julius FItrst ; Lehrgebaiide der aramaischen Idiome, Leipzig, 1835; Franz De- HTZSCH : Isagoge in grammaticam et lexicographiam lingual hebraicce, Grimmse, 1838; F. E. C. Die- trich: Abhandlungen filr semitische Wortforschung, Leipzig, 1844; Theodor Benfey: Ueber das Verhdltniss der aegyptischen Sprache 7um semitischen iijorac7js(amTO, Leipzig, 1844; E. Ren an : liistoire generate et systeme compare des langues se'mitigues, Paris, 1863; Friedrich Mullek: Indogermanisch und serriitisch, Vienna, 1870 ; F. W. M. Philippi : Status Constructus im Hebraischen, Weimar, 1871; Friedrich Delitzsch : Studien Uber indogerman- isch-semitische Wurzelverwandtschaft, Leipzig, 1873; E. Schrader: Die Abstammung der Chaldaer und die Ursitze der Semiten, in the Zeitschrift d. Deutsch. Morgenl. Gesellschaft, 27 (1873), 3 ; Adolf Koch : Der semitische Infinitiv, Stuttgart, 1874; Van- Dkival : Grammaire compare'e des langues se'mi- tiques et de I'egyptienne, Paris, 1879; Ignazio GuiDi : Delia sede primitiva del popoli Semitici,^ Roma, 1879; J. F. McCuedy; Aryo-Semitic Speech, Audover, 1881 ; W. . Gesenius : Hebrai- sches und Chaldciisches Handworterbuch, 9th ed. by Muhlau and Volck, Leipzig, 1883 ; Edmund Castell : Heptaglotton, Lond., 1669. 4. General Works. — F. Lbnoemant : Les Origines de I'his- toire d'apres la Bible et les traditions des peuples orientaux, vol. i., 2d ed., Paris, 1880, Eng. trans., New York, 1882, vol. ii., Paris, 1882 ; Friedrich Delitzsch: Wo lag das Paradies? Leipzig, 1881 ; F. Hommel : Die semitischen VSlker u. Sprachen, I., Die Semiten und Hire Bedeutungfur d. Kulturgesch. der Menschheit, Leipzig, 1881 ; A. Sphenger : Das Leben u. die Lehre d. Mohammads, Berl., 1861-65 ; E. LiTTRE : Comment dans deux situations histor. les Semites entrerent en competition avec les Aryens, Paris, Leip., 1879; M. Duncker: Hist, of Antiq. Eng. trans., London, 1877-80. C. H. toy._ SEMLER, Johann Salomo, the founder of his- torical criticism of the Bible ; was b. at Saalfeld, Dec. 18, 1725 ; and d. at Halle, March 4, 1791. Brouglit up in a pietistic circle, he entered the university of Halle, 1743, and was much influenced by the lectures of Baumgarten. He devoured a large mass of books, and mentions only one origi- nal idea of that period. " Already at that time I had some intimations of the difference between theology and religion." In 1750 he became editor of the local newspaper of Saalfeld, 1751, professor SBMLER. 2157 SENECA. history at Altdorf, and six months later profes- ■ of theology at Halle, becoming Baumgarten's jcessor iu 1757. He asserted the right to free- m of thought and investigation, and drew down on himself the keenest criticism from orthodox •cles. The Noca bibtiotheca ecclesiasiica called an an " impious man, and worse than the Jews " amo impius et Judmis pejor). He was the princi- I professor at Halle, and his reputation among e students increased in proportion to the attacks )m outside. This feeling changed, however, to me extent, in 1779, when his Beanlworlung der •agmente eines U ngenannten exposed him to the arge of being double-tongued. Dm-ing the last II years of his life he spent much time iu the boratory, and became an advocate of alchemy, is interest in the mysterious had increased ; and e ndraculoas cures of Gassner, and the miracu- ns faith of Lavater were the occasion for him appear in the Berlin Monalsschrift (1787) as an Ivocate of the possibility of miracles. Semler troduced new views upon the canon. The linion which had prevailed up to that time was, at the books of the Bible constituted one " ho- ogeneous whole," all parts of which are equally spired. To refute this opinion is the purpose the Abhandlung vomfreien Gebrauch ; AssjT., Sin-ahe-irba, = "Sin [the moon-god] multiplied brothers"), king of Assyria B.C. 705- 681, is mentioned in the following passages of the Bible : 2 Kings xviii. 13-xix. 37 — Isa. xxxvi. 1- xxxvii. 38; 2 Chron. xxxii. 1-22. From the Assyrian monuments we have tolerably full ac- counts of his reign. He was the son and successor of Sargon (see the art.), and ascended the throne on the 12th of Ab (i.e., July), B.C. 505. His first military expedition was directed against Babylonia and the irrepressible Merodach-baladan (see the art.). This enterprising prince, N^hom Sargon had vanquished in 710-709, seized the opportunity of Sargon's death to re-assert his claims to Babylon. But Sennacherib's campaign of 704 resulted in driving him into the remote parts of Southern Babylonia. The years imme- diately following were occupied by the Assyrian king in composing the affairs of Babylonia, where he established a i-uler named Belibus (703), and in chastising various allies of Merodach-baladan. In B.C. 701 fell his great western campaign, which is related from the Hebrew stand-point in the passages named above. The death of Sar- gon had seemed to the Phoenician, Judsean, and Philistian cities, also, to oifer an opportimity for throwing off the hated Assyrian yoke. That Merodach-baladan sought to make alliances in the West, his embassy to Hezekiah proves; but his own defeat was so speedy, that the revolt of the western cities was useless for him. Sennacherib merely waited until his work of re-conquest in Babylonia seemed sufiiciently assured, and then, as his third campaign, marched to the West. Following the usual route of the Assyrian armies, he appeared first before Sidon, whose king, Elu- liius, ventured no opposition, but fled to Cyprus. The Phoenician cities, those of Philistia as far as Ashdod, and the kings of Amnion, Moab, and Edom, submitted to Sennacherib forthwith. Gaza also seems to have been friendly to him. Ascalon and Ekron were more obstinate. The king of Ascalon was therefore seized, and with his family carried away prisoner. The case of Ekron was peculiar. Padi, its king, was favorable to Sen- nacherib; but the aristocracy and people had determined on revolt from Assyria, and, having overpowered Padi, sent him in chains to Hezekiah for safe-keeping. It may have been the report of this act, reaching Sennacherib on his south- ward march, which induced him to send off a detachment of troops into the land of Judah. This detachment devastated Judah, and captured forty-six Judsean cities (2 Kings xviii. 13 = Isa. xxxvi. 1; cf. 2 Chron. xxxii. 1). As a result of this, Hezekiah sent tribute to Sennacherib, who in the mean time had reached Lachish, and taken possession of that city (cf. 2 Kings xviii- 14._16). Probably it was at the .same time that Hezekiah surrendered Padi, as the inscriptions SENNACHERIB, 2169 SENNACHERIB. 3lare that he did. But Sennacherib demanded )re than this from the Judsean king. He had ten up his position at Lachish with the ex- station of a battle against a most formidable smy, namely, Egypt, which had joined the igue against Assyria, and whose army, although ) late to protect most of its allies, was on the •y to meet Sennacherib. It was most impor- it, therefore, to the Assyrian king that he should secure in the rear. An expedition, under his irtan (Assyr., iurtanu, " general-in-chief "), was ;ordingly despatched against Jerusalem; and i Rab-shakeh (Assyr., j-aj-sa^, "chief captain"), ting, no doubt, under orders from his supeiior, 3d every means of persuasion and threat, by ird of mouth and by letter, to gain possession the city (2 Kings xviii. 17-35 = Isa. xxxvi. 20; 2 Kings xix. 9-13 = Isa. xxxvii. 9-13; cf. Chron. xxxii. 9-19). This demand, so formi- bly backed, produced a great effect upon people d king (cf . 2 Kings xviii. 26, 37-xix. 4 — Isa. xvi. 11, 22-xxxvii. 4; cf. 2 Chron. xxxii. 18) ; t faith in Jehovah, stimulated by the exhorta- ms of Isaiah, who had been a sturdy opponent of 3 Egyptian alliance (see, e.g., Isa. xxx., xxxi.), d yet believed in the certainty of a deliverance )m the enemy at their doors, sustained the hearts those within the city, and they did not yield Kings xix. 5-7, 14-34 = Isa. xxxvii. 5-7, 14-35 ; 2 Chron. xxxii. 20 and 2-8). With rebellious :ron on one flank, and obstinate Jerusalem on s other, Sennacherib felt that he was too far ith to fight the Egyptians with safety ; and he thdrew to the neighborhood of Eltekeh, where 3 expected battle took place. The Assyrian icriptions claim the victory for Sennacherib ; t the success was, at all events, not decisive ough to encourage him to follow it up. He Qtented himself with taking possession of the ighboring cities of Eltekeh and Timnath, and siting the unfortunate Ekronites with condign nishment. He put to death the leaders of the rolt against Padi, and took many of the citizens swell his train of prisoners. Padi himself he ■instated as vassal-prince upon the throne of cron. Sennacherib's return to Assyria was immedi- sly brought about, according to the biblical ac- ant, by the smiting of his host in a night at 3 hands of the angel of Jehovah (2 Kings xix. , 36 = Isa. xxxvii. 36, 37 ; cf . 2 Chron. xxxii. 31). le probable interpretation of this is, that a stilence broke out in the Assyrian camp, and 1 to the abandonment of further operations in 3 West. The Egyptians told Herodotus (Herod., 141) a story, improbable enough, according to lich the god Hephsestus (Ptah) sent field-mice io Sennacherib's camp ; and these devoui-ed the ivers and the bows and the shield-handles of 5 warriors, so that the next morning they fled thout -weapons. This shows, at all events, that 3 Egyptians had a tradition to the effect that nnacherib's host departed suddenly, and in Qsequence of a great misfortune in their camp, d to this extent confirms the biblical account. One or two apparent discrepancies between the blieal narrative and Sennacherib's own account his Palestinian expedition admit of explana^ in. The Bible speaks of Hezekiah's tribute as Qsisting of three hundred talents of silver and thirty talents of gold (2 Kings xviii. 14). The inscriptions, which likewise give thirty talents of gold, say eight hundred talents of silver. This is probably due to a difference in the standard used, the Babylonian talent being to the Pales- tinian as three to eight. Further : the inscriptions represent the tribute of Ilezekiah as sent after the battle at Eltekeh, with the obvious design of obscuring the partial lack of success which had attended the Assyrians both in that battle and before Jerusalem, and of closing their account with the mention of material tokens of victory. That the inscriptions say nothing of any failure to reduce Jerusalem, and nothing of the destructive providence which caused the return to Assyria, is in keeping with the boastful tone which charac- terizes the records of Assyrian kings. After this campaign we have no mention of Sennacherib's presence in the West (cf. "and dwelt at Nineveh," 2 Kings xix. 36 ; Isa. xxxvii. 37). He reigned twenty years longer, and was engaged in important campaigns and great public works. The fourth, sixth, and'eighth campaigns were against Babylonia, where a new pretender, Suzub, divided his attention with Merodach-bala^ dan, whose frequent failure did not daunt him. As a i-esult of the fourth campaign, Sennacherib established his son Assurnadinsum (the 'Atiapava- 6iau, whom Ptolemy assigns to B.C. 699) as vice- roy of Babylonia. In the sixth campaign Suzub was again defeated, and brought captive to Nine- veh ; and in the eighth, which was evidently the fiercest struggle of all, Suzub again appeared in freedom, and in league with Nebosumiskun, son of Merodach-baladan, made a renewed attempt to throw off the Assyi-ian yoke, but finally suc- cumbed. Other expeditions of Sennacherib took him to the eastward ; and one of these was a not very successful campaign against Elam, whose king repeatedly appears as an ally of Merodach- baladan and Suzub. But Sennacherib distinguished himseK by his building as much as by his fighting. Early in his reign he pulled down the royal palace on the northern mound of Nineveh (modern Kuyunjik), and replaced it by a magnificent structure, even in its ruins the largest of the Assyrian palaces yet discovered. It is now known as the South- west Palace of Kuyunjik. He erected a second palace on the southern mound of Nineveh (mod- ern Nehi Yunus). He made a broad and splendid street through the city, and erected a bridge over the waters which protected the eastern gate, ^ — the chief gate of the city, — through which the Assyrian kings and their armies often passed. He supplied the city with water by cutting at immense cost a canal from the high land near the city Kisiri, north-east from Nineveh, through which the waters of the Khoser were conducted to his capital, and provided for a constant supply by a system of feeders. In all these enterprises he employed vast numbers of captives as laborers. The quarries of the neighboring mountains fur- nished the stone that was needed, and timber and all costly things for the adornment of the palaces were brought from various conquered lands. But Sennacherib was not permitted to end his days in peace. The prediction which Isaiah had uttered concerning him while he was stiU ia SEPARATES. 2160 SEPHARVAIM. PMlistia (cf. 2 Kings xix. 7 with Isa. xxxvii. 7) came true after twenty years. He was murdered by two of his sons, whose names the Bible has preserved to us as Adrammelech and Sharezer (2 Kings xix. 37 = Isa. xxxvii. 38 ; cf. 2 Chron. xxxii. 21). Abydenus (Euseb. : Chron., I. 9) and Alexander Polyhistor (Euseb.: Chron., I. 5) also mention the murder of Sennacherib, but no ac- count of it has yet been found in the Assyrian inscriptions. He was succeeded by his son, Esar- haddon. Lit. — George Smith : History of Sennacherib, translated from the Cuneiform Inscriptions, ed. by Rev. A. li. Sayce, London, 1878 ; K. Hoekning : Das sechsseitige Prisma des Sanherib in transcrib. Grundtext und Uebersetzung, Leipzig, 1878 ; H. PoGNON : L' Inscription de Bavian, Texte, Traduc' lion el Commentaire Philologique, Paris, 1879-80 ; E. ScHRADER : Die Keilinschriften u. d. Alle Tes- tament, Giessen, 1872, 2d ed., 1883 (Eng. trans, in progi-ess, 1"883) ; G. Rawlinson : The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World, 4th ed., London, 1879, New York, 1880, 3 vols. ; M. DuNCKER : Gesch. d. Alterthums, Berlin, 1852, etc., 4 vols., 5th ed., Leip., 1878-81, 5 vols., Eng. trans, by Evelyn Abbott, 1878-82, 6 vols. ; C. Geikie : Hours with the Bible, vol. iv., Lond. and N. Y., 1882 ; A. H. Sayce : Fresh Light from the Ancient Monu- ments, "Lond. , \i.A. [1883]. FRANCIS BROWN-. SEPARATES, an American Calvinistic Meth- odist sect, composed of Whitefield's followers, which sprang up in 1750 under the name of " New Lights." They were, however, subsequently organized into separate societies by Rev. Shubal Stearne, and then they took the name " Sepa^ rates." Stearne became a Baptist in 1751, and many of the Separates followed him into that church ; and the sect died out. " The distinctive doctrine of the sect was, that believ:ers are guided by the immediate teachings of the Holy Spirit, such . supernatural indications of the divine will being regarded by them as partaking of the nature of inspiration, and above, though not con- trary to, reason." See Blunt : Dictionary of Sects, s.v. ; Gardner: Faiths of the World, s,.\. SEPARATISM, in the ecclesiastical sense of the word, means the spirit of separation in matters of faith : therefore Separatists are those who separate themselves from the State Church in order to seek in conventicles and prayer-meetings the edification they do not derive from the public religious services. They are very numerous in Russia and Wiirttemberg. See Inspired, Piet- ism, Russian Sects. SEPHARVA'IM (Heb., □".nSD ; LXX,, Imipapel/^; Assyr., Sippara, Sipara; Akkad., Zimbir, meaning unknown), a city of Northern Babylonia, is men- tioned in the following passages of the Bible : 2 Kings xvii. 24, 31, xviii. 34 (Isa. xxxvi. 19), xix. 13 (Isa. xxxvii. 13). The last four passages name Se- pharvaim among the cities conquered by the king of Assyria : the first two speak of it as one of the places from which colonists were transplanted into Samaria (see Sargon), whose idolatrous practices were continued in their new land (see below). The site of Sepharvaim (Sippara) was discov- ered in 1881 by Hormuzd Rassam, who unearthed in the mounds now called Abu Habba the ruins of its famous sun-temple, with a bas-relief of the sun- god himself, and valuable inscriptions. Sippara lay a little to the west of a north and south line joining Babylon with Bagdad, and somewhat nearer the latter place, in lat. about 33° 4' 20" N. • long, about 44° 16' east from Greenwich. The Euphrates, which in the Assyrian inscriptions is repeatedly called "the river of Sippara," once flowed near it ; but the present river-bed is sev- eral miles to the west. Sippara was an ancient and highly venerated seat of power and worship. It was sometimes called " Sippara of the Sun " (see 'BMm ■KoTug, Euseb., Prcep. Evang. 9, 12, and Chron. 1. 7). It appears to have been a double city, with two separate parts ; this follows not only from the dual form of the Hebrew Sepharvaim, but also from the distinction which the inscrip- tions make between " Sippara of the Sun " and " Sippara of (the goddess) Anunit." One of these twin parts was perhaps identical with the old city Agade (Akkad (?), so George Smith), which was undoubtedly in the immediate neighborhood. Sippara was connected with Babylonian my- thology; for, according to Berossus (see Euseb., loc. cil.), Xisuthros, the Babylonian Noah, was directed by a god, before the flood, to deposit in Sippara the records of antiquity, and after the flood his companions were ordered by a heavenly voice to dig up the tablets deposited by Xisuthros at Sippara, which they accordingly did. The temple of the sun-god discovered by Rassam is of unknown antiquity. It,was already venerable when it was restored by Sagasalti-Burias, a king who is believed to have lived about B.C. 1050. Tradition canied its origin many centuries far- ther back ; and, indeed, an inscription of Naboni- dus, the last Babylonian king, who reigned B.C. 555-538, makes the surprising statement, that, in exploring its walls and foundations, he came upon "the cylinder of Naram-Sin, son of Sargon, which for thirty-two hundred years no king going before me had seen." (See T. G. Pinches: Proceedings Soc. Bib. Arch., Nov. 7, 1882.) If this statement is accurate, then we have a Shemitic civilization (Naram-Sin is a Shemitic name) in Northern Baby- lonia nearly four thousand years before Christ. There is no reason to doubt that Nabonidus gave these figures in good faith, but there are several grounds for questioning their correctness. (1) It cannot be proved, and is not pi'obable, that the chronological records, which in later times, it is true, were preserved with minuteness and care (cf. the Assyrian Eponym Canon), extended back to so remote an antiquity. (2) " Thirty-two hun- dred " looks ■ like an approximate, not an exact statement. (3) This statement throws back Sar- gon I. and Naram-Sin (from both of whom we have inscriptions) so far as to leave an immense gap between them and the later Babylonian kings, — a gap which no materials at our disposal enable us to fill. (4) Berossus, although he assip;ns many thousands of years to the prehistoric kings, does not trace the actual history of Babylonia beyond about B.C. 2500. It seems, then, probable that Sippara, though a very ancient city, has at present no claim to such an age as Nabonidus assigns to its temple. (See further, F. Hommel: Semit. VSlker u. Sprachen, i. pp. 487^89.) In 2 Kings xvii. 31 we are told that the Sephar- vites (Heb., or-nso ; LXX., Seirfapei/j.) burnt their sons with fire to Adrammelech and Anamme- lech, " gods of Sepharvaim." (The K'thib gives SEPTUAGINT. 2161 SBRQIUS. 7X D'lSD ; and Lagarde, Libr. Vet. Test. Can. ars Prior Greece, Gottingen, 1883, adopts for le LXX. the following I'eading: tu ASpafieTicx Sei> ^fopeili.) Neither of these gods is as yet found I connection with Sippara in the cuneiform in- iriptions, and no satisfactory explanation of their ention in 2 Kings xvii. 31 has thus far been iven. Lit. — E. Schrader : Die Keilimchriften u. %s Alte Test., Giessen, 1872, 2d ed., 1883 ; Eng. ans., in progress, 1883 ; Fkiedr. Delitzsch : 7b lag das Parodies ? Leipzig, 1881 ; also in eigaben to F. Mijrdter : Kurzgefasste Geschich. abyl. und Asstjr., Stuttgart, 1882; F. Hommel: 'je semitischen Volker und Sprachen, I., Leipzig, 381-83. FRAJ^CIS BROWK. SEPTUAGINT. See Bible Versions. SEPTUAGESIMA (seuentieth) is the third Sun- ly before Lent. SEPULCHRE, Holy. See Holy Sepulchre. SEQUENCE, The, or sequentia (from sequor, [ follow"), was so called because it formerly Mowed the Epistle, and preceded the Gospel, the church service. At this point the deacon ft the altar, and ascended to the rood-loft to ug the Gospel. The Alleluia of the " Gradual," hich was sung meanwhile, was consequently too lort to cover his transit ; and the last syllable a) was therefore protracted into "thirty, forty, ;ty, or even a hundred notes." This was known a "run," " cadence," or neuma. It continued this shape for about three hundred years. In il the abbey of Jumieges in Normandy was eked by the barbarian Normans ; and the monks id, carrying their service-books with them. . One rived at the abbey of St. Gall, where was a lebrated school for church music, and brought ither a Gregorian antiphony in which words .d been set to these otherwise meaningless notes the neuma. The improvement was adopted at . Gall. This is Dr. Pearson's version. But r. Neale maintains that Notker {Notkerus Vetus- r, to distinguish him from a younger person of e same name) was the true author. This man ailed Balbulus, " the little stutterer ") had once en at Jumieges, and had there debated with is very refugee monk the question whether jrds ought not to be given to these notes. It is id that the sound of a mill-wheel furnished him th the idea. Further, that, on the arrival of e refugee, the twenty-year-old debate had been iumed. In consequence, Notker (for whose rsonal characteristics see Maitland : The Dark jes) composed a sequence, or " prose " (prosa) ; at is to say, an unmetrical but rhythmic series sentences. This he offered to Yso, the pre- ator. Upon emendation, it was adopted. There no doubt that Notker deserves some credit ; t the Te Deum laudamus and the Gloria in excel- Deo, to name no other ancient hymns, are of is form. The famous sentence, " in the midst life we are in death," etc. {Media vilce in morte nus, etc.), and which is found in the Episcopal ayer-Book, is his composition. It was inspired the Martinsbruck bridge-builders swinging wn over the torrent. Dr. Pearson admits Not- e's invention of these rhythmical proses; and J Laudes Deo concinat orbis universus, his first sduction, has been recently republished. His se- ence of the Holy Spirit (Sancti Spiritus adsit nobis gratia) was in use throughout Europe. In these sequences the choir "acts like the chorus of a Greek play," maintaiuing the attention in default of the principal characters. In the seventeenth century the rood-lofts became organ-lofts to such an extent that sequences, not being requii-ed, were disused. In later days the word " sequence " was (incorrectlv) applied as synonymous with "hymn." Thus Adam of St. Victor (d. 1192) is called a writer of " sequences," and the Dies Irce is sometimes similarly entitled. Unless this term be employed with reference to the music, it is confusing ; for the " sequence " differs from the "hymn" in being rhythmical without regular metre, and in possessing no rhymes at all. For the high ritualistic significance of its construction, see Neale's Latin monograph prefixed to Daniel's Thesaurus, torn. v. Lit. — Cf . Neale : Mediaeval Hymns (Eng. version), s.v. Spiritus Sanctus adsit, 3d ed., p. 29; also 0. B. Pearson : Seq. fr. Sarum Missal, Lond., 1871 (preface) ; art. " Hymns," in Encyclopmdia Britannica (ninth ed.) ; Neale : De Sequentiis (Daniel, tom. v.); March: Latin Hymns, New York, 1875, pp. 88, 265. For the originals of the Notkerian and Godescalcian sequentice, see Daniel, tom. ii., and for the Alleluiatic Sequence of Godes- CALCDS, see Seven Great Hymns (New York, 1867), p. 126. MacGill (Songs of Christian Creed and Life, London, 1879) claims the credit of invention for Hartmann of St. Gall. Morel's Lat. Hym. des Miitelalters (Einsiedeln, 1867, 2 vols.) is the richest collection. SAMUEL w. DUFFTELD. SER'APHIM (plural of Heb. saraph, "to burn "), beings seen by Isaiah, who alone mentions them (vi. 2-6), on either side of the throne of God. They each had six wings : two were spread, in token that instantly they were ready to go upon any errand; two covered the face, to indicate how unworthy they were to look upon their Lord ; and two covered the feet, — an Oriental custom in the presence of royalty. They sang an antiphonal chant. One of them cleansed the prophet of his sins by touching his lips with a live coal from the altar before the Lord. The seraphim were mani- festly quite different from the cherubim, for the latter had four wings and four faces ; and from the angels, who have no wings. Comp. art. in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible and in Riehm's Ilndb. bib. Alter. SERGIUS PAULUS. See Paul. SERCIUS is the name of several saints and martyrs of the Roman-Catholic Church. One of them', a native of Rome, was martyred at Rosaph in Syria, 290 ; and in his honor the Emperor Jus- tinian I. built the city of Rosaph Sergiopohs. His day of commemoration is Oct. 7. SERGIUS with the surname Confessor was a native of Constantinople, and lived in the first half of the ninth century. His book, De rebus in re- publica et ecclesia gestis, — a history of the image- controversies from Constantine Copronymus to Michael II. Balbus, — is lost : but under Leo Isau- ricus, or under Theophilus, he was imprisoned and exiled as an image-worshipper; and for that reason he is styled a confessor by the Greek Church, and commemorated on May 18. SERGIUS is the name of f our popes. — Serglus I. (687-701), b. at Antiochia, but educated at Palerma ; refused to recognize the decrees of the SERMON. 2162 SBRVBTUS. Trullan Council, though his delegates had signed them. The emperor, Justinian II., proposed to compel obedience, and had already ordered the Pope to be transported to Constantinople, when he was himself deposed. Thus the Papal rejection of the Trullan Council remained unshaken, and became the starting-point of that contest between the Greek and the Latin churches which ended with their complete separation. — Sergius II. (844-847) was the first pope who had the courage to ask for no confirmation of his election and consecration by the emperor ; and he succeeded in vindicating himself, though the Emperor Lothair, through his son Lewis and Bishop Drago, pre- sented a formal protest in Rome. — Sergius III. (904-911), one of the basest characters ever placed on the Papal throne. He lived in open adultery with Marozia, who, besides other children, bore to him the later Pope John XL See Luitpkand : Antapodosis, in Peetz : Mon. Germ. Hist., v. — Sergius IV. (1009-12). His true name was Bocca di Porco ("Swine-snout"); but he was ashamed of it, and on his accession he changed it for Ser- gius. After that time it became customary for the Popes to change their family names on their election. NEUDECKER. SERMON. See Homiletics. SERPENT, Brazen, The. When the Israelites, in the fortieth year of their journey through the wilderness, after they had overcome and banished the Canaanites, turned again to the Red Sea to compass the land of Edom, they murmured against God and against Moses for want of water. To punish the people, God sent fiery serpents ; and by their bite many died. This punishment leads the people not only to acknowledge their sin, but also to ask Moses to pray unto the Lord that he take away the serpents. Moses, therefore, at the di- vine command, makes a brazen serpent, hangs it on a pole, so that by looking toward it every one that had been bitten was cured (Num. xxi. 5 sq.). These fiery serpents are not to be understood as flying-serpents; but they were serpents which were called _^erj^ either on account of their i-ed, shining, fiery-like color, or on account of their inflamma- tory bite. Very striking indeed is the remedy which Jehovah gives here against the conse- quences of the serpents' bites, and different expla^ nations have been tried. But we must bear this in mind, that not the way in which the brazen ser- pent was hung up, but the very fact that it was a serpent, and nothing else, which was made visible in a far distance, is of the utmost importance. The .brazen serpent was to the Israelite a symbol of the punishment with which his sin, his murmuring, was visited by Jehovah. Since he that was bit- ten, in order to be cured, had to look toward the brazen image of the death-bringing serpent, he was cured only under the condition that he. be- came conscious of that punishment which he had incurred by his sin, part of which he had already Buifered in the bite of the serpent, and that he wished to be spared the last consequences, the death. By looking toward the brazen serpent, the Israelite was to be cured, but only on condition that he was reminded of his deserved punishment, and took it to heart. Remission and forgiveness of sin were only to follow after true repentance had been effected. This brazen serpent was still, in the time of Hezekiah, an object of idolatrous reverence among the Israelites (2 Kings xviii. 4), and the pious king had it destroyed with other images. In the New Testament the brazen serpent is mentioned (John iii. 14, 15), where Jesus shows unto Nicodemus the necessary elements for seeing the kingdom of God, — first the subjective condi- tion, the new birth (3-13) ; then the objective con- dition, through which the faith hi the Son of man, as effected by the new birth, can bring life eternal (14 sq.). This latter condition consists in that the Son of man is lifted up like the ser- pent in the wilderness. Like the brazen serpent, he becomes an image of those punishments which man has incurred, and from which he asks to be delivered. Jesus had therefore to suffer the death of the cursed, which we had incurred, in order to relieve us from the curse. By looking toward him in faith, we are cured and saved, but not with- out being reminded at the same time of our own sins, for which he was crucified, and of the pun- ishment which we have deserved. This is only one, and nothing else but one, side of the great work by which Jesus has effected our redemption. Lit. — VlTKiNGA : Ob.s. sacr., i. 403 sq. ; IIuth : Serpens Exaltatus nee Contrilorls sed Conterendi imago, Erlang., 1758; C. A. Ceusius : D. typo ser- pentis aenei; B. Jakobi : Ueber d. Erlwliung d. Meih- schensohnes, in Sludien u. Kritiken, 1835, pp. 8 sq. j VON HoFMANN : Schriftbeweis, ii. 1, pp. 301 sq.; Meier, in Tlieolog. Jalirbiieher ; von Bauk u. Zeller, 1854, pp. 585 sq. ; Menken; Gesammelte Schriften, vi. 351 sq. A. KOEHLBR. SERVETUS, Michael (Miguel Serveto), b. at [Tudela in Spain, Sept. 29], 1511 ; burnt at the stake in Geneva, Oct. 27, 1553. He studied jurisprudence at Toulouse; entered the service of Father Quintana, the confessor of Charles the Fifth, and accompanied him in 1529 to Italy and Germany. The minute circumstances, however, of his earlier life, cannot be made out with cer» tainty, as the explanations he gave before the court of Vienne often contradict those he gave before the court of Geneva. In 1530 he was at all events in Basel, and in the following year he published his De Trinitatis errorihus. While in Toulouse he began to study the Bible, and re- ceived a deep impression from it ; but he was and always remained a self-taught man in the field of theology, without any true scientific training. He had, however, some talent for abstract speculation, and threw himself with ardent zeal on the doc- trine of the Holy Trinity, sure that the develop- ment which the doctrine had fouud in the church was utterly wrong, and eager to turn the course of the Reformation in the direction of his own speculation. He addressed himself to QEcolam- padius; and (Ecolampadius was unable to con- vince him that his speculations, directed against the eternal divinity of Christ, and lea,ving the Holy Spirit almost entirely out of consideration, were obscure, contradictory to the Bible, and blas- phemous. When the book appeared, it made a gi-eat sensation ; but all the Reformers denounced it, and Butzer even declared from the pulpit that the author ouglit to be punished with death. On his return from Basel, Servetus was imprisoned in Lyons. His book was seized and burnt, and he was relea.sed only on condition of retracting ; and indeea his next book (Dialogorum de Trini- SBRVETUS. 2163 SERVIA. e libri ii., 1532) opens with a recantation; but retracts only because he understands that what formerly wrote on the subject was unripe and intelligible ; and after that kind of recantation begins afresh. This second book, however, fell t from the press. Soon after, he left Lyons, and repaired, under 3 assumed name of De Villeneuve, to Paris, lere he studied mathematics and medicine. In 40 he settled as a physician at Vienne, on the i'itation of Archbishop Paulmier ; and he staid 3ve for twelve years, enjoying the favor of his tron and the esteem pf his co-citizens, engaged various literary pursuits of a highly creditable aracter, and seemingly in perfect harmony with 3 Roman-Catholic Church around him. But he d not given up his antitrinitarian speculations, r abandoned his hope of exercising a decisive laenoe on the course of the Reformation. Prob- ly in order to ascertain how far he could hope to d a co-worker in the French-Reformed Church, opened a correspondence with Calvin. At first Ivin answered calmly and with great compo- re : but, as the correspondence developed he felt 3ply provoked ; and, when Servetus asked him procure him a safeguard for a visit to Geneva, Ivin refused, remarking in a letter to Favel, bed Feb. 13, 1546, "Si venerit, modo valeat mea jtoritas, vivum exire nunquam patiar" ("If ever enters the city, he shall not leave it living, if an prevent it"). Servetus himself was aware the danger of his enterprise ; but in the excited ,te of mind in which he lived he was drawn wards with irresistible force, and in the begin- ig of 1553 he published anonymously his prin- al work, Christianismi Restitutio. All the old jections to the doctrine of the Trinity are here leated ; and it is urged that the Bible and the ;e-iSricene Fathers know nothing of such a doc- iie, and that it is the principal reason why the ^s and Mohammedans have not been converted, e author of the book was soon found out, and identity proved by means of papers delivered by Calvin. Servetus was imprisoned at Vienne, I a process was instituted against him ; but on ril 7 he succeeded in escaping from his prison, II provided with money. lis plan was to go to Naples, where, as a Span- I and a good physician, he would not find it icult to live. But he tarried for nearly a month Geneva ; and just as he was about to leave the J he was recognized (Aug. 1-3), and imprisoned the instance of Calvin, who appeared before court as his formal accuser. The issue of process was by no means certain, and some the details of the proceedings are a little diffi- t to form a definite opinion of. On Oct. 26, fever, the verdict was given, — death at the ce. Servetus was shaken to the very depths lis soul, and pleaded for pardon. But he abso- ily refused to recant, and on the following day was publicly burnt. The impression which affair made at the time was very varied, lauchthon, Bullinger, and all the most promi- t theologians of the Protestant Church, took side of Calvin unconditionally. The Anti- itarians, and all who in any way inclined ards the ideas of Servetus, were deeply pro- ed. The Roman Catholics exulted. Generally, 'ever, the public disapproved of the proceedings of Calvin ; and such a hail-storm of pamphlets, in verse and pi'ose, representing his character and conduct in the most odious light, came pom-ing down upon him, that he found it necessary to publicly defend himself. His Declaration appeared in the beginning of 1554 in French, and shortly after in Latin : Refutatio. It was very severely criticised by one Vaticanus {Contra libellum Cal- vini), who, however, was no adherent of Servetus. A remarkable book on the question is the De hce- reticis, aut sint persequendi . . . sentenlia; (Magde- burg, 1554), probably by Castellio. It is a collection of all the most noteworthy opinions pronounced upon the question. Lit. — Tkechsel: Servet und seine Vorgdnger, Heidelberg, 1839; Rilliet: Relation du proces criminel contre M. Servet, Geneva, 1844; [Tollin: Luther ii. Servet, Berlin, 1875, Ph. Melanchlhon u. Servet, 1876, Charaklerhild Servet's, 1876, 48 pp., D. Lehrsystem Servet's, Gutersloh, 1876-78, 3 vols., Servet und d. oberlandischen Reformatoren {Servet und Butzer), Berlin, 1880 ; G. C. B. PiJNJEK : De Michaelis Serveti doctrina commentatio dogmaiico- hislorica, Jena, 1876 ; R. Willis : Servetus and Calvin, London, 1877 ; C. Dardier : Michael Servet d'apres ses plus re'cents biographes, Nogent- le-Rotron, 1879, 56 pp. ; J. V. Bloch : Michael Servet, Sohonberg, 1879, 184 pp.]. TEECHSEL. SERVIA. jNIodern Servia, which on March 6, 1882, resumed her place among the kingdoms of Europe, has an area of 20,850 square miles, and a population of about a million and three-fourths. Ancient Servia had a much greater area ; and the number of the Servian-speaking people, including those living under Austrian rule, and in the provinces formerly subject to Turkey, is stated to be over seven millions. The Servian tribes received Christianity from the Eastern Church, early in their history; but it was only towards the end of the twelfth century that the energetic Grand Shupane, Neman j a, abolished the partly Romanized ritual which had come into use, and brought the Servian Church into full accord with that of the Eastern Empire. The Latins having taken Constantinople, St. Sava, son of Neman j a, in 1217, crowned as king his brother Stephen, and in 1224 induced the humbled emperor and patriarch to make the Ser- vian Church autocephalous, as a means of pre- serving it from Rome; St. Sava himself being the first independent archbishop. The key to the earlier church history of Servia is found in the at- tachment to the formulse of the Eastern Church, joined to jealousy of the political power of the Eastern Empire. In 1347, when the great Stephen Dushan declared himself czar, the archbishop, as was natural in the Greek Church, where the secu- lar and spiritual powers are so closely united, was declared patriarch, and his seat fixed at Ipek. The fatal battle of Kossova, in 1389, and the trampling of Servia under the Turks, did not interfere with the succession of the patriarchs of Ipek until near the middle of the seventeenth century ; then the Porte, finding the patriarchate acentreof national feeling, interfered; and finally, in 1737, abolished it, and placed the church under Greek bishops from Constantinople, who were as much hated by the people as were the Turkish rulers. As the erection of the patriarchate under Stephen Dushan marks the highest point of Ser- SERVITES. 2164 SEVEN. vian history, so its suppression marks the lowest. In 1810, when Kara George freed his country from the Turks, the archbishopric of Carlovitz, in Hungary, which represents the patriarchate of Ipek, was acknowledged as the head of the Ser- vian Church. The Turks reconquered the coun- try ; and when Milosh Obrenovics by his efforts, from 1815 onward, in 1830 secured a Haiti-sheriff from the Porte, which erected Servia into an autonomous principality, paying tribute to the Porte, the Church was also allowed to elect her own bishops and metropolitan, paying tribute to the Patriarch at Constantinople. In 1838, when the seat of government was removed to Bel- grade, the metropolitan of that city was acknowl- edged as the head of the Servian Church, although the Archbishop of Carlovitz urged his claims. The treaty of Berlin, in 1878, made the princi- pality of Servia wholly independent, and the con- nection of the church with that of Constantinople ceased. The Liturgy of the Servian Church is in ancient Slavonic, which is said not to differ more from modern Servian than does the English of Chaucer from that of the present day. Servia has a good public system of education. The parish priests of Belgrade and the more populous parts of the country are men of education and intelli- gence; but the standard in the mountainous re- gions of the interior, in this respect, is not as high as it should be. Freedom of worship is allowed, although proselytizing from the Established Church is forbidden. The metropolitan of Bel- grade has five suffragans, each of whom presides over a diocesan consistoiy. The entire Protestant, Roman-Catholic, and Jewish populations together numbered in 1874 less than seven thousand. The districts annexed in 1878 contained a Mohamme- dan population of seventy-five thousand. Lit. — Ranke: History of Servia, translated by Mrs. A. Kerr, London, 1853; Elodie, Lawton MijATOVics ; History of Modern Serbia, London, 1872 ; Gkievb : The Church and People of Servia, London, 1864 ; Gambier : Servia, London, 1878. See art. Gkeek Church. R. w. hall. SERVITES {Sei-vi Beatce Marice Virginis, "Ser- vants of the Virgin Mary") is the name of a monastic order, which was formed in 1223, at Florence, on the day of the festival of the ascen- sion of the Virgin (Aug. 15), by seven distin- guished citizens, who retired to a secluded place (Villa Camartia) for the purpose of devoting themselves entirely to the worship of Mary. In 1236 they removed to Monte Senario ; and in 1239 they adopted the rules of St. Augustine; and be- gan to receive novices. The order was confirmed by Gregory IX. and Alexander IV.; and from Martin V. it obtained all the privileges of the mendicant orders, 1424. Among the celebrated men who have belonged to the order is Paolo Sarpi. There are also female Servites. See A. . GiANiTJS : Annales Ordinis Fratrum Servorum, Luc- ca, 1719; and Paulus Florentinus: Dialogus de origine Ordinis Servorum, in J. Lamius : Delicias Eruditorum, Florence, 1736 ; Schrockh : Christ- lichen Kirchengeschichte, vol. xxvii., pp. 509 sqq. NEUDEOKEK. SERVUS SERVORUM OZX {" Servant of the Ser- vants of God ") is the official formula with which the Pope signs his name. It was brought into technical official use by Gregoiy the Great (q. v.) in imitation of Augustine, , yet as a rebuke to the Patriarch John of Constantinople, who had the audacity to style himself " (Ecumenical Pa- triarch." SESSION, the lowest court in the Presbyterian Church, composed of the pastor and his elders. Before it, all candidates for admission to full com- munion come for examination, and by it all busi- ness relating to the government and practice of the congregation is transacted. SESSION OF CHRIST, a theological term de- rived from the phrase that Christ is " seated at the right hand of God," setting forth the perpetual presence of the human nature in heaven. SETHIANI. See Gnosticism, p. 881. SETON (Mother), Elizabeth Ann (ne'e Bayley), foundress of the Sisters of Charity in the United States ; b. in New- York City, Aug. 28, 1774; d. at Emmittsbjirg, Md., Jan. 4, 1821. She mar- ried William Seton in her twentieth year. After his death (1803) she entered the Roman-Catholic Church, March 14, 1805. In order to support her- self she taught school at Baltimore, 1806-08 ; but with her sisters-in-law, Harriet and Cecilia Seton, on the inheritance of eight thousand dollars from the Rev. Samuel Cooper, she opened a conventual establishment of the Sisters of Charity — they having taken the veil Jan. 1, 1809 — at Emmitts- burg, July 30, 1809. In 1812 the order had in- creased to twenty members, with Mother Seton as superior-general. At her death it numbered fifty. In 1814 the order took charge of an orphan- asylum in Philadelphia, and in 1817 was incoi-po- rated by the Legislature of Maryland. See her biography by White, New York, 1853, and by Robert Seton, New York, 1869, 2 vols. SEVEN, The Sacred Number. Among ancient nations, especially in the East, in India, China, Chaldsea, Egypt, Greece, we find that a symbolical significance is attached to the number seven as a pre-eminently sacred number. According to the Indian doctrines, "man is the representative of the great seven-stringed world-lyre," the " symbol of cosmic harmony," the " maki'o-cosmic hepta- chord " (v. Bohlen : Das alte Indien, ii. 247). The Chinese distinguished seven material souls in man, together with three spiritual souls (Ritter : Asien, i. 199). The Egyptians worshipped the seven planets (Diodor. Sic, ii. 30) ; and Herodotus tells of their seven castes (ii. 64 ; cf . Uhlemann : Aegyptologie, ii. 59, 163). There were also the sacred "Heptads" of Greece and Rome; and hence the significance attached to Rome's seven hills, to the seven reeds in the pipe of Pan, the seven strings of the lyre of Helios. With the heathen, the number seven — which also includes the seven planets, the seven colors in the rainbow, the seven tones in music — had almost exclusive reference to natural relations, to the seven sacred divisions of time, which all nations seem to have recognized; and Ideler (^Chronologic, i. 178, ii. 473) traces the universal division of time into periods of seven days to the phases of the_ moon, or the duration of each of the four divisions of the lunar month of twenty-eight days. In place of all such material relations, the ethical and re- ligious significance of seven was alone recognized by the Hebrews. The Bible begins, in the Book of Genesis, with a seven, and ends, in the Apoca- lypse, with a series of sevens. The symbolical SEVEN. 2165 SEVENTH-DAY BAPTISTS. value of this number is not to be sought for, •with Winer {Real-worterbuch, ii. 715), in the ideas attached by the ancients to the seven planets, but in the seven days during which creation arose from chaos [and was pronounced to be "very good"], when God "rested on the seventh day from all his work which he had made," when he blessed it and sanctified it as a day of rest for the creation also. With reference to this start- ing-point or sacred number — seven, or seven multiplied by seven — all the legal festivals were ordered. Thus the great festivals lasted seven days, — the passover [Exod. xii. 15], the feast of weeks [Exod. xxxiv. 22], the feast of tabernacles [Deut. xvi. 13]. Pentecost was seven weeks after the passover [Lev. xxiii. 15, 16] ; each seventh year was " a sabbath of rest unto the land " [Lev. XXV. 4], and the jubilee year was the year after "seven times seven years-" [Lev. xxv. 8-11] The great day of atonement fell in the seventh month (Lev. xvi. 29, 30), as did the feasts of trumpets and of tabernacles [Num. xxix. 1, 12; and thus the seventh day is a sabbath, the seventh week a pentecost, the seventh year a sabbatical year, the seventh sabbatical year a jubilee]. Not only the legal festivals, but also other enactments, had reference to the sacred number seven. Thus seven days were required for the ceremonies of the consecration of priests ; seven days for the interval to elapse between the occasion and removal of various kinds of legal uncleanness, as after childbirth, after contact with a corpse, etc. ; seven times appointed for aspersion either of the blood of the victim (Lev. iv. 6, xvi. 14), or of the water of purification (xiv. 51; cf. 2 Kings v. 10, 14, ["go and wash in Jordan seven times, and thy flesh," etc.], and Gen. vii. 2, 3). Seven things were to be offered in sacrifice, — ■ oxen, sheep, goats, pigeons, wheat, oil, wine; seven victims to be offered on any special occasion (Num. xxiii. 1, [14, 29] ; 2 Chron. xv. 11, xvii. 11, xxix. 21 ; [Job xlii. 8] ; cf. also Gen. xxxiii. 3, where Jacob bowed seven times, and 2 Kings vi. 38, concerning Solomon's temple, which was seven years in building) ; and especially at the ratification of a treaty, the notion of seven being embodied in the vei-y term nish'ba, signifying " to swear," literally meaning to " do seven times " (Gen. xxi. 28 ; Deut. iv. 31 ; cf. Herod, iii. 8 for a similar custom among the Arabians). The same idea is farther carried out in the vessels, adjuncts, measurements, and ar- rangements of the tabernacle, in the seven arms of the candlestick [and its seven lamps (Exod. xxv. 31-37) ; the length of each curtain of the tabernacle, which was seven by four cubits (Exod. xxvi. 2)]; the number of the pillars of the tabernacle court, which was seven by four by two [Exod. xxvii. 10-15]. The number seven also appears in cases where the notion of satisfaction is required, as in reference to punishment for wrongs (Gen. iv. 15; Lev. xxvi. 18-28; Prov. vi. 3), or to forgiveness of them (Matt, xviii. 21). It is again mentioned, in a variety of passages (Isa. iv. 1, xi. 15, xxx. 26 ; Jer. xv. 9 ; Job v. 19; Matt. xii. 45, etc.), in a sense analogous to that of a " round number," but with the additional idea of sufficiency and completeness. To this also may be added the numerous instances in which persons or things are mentioned by sevens ; e.g., [the seven kine and the seven ears in Pharaoh's dream], the seven sons of Japhet, [the seven daughters of the priest of Midian], the seven daughters of Job, the seven children of Hannah, [the seven sons of Jesse], the seven sons of Josa- phat, the seven deacons (Acts vi. 5), the seven sons of Sceva, the seven disciples in John xxi. 2, and the seven times ten disciples (Luke x. 1), [the seven beatitudes], the seven petitions in the Lord's Prayer, the seven parables (Matt, xiii.), the miracle of the seven loaves, [the seven words from the cross], the seven times two generations in the pedigree of Jesus, the seven charismata in Rom. xii. 6-8, the seven characters of wisdom in Jas. iii. 17, the seven virtues in 2 Pet. i. 5-7. There are also the Heptads of the Apocalypse, such as are silently indicated, as in v. 12, vi. 16, vii. 12, xix. 18, xxi. 8, as well as such as are expressly indicated, — the seven churches (iii. 1 sq.), seals (v. 1 sq.), trumpets (viii. 2 sq.), thun- ders (x. 3, 4), vials (xvi. 1 sq.), and angels (xv. 1 sq. ) . As these apocalyptic sevens — the seven heads, horns, and crowns of the beast (xii. 3, xiii. 1, xvii. 7 sq.) not excluded — have their common divine archetype in the " seven spirits which are before the throne of God," or in the "seven spirits of God, sent forth into all the earth " (Rev. i. 4, iii. 1, iv. 5, v. 6), and which again have for their basis the sevenfold designa- tion of the Spirit of God coming down on the Messiah (Isa. xi. 2), we are entitled to regard the seven as the signature of the Holy Spirit, or of that triune God who historically and judicially reveals himself in the Spirit. The significance of the seven in the last book of the Bible evidently looks backwards to that given to it in the first book. On the application of the number seven in mediaeval art, science, litm-gics, and mysti- cism, see Otte: Handhuch der kirchlichen Kunst- archaologie des Mittelalters, p. 283 ; De Wette : Geschichte der christlichen Sittenlelire, i. and ii. passim , Piper : Evangelisches Jahrbuch fur 18S6, pp. 76 sq. ; Dursch : Symholik der christlichen Re- ligion, ii. pp. 536 sq. zocklee. SEVEN SLEEPERS OF EPHESUS. See Eph- Esus, Seven Sleepers of. SEVENTH-DAY BAPTISTS. I. Name.— In their early history in England this sect was known as the " Sabbatai'ian Baptists; " but, for the sake of greater definiteness, the General Conference in the United States changed it to its present form in 1818. Origin. ^The Seventh-DayBaptists as an eccle- siastical organization appear in England in the latter part of the sixteenth century. The lack of conformitj' to apostolic doctrine and church order on the part of the Established Church was the ground they alleged as the sufficient reason for separate organization. In formulating their doc- trine and polity they undertook to follow the model of the Apostolic Church as nearly as cir- cumstances would allow, History. — Since the institution of the sabbath at the close of creation, and its formal pronounce- ment as a part of the Sinaitic code, it is believed that there has been an unbroken line of God-lov- ing men who have kept the seventh day of the week as a sabbath, according to its original insti- tution and enjoinment. None question that it was observed by Christ and his apostles, and by Chris- SEVENTH-DAY BAPTISTS. 2166 SEVENTH-DAY BAPTISTS. tiaiis generally during the apostolic period. It had no rival day in the Church until about the middle of the second century, when Sunday began to be observed as a festival day in honor of the resurrection, along with Wednesday, Friday, and numerous other festal days of the Latin Church, then beginning to drift upon the first great w ave of its apostasy. This church made the sabbath day a fast-day, not without sinister motives look- ing to its suppression in favor of the festival Sun- day; while tlie Greek or Eastern Church stead- fastly observed it as a day of holy delight in the Lord. Controversy upon this subject began about the middle of the second century, and was kept up with a zeal amounting to bitterness for several centuries. In the Western Church the seventh day continued to be observed quite generally till the fifth century, and traces of it were noticeable in some parts of Bui'ope much later. In Scotland and Ireland, as well as in England, the seventh day was regarded and observed as the sabbath in the eleventh century and later. In Skene's Cel- tic Scotland, p. 350, vol. 2, there is this statement \ " There was no want of the veneration of Sunday, though they held that Saturday was properly the sabbath, on which they abstained from work." In the Oriental or Greek branch of the church the seventh day continues to be observed to this day. There is not wanting evidence that an unbro- ken chain of observers of the seventh day was pre- served, in the face of detraction and pei-secution, all through the dark ages, and that they appeared in the dawn of the Protestant Reformation, and were represented in that movement by a number of its prominent actors. In the Abyssinian, Armenian, and Nestorian churches the seventh day has not yet been sup- planted by the first day of the week. Consult Geddes : History of the Church of Ethiopia, Lon- don, 1601; Gob at: Three Years in Abyssinia, London, 2d ed., 1817; Stanley: History of the Eastern Church, 1801. As these sabbath-keepers were pressed by perse- cutions, they were compacted into several centimes. Most prominent among these were societies in Bo- hemia, Transylvania, and Holland. From among these, under the lead of pi-oniinent and able dis- senters frorn the Church of England, were gath- ered the " Sabbatarian Baptists " of England. This movement was accelerated as a re-action against the theory, that, while the Sinaitio sabbath law was still in full force, the first day of the week had been put in place of the seventh day by divine authority. This theory was first set forth by Nicolas Bownd, in his Sahbathum veteris et nooi testamenti: or the true doctrine of the Sabbath, held and practiced of the Church of dod, both before, and under the Law : and in the time of the Gospell, London, 1595, 2d ed. ("perused and inlarged"), 1606. _ See Meal, Harper ed., vol. i. p. 208. During the English Reformation, several able and distinguished men came out of the Established Church, and took up the defence of the sabbath in the face of severe persecution, amounting, in a number of instances, to martyrdom, characterized by all the circumstances which had marked the dark ages. In 1630 Theophilus Brabourn wrote an able defence of the views of the Sabbata- rian Baptists; and he was followed by James Ockford, the Stennets, Robert Cornthwait, and others. Out of such agitation, and from such elements, were the Seventh-Day Baptist churches of Eng- land organized during the latter part of the sixteenth century, and fore part of the seven- teenth. During that period eleven churches were formed in England. . Three of these were in London. The Mill-yard Church is still active, with a church-edifice, parsonage, and considerable money endowment. This church was gathered by John James, at a date not well settled, in consequence of loss of records by fire. This first pastor fell a victim to the wild spirit of intolerance abroad in the politico-ecclesiastical counsels of England, and was by authoritative mandate dragged from his pulpit during sabbath service, imprisoned, and at length beheaded, drawn, and quartered, and his head was set upon a pole opposite his chapel. There are now two churches in England, two in Holland, and one (missionary church) in Shang- hai, China. II. Seventh-Day Baptist Churches in America. In 1664 Stephen Mumford came from one of the English churches, and organized the first Seventh- Day Baptist Church in America, in Newport,- R.I., in 1671. From this church othei's soon grew up, and were pushed out into Rhode Island, Con- necticut, Kew York, and farther west. Another centre was established, about 1700, near Phila- delphia, Penn., by Rev. Abel Noble, a minister of large ability, from England Five churches were formed there, drawing largely for adherents from the Keithian Baptists. From these, other churches were formed, in South Carolina, Georgia, and in the western part of Pennsylvania, and still farther west. A third centre was established at Piscata- way, N.J., in 1705, where there is still a flourish- ing church. From these three radial points the churches have spread westward with the general tide of emigration, until there are now flourishing churches in no less than sixteen States, with an aggregate membership of about nine thousand. Church Polity. — This is strictly congregational. The annual conference has simply the power of an advisory council, and is composed of two dele- gates from each church, with an additional dele- gate for every twenty-five members. There are five associations, which sustain the same relation to the churches composing them as the conference does to all the churches. The associations may be represented by delegates in the conference, but with no power to vote as association in that body. Doctrines. — The Seventh-Day Baptists believe in the general doctrines of salvation held by the evangelical churches, and differ from the tenets of the Baptists generally only in regard to the sabbath. They believe, and conscientiously regulate their practice accordingly, that the seventh day of the week is the sabbath of the Lord, and that this, at its institution in Eden, and promulgation as part of the Sinaitic code, was made binding upon all men in all times ; that, in the nature of its rela- tions to God and to man, it is irrepealable. In the terms of its constitution and in the rea- sons for its enactment it is inseparably connected with the seventh or last day of the week, anJ SEVENTH-DAY BAPTISTS. 2167 SEVBRUS. that any attempt to connect the sabbath law and sabbath obligation with any one of the other days of the week is illogical, and in its tendency de- structive of the whole sabbatic institution. That the change of the day of the sabbath to Sunday has no warrant in the Scriptures, is only a human device brought about by such questiona- ble and unjustifiable means as to give it no claim either to the respect or acceptance of Christendom. That the only stay to the wave of no-sabbathism now sweeping from Europe to America is in the impregnable bulwark of the true sabbath of the Fourth Commandment. Education and Publication. — The Seventh-Day Baptists have two flourishing institutions of col- lege gT,ade, — one at Milton, Wis.; the other at Alfred Centre, N. Y. This latter has a university charter, and is vigorously carrying on business, mechanical, and theological departments, in addi- tion to its academic and collegiate courses. Both sexes are admitted on equal terms to these col- leges, and over seven hundred students were in attendance in them the last year. The publishing-house of the denomination is also at Alfred Centre, from which, besides a large number of tracts and books, it issues its weekly organ, the Sabbath Recorder, an eight-page paper of good size, ably edited, and executed in the best style of the art. A monthly, The Outlook, has an issue of over fifty thousand copies; and a finely illustrated sabbath-school paper. Our isab- balh Visitor, is issued weekly. Missions. — For many years the denomination has had a mission in Shanghai, China, where it has accumulated considerable property, which it is now enlarging; and the mission force is to be enlarged at once by the addition of a female medical missionary. General Reform. — Upon the questions of reform which have agitated the public mind, such as antislavery, temperance, religious liberty, sabbath- observance, etc., this people have always main- tained a consistent and radical position, favorable to the reforms sought. General Repute. — Baird, in his Religion in America (New York, 1856), says of them, " The population under their instruction and influence is reckoned at forty thousand. Their churches are widely scattered through the States, and alto- gether they are a very worthy people." Arnold's History of Rhode Island, vol. ii. p. 86, has the following: "The Rev. Mr. Price, mis- sionary at Westerly, expresses his astonishment at the kind treatment he received at their hands, and that he found them most charitable and catholic, whom he thought to have found the most stiff and prejudiced." With " charity for all, and malice towards none," they claim their place and equal rights among other religious societies, nor do they find occasion to " Spurn the badges their fathers have worn, Nor beg the world's pardon for having been born. Lit. — Upon the general question of the sab- bath, see R. Cox: Literature of the Sabbath Question, Edinburgh, 1865, 2 vols. ; Hessy: Sunday, London, 4th ed., 1880 ; Heylyn : History of the Reformation, Cambridge ed., 1849, 2 vols. For the Seventh- Day Baptist position and history, see G. B. Utter : Sabbath Manual; A. H. Lewis: Sabbath and Sun- day, Alfred Centre, 1870, new ed. 1884; N. Andrews : History of Sabbath and First Day of the Week, Battle Creek, Mich., 1873 ; James Bailey : Hist, of the Seventh-Day Baptist General Conference. D. E. MAXSON, D.D. (Seventh-Day Baptist). SEVERIANUS, Bishop of Gabala in Syiia, was a friend of Chrysostom, and his representative in Constantinople during his absence in Asia Minor. But he used the opportunity to intrigue against Chrysostom, and was driven out of the city by the people, though afterwards recalled by his patron- ess, Eudoxia. He was reconciled with Chrysostom, but continued to intrigue against him. Six ser- mons of his are found in Montfau(;on's edition of the works of Chrysostom. In 1827 the Mekhita^ rists published in Venice some homilies by him. SEVERINUS, St., the apostle of Korieum; b. in Italy in the beginning of the fifth centuiy ; d. at Faviana, a city on the Danube, near the pres- ent Pbchlarn, Jan. 8, 482. After a journey to the East, where he adopted a life of the severest asceticism, he returned to the West to devote himself to missionary work. He first visited Pannonia, but then settled in Noricum, a prov- ince of the Roman Empire occupying the present Austria, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, Tyrol, and parts of Bavaria. The country, which was in- habited by a Celtic tribe, was conquered by the step-sons of Augustus, Tiberius and Drusus, 13 B.C. Many new cities were founded, excellent roads were made, numerous castles with Roman garrisons were built, agriculture was improved, and commerce flourished. Through their com- mercial and military connections with Italy and Rome the inhabitants of Noricum early became acquainted with Christianity, and after the law of Theodosius the Great, which in 392 prohibited all Pagan idolatry within the boundaries of the empire, Christianity was in fact the recognized religion of the country. Thus it can hardly be considered so veiy heavy a task which St. Seve- rinus undertook when he settled at Faviana. His life by Eugippus, in Welsek, Op. Hist, et phil., Nuremb., 1672, in Act. Sanct., Jan. 8, [ed. by H. Sauppe, Berlin, 1878, 36 pp. ], is full of fables. [See A. A. Sembera : Wien d. Wohnsitz u. Sterbeort d. heil. Seoerin, Wien, 1882.] G. H. KLIPPEL. SEVERINUS (Pope, 638-640), the successor of Honorius I. The Monothelite controversy was just raging, and caused him many difficulties. He condemned the Ecthesis of the Emperor HeracUus, and thereby the whole Monothelite doctrine. SEVERUS, the name of three persons. (1) The Rhetor, wrote in 386, on occasion of a fearful epidemic among the cattle, a carmen tmcolicum, generally called De morlibus bourn (" On the death of the oxen "), or De virtute signi crucii domini (" On the virtue of the sign of the cross"), in which he tells us that the animals were saved from the plague by making a cross on their foi'ehead. (2) Bishop of Mahon in the Island of Minorca, communicated in 418, by an enc3'clical letter, to the whole of Christendom that four hundred and fifty Jews had been converted and baptized on the intercession of Stephen, the first martyr, whose relics were deposited in the church of Mahon. The letter is found in Baronius : Ann. ad a. 418. (3) A Jacobite bishop of Egypt, who wrote in Arabic a history of the patriarchs of Alexandria, about 978. SBVERUS. 2168 SHAKERS. SEVERUS, Alexander, b. at Arce, Oct. 1, 205; made Roman emperor March 11, 2'2'2; murdered at Mayence, March 19, 235. Daring his reign the Christians dared worship openly. He was a pan- theistic hero-wovshipper, and had busts of Abra- ham and Christian in his private chapel, with those of Orpheus and others. SEVERUS, Septimius, b. at Leptis in Africa, April 11, 146 ; d. at York, Feb. 4, 211 ; became Roman emperor after the assassination of Per- tinax in 193. He was a just but somewhat sombre character, not destitute of true religious feeling, but a mystic easily captivated by the fan- tastic practices of the Pagan religions. He had Christian servants in his household, defended the Christian senators against the fury of the Pagan mob, and allowed his eldest son to converse freely with the boys of Christian families. But during his campaigns in the East a great change took place in his feelings towards the Christians. The reason is not known ; but he issued laws, which, by very severe penalties, prohibited conversions to Judaism and Christianity. From these laws the Pagan authorities took occasion to revive and enforce again older laws against the Christians, which, though not revoked, had fallen into obli- vion ; and persecutions broke out, especially in Africa and some parts of Asia Minor. The Christians seem, however, generally to have been of the opinion that those persecutions were not really intended by the emperor. See Tertul- LIAN : Apolog., 37. G. H. KLIPPEL. SEVERUS, Sulpicius, b. 363 in Gaul; d. at Mar- seilles in 410 ; was a distinguished rhetorician, and successful as a lawyer, but adojited a monastic life after the death of his wife, in 392, and settled with a few companions in some secluded place in Aquitaine. He was a great admirer of St. Mar- tin of Tours, whom he visited several times, and whose life he wrote. He also wrote a Historia sacra, three dialogues on the monastic life, and some letters, which, however, are of no interest. His collected works were edited by Hieronymus DE Prato, Verona, 1741, and reprinted in Gal- LANDi : Bibl. Pair., viii. SEWALL, Samuel, jurist, b. at Bishopstoke, Eng., March 28, 1652; d. in Boston, Mass., Jan. 1, 1730. He was graduated at Harvard, 1671; studied diviiuty, and preached for a while, until by his marriage (Feb. 28, 1676) with Hannah Hull he got great wealth. He then turned his attention to law, was made judge (1692), and eventually (1718), chief justice of the Supreme Court of Massachusetts. He at first shared in the popular delusion concerning witchcraft (1692), and concurred in the condemnations ; but on Jan. 14, 1697, his minister, Rev. Samuel Willard, read " a 'bill ' before the congregation of the Old South Church, in which he acknowledged his own guilt, asked the pardon both of God and man, and dep- recated the divine judgments for his sin. He contributed liberally to the spread of the gospel among the Indians, and in 1699 was chosen one of the commissioners of the Society in England for the Propagation of the Gospel in New Eng- land, and, soon after, their seci'etary and treasurer. His sympathy for African slaves pi-ompted him, in 1700 to publish a tract entitled The selling of Joseph, in which he advocated their rights ; it being his opinion that there would ' be no progress in gospelling ' until slavery was abolished. His 1 nevolence and charity were great, and his hoi was a seat of hospitality." He wrote Phenomei etc., a description of the New Heaven, Boston, 16! 2d ed., 1727 ; and Prospects touching the acco plishment of prophecies, Boston, 1713. His Die (1674-1729) was published by the Massachuse Historical Society, 1878, 2 vols. See Drak Dictionary of American Biography. SEWELL, William, Friend; b. at Amsterda 1650 ; d. about 1725. His father was a surgeo and he served his time as a weaver, yet acquit Greek, Latin, English, French, and High Dut< He is known as the author of Hist, van de C komste, Aanwas, en Voortgang der Christenen, beke by den naam van Quakers, ondermengd met de VO' naamste Staatsgeschiedenissen van dien tyd in Er land voorgevallen, en met authentike Stukken voorz; (" The history of the rise, increase, and progre of the Christian people called Quakers"), A sterdam, 1717, and then translated it himself ii: English, London, 1722, folio; 3d ed., 1795, 2 vol Philadelphia, 1855. One of his objects was to C' rect the " misrepresentations " in Gerard Croes Historia Quakerlana, Amst., 1695-1704, 3 books SEXAGESIMA, "the sixtieth," means the & ond Sunday before Lent, the next to Shrc Tuesday, as being about sixty days before East SEXTON, a contraction of " sacristan," a subi dinate officer of the church, taking care of vessels and vestment, attending the offlciati clergy, etc. SFONDRATI is the name of an Italian fani of which several members have been intimate connected with the Church. — Francis Sfondrj b. at Cremona, 1493 ; d. there July 31, 1550. ] taught law in the universities of Padua, Pav Bologna, Rome, and Turin, and was much us in diplomatic negotiations by Duke Francis Sfoi and Charles V. After the death of his wife entered the service of the Church, and was Paul III. made Bishop of Cremona, and a car nal. He acted as mediator between the Pc and the emperor at the occasion of the Augsbi Interim. — Nicholas SfondratI, son of the p ceding, became Pope under the name of Gregc XIV.; which art. see. — Celestine SfondratI, in Milan, 1649 ; d. in Rome, Sept. 4, 1696. : was educated in the abbey of St. Gall ; tauj theology, philosophy, and canon law in varic places ; and was elecfted prince-abbot of St. G in 1689, and made a cardinal in 1695. In f controversy between the papal see and the Ga can Church he wrote, in defence of the absoh supremacy of the Pope, Regale Sacerdotium (168 Gallia vindicata (1687, often reprinted). Lege Marchionis Lavardini (1688), etc. His Nodus pi deslinatlonis, published in Rome, 1697, made great sensation, as in many points it stood in o^ contradiction to the official system of doctri recognized by the Church. The French bishe tried to have the book put on the Index, but ( not succeed. neudecker SHAFTESBURY. See Deism, Infidelity. SHAKERS. This appellation was given, derision, to a religious body calling therasel^ "Believers in Christ's Second Appearing," cause in their religious meetings, and under I inspirations of the Christ-spirit, they were sot times led to shake, as a manifestation of hati SHAKERS. 2169 SHAKERS. to the sins and elements of a wicked, worldly life. Perhaps the title is not inappropriate; as this people believe themselves to be the followers of Christ, the great shaker prophesied by Haggai (ii. 6, 7) : " Yet once, it is a little while, and I will shake ... all nations, and the desire of all nations shall come." The embryotic origin of this sect is found in the Revivalists of Dauphine and Vi- varais, France, about 1689. Some of these went to England about 1706. Offshoots from them formed a little society in England about 1747. For a time they were led by one James and Jane Wardley. Ann Lee, the primary leader of the Shaker Church, was the daughter of John Lee of Man- chester, Eng., and b. Feb. 28, 1736. In early childhood she was the subject of deep religious convictions of the great depravity of human na- ture, but eventually was married to Abraham Stanley, by whom she had four children, who all died in infancy. In 1758 she joined the society of James Wardley, and thenceforth lived a reli- gious life. She now became the renewed subject of remarkable revelations of God, causing her intense sufferings of body and soul, resulting in purification of spirit, by which she found that protection from sin she had so much prayed for in her childhood. She and others of this house of 'faith were severely persecuted in England; and Ann, in 1770, was imprisoned in a manner to take her life by starvation. While in prison she received, as believed by her followers, a reve- lation of God relative to the cause of the sinful State of humanity and the means of redemption. She was thenceforth accepted by the society as their leader, and, by the character of her gifts, as the manifestation of the second appearing of Christ in his glory; not of Jesus, but of the bap- tism that crowned and anointed Jesus the Christ in his first appearing. Ann Lee and many of her followers received gifts pointing them to North America as the " land of Immanuel " shadowed with wings, de- lineated by the prophet Isaiah (viii. 8). Accord- ingly, on May 19, 1774, Ann Lee and nine of her followers set sail for America, and landed in New York on the 6th of August following. One of this number, John Hocknell, purchased a lot in the wilderness of Niskayuna, about seven miles north-west of Albany, erected log buildings, and in 1776 Ann's little church gathered to this forest home. Three years thereafter, a remarkable revival of religion occurred at New ].,ebanon, Colmnbia County, N.Y. ; and in 1780 many of those affected by this revival, and others from distant parts, visited Ann's little church, and embraced their testimony. Ann Lee died Sept. 8, 1784, aged forty-eight years. The Shakers' first house of worship was built at New Lebanon aforesaid in 1785. The first gather- ing into a community analogous to the primitive church was in 1787. Their first written covenant of a full consecration to God of life, services, and treasure, was signed by the members in 1795. There are now (1883) seventeen societies in North America (none elsewhere), located as follows : "New Lebanon," Mount Lebanon, Columbia County, N.Y. ; " Watei-vliet " Shakers, Albany County, N.Y. ; " Sonyea," Livingston County, N.Y. ; "Hancock," West Pittsfield, Berkshire County, Mass. ; " Harvard," Ayer, Middlesex Coun- ty, Mass. ; " Shirley Village " Shakers, Middlesex County, Mass. ; " Enfield, Connecticut," Shaker Station, Hartford County, Conn. ; " Canterbury," Shaker Village, jMen-imack County, N.H.; "En- field" Shakers, Grafton County, N.H.; "Alfred," York County, Me., Shakers; "New Gloucester," West Gloucester, Cumberland County, Me., Shak- ers ; " Union Village," Shaker post-office, Warren County, O ; " North Union," Cleveland, Cuyaho- ga County, O., Shakers; " Watervliet, Ohio," Day- ton, Montgomery County, O., Shakers ; " White- water," Preston, Hamilton County, O., Shakers; " Pleasant Hill " Shakers, Mercer County, Ky. ; "South Union," Logan County, Ky., Shakers. The entire Shaker order in America own about forty- five thousand acres of land. The number compos- ing the communities fiuctuates, so that no definite number can be appropriately stated. Some socie- ties are fewer now than a quarter of a century ago ; others number about the same; whUe some others have doubled in n umbers during the past two years. Organization and Theology. — Their so- cieties are organized into families of both sexes and all ages, varying in numbers from a very few to a hundred and fifty or more. Their organ- ization, formulas, and by-laws are anti-monastic, anti-Mormon, anti-Oneidan, anti-Nicolaitan. Each sex, including those once married, occupy sepa- rate apartments. Both sexes congregate for meals and meetings at the same time, and in one and the same hall. At table, except small parties, each sex is grouped by itself ; the same order in meetings. They kneel in prayer before, and in thanks after, each meal, also on retiring to rest, and rising in the morning. Worship-Meetings are generally held three or four times per week. Worship consists in sing- ing, in solo and harmony, hymns, anthems, and improvised songs, called "gift songs; " quick and slow marches, two abreast, in ranks and circles, sometimes timing with the hands to the measure, sometimes in solemn dances in ranks or circles, and occasionally interchangeably, but always each sex grouped by itself ; also prayers, ex'hortations, and sermons by both sexes. Meetings are held for mental discipline, as reading and speaking ; others, for learning new songs, and trainings in singing ; also for social converse, called " Union Meetings." Theology, Synopsis of. — 1st, God, a spirit Being, a heavenly Father and heavenly Mother. 2d, Medi- atorial intelligences reveal God's character and his truths to man. 3d, Jesus Christ was one of these; was not God, hut the Son of God. 4th, By birth of Mary, Jesus was simply highly organized man. Sth, By haptisra of the Christ-spirit he became the Christ. 6th, Of this Christ-spirit, not of Jesus, there was to be a second appearing. 7th, This was to be manifest in his glory — woman, the glory of man. 8th, In each of these dispensations its Church, while in unison with and in obedience to the Christ-spirit, represents the Christ of that dispensation: the/o7ine?', the Bridegroom; the latter, the Bride. 9th, The Head of Christ's church is neither man nor icoman in a genitive sense, but the Christ-spirit, andj possessed of this, either man m- woman may teach and lead. 10th, Thus Jesus Christ (Jesus baptized) is the Son of Go^ par excellence, the "Elder Brother" (Paul) of other sons of God, — his true followers. In like manner we have daughters of God, females, baptized with the Christ-spirit. 11th, There are two crea- tions, orders of humanity, — the old, instituted by generation through Adam, the sowing dispensation; the new, instituted by regeneration through Christ, the reaping, harvesting of the world; virgin celibacy, SHAKERS. 2170 SHALMANESBR. its vis vitce; Christ, "the Lord from heaven," " the quickening Spirit in both male and female, its or- ganic media; and, so far as light now revealed, these may run parallel for all time. 12th, Redeemed man and woman, by baptism of and in obedience to the Clirist-spirit, constitute the subjects of the new crea- tion, the heavenly kingdom of God. 13th, Reject vica- rious atonement. "My reward is with me, to give to every man according as his [own] work shall be " (Rev. xxii. 12). 14th, Reject carnal resurrection. The Christian resurrection is of the soul, from death by sin, to a life of riijhteoxisness. 15tli, The day of judg- ment comes to any soul, when such soul, by confes- sion and repentance of sin, comes to the Christ- life: or, having an offer, refuses the Christ-life. " Of my- self [as Jesus] I judge no man." "As I [Jesus Christ] hear, I judge; and my judgment is just-" (John \. 30). 16th, Election to salvation is of man's free will, when offered. "Whosoever will, let him come and partake of the waters of life freely " (Rev. xxii. 17). Election, choice of instruments for some specific part of the work in God's vineyard, because of constituted fitness, is preferred by superiors in the order of Heaven's anointing and choosing. Thus Jesus says, " I have chosen you." 17th , Probation ex- tends to the sfiirit-world. Thus only can God be just. 18th, Physical death is not the gate to heaven nor hell: heaven is opened by good deeds; hell, by deeds evil. 19th, Heaven and hell are states of the soul, — the reioards of conduct and the aioards of judgment by the Christ tribunal. 20th, The end of the world has come to every soul who is born of the Christ-spirit. 21st, Old and New Testament scriptures, inspiration, revelation, eternal life of soul, the gospel-crown prize, and Christian experiences — all teach spiritualism: therefore the Shakers are Spiritualists. 22d, All carnal warfare is of the world, and has no part nor place in Christ's church and kingdom. Position to the State. — Opposed to war; neither aid nor abet it, unless by compulsion, and under protest ; tviU not fight with carnal weapons, though death be the price of refusal. Loyal to all the demands of peaceful civil government. Pay all taxes promptly, the State being responsible for use and appropriation thereof. Have no part in politics. Accept no governmental offices but postmaster, road-commissioner, and school offices. Polily of the Community. — A true Christian community, patterned in conformity to the Christ- spirit, is the order of the kingdom of heaven, the answer to Jesus' prayer, "Thy kingdom -come . . . on earth," etc. It is therefore a theocracy, of which the Christ-spirit is the leading authority, and is virtually the appointing power of the lead- ers of its society. By the perception, and in the ■wisdom and exercise of this spirit, not by a major- ity of votes, an order of ministry is appointed, con- sisting of two of each sex : these constitute the primary leading authority of the church. These nominate elders to lead the families in spiritual and social matters, and deacons to direct temporal business, generally two of each sex ; they are con- firmed as appointed by the general union and ap- proval of the loyal covenant members, duly and pub- licly manifest. Two or more of each sex also are appointed as a board of trustees, to hold in trust the legal tenure of real estate, and keep and man- age the personal property of the community. Other business-agents sometimes employed. The consecrators hold the property in usufruct : the con- secratee is God. By-Laws of the Community are instituted for di- rection and protection of members. These are originated by the ministry and elders, and apply to the conduct of the community temporally, so- cially, and spiritually. They permit the com- mingling of the sexes in companies of severs persons, when needed, in temporal employmeni social converse, and worshipful devotion, but de bar all carnal associations, all private corresponc ence, verbal or written. No two individuals o opposite sex allowed to work together alone, rid out, or walk out together alone- or hold length conversations together alone. Short and neces sary errands permitted. The opposite sexes, ii all cases, room separately, both members of th commune, and visitors sojourning among them All persons, both old and young, have single beds Correspondence of Members, by letters, books or papers, except business-letters by trustees an( business-agents, is required to be open to th knowledge of the elders, and subject to thei approbation. This is to prevent the intrusioi of malfeasance, and the institution of cliques o private societies working against the community Due regard is made to the feelings of novitiates While in the communion of the saints all choosi to dwell in the light, as God is light; and thea compose that glorious galaxy of souls the reve lator saw " standing on a sea of glass " (Rev. xy 2). Nevertheless, espionage is rigorously discard ed; and a liberal freedom of orderly and proteo tive union and correspondence, both verbal an( written, is encouraged and promoted. All good moral, miscellaneous, religious, scientific, philo sophic, historical, biographical, narrative, and lit erary books and periodicals are freely admitted. Lit. — The society has of its own a limited lit erature, and several of its works are long sinci out of print. Those now most prominent in cir culation are as follows. 7'estimony of Christ's Firs and Second Appearing, by Ben.jamin S. Youngi of Li^niou Village, O., printed at Albany, N.Y. 1856. Dunlavy's Manifesto, by John Dunxavy o Pleasant Hill, Mercer County, Ky., New York 1847. Millennial Church, by Calvin Greene anc Seth Y. Wells of New Lebanon, N.Y., Albany 1848. Testimony of the First Witnesses (coutem porary with Ann Lee), by Seth Y. Wells of Mt Lebanon, N.Y., Albany, 1827. Brief Exposition etc. (pamphlet), by Seth Y. Wells and Calvii Greene, 1830. Plain Evidences of the Church oj Christ (pamphlet), by John Dunlavy of Ken tucky, New York, 1834. Tests of Divine Inspira lion, by F. W. Evans, New Lebanon, N.Y., 1853 On Revelation, United Inheritance, and Secon/l Ap pearing of Christ, by Willi.4m Leonard of Har vard, Mass., 1853. Shaker Compendium, etc., b; P. W. Evans of New Lebanon, 1859. Ann Lee the Founder of Shakerism, a reprint of fourth edi tion of Compendium, London, Eng. The Shake; Manifesto, a monthly periodical from 1871 to date now printed at Canterbury, N.H. Shaker Theolo gy, by H. L. Ears of South Union, Ky., Albany 1879. Plain Talks on Shakerism, a pamphlet b; G. A LoMAS of Watervliet, Albany, Coimty N.Y., 1883. Sketches of Shakers and Shakemn (pamphlet), by Giles B. Avery, Wt. Lebanon N.Y., Albany, 1883. Several of the foregoinj have many editions : we give the late or lates edition. GILES B. averv (Shaker of Mt. Lebanon, Columbia County, N.Y.) SHALMANE'SERJHeb., idwd'?!?; LXX., T,a}i ftavaaaCip ; Assyr., Salmdnu-ussir, " Shalmftn, h gracious ") was the name of several Assyrian kin§£ of whom only two are important for biblical hii SHALMANESER, 2171 SHARP. tory. — Shalmaneser II. (reigned B.C. 860-825) is not mentioned in the Bible, but was a contem- porary of Ahab and Jehu of Israel, and Ben-hadad II. and Hazael of Syria, all of whom are named in one or another of his numerous inscriptions. From these we learn that Shalmaneser defeated Ben-hadad II. (whom he calls Dad-idri ; i.e., Ha- dadezer) and about a dozen allied princes, at Karkar, between Halnian (Haleb- Aleppo) and Ha- math, B.C. 854. Among these princes was " Ahab the Israelite;" and in the danger from Assyria which was here realized we have one explanation of the " covenant " which Ahab made with Ben- hadad after he had conquered him (1 Kings xx. 31-34). Shalmaneser records again, that, during the western campaign of his eighteenth regnal year (B.C. 842), he received tribute from " Jehu, son of Omri." This designation of the king of Israel, who had destroyed the house of Omri, is one of the most striking tokens of the might which Omri and his real son, Ahab, had exercised. Dad'-idri, i.e., Berthadad, was defeated by Shalma- neser four distinct times, — B.C. 854 (.see above), 850, 849, and 846. Hazael is mentioned as suffer- ing defeat, B.C. 842, and as losing some towns, B.C. 839. Shalmaneser appears, however, at no time to have reached Samaria, nor did he succeed in capturing Damascus. The dates above given are secured by the state- ments of the Annals of Shalmaneser compared with the Eponym Canon, or list of Assyrian officials who gave names to the years. This canon is absolutely fixed by the eclipse of the sun, which it mentions June 15, B.C. 763; and by the coin- cidence of Sargon's thirteenth regnal year (B.C. 709), his first year as king of Babylon, with the date given by Ptolemy's Canon for the first year of 'ApKcavoi (i.e., Sargon; see the art.), king of Babylon. But a difficulty arises when we com- pare the dates above named with those of the received chronology, according to which Ahab reigned B.C. 919 (or 918)-897 (or 896); Jehu, B.C. 884-856; and Ben-hadad II. and Hazael, corre- spondingly early. This is only another indication that the dates of the Hebrew kings as they now stand in the text of our Bibles are corrupt ; the error in that part of the ninth century B.C. with which we are here concerned being, for the kings of Israel, something more than fort^ years. (Cf . TiGiiATH-piLESER, and see, for various attempts to solve the difficulty wholly or in part, J. Well- HAUSEN : Jahrb. f. Deutsche TheoL, 1875, pp. 607 sq. ; M. DuNCKER ; Hist, of Antiq. (Eng. trans., 1878-82), vol. ii. pp. 112 sq., 234, vol. iii. p. 16 ; J. Oppekt : Salomon et ses Successeurs, 1877 ; W. J. Beecher : Presbyterian Review, April, 1880 ; V. Floigl : Chrondogie der Bibel, 1880 ; F. Hom- MEL : Abriss der Babyl.-Assyr. u. Israelii. Gescli. in Tabellenform, 1880 ; W. R. Smith, in Journal of Philology, 1881, pp. 210 sq. ; A. Kamphausen: Chronologie der Uebr. Konige, 1883 ; for the nature and worth of the Eponyn Canon, G. Smith : The Assyrian Eponym Canon, no date [1875] ; and E. Schrader: Die Keilinschriften u. die Geschichts- forschung, 1878, pp. 299-356.) Shalmaneser IV., who reigned over Assyria B.C. 727-722, is twice mentioned in the Bible,— 2 Kings xvii. 3-5, xviii. 9. The former passage tells us that he came up against Hoshea, king of Israel, and that Hoshea submitted to him, and gave him tribute ; that Hoshea entered into con- spiracy with So (better, Seveh, Kip, Sabako), king of Egypt, as a punishment for which Shalmaneser bound him, and put him in prison : some interval doubtless occurred between the acts of verse 3 and those of verse 4. Finally, we are told that Shalmaneser " came up throughout all the land, and went up to Samaria, and besieged it three years." This took place, according to 2 Kings xviii. 9, in the seventh year of Hoshea's reign. Just before the fall of Samaria, Shalmaneser died, as we learn from the inscriptions of Sargon, his successor, who brought the siege to an end. (See Sargon.) Whether his death was natural or violent, we do not know. The only inscriptions concerned with his reign are an inscribed weight and two Eponym lists, which give us hardly more than the dates of his reign. With the expedition against Samaria was, perhaps, connected that against Tyre, which Josephus {Antiq., IX. 14, 2) mentions on the authority of Menander. The hos- tilities against Tyre lasted five years, and cannot have been concluded before Shalmaneser's death. Lit. — E. Schrader: Die Keilinschriften u. d. Alte Testament, Giessen, 1872, 2d ed., 1883, Eng. trans, in progress, 1883; G. Rawlinson: Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World, 4th ed., 3 vols., London, 1879, New York, 1880 ; M. DuNCKER : Geschichte des Alterthums, Berlin, 4 vols., 1852 sqq., oth ed., 5 vols., Leipzig, 1878-81, Eug. trans., 6 vols., by Evelyn Abbott, 1878-82 ; C. Geikie : Hours with the Bible, vol. iv., London and New York, 1882 ; A. H. Sayce : Fresh Light from the Ancient Monuments, London, no date, [1883]. FRANCIS BROWlf. SHAMMAI, a Jewish rabbi of the first century B.C., who founded a school du-ectly antithetical to that of Hillel ; so that it became a proverb, "Hillel looses what Shammai binds." Nothing is known of him personally. See art. Scribes. SHARP, Granville, English philanthropist, b. in Dm-ham, 1734; d. in London, July 6, 1818. Disapproving of the government action relating to the American Colonies, he resigned (April, 1777) a position in the ordnance office, and devoted himself to study. Before this his course in be- friending and successfully defending the negro slave Somerset from his master, who tried to re- gain him (but the Court of King's Bench declared that a slave could not be held in, or transported from, England), brought him into great notice, and determined his career. He thenceforth de- voted himself to the overthrow of slavery and the slave-trade. He presided at the meeting which organized the Association for the Abolition of NegTO Slavery (May 22, 1787). He was a good linguist and a pious man. See his biography by Prince Hoare (London, 1810), and bibliography in Allibone. SHARP, James, a Scottish prelate; b. in the castle of Banff, May, 1618 ; assassinated on Magus Muir, near St. Andrews, IMay 3, 1679. He was educated at Aberdeen ; in 1640 was professor of philosophy in St. Leonard's College, St. Andrews ; in 1656 was chosen to plead the Presbyterian cause before the Protector ; in 1660 he repre- sented the same party when Monk marched upon London, and in that capacity was sent over to Charles II. at Breda, to provide for the protec- tion and preservation of " the government of the SHARPS. 2172 SHEPARD. Church of Scotland, as it is settled by law, with- out violation." This, of course, was understood in the Presbyterian sense ; but in 1661 the Scot- tish Parliajnent annulled all the Parliaments held since 1633, with all their proceedings, and thus totally abolished all the laws made in favor of the Presbyterian Church. The "Church of Scot- land " thus became the old Episcopal Church ; and Sharp, in Deo. 12, 1661, was in London conse- crated Archbishop of St. Andrews. With the zeal of a convert he persecuted his former allies. He re-erected the Court of High Commission in 1664, which severely punished, some even with death, all those who in any way interfered with the prelatical designs, and executed nine persons after the king had required the persecutions to cease. For his perfidy and cruelty Sharp was thoroughly detested; yet the assassins who de- spatched him were really on the lookout for one of his underlings, Carmichael, and had no inten- tion at first of killing him. See Hethering- TON, History of the Church of Scotland, pp. 205 sq., 250 sq. SHARPE, Samuel, Unitarian layman; b. in London, March 8, 1799 ; d. there (Highbury) July 28, 1881. The last twenty years of his life were passed in retirement from business and assidu- ous biblical study. Although he had not the advantage of a university education, but was from early life a London banker, he yet acquired much solid information upon recondite subjects. He early became interested in Egyptology, and published Egyptian Inscriptions (London, 1836-41, 7 parts, 2d series, 1856, 4 parts). History of Egypt from the Earliest Times till A.D. 6^0(1846, 6th ed., 1876, 2 vols.). To biblical literature he con- tributed a translation of the New Testament from Griesbach's text with notes (1840, 5th ed., 1862), a revision of the Authorized Version of the Old Testament (1865, 3 vols.), and History of the He- brew Nation and Literature (1869, 4th ed., 1882). These works, and others of less importance, abun- dantly attest the industry and leai'ning of their author. See his biography by P. W. Clyden, London, 1883. SHASTRA (Sanscrit, s'ds, " to teach "), a name applied to the authoritative books of the Hindus upon religion and law, civil, and religious. SHE'BA. See Arabia. SHE'CHEM (shoulder), a. town nineteen hundred aikd fifty feet above sea-level, thirty-four miles north of Jerusalem, in the tribe of Ephraim (Josh, xvii. 7), later in Samaria. It lies in the narrow valley between Mounts Ebal on the north, and Gerizim on the south ; called also Sichem (Gen. xii. 6), Sychem (Acts vii. 16), and Sychar (John iv. 5). It was destroyed in the Jewish war, but rebuilt, and, in honor of the Emperor Vespasian, called Flavia Neapolis (new city). Hence in early Christian times it was called Neapolis only, as in the Talmud. From this name comes its present one, Nablfls or Nabulus. Shechem, under its vari- ous designations, is mentioned forty-eight times in the Bible, first in connection with Abraham, who halted there (Gen. xii. 6). There occurred the massacre of all its males by Simeon and Levi, in revenge for Shechem's insult to their sister Dinah (Gen. xxxiv.). There the Israelites sol- emnly dedicated themselves to God, and there Joseph was buried (Josh. xxiv.). Abimelech set up an independent kingdom there, but after threi years was expelled, and the city was destroyed and sown with salt (Judg. ix.). Jeroboam madi the rebuilt city the capital of the northern king dom (1 Kings xii. 1-19, 25). After the captivity Shechem became the centre of the Samaritai worship. There Jesus first definitely announcec himself the Messiah (John iv. 5, 26). Neapolii became the seat of a bishopric, and there Justii Martyr was born. It was captured by the cru saders, and Baldwin II. held a great diet then (1120). It has repeatedly suffered from earth quakes, particularly in 1202 and 1837. It wai destroyed by Ibrahim Pacha in 1834; but iti natural advantages, being in the midst of a niosi fertile country, have always cauSed its speed] resurrection. The present town numbers thirteen hundrec inhabitants, among whom are a hundred anc thirty Samaritans, six hundred Greek Christians and a few Jews, Latins, and Protestants. It ii abundantly supplied with water, there being nc less than eighty springs and fountains in its im mediate neighborhood, and presents a picture oi great beauty. Its principal buildings are the greal mosque Jdmi el-Kebir, which is the Church of St John, built by the crusaders (1167), and the littlf Samaritan synagogue {Keniset es-Samireh) in whicl is the famous Samaritan Codex of the Penta^ teuch. Cf. art. " Shechem," in Smith's Diet. Bib. Schaff's Bib. Diet. ; " Siohem," Riehm's Hnd. d bib. Alt., Badeker (Socin), 2d ed., p. 225. SHECHI'NAH (residence, i.e., of God, nis visi- ble presence), The, is post-biblical Chaldee, bul adopted into Christian common use from thf later Jews. The idea is, however, found in the Bible expression "the glory of the Lord." This " glory," the Jews say, was wanting in the seconc temple. SHEKEL. See Weights. SHEM HAMMEPHORASH (Ueh.,peculiarname i.e., Jehovah), a cabalistic word among the rab binical Jews ; the representative of a wonderfu combination of twelve, forty-two; or seventy-twt letters, whose pronunciation has astonishing re- suits. Absurd stories are told by the rabbins respecting it, — how Moses spent forty days or Mount Sinai in learning it from the angel Saxael how its right utterance would enable the speakei to ci'eate a world ; how Jesus wrought his miraclei by its use ; how two letters of it inscribed on i tablet, and cast into the sea, raised the storii which destroyed the fleet of Charles V. (1542) See Baring-Gould : Legends of the Patriarchs anc Prophets, p. 291. SHEMITIC LANGUAGES. See Semitic Lan GUAGES. SHE'OL, the Hebrew word (the equivalent o: the Greek Hades) for the under-world, the plac( of the shades. It comes from a word raeaninf " to penetrate," " to go down deep : " hence Sheol ii literally what is sunk deep, bent in. The liebrewi thought that the dead went down into deep fis sures. See Hades, and Hebrew lexicon unde: SHEPARD, Thomas, Puritan, b. at Towcester near Northampton, Eng., Nov. 5, 1605; d. a Cambridge, Mass., Aug 25, 1649. He was gradu ated M.A. at Emmanuel College, Oxford, 1627 " lecturer " at Earl's Coin three years and a half SHEPHERD. 2173 SHINER. became a preacher; was silenced for noncon- formity by Laud, Dec. 16, 1630; employed as chaplain to Sir Richard Darly, Buttercrambe, Yorkshire, for a yeai" pastor at Heddon, Xor- thumberland, another year; sailed for America, December, 1634, but was compelled by a storm to put back, had to hide himself lest he should be taken, but finally got off, July, 1635, and landed on Oct. 3 at Boston, and became minister to the church at Cambridge in February, 1636. He played a prominent part in the synod at Cam- bridge which ended the Antinomian controversy. He " was characterized by great humility, spiritu- ality, soundness in the faith, and decision.^' In learning, piety, and spiritual insight he takes a first rank among Puritan divines; especially is he held in perpetual remembrance by that " rich fund of experimental and practical divinity," his treatise, The parable of the ten virgins opened and applied, first published by Jonathan Mitchell, from the author's notes, Boston, 1659, 2d ed., 1660; reprinted in London, 1695, in Aberdeen, 1838, and again, 1853, with biographical preface by James Foote. In all he is said to have written 382 books and pamphlets. Among them may be mentioned Neio Englands lamentation for Old Eng- lands present errours and divisions, Boston, 1644, 2d ed., 1645; Certain select cases resolved, 1648; The clear sunshine of the Gospel breaking forth upon the Indians in New England, 1648; reprinted. New York, 1865; Theses sabbalica, 1649, 2d ed., 1655. A collective edition of his works, with memoir, was published, Boston, 1853, 3 vols. His Autobiog- rap% was published in Alexander Young's Chroni- cles of the First Planters of Massachusetts Bay, Bost., 1846. See Cotton Mather : Magnaiia (ed. Hartford, 1855, vol. i. pp. 380 sqq.) ; Sprague : Annals, i. pp. 59-68 ; Allibone : Dictionary of Authors, S.V., Dexter : Congregationalism, Ap- pendix. SHEPHERD, Thomas, b. 1665; d. at Bocking in Essex, Jan. 29, 1739; a seceder from the Church of England ; published sundry sermons, and thirty Penitential Cries (1692), which were usually bound with John Mason's Songs of Praise, and with them reprinted by Daniel Sedgwick, London, 1859- F. m. bird. SHEPHERD OF HERNIAS. See Hermas. SHERLOCK. There are four literary divines of this name, who require different degrees of notice. — I. Richard Sherlock, b. at Oxton in Cheshire, 1613, and educated at Oxford and Dub- lin ; became rector of Winwick ; and d. in 1689. He fell into controversy with the Friends, and wrote an Answer to the Quakers objections to Minis- ters (1656), and the same year, Quakers wild objec- tions answered. The practical Christian (1673), by the same author, was valued by Wilson, bishop of Soder and Man, who enlarged and corrected and republished it in 1713. —II. William Sherlock, b. in London, about 1641 ; d. at Hampstead, June 19, 1707; educated at Cambridge University, where he went in 1657 ; and was successively rector of St. George's, Botolph Lane, London, prebendary of St. Paul's, and rector of Therfield, Hertford- shire. He became master of the Temple in 1684. Refusing to take the new oath at the time of the Revolution, he was suspended for a while, but afterwards complied with the requirement of the law. This led to an immense amount of personal controversy; and Mrs. Sherlock's influence over her husband sharpened the wits, and elicited the ridicule, of his opponents. He had before this been reproved by James II., through the lord- treasurer, and deprived of a part of his income, for preaching against Popery ; but the most im- portant incidents of his life were the publication of a book entitled The case of resistance to the su- preme powers, stated and resolved according to the doctrines of the Holy Scriptures (1684), and the sub- sequent publication of a work on the Doctrine of the Trinity and of the Incarnation of the Son of God (1690). These involved him in much trouble; the first, relating to a constitutional question, exposed him to political attacks; and the second, touching a theological subject then much dis- cussed, brought him into conflict with certain divines, especially the witty and violent Dr. South. Sherlock's idea was, that in the three persons of the Trinity there is what may be called " a mutual I self-consciousness, a consciousness common to the three," and that therefore the three are essentially and numerically one. This brought down on the writer the merciless ridicule of South. The former was accused by the latter of being a Tritheist, and the latter laid himself open to the charge of Sabellianism. Sherlock, who is often called Dean i Shei-lock, from his attaining to the deanery of St. 1 Paul's in 1691, was indefatigably industrious ; I his publications amounting to sixty all together, chiefly controversial, but including some on prac- tical subjects. Amongst them the most impox^tant are, A Discourse concerning Death (1689), A Dis- course concerning a Future Judgment (1692), A Discourse concerning the Divine Providence (1694), and other discourses on religious assemblies, the state of the good and the bad hereafter, and the j immortality of the soul. — IH. Thomas, known j as Bishop Sherlock, son of the dean ; was b. in i London, 1678 ; was graduated M.A. at Cambridge, 1701 ; became master of the Temple, 1704 ; preb- endary of St. Paul's, 1713 ; master of Catherine Hall (where he had been fellow), 1714; dean of Chichester, 1715 ; prebendary of Norwich, 1719 ; and bishop of Bangor, 1727, whence he was trans- lated to Salisbury, and finally to London, 1748. He declined the archbishopric of Canterbury, and died in London, July 18, 1761. These rapid pro- motions could not but make a mark on his name, but his authorship is that which is most noticed by posterity. His principal works were. Discourses iji the Temple Church, Discourses on Prophecy, and the Trial of the Witnesses of the Resurrection of Jesus. This last, published in 1729, is the best known, and for a long time held a distinguished place in the literature of Christian evidence. — IV. Martin Sherlock, an Irish divine of no great reputation, wrote Counsel to a Young Poet (1779), in Italian. Horace Walpole said that his Italian was ten times worse than his French, in which language he pub- lished, the same year. Letters of an English Trav- eller. JOHN STOUGHTON. SHI'NAR (Heb., IJI'Ji?' ; LXX., Sevaiip; almost certainly, Assyro-Babylonish Sumer, of Akkado- Shumerian origin, with another probable form, Sunger), the name of a country or district, is found in the following passages of the Bible: Gen. X. 10, xi. 2, xiv. 1 ; Isa. xi. 11 ; Dan. i. 2 ; Zech. V. 11. In Gen. x. 10 it seems to be a gen- eral name for Babylonia ; for it includes, besides SHINAR. 2174 SHINAR. Babylon, cities lying as far apart as Erech (Babyl., Uruk; modern AVarka), lat. about 31° 40' N., and Accad (Agade, part of Sippara? see Sephar- vaim), lat. about 33° 44' N. The same mean- ing is suitable for Gen. xi. 2, Isa. xi. 11, Dan. i. 2, Zech. v. 11. The language of Gen. xiv. 1, which speaks of Ellasar (Larsa ; modern Sen- kereh), in nearly the same latitude with Erech, but farther east, as if it were not in Shinar, ad- mits of explanation. It may be that "Ai-ioch, king of Ellasar," (Babyl., Erivaku, king of Larsa?) was tributary to " Amraphel, king of Shinar : " in that case there is really no opposition here to what was said a^ove. In the form Sumer (Shumer) the name occurs very frequently in the Assyrian inscriptions, but is there applied to only a part of Babylonia. " Shumer and Akkad " is a frequent designation of the entire region extending between the rivers Euphrates and Tigris (occasionally overstepping these limits), from Mesopotamia to the Persian Gulf. " Akkad " was a name for the northern part of this region ; " Shumer," probably, for the southern part. The northern boundary of Akkad is not easily fixed with precision ; but it appar- ently lay about lat. 34° N., between the points whei'e the Lower Zab and the Turnat flowed into the Tigris. Neither can we draw an exact line between Akkad and Shumer; but the inscriptions represent Erech as in Akkad, and Ur (modern Mugheir, probably Ur Casdim of Genesis), lat. about 30° 54' N., as outside of it. If, then, the Hebrews came from the district of Shumer, it is not strange that they should use this name in a general sense for Babylonia, especially in view of the wide sovereignty exercised by the kings of Shumgr, which seems implied in Gen. xiv. 1. It is believed that MeluJiha and Magan are other des- ignations of Akkad and Shumer respectively. The significance of these divisions dates from a time when both Shumer and Akkad were inhab- ited by a highly cultivated, non-Shemitic people, to whom the Shemitic Babylonians and Assyrians were indebted for the larger part of their civili- zation, and whose influence has been by no means confined to the valleys of the Euphrates and Tigris. It was this people who invented the sys- tem of cuneiform charactei-s : they had literature, art, and science. (Cf. Cuneiform Inscriptions.) It is quite likely that their earliest settlements were in Shumer: and Ur, Eridu, and the city whose remains have been found at Tell Loh, must have been centres of political and reli- gious influence at a very ancient time ; no dates, however, can be now given with confidence. It is certain that the later Babylonian tradition attributed a high antiquity (about B.C. 4000) to the Shemitic civilization of Akkad, and the non- Shemitic culture must have been much earlier than the Shemitic; but it is not wise to repose full confidence in this tradition. See Sepharvaim. The distinction between Akkad and ShumSr appears to have been not merely geogi-aphical, but also linguistic : the language used in one had certain dialectic peculiarities, as compared with that of the other. These peculiarities are few, and of limited application : they are such as the appearance of m or d in the dialect, for g in the normal language, and of e in the former, for u in the latter. The number of texts composed in the dialect is, as far as is now known, comparativel small. It is still disputed, whether the nam " Akkadian " belongs to the normal language and "Shumerian" to the dialect, or the reverse i.e., which of the two was the language of North ern, and which of Southern Babylonia. In favo of the view that the normal language was that o Akkad, and the dialect peculiar to Shumer, it i claimed, that, while the dialect is sometimes callei erne-sal ("women's language"? the reason fo this name is in doubt), it is also called 'erne h ("language of the master"); and, since "Lam erne hi " is a name for Shumer, the desired infer ence is plain. Akkad is called, on the other hand " Land enie luh " (" land of slaves' language "). I is further claimed that the name Shumer itseli and the name Hinge, another designation of th' same district, show characteristics of the dialect that Tintir and Kaclingirra, on the other hand names of Babylon, which was in Northern Baby Ionia, belong by their form to the normal language that one inscription which contains dialectic pecu] iarities bears the colophon " Tablet of Shumdr : ' another argument is drawn from the fact tha many loan-words in the Shemitic language ai'i borrowed from the normal language, it being hel( that Shemitic contact with the' pre-Shemitic civ ilization must have been chiefly in Akkad, etc To these arguments it is replied, that the erne sa is identical, not with the erne ku, but with the em lull, that the dialect belongs therefore to Akkad that Shumer was a North Babylonian form of thi normal Shumger, this latter lying at the founda tion of the Hebrew "'JJJ?', Shinar, and that King is not a dialectic form at all ; that Kadingirra ma; have been pronounced Kadimirra (dialectic form) and that Tintir, although the normal form, ma; simply indicate that people from Shurafir foundet the city, and is therefore consistent with the viev that the normal language belonged to ShumSr that in the inscription with the colophon " Table of Shumer," the dialectic peculiarities occur onl; in citations, the body of the text being neithe Akkadian nor Shumerian, but pure Shemitic and that many loan-words in the Shemitic Ian guage, and those such as belong to the commoi speech of everyday life, are derived from the dia lectic, and not from the normal language. It ii further urged, on this side, that the names o places mentioned in the texts of the dialect de note cities in Northern Babylonia, or Akkad, an( that the converse, though the instances are fewer is also true; i.e., that Shumerian cities are men tioned in texts of the normal language ; that thi sea (Persian Gulf) is mentioned frequently, an( as something familiar, in the texts of the norma language; that texts of the old Shumerian kinj Gudea, discovered at Tel Loh, show no dialectic peculiarities ; that the Hebrews coming from U (in Southern Babylonia) carried the name '^}l^ with them ; this name corresponding to the noi mal, not the dialectic, form of the word (sei above), etc. The problem cannot yet be regarde( as fully solved : but the weight of evidence seem at present to be in favor of this latter view namely, that the normal language is entitled ti the name Shumerian, and the dialect to the naim Akkadian. The comparative age of the norrna language and the dialect is also in dispute, wit] arguments too technical to be given here. Fur SHIN-SHIU. 2175 SHINTO. tier discovery and discussion are needed to put these matters beyond controversy. , Lit.— Friedr. Delitzsch: WoLag das Para- dies f Leipzig, 1881; Paul Havft { Akkadische u. Sumerische Keilschrifttexte, i.-iv., Leipzig, 1 881-82 ; Die AkkadLicAe Sprache, Berlin, 1883 (Verhand- lungen des 5"° Orientalisten Congress [in 1881], Berlin, 1882) ; F. Hommel : Die Spnitischen Vol- ker u. Sprachen, I., Leipzig, 1881-83; E. Schra- DER : Die Keilinschriften und das Atte Testament, Giessen, 1872, 2d ed., 1883, Eng. trans, in progress 1883. FRANCIS BROWIf. SHIN-SHIU, or "REFORMED" BUDDHISM, is claimed by its followers to have been founded A.D. 381 in China, by Hwui-yuen, who established the worship of Buddha Amitayus ("the Eternal"), or Amitabha (" the Bud of Infinite Light "), the fourth of the five Dhyani Buddhas. It was then called the "White Lotus School." Pupils were sent to India, who collected Sanscrit texts, and translated them into Chinese. Three translations of the smaller, and twelve of the larger, Sukhavaii- vyvha (" the Description of the Land of Bliss ") were made, of which two of the former, and five of the latter, are in existence. Recently the origi- nal Sanscrit text of the sutra on which the religion of Amitabha is founded, and which was taken from India to China in the second century of our era, has been found in Japan. The cardinal doc- trines of the sect are salvation by faith in the boundless Buddha, or Amida, and the hope of at- taining bliss in the western paradise. The Chi- nese translations of Svkhavali-vyuha were known in Japan from 640- A.D. ; but the Jodo-shinshiu (" True Sect of the Pure Land ") was not founded until 1173, at Kioto, by the priest Ho-nen, whose pupil Shin-ran still further developed the protes- tant features of the system. Shin-ran married, and thus set the example of revolt against priest- ly celibacy, made worship more attractive and sensuous, while translating the sacred books into the vernacular, making missionary journeys, and preaching the cardinal tenet of the new faith, justification by faith, not in works, long prayers, masses, liturgy, fasting, and pfenance, but in Amida Buddha, the boundlessly merciful. In some respects " Reformed Buddhism " resembles Protestantism, while the other Buddhist sects have many of the features of Romanism. Shin-shin, or " True Sect," is the most numer- ous, the most active, and perhaps the most en- lightened, sect of modern Buddhism, and numbers in Japan alone ten million adherents, with its chief temple and " archbishop " at Kioto. Of two Japanese students of this sect, studying under Professor Max Muller at Oxford, one, Mr. Bunyiu Nanjio, has collated the ancient text recently dis- covered in Japan with the Sanscrit manuscripts of the Sukhavali-vyHlia found in Europe, and com- pared with them the five authorized translations now in use, to discover which of these latter is the best. The publication of this original text of their sacred book, which has been likened to the issue of the Greek text of the New Testament by Erasmus, is the latest proof of their protestant principles ; thus testing the purity of the stream by tasting of the fountain. The Buddhism of Shakya Muni does not, however, acknowledge or know of this Amida Buddha, nor is it heard of in Burmah or Siam. Rhys Davids [Buddhism, p. 206) 31 — in speaks of Amida as the fourth of "these hypo- thetical beings, the creations of a sickly scholas- ticism, hollow abstractions without life or reality." Dr. E. J. Eitel (Religion in China, p. 153), after showing how the doctrine of Nirvana failed to sat- isfy the cravings of humanity, says, "It was to satisfy this want that the fiction of the ' Peaceful Land in the West ' was framed. A Buddha was imagined distinct from the Buddha of history, Gau- tama, or Shakyamuni. He was called Amitabha, ' boundless age.' " See Buddhism. Lit. — BURXOUF : Inlrod. a I' Hist, du Budhisme; Anecdota Oxonien., No. 2 ; Rhys Davids : Buddh- ism, chap. viii. ; Eitel : Religion in China, and Buddhism in its Historical, Theoretical, and Practi- cal Aspects ; Gordon : The Shin-shiu Doctrine of Amida Buddha, and The Legend of Amida Buddha, in the Chrysanthemum, vols, i., ii. ; Griffis : The Mikado's Empire. WM. elliot geiffis. SHINTO (Sintooism) is the cult of the primitive Japanese. Japan is now classified among Buddh- ist countries ; since the vast majority of her thirty- three millions of people worship according to the doctrines, greatly modified, of Shakya Muni. (See Shin-shiu.) Since 552 A.D., when the first images and sutras were imported from Corea by missionaries of the India faith, Buddhism has been steadily propagated in Japan. Conquest was not made in a day or century, but it requu-ed fully a thousand years to convert the Japanese from their indigenous faith. Nor was the victory secured by overthrow or extirpation of the primi- tive belief, but rather by absorption of it. This will account partly for the fact that Japanese Buddhism, so different from that of Siam or China, is distinct by itself. By its corrupting or over- laying Shinto, several sects or systems now repu- diated by pure Shintoists were formed, such as Riobu ("twofold," i.e., of Shinto and Buddhism mixed), Yuiitsu (Buddhism with a Shinto basis), Deguchi (Shinto explained by the Chinese Book of Changes), and Suiga, a combination of De- guchi and the tenets of the Chinese rationalist Chiu-hi, whose system of thought has, since the seventeenth centm-y, prevailed among the edu- cated classes in the Mikado's empire. Passing by these later developments, we shaU outline the diar- acteristics of pure Shinto, which is interesting as " a natural religion in a very early stage of devel- opment, which perhaps originated quite independ- ently of any natural religion known to us ; " that is, "neither by revelation, nor by introduction from without." The native term Kami no michi (" way or doctrine of the gods ") is rendered by two Chinese characters, Shin ("god") and to (" way "), equivalent to isoQ-TMyoQ. Its scriptures are the Kojiki (" Record of Antiquities "), a collec- tion of oral traditions reduced to writing A.D. 712, in pure Japanese, uncolored by any but native ideas ; the Nihongi (" Chronicles of Japan "), com- posed 720 A.D., containing, in the main, similar narratives to those in the Kojiki, but cast in the mould of Chinese philosophical thought and ex- pression ; and the Engishiti (" Book of Ceremo- nial Law "), promulgated in A.D. 927, in which are found many odes and prayers that are, on good grounds, believed to antedate the introduction of letters in the third or fourth century. According to the sacred books, the universe comes into existence prior to the gods who after- SHINTO. 2176 SHINTO. ward populated it. "Of old, when heaven and earth were not yet separated, chaos, enveloping all things like a fowl's egg, contained within it a germ. The clear and ethereal substance, expand- ing, became heaven : the heavy and thick, pre- cipitating, became earth. Subsequently deity was born." The first kami sprouted upward like a rush. After successive evolution of several pairs of gods in imperfection, sex or diflerentia- tion was reached by the perfect manifestation of the creative principle in Izanagi and Izanami, who ■f)roceeded to make and furnish the earth. Standing in the floating region of heaven, Izanagi plunged his jewelled spear into the plain of the green sea beneath, and, stiri-ing it round, with- drew the point, from which the drops, trickling, consolidated, and, formed an island, to which the creator and creatrix descended to make other islands, and populate and furnish them with kami (gods), rocks, trees, soil, vegetation, and animals. Gradually the earth and sun separated ; though, before they did so, the brilliant daughter of the first pair ascended to reign over the luminary of day, while a less fortunate son became ruler of the moon. Japanese mythology is full of the adventures of Izanagi and Izanami, not only on earth, but in the nether world. With the reign of Amat^rasii, the sun-goddess in heaven, a new epoch begins. This heaven-illuminator, dissatis- fied with the anarchy that reigned among the earthly kami, or gods, sent her agents to earth to restore order, and abolish feuds. None was able to do this work, until she despatched her grand- son, Ninigi no Mikoto, who descended to the earth ; and, after a series of violent struggles between the heavenly and the earthly powers, the grandson of Ninigi no Mikoto established his throne near Kioto, and became the first emperor of Japan. The mikado is thus the personal centre of Shinto, and the vicar of the heavenly gods on earth, — the pope, who claims both spiritual and temporal power over his subjects. In the primitive gov- ernment of Japan the Jin-gi Kuan, or Council of the Gods of Heaven and Earth, was the highest legislative power next to the mikado. In Shinto scriptures the earth is Japan, and the mikado's palace the most sacred of all places. The nobil- ity claim their descent from inferior deities ; the mikado, directly from the sun-godd,ess. The common people are the progeny of the earthly kami, though all claim Izanagi and Izanami as their creators. In its essence, Shinto is ancestor-worship. In the earlier mythology the kami seem to be but tlie deified forces of nature, but the later tradi- tions and the liturgy show that the gods addressed are hero-ancestors. After the division of the coun- try by its first conquerors into feudal divisions, the chieftain and his kin, selecting one of the "heavenly gods," made him, as their ancestor, their tutelary deity, and erected a shrine to his honor. A remarkable fact in Shinto is that the mil/as, or temples, are austerely simple, containing no idols, images, or statues of heroes, no paint, gilding, symbols, or any thing sensuous, except the temporary offerings, or their permanent sub- stitute, the ffoJiei, which are strips of notched paper suspended from unpainted wands ; nor can this absence of effigies of the gods worshipped be explained by the rudimentary condition of art in early Japan, since figures, in terra cotta carved wood, of men, horses, and birds, we known and employed in the interment of the dea — a merciful substitute for the human bein] anciently buried alive with their departed maste Living animals were dedicated to the gods, bi were not slaughtered. In front of the shrine wi the bird-rest (lorii), on which the cocks perch« to give notice of dawn and the time for mornin prayers. This " sacred gateway," now so called, still a striking feature in the landscape of Japa: Prayers were offered for protection, health, frei dom from evil, for offspring, and for harvests; an thanksgivings were especially profuse at festivi time, when offerings of silk, cloth, rice, weapon horses, and equipments, were made. The roo idea of sin was pollution, and, of righteousnes purity. Actions were good or bad according i they were concerned with purification or defil ment. Lustrations were frequent; and twice year the festival of general purification too place, both at the imperial palace and at eac one of the chief local shrines. Polluted persoi were washed in the waters of running stream and their clothing was destroyed. Later, paps figures representing the people, and an iron imag of the mikado, dressed so as to do vicarious dut for his clothes, were cast into the river, which we supposed to deposit the offences in the nethe world beneath the sea. "And when they hav thus been got rid of, there shall from this da onwards be no offence that is called offence wit regard to the men of the offices who serve in th court of the Sovran, nor in the four quarters c the region under heaven." All offences were d vided into "earthly" and "heavenly," — a divisio which is based either on mythical incident, aocon ing to which the wicked brother of the sun-goddes committed a series of destructive and defilin tricks upon his sister and her companions, housi looms, and rice-fields, or, as a writer (Ernes Satow) in the Westminster Review suggests, upo the division of the early inhabitants of Japan int agriculturists (the invaders or conquerors) an hunters and fishermen (the aborigines). Betwee these two classes there would at first be continus trouble. "The so-called heavenly offences ai chiefly such as woidd be possible only in an agr cultural community, or to agriculturists living i a population of hunters and fishermen." It i nearly certain that the invaders of primitive Japa were warriors from Corea or the Asian mainlanc who, after coming across the sea, gave out thi their ancestors had come down from heaver They were thus the descendants of the heavenl gods, while the aborigines whom they conquere were but the progeny of the earthly kami, or godi It was by this combination of superior theolog with superior weapons and prowess, that the ove: sea invaders finally secured supremacy. In th first rude ages, when government was partly patr archal and partly feudal, private property ws scarcely known ; and hence trespass and defik ment, revenge and sacrilege, were offences moi common than the sins usually catalogued in code of more complex or modern society. Left b itself, however, Shinto might have developed code of ethics, systems of dogma, and even a body ( criminal and civil law, had not the more perfei materialistic ethics of Confucius, and the moi SHIRLEY. 2177 SHOWBRBAD. sensuous ritual of Buddhism, by their overwhelm- ing superiority, paralyzed all further growth of the original cuitus : still there might have been a re-action, and the old faith have re-asserted its power, had not an Euhemerus appeared, who re- solved Japanese mythology into Buddhist history. A learned priest named Kukai (A.D. 774-835), canonized as the great teacher KobO, professing to have received a revelation from the gods at the Mecca of ShintOism at Ise, promulgated a scheme of reconciliation, according to which the chief deities of Shinto were avatars, or manifestations of Buddha to Japan prior to his perfect incarna- tion in India. All the legends, dogmas, cosmogony, and traditions of the primitive cult were explained according to Buddhist ideas ; and the old native gods, baptized with Buddhist names, were hence- forth worshipped according to the new and more sensuous ritual. Under this new teaching, Shinto as it was sunk out of popular sight, and its re- membrajice was cherished only by scholars. After the long wars of the middle ages, and the estab- lishment of profound peace by ly^yasU and the Tokugawa rulers, a school of writers arose in the eighteenth century whose enthusiasm led them to recover, decipher, and edit the scriptures of Shinto, and to enrich the native literature by a very creditable body of antiquarian and polemical writings, which helped greatly to prepare the way for the revolutions of 1868 and later, which have so surprised the world. Yet after the restoration Oi monarchy in Tokio, and the temporary revival of Shinto as manifested in propaganda, and pur- ging of some old temples, the Jin-gi kuan, instead of being restored to ancient power, was degraded to a department, and finally abolished. The shrines and priests (of the latter, in 1880, 14,215) are now maintained partly by government appro- priations, and partly by popular subscriptions. Shinto is still a living power among millions of the people, who oppose Christianity with patriotic animus rather than with martyr's convictions. It is also the source of occasional polemic litera- ture. Japanese Christians, in whom the sense of patriotism is very strong, hold to the narratives of the Kojiki in a rationalizing way, explaining them on the theory of the solar myth, phonetic decay, or according to similar reasoning. Mr. Takahashi Goro, a Christian writer, in his Shinto Discussed Afresh, follows this plan. Two English scholars, Mr. Ernest Satow and ilr. Basil Hall Chamberlain (to whose labors the writer of this article is greatly indebted), are now engaged in translating portions of the original literature of Shinto, as seen below. Lit. — See the old writers Kaempfer, Tit- siNGH, Klaproth, and Siebold, but especially Satow (The Revival of Pure Shinto, The Shinto Shrines at Ise', Ancient Japanese Rituals I. and II., The Mythology and A ncient Worship of the Japan- ese, in Westminster Review, No. cxxvii., July, 1878) ; and Chamberlain : Translation of the Ko-zhi-ki, (finished 1883), toith Introduction and Notes, in The Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan ; Gbiffis : The Mikado's Empire, new edition. New York, 1883. WM. ELLIOT GEIFFIS. SHIRLEY, Hon. Walter, b. 1725; d. 1786; was rector of Loughrea in Ireland, and cousin of Lady Huntingdon, whose celebrated Collection of Hymns he revised in 1774, inserting six of his own, which were above the standard of that time in elegance, and have often been copied. He also published two poems, Liberty and The Judgment (1761), and some sermons. P. M. bekd. SHl'SHAK (favorite of Amman, 1 Kings xi. 40, xiv. 25 sqq. ; 2 Chron. xii. 1 sqq.), king of Egypt, the first Pharaoh of the twenty-second dynasty; called "Sheshenk" upon the monu- ments, and "Sesonchis" upon Manetho's list. It was he who received the fugitive Jeroboam (1 Kings xi. 40), and, perhaps at the instigation of the latter, invaded the kingdom of Judah in the fifth year of Rehoboam, and spoiled the temple and the palace (1 Kings xv. 25 sqq.). On his return home he wrote an account of his vic- tory upon the walls of a temple on the south of the great temple of Karnac. In the long list of towns (" fenced cities ") which he captured appear many of Judah and of Israel; so that Shishak invaded the northern kingdom as well as the southern. The most interesting name is Judha Malek, "the royal Judah" (not the king of Judah). See art. Rehoboam. Cf. Ebers, in RiEHM : Handb. d. bib. Alt. s. v. " Sisak." SHOWBREAD is the rendering of the Hebrew lechem hap-panim (lit., "bread of the face," because placed before the face of Jehovah) : it is also called " bread of the ordering " (1 Chron. ix. 32, xxiii. 29 ; 2 Chron. xiii. 11 ; Neh. x. 33); once it is called the "continual bread" (Num. iv. 7), and " holy bread " (1 Sam. xxi. 5). According to the number of the twelve tribes of Israel, twelve loaves were placed on the table, which stood within the ark, near the curtain of the Holy of holies. The loaves, which, according to Jewish tradition, were unleavened, were placed in two rows, of six loaves each. An addition to the showbread was the frankincense (Lev. xxiv. 7). It was to be " on the bread for a memorial, an offering, made by fire unto the Lord ; " the two golden pots containing it being (according to Josephus : Ant., III. 10, 7) taken out along with the bread, and the frankincense burned on the altar of burnt offering before the bread was given to the priests to be eaten. On each sabbath this took place ; twelve new loaves, which had been prepared the evening before by a portion of the Levites (1 Chron. ix. 32), being made every returning sab- bath to replace the old, and fresh frankincense put in the golden vessels in the room of that which had been burned (Lev. xxiv. 8, 9). The signification of the showbreads is expressed in the words " from the children of Israel by an everlasting covenant : " they are a sign of cove- nant made by Israel, — a sign whereby they con- tinually prove their connection with the Lord. The loaves are a symbol and type of the spiritual bread, which the people of God presents as a visible, practical proof before the Lord, an em- blem of Israel's spiritual work in the field of the kingdom of God. That the priests alone were permitted to eat them, and this only within the sanctuary, would indicate. Be diligent in good works, and you shall live in the house of God as a priestly people, and shall receive from his communion salvation and blessing. The frank- incense which was burned on the altar of burnt offering before the bread was eaten was an offer- ing made unto the Lord, whereby Israel was sym- bolically reminded, and at the same time con- SHOWBRBAD. 2178 SIBBES. fessed, that every fruit with which it appears before the face of God it owes to the Lord, and for which it is to praise him. leyrbr. SHOWBREAD, Table of the. According to the description given in Exod. xxv. 23-30 this table was two cubits in length, a cubit in breadth, and a cubit and a half in height, made of shittim- wood, overlaid with pure gold, and having a golden crown to the border thereof round about. This table, which is called "the table of the face " (Num. iv. 7) and ," the pure table " (Lev. xxiv. 6; 2 Chron. xiii. 11), stood on the north side of the sanctuary, and was adorned with dishes, spoons, bowls, etc., which were of pure gold (Exod. xxv. 29). When it was transported, it was covered, with every thing that was thereon, with a cloth of blue (Num. iv. 7). In 2 Chron. iv. 19 we have mention of " the tables whereon the showbread was set," and at verse 8 we read of Solomon making ten tables. This is probably explained by the statement of Josephus (Ant., VIII. 3, 7), that the king made a number of tables, and one great golden one on which they placed the showbread. The table of the second temple was carried away by Antioehus Epiphanes (1 Mace. i. 22), and a new one made (1 Maoc. iv. 49). Since the table was made only for the showbi-ead, its symbolic signification cannot be a peculiar one ; and, whatever it may mean, it can only be explained in connection with the show- bread. Cf. ScHLiCHTER : De mensafac. ejusque mysterio, Halse, 1733 ; Reland :■ Antiq., i. o. 9, and De spol. ; Iken : Ant. Hebr., i. c. 7; WiTsius : Misc. Sacr., Herb., 1712 ; Baehr : Symh., i. 433 ;. KuEZ : Luih. Zeitschrift, 1831, pp. 40, 52 sq. ; Hengstenberg : Beitrage, pp. 644 sq. LKYREE. SHRINE (Lat., scrinium, a case for keeping books, etc.), a repository for relics, whether fixed, such as a tomb, or movable. The term is also sometimes applied to the tomb of an uncanonized person. Shrines were often made of the most splendid and costly materials, and enriched with jewels. The movable shrines were carried in religious processions, were kept behind and above the altar; and before and around them lamps were burning. SHRIVE, to confess sin: hence Shrove-tide, ihB time immediately before Lent, when it was cus- tomary to confess as a preparation for the forty days' fast; and Shroce-Tuesday, the day before Ash-Wednesday, which was spent merry-making, and so, in England, came to be called " Pancake- Tuesday," from the fritters and pancakes eaten on that day. SHROVE-TUESDAY. See Shrive. SHRUBSOLE, William, b. at Sheerness, Kent, Nov. 21, 1759 ; d. at Highbury, Aug. 23, 1829; a devout and active layman ; was an officer of the Bank of England, of the London Missionary Society, and of the Religious Tract Society. He wrote two much nsed missionary hymns (1795), and that beginning " When streaming from the eastern skies" (1813), often attributed to Sir Robert Grant. F. M. bied. SHUCKFORD, Samuel, D.D., Church of Eng- land ; d. in London, July 14, 1754. He was gradu- ated M.A.at Caius College, Cambridge (1720) ; was successively curate of Shelton, Norfolk, preb- endary of Canterbury (1738), and rector of All- hallows, Lombard Street, London. He is the author of the famous Connection, intended to sup- plement Prideaux's work, but only finished to the death of Joshua. The full title is, The sacred and profane history of the world connected from the crea- tion of the world to the dissolution of the Assyrian Empire at the death of Sardanapalus, and to the de- clension of the kingdoms of Judah and Israel under the reigns ofAhaz and Pekah, London, 1727, 4 vols., 3d ed., 1743; rev. ed. by J. Talboys Wheeler, 1858, 2 vols., 2d ed., 1865. SHU'SHAN (Heb., \aw ; LXX., Soioa, accus., 'lovaav, gen. an(J dat., J.avauv, ^oimig; Elamit., Susun; Assyr., Susan, etymology unknown), gen- erally known as Susa, the capital of Elam or Susiana, is mentioned in the Bible as follows : Neh. i. 1 ; Esth. i. 2, 5, ii. 3, 5, 8, iii. 15 (t.), iv. 16, viii. 14, 15, ix. 6, 11-15, 18; Dan. viii. 2; of. " Shushanchites," i.e., " men of Shushan " (Ez. iv. 9). It was situated on the river Eulaeus (so Dan. viii. 2, and Assyrian inscriptions and sculptures), which formerly emptied into the Persian Gulf, and must, at all events in' its lower part, have been identical with the Pasitigris and the modern river KarOn. The ruins of the city are buried in the mounds of Shush, lat. about 32° 10' N. ; long, about 49° 48' E. from Greenwich : but these mounds lie forty miles distant from the present course of the KarCln at its nearest point, and this might at first sight seem to favor the statement of some classi- cal writers, that Susa was on (or near) the Choas- pes (modern Kerkhah), which flows to the west of Shush. Loftus, however, who visited the spot, was told that the Kerkhah was once connected with the Karfin, and found the ancient river-bed, through which the water must have flowed, about two miles east of Shush. It is, then, quite possi- ble that this was regarded as the Eulaeus, which in its lower part was certainly the same with the Karnn, and which, it is thus natural to suppose, may sometimes in its upper part have passed under the name of the Choaspes. Elam was repeatedly invaded by the Assyrians in their campaigns; but Susa is not mentioned until the time of Asurbanipal, the last great As- syrian king (B.C. 668-626), who captured it about B.C. 655. After the fall of Assyria and Babylon, and the accession of the Achsemenidan kings, Susa became the winter and spring residence of these Aionarchs, and was greatly improved and adorned by them. According to the Book of Esther, there were gi-eat numbers of Jews in it. Alexander found great wealth there, and even after his tihie it pi-eserved a reputation for riches. Under the Parthian Arsacidas (B.C. 250-A.D. 226) it con- tinued to be a chief city, but thereafter declined ; and after its capture by the Mohammedans, A.D. 640, it is heard of only from time to time, e.g., in the eighth and twelfth centuries. Its site has been even yet but very imperfectly explored, owing to the extreme difliculties which attend excavations, arising in large part from the bigotry and fierceness of the present inhabitants of the region. Lit. — W. K. Loftus : Travels and Researches in Chaldcea and Su.siana, London and New York, 1857 J Friedr. Delitzsch: Wo Lag das Para- die.'! f Leipzig, 1881. Francis brown. SIBBES, Richard, D.D., Puritan; b. at Sud- bury, Suffolk, 1577 ; d. at Cambridge, July 5, SIBBL. 2179 SIBYLLINE BOOKS. 1635. He was successively student and fellow of St. John's College, and lecturer of Trinity Church, Cambridge; preacher of Gray's Inn," London, 1618-25; master of Catharine Hall, Cambridge. His best-known works are The bruised reed (to which Baxter attributed his conversion) and The soul's conflict (1638). He wrote, also, The return- ing backslider, or a commentarie upon Hosea xiv. (1639), and A learned commentari/, or exposition upon the first chapter of second Corinthians (ed. by T. Manton, 1655). See his Complete Works, with memoir by A. B. Geosakt, Edinb., 1862, 7 vols. SIBEL, Caspar, b. near Elberfeld, June 9, 1590; d. at Deventer, Jan. 1, 1658. He was edu- cated at Herborn ; studied theology at Leyden ; and was appointed pastor at Randerath in 1609, at Juliers in 1611, and at Deventer in 1617. He was a very prolific writer, and left a number of sermons, homilies, catechetical and devotional works, besides an autobiography (unfinished). Of his Opera Theologica, a collected edition appeared at Deventer in 1644, in 5 vols, folio. SIBYLLINE BOOKS. The sibyl is " the half- divine prophetess of the arrangements and decis- ions of the gods in reference to the fate of cities and countries " (Lucke : Versuch einer voUsland Einleit. in die OJf'enb. Job.., 1852, pp. 66 sqq.). Etymologically it is probably the same as 2i6r ^A^, the .^lolic form for Aide &mVh, Hieronymus \Adv. Jov. i. 14) derives it from 0eo-0oi?.ri. Earlier classical writers recognize but one sibyl, who was first localized at Erythrse, or Cumfe : later many sibyls are spoken of. (Cf. Suidas' Lexicon, s. v., and the classical dictionaries, especially Liibker, 6th ed., p. 327.) The idea thus originated among the heathens. When, after the conquests of Alex- andria, the period of religious syncretism was in- troduced, and the Jews of the dispersion became acquainted with the pseudo-prophetess of the Gen- tiles, they made use of her influence to make their peculiarities of religion and life palatable to the Greeks. Still more did the early Christians en- deavor to make propaganda of their views in this manner ; so that there were Gentile, Jewish, and Christian sibylline oracles. In the earlier centu- ries they enjoyed a high authority in the church, being quoted as evidences of the truth of Chris- tianity by such apologists as Athenagoras, Jus- tinus, Theophilus, Clemens Alexandrinus, and especially Lactantius. (Cf. Besancox : Be I'em- ploi que les Peres de I'eglise ont fait des oracles sihyl- lins, Paris, 1851.) These different oracles, as many as have been ■ preserved, originating at difllerent places, in different times, and by authors of vari- ous tendencies, are now united in twelve books and some fragments, written in Homeric hexame- ters and language. In former times but eight books were known, which were published first by Xystus Betulejus, Basel, 1845. Angelo Mai in 1817 discovered the twelfth book, and in 1828 the ninth to twelfth books. C. Alexandre (1841-56) published the first complete edition in Paris (2d ed., 1867), and Friedlieb, in 1852, published a critical edition, together with a metrical transla- tion into German. The contents are most varied. After two fragments of a general character, book i. (400 lines) describes the creation of the world, the five generations to Noah, the Deluge, and prophecies concerning future nations ; book it. (348 lines) exhorts to an upright life, and prophe- sies the destruction of all the wicked ; book iii. (828 lines) contains three sections of prophecies concerning the good and the evil ; book iv. (190 lines), prophecies of various kinds and the tenth generation ; book v. (531 lines), the fate of vari- ous nations and the better future for the Jews ; book vi. (28 lines), Christian prophecy concerning the Messiah; book vii. (162 lines), the Messiah and his times, with surrounding circumstances ; book viii. (501 lines), prophetic concerning the destruction of Rome and its lands at the final consummation, together with messianic predic- tions ; book ix. (324 lines), address to all the nations, and predictions ; book x. (298 lines), the Latin race and its fate; book xi. (173 lines), the fate of different nations in the east and west ; book xii. (360 lines), admonitions and prophecies, closing with the glory of Israel. In a collection of this sort, naturally no unanimity as to author, date, country, object, etc., of the various parts, can be expected among the investigators ; and in reality but a small portion has been thoroughly examined. The most searching work in this re- spect was done by Bleek in his articles Ueber die Entslehung und Zusammensetzung der uns in 8 Biichern erhaltenen Sammlung Sibyltinischer Orakel (Theol. Zeitschrift, herausg. von Schleiermacher, de Wette, u. Lucke, vol. i., 1819, pp. 120-246, vol. ii., 1820, pp. 172-239), and his conclusions have found general acceptance among scholars. The prophe- cies which we have here collected into one volume extend over a period of from five to six centiu-ies. The majority of the books are of little or no importance historically. Religiously, however, as the index to a certain train of thought and spirit in certain times and places, they are not only interesting, but also instructive. The following results can be regarded as safe : book iii. (97- 807) is the production of an Alexandrian Jew in the Macoabean period (170-160 B.C.), combined with two older poems of heathen origin (97-161, 433-488) and later Christian interpolations (36- 92), and dates from the second triumvirate (40- 30 B.C.). All the other books, with the excep- tion of the fifth, which is yet sub judice, are of Christian origin. The third book is in every way the most important, and in it three sections can be traced (97-294, 295-488, 489-807). The first section, after an historical survey from Kronos to the Romans, begins with 161 to prophesy, that, after the seventh king of Hellenistic origin shall have ruled over Egypt, then the people of God will again cotne into power, and the evil nations of the earth will be destroyed. The second section pronounces a judgment on all nations who directly or indirectly have stood in opposition to the Isra- elites. The third section predicts the final judg- ment, and finishes with the promise of a messianic kingdom and glory. The statement about the seventh king, as well as the epithet noXiiKpavog (" republican ") applied in 176 to Rome, points to the days of Ptolemy VII. (Physkon), as the date of writing. This is thus pre-Christian, as are also lines 36-92. (Cf. Drummond : The Jewish Mes- siah, 1877, pp. 14 sqq.') Since the prophecies con- cerning the Messiah and his rule in the other books are vaticinia post eventum, those of the third, being, as was seen, pre-Christian and of Jewish ori- gin, are really the only ones of special value in the whole collection. As the ^uatltja of 286 refers to SICARII. 2180 SIENA. Cyrus, and the vldv 9eoS of 775 should be vijbv Beov (cf . ScHUEER : N. T. Zlgesch., p. 567), these two passages are not messianic. But the whole sec- tion (652-795) is messianic. God will send a king from the rising of the sun [inv' 7i£?doiv), who will put an end to all war on earth. The Gentile ' rulers will rise up against him and the temple, but they will be destroyed around Jerusalem. God will then establish an eternal kingdom over all nations. Peace will reign over the whole earth, and the laws of God will be recognized and obeyed everywhere. The main stress lies on the establishment of this everlasting kingdom, the person of the Messiah as the medium of its estab- lishment being of minor importance. The later and younger section (lines 36-72) finds its histori- cal background in the career of Anthony and Cleopatra in Egypt. Vv. 46-50 read, " But when Rome will rule also over Egypt, then the greatest of kingdoms, that of the immortal king, will appear among men, and there will come a holy king {ayvdc ava^, who will rule all the lands of the earth for all times as long as time continues." This king is naturally God or the Messiah. Cf ., in addition to the works mentioned, Hilgenfeld: Die jUd. Apokalyptik in ihrer gescldclitl. Entwicke- lung, 1857, pp. 51-90 ; Z'tschriftf. wiss. Theol, 1871, pp. 30-50; EwALD : Ahliandlung uber Entsiehung, etc., cler Sibyl. BUcher, 1859 ; Langen: DasJuden- thum in Palestina, 1866, pp. 169-174; SoHiJKER, pp. 514 sqq. ; Drummond, pp. 10 sqq. ; Edinburgh Review, July, 1877 ; Schodde, in Lutheran Quar- terly, July, 1879 ; Vernes : Histoire des Ide'es Mes- sianiques, pp. 43 sqq. ; Badt : Ursprung, Inhalt u. Text des vierten Buches der sibyllinischen Orakel, Breslau, 1878, 24 pp. ; A. C. Bang : Voluspa u. d. sibyllin. Orakel (from the Danish), Wien, 1880, 43 pp. ; and art. by Reuss in first edition of Her- zoG, vol. xi. pp. 315-329. G. H. schoddb. SICARII (assassins), a set of Jewish fanatics who did much to hasten the war which terminated so disastrously, and on the downfall of Masada went to Egypt, where they continued to resist the Roman power (Josephus: Antiq., XX. 8, 5, 6; War, n. 13, 3, VII.. 10, 1). See Judas of Galilee, Zealot. SICKINQEN, Franz von, b. in the castle of Ebernburg, near Kreuznach, May 1, 1481 ; d. in the castle of Landstahl, near Zweibriioken, May 7, 1523 ; one of the heroes of feudalism, always at v/ar with the powerful and arrogant, always defending the suppressed and meek, but specially famous for the great services he rendered to the Reformation. He enjoyed the confidence of Maximilian, and, in the beginning, also that of Charles V. ; but in 1522, when he attacked the Archbishop of Treves, he openly declared in favor of the Lutherans. The undertaking proved too great for his means; and he was, in his turn, besieged in his own castle by the archbishop, and compelled to surrender the day before his death. Reuchlin, Ulrich von Hutten, Butzer, fficolampa- dius, and numerous others, found at various times a refuge at Ebernburg; and his castles were justly called the " Asylums of Righteousness." His life was written by F. MtJNCn, Stuttgart, 1827, 2 vols. G. H. KLIPPEL. SIDNEY, Sir Philip, b. at Penshurst in Kent, Nov. 9, 1554 ; d. at Arnheim in the Netherlands, Oct. 7, 1588; was educated at Shrewsbury, Ox- ford, and Cambridge ; went abroad in 1572, and narrowly escaped the Massacre of St. Bartholo- mew; became a courtier and diplomatist; was married and knighted, 1583; wished to join Drake's second expedition in 1585, but was for- bidden by Elizabeth, who feared to "lose the jewel of her dominions ; " was made governor of Flushing, and general of horse ; and was mortally wounded at Zutphen, Sept. 22, 1586, marking the event by an illustrious act of humane magna- nimity. This model gentleman did not omit religion from the list of his accompUshments, as may be seen by his noble sonnet, " Leave me, love which reachest but to dust," and by the ver- sion of Psalms made in conjunction with his sister, the Countess of Pembroke. His poetic talent, if not lofty, was more than respectable. His Works appeared in 3 vols., 1725, 1739, etc. His Poems were edited by Mr. Grosart in 1873. His Arcadia and Defence of Poesie, once popular, are still famous. F. M. BIKD. SIDON. See Zidon. SIDONIUS, Michael, b. at Esslingen in Baden, 1506; d. in Vienna, Sept. 30, 1561. He studied theology at Tiibingen,- entered the service of the Archbishop of Mayence, and was by Paul HI. made bishop of Sidon in partihus infidelium, whence his surname Sidonius : his family name was Helding. He represented for some time the Archbishop of Mayence at the Council of Trent, and the emperor in the negotiations of Ulm. By the latter he was made bishop of Merseburg "in 1550, and in the colloquy of Worms (1557) he took a prominent part. He was very active, though without exercising any influence, and the mediating position he tried to occupy between Romanism and the Reformation he had not strength enough to vindicate. He wrote the Catechismus Moguntinus. NEUDECItEE. SIENA, Council of. The Council of Constance ended in a general confession of incompetence to deal with the question of the reformation of the church. It strove to keep the matter open, of providing for the recurrence of general councils, and fixed Pavia for the meeting-place of the next, in five years' time. Accordingly, in 1423, Martin V, summoned a council at Pavia ; but scarcely had it met, when the outbreak of a plague gave the Pope a pretext for transferring it to Siena, where it would be nearer Rome, and more under the Pope's influence. On July 2, 1423, the council assembled at Pavia. It was scantily attended ; for European politics were disturbed, and few hoped that any thing would be done by a council held in Italy. The council began by a contest with Martin V. about the wording of his safe conduct, and" negotiated with the citizens for greater se- curity. Martin V. complained of this conduct as seditious, and the Papal party used personal, pressure to intimidate the Reformers. The coun- cil agreed in condemning the heresies of Wiclif and Hus, and approving of negotiations for union, with the Greek Church. The French then pressed for a consideration of the reforms projected at Constance. The Papal party took advantage of the small numbers present to throw the machinery of the council, which was organized by nations, into confusion. They contrived to have a disputed election to the office of president in the French nation, and urged the appointment of deputies to SIB V EKING. 2181 SIGOURNEY. fix the meeting-place of the next council. This question awakened national animosities, as the French wished to secure the choice of some place in France. Finally, on Feb. 19, 1424, Basel was chosen as the meeting-place of the next council, to be held in seven years. After this, the dis- solution of the council was felt to be imminent. The citizens of Siena vainly offered their aid to any who would stay, and brave the Pope. The council slowly dwindled, till on JNlarch 7 the Pa- pal legates, taking advantage of the solitude pro- duced by the festivities of the Carnival, posted on the door of the cathedral a decree of its disso- lution, and rode away from Siena. A few zealous EeformM-s still wished to stay ; but on March 8 they agreed, that to avoid scandal to the church, and danger to themselves, it was better to dis- perse quietly. The council came to an end with- out any results. Really, it followed too soon on the Council of Constance. The position of affairs had not changed since then ; the Pope had not recovered his possessions in Italy ; those who had been at Constance were not prepared to renew their labors when there was no hope of success. The only achievement of the Council of Siena was that it fixed the meeting-place of the Council of Basel. Lit. — The chief authority is John op Ragus a : Iniiium et Prosecutio Basitiensis Concilii, in vol. i. of Monumenta Conciiiorum Generalium Seculi X F"', Vienna, 1857: he is supplemented by the docu- ments in Ratnaldus {Annales Ecclesiaslici, sub annis 1423-94; latest ed., Bois-le-Duc, 1874) and Mansi (Concilia, Florence, 1757, vol. xxviii.). From the point of view of the Sienese citizens we have the chronicle of Francesco di Tom- MASKO, in MuRATORi : Rerum Italicarum Scrip- tores, Milan, 1731, vol. xx. Of modern writers, the only one who has used the authority of John of. Ragusa is Hefele : Conciliengeschichle, 1867, vol. vii. M. CREIGHTON. SIEVEKINC, Amalie, a distinguished philan- thropist of noble birth ; was b. in Hambm-g in 1794; d. in Hamburg, April 1, 1859. Left an orphan at an early age, she took up her home with an elderly relative, and began at a 'tender age works of charity, by instructing a girl living in the house. From this beginning there grew a school, which enjoyed an enviable reputation in Hamburg. Her mind was deeply interested in the organization of a Protestant sisterhood, but was diverted from the realization of her plans, for a time, by the aversion of her relative. At the outbreak of the cholera in 1831 she offered her services to the hospital at Hamburg, and remained in attendance upon the sick for eight weeks, when the plague had abated, winning for herself general esteem by her courage and devotion. The year following, 1832, she realized her design, a,nd formed the female society for the care of the sick and the poor. The society grew rapidly, and be- came the mother-institution of similar organiza- tions in other parts of Germany. A careful record was kept of each case : those with whom poverty was a chronic disease were not aided. Money was never distributed : orders on the butcher, grocer, etc., were given instead. While the primary ob- ject of the society was to alleviate physical ills, it did not overlook the needs of the soul. See Denkwurdigkeiten aus d. Leben von A. Sievekmg, in deren Auftrage von einer Freundin derselben ver- fasst, etc., Hamburg, 1860. kSstee. SiCEBERT OF CEMBLOURS, a distinguished ecclesiastical writer; was b. in Belgium about 1030 ; was educated at the convent of Gemblours ; became monk ; in 1048 went to Metz as master of the school at St. Vincent's Convent ; returned to Gemblours, 1070, and, after laboring there as teacher for forty years, died Oct. 5, 1112. He was a man of simple piety and integrity, as well as of distinguished scholarship. Although he was him- self devoted to the monastic life, he opposed the view that the masses of married priests were in- valid, and wrote against Gregory's celebrated letter to Hermann of Metz, claiming for the Pope the I'ight to pronounce the ban upon the emperor. Sigebert gives a list of his writings in his book De viris illitstribus, a work of not much value. His most famous and last work is the Ckronicon, which appeared for the first time before 1106, and for the second time, with the author's corrections and additions to 1111. It is a rather dry chronicle, after the model of Eusebius and Beda. It was the author's aim to give a chronological sui-vey of the world's liistory, and to gather together the legends of the saints. Taking up his work at 381, where Jerome and Prosper had left off, he gives no matter of any value till 1023 ; but the history from 1024 to 1111 is to be regarded as original and important. Sigebert never wittingly misrepresented facts. For a long time his work was the principal text/book of church history in the convents of Belgium and Northern France. See Monumenta Germ., SS. xi. 268-374, iv. 461- 483, etc. ; Hirsch : De vita el scriptix Sigeberti, Berol., 1841. jULius weizsAcker. SICISMUND, Johann, Elector of Brandenburg, 1608-19 ; was educated in the Lutheran faith, but converted to the Reformed, and partook for the first time, together with his brother and the Eng- lish ambassador, in the- Lord's Supper, adminis- tered according to the Reformed rule, in the Cathedral of Berlin, on Christmas Day, 1613. Shortly after, he published his confession of faith, which accepted the Heidelberg Catechism and the Confessio Augustana, but rejected the Formula Concordia, and various later Lutheran additions, such as the passion of the divine nature of Christ and the omnipotence of his human nature, the ubiquity of Chrisfs body, etc. In a country which was strictly Lutheran, among whose inhab- itants it was quite common to call a dog "Cal- vin," and whose theologians had at their fingers' ends no less than three hundred arguments to prove that the Reformed doctrine was worse than any which could have been invented by the Devil, the step which the elector made was not without danger. Xevertheless, he succeeded in gradually allaying the commotion, and placing the Reformed denomination on equal terms in the state with the Lutheran. Before he died. Re- formed theologians were appointed professors in the university of Francfort-on-the-Oder. [Reis- er: Reformation d. Sigmund, ed. Bohm, Leipzig, 1876.] ■^V. HOLLENBERG. SIGN OF THE CROSS. See Cross, p. 573. SIGOURNEY, Lydia Howard Huntley, b. at Norwich, Conn., Sept. 1, 1791; d. at Hartford, June 10, 1865; started a private school at JSTor- wich, 1809, and at Hartford, 1814- and in 1819 SIHOR. 2182 SIMON. married a merchant of Hartford. She began to write verse at seven, and published in 1815 her first book, Moral Pieces in Prose and Verse. Her Poems, Religious and Elegiac, a selection from for- mer books, appeared in London, 1841, during or after her visit there. In all, she published fifty- nine volumes, largely poetical, and chiefly on sa- cred or moral themes. She was long c'ounted the first of American female poets. Many hymns by her, some of them from Nettleton's Village Hymns (1824), may be found in the various collections ; but none is of the first merit or the highest popu- larity. Her autobiography appeared as Letters of Life in 1866. She was a Baptist. F. M. bird. SI'HOR, i.e., "the dark," is a name common to three rivers. (1) The Nile (Isa. xxiii. 3; Jer. ii. 18), called by Greeks and Romans, " the black," from the black mud which it carries along during the time of the inundation. (2) The ricer of Egypt (Num. xxxiv. 5; Josh. xv. 4, 47 ; 1 Kings viii. 65 I 2 Kings xxiv. 7 ; 2 Chron. vii. 8 ; Isa. xxvii. 12), the " Sihor which is before Egypt " (Josh. xiii. 3), " Shihor of Egypt " (1 Chron. xiii. 5), "the river to the great sea" (Ezek. xlvii. 19, xlviii. 28), which, formed through the confluence of many wadys, falls into the Mediterranean at the Wady el-Arish, between Pelusium and Gaza. During the summer it is almost dried up. Gese- nius (^Thesaurus, iii. 1393) thinks that this also refers to the Nile. (3) The Sihor-libnath, i.e., "black of whiteness," mentioned only Josh. xix. 26. The Vulgate and Septuagint take it as two rivers. Some think that it is the present Nahr Naman (the ancient Belus), which drains part of the plain of Akka. Reland conjectures that it means the Crocodile Rioer, probably the Nahr Zerka. But this, however, is too far south ; since Dor was not within the limits of Asher. Masius and Michaelis refer it to the Nile. LEyREE. SILO'AH. See Jbrdsalkm, pp. 1162, 1163. SIME'ON. See Tribes. SIMEON IN BIBLE. See Simok, Names of, IN Bible. SIMEON METAPHRASTES. See Metaphras- TES. SIMEON STYLITES. See Stylites. SIMEON, Archbishop of Thessaionioa, a great scholar, an ardent friend of the monks, and a pas- sionate adversary of the Church of Rome ; lived at the close of the fourteenth and in the begin- ning of the fifteenth century, and left a great number of works, some of which have been print- ed (e.g., KoTa (upeaiav, Jassy, 1683); while extracts from others have been published by Leo Alla- Tius, in De Simeonum scriptis, Paris, 1664, and by Jacob Goar, in Euchologium Grcecoruni, Paris, 1647. NEUDECKEE. SIMEON, Charles, Church of England; b. at Reading, Sept. 24, 1759 ; d. there Nov. 13, 1836. He was a fellow of King's College, Camlsridge, and from 1783 incumbent of Trinity Church in the same city. He may be considered the found- er of the Low-Church party. His " evangelical " preaching at first encountered opposition; but eventually he made many converts, and exerted a wide influence. He established a society for pur- chasing advowsons, and thereby was able to put his sympathizers at strategic points. He published a translation of Claude's Essay on the Composition of a Sermon; to which he added notes and a hun- dred sermon-skeletons, and subsequently pub- lished such outlines (2,536 in number) upon the entire Bible (Horrn Homileticce, London, 1819-28, 17 vols., new ed. with addition of remaining works, but all under the same title, 1832-88, 21 vols.). See his life by W. Carus, London and New York, 1847. SIMLER, Josias, b. at Cappel, in the canton of Zurich, 1530; d. in the city of Zurich, July 2, 1576. He studied at Basel and Strassburg, and was in 1552 appointed professor at ZUrich in New- Testament exegesis. Besides his De repuUica Helvetiorum, which was translated into foreign languages and often reprinted, he published sev- eral christological treatises, partly against the Polish freethinkers, partly against the Anabap- tists, — Responsio ad F. S. M. librum, etc, De filio Domino et Servatore nostra, etc., etc. His life was written by J. W. Stucki, Ziirich, 1577. SIMON BEN YOCHAI, the celebrated rabbin to whom the authorship of the book Zohar is gener- ally ascribed ; lived in the second century of our era. After the miserable failure of the rising under Bar-Cocheba, the rabbins gathered at Jani- nia, where a school was established ; and Simon was sent to Rome in order to obtain from Anto- ninus Pius a greater freedom, both of teaching and worship, for his co-religionists. He was a man more feared than loved, learned but obscure, strict but harsh : but he had acquired a great fame, even among the Pagans, for secret knowledge ; and his mission was successful. After his return, how- ever, he denounced Roman religion and institu- tions with such a vehemence that he, was im- peached, and sentenced to death. He fled, and lived for several years as a hermit in a cave, until, after the death of Antoninus, he was allowed to settle as a teacher at Thekoa, whence he after- wards removed to Tiberias. During his hermit- life he. is said to have written the Zohar; and though several parts of that book cannot belong to him, because mentioning teachers who were later than he, there can be no reasonable doubt that other parts were actually written by him. See Cabala. peessel. SrMON(7!ean'n^), the Name in Biblical History. The name Simon, or Simeon, has its origin in the patriarchal family of Jacob : it occurs very sel- dom in the pre-exilio Jewish history, but very often in Jewish history after the exile, and this, without doubt, on account of the theocratic sig- nification which from that time on is attached to that name. The explanation lies in the history of Simon, the son of the patriarch (see Tribes), and in the difference of opinion which prevailed about it before and afterwards. 1. The Names of Simeon in the Eirst Post- Exile Period. — 1. Simeon the Just (Joseph.: Antiq., XII. 2, 5), son and successor of the high priest Onias I., grandson of Jaddes. He held his office in the first decades after 300 B.C. In the Talmud he is greatly glorified. In his person the high priesthood and hierarchical authority were combined. The eulogy in Ecclus. i. 1 sq. refers, according to Hody, Jahn, Winer, to our Simeon. 2. Simeon II., son of Onias II., lived in the time of Ptolemy Philopator (221 B.C.), and is said to have prevented the king from entering the temple and Holy of holies. SIMON. 2183 SIMON MAGUS. II. Thk Xames of Simeon in the Macca- BEAN Period. — 1. Simeon, the grandfather of Mattathias (1 Mace. ii. 1). 2. Simeon. The Benjamite, a governor of the temple, who informed the Syrians, in the time of Seleucus Philopator (186 B.C.) and Antiochus Epiphanes (175 B.C., 2 Mace, iii.), concerning the treasures of the temple. Having quarrelled with the high priest, Onias III., he went to the Syrian Apollonius, informed him of the treasures of the temple, and caused the sending of Heliodor to rob the temple. 3. Simeon, surnamed " Thassi," second son of Mattathias, and last survivor of the Maocabean brothers. He deserved well of his people, which acknowledged his merits by appointing him prince and high priest. The document which mentions this fact throws a remarkable, though a little heeded, light upon the messianic hope of the peo- ple during the entire post-prophetic period, when it reads : " And it hath pleased weU. the Jews and the priests that Simon should be their prince and high priest forever, until there arise a trustworthy prophet" (1 Mace. xiv. 41). In the reserve at the end of the clause the theocratic conscience of the people and priests has evidently reserved the right of the Messiah, but with a disheartened expression ; for to say that the advent of the Mes- siah was near at hand meant at that time to do away with the Maccabean dynasty. In accord- ance with this supposition of an exclusive oppo- sition between the advent of the Messiah and the political dynasty, the Idumean Herod had all the children killed at Bethlehem. John the Bap- tist, however, preached the advent of the messi- anic kingdom mostly under the protection of the Roman Government. III. The Names of Simon ix the Gospel History. — (1) Simon Zeloles, see below ; (2) Simon Peter (q-v.) ; (3) Simon, father of Judas Iscariot (John vi. 71, xii. 4, xiii. 2, 26) ; (4) Simon the Pharisee, in whose house the penitent woman anointed the head and feet of Jesus (Luke vii. 36 sq.); (5) Simon the leper of Bethany, in whose house Mary of Bethany anointed Jesus (Matt, xxvi. 6 sq. ; Mark xiv. 3 sq. ; John xii. 1 sq.); (6) Simon of Cyrene (Matt, xxvii. 32; Mark XV. 21 ; Luke xxiii. 26). J lark desciibes him as the father of Alexander and Ruf us. Besides these names, other Simeons are mentioned : (1) Simeon in the genealogy of Jesus (Luke iii. 30) ; (2) Old Simeon, who took the child Jesus upon his arms (Luke ii. 25); (3) Simeon usually designated Simon Peter ; and (4) a Simeon the father of Gamaliel. IV. The Names of Simon in the Apos- tolic History. (1) Simeon Niger (Acts xiii. 1) ; (2) Simon Magus (q.v.), the counterpart of Simon Peter ; (3) Simon, the tanner of Joppa, in whose house Peter tarried many days (Acts ix. 43). The counterpart of Simon, the apostle and brother of the Lord, is Simon of Geraza, who plays a re- markable part in the Jewish war (Joseph. : Jewish War, II. 5, 4). It is worthy of notice that the blind Jewish people at Jerusalem rather followed a certain Simon and John in order to be destroyed, than the apostles John and Simon, who offered them the salvation in Christ, and who had to leave the city with the Christians. V. Simon Zelotes (Luke vi. 15; Acts i. 13), otherwise called " the Canaanite " (Matt. x. 4 ; Mark iii. 18). The term " zelotes," which is peculiar to Luke, is the Greek equivalent for the Hebrew term kenan, preserved by Matthew and Mark. As the surnames of the apostles express their characteristics, we see that this Simon al- ready had the right name as Simon, inasmuch as the same reminded of the theocratic spirit of zealotry of olden times. It is characteristic that the zealot Simon is the brother of Judas Leb- bseus or Thaddseus ; and, if we may take into con- sideration the contrasts which we find so often among brothers, we may suppose, that, in the occurrence in Mark iii. 31 sq., James, and per- haps also Joses, who not even belonged to the apostolic circle, took a prominent part; whUst in the narrative telling us of the ambition on the side of Jesus' brethren, Simon and Judas took the lead. According to Eusebius (iii. 11) and Ni- cephorus (iii. 16), this Simon, after the death of James the Just, was made bishop of Jerusalem by the apostles. As this must have taken place soon after the destruction of Jerusalem, we may suppose that Simon already before that time led the Christians to Pella (Euseb., iii. 5). And since he was crucified at the age of a hundred and twenty (about 107 A.D,, Hegesippus by Euseb., iii. 32, 1, Cotel. ed. Const, aposl. 7, 46), we may surmise with certainty that as bishop he directed the affairs of the Jewish-Christian Church at PellaJerusalem in the spirit of union with the Gentile Christians, whilst Bishop John directed the Gentile-Christian Church of Asia Minor giore in the spirit of union with the Jewish Christians. That Simon should have preached in Egypt, C3- rene, Mauritania, Lybia, and in the British Isles, where he is said to have been crucified, is mere fiction. J. P. L.cmGE. SIMON MACCAB/EUS. See Maccabees. SIMON MAGUS heads, in the early church, the list of heretics. ' From Irenseus (i. 30) on, he is known as the heresiarch, and is called by Ignatius {Ad Trail.) the first-bom of Satan. In the mid- dle age his name gave the designation to that lowest practice of the church, the sale of spuitual offices, simony. The biblical account of Simon is found in Acts viii. The sacred writer connects his name with dark and magical arts, and repre- sents him as endeavoring, by means of them, to secure a large following. The impression he made upon the people is vouched for by the title they gave him, 17 diva/uc rem Oeoi ii KaTirjv/iiv^ lieyahj (" The Power of God, which is called Great "), by which was meant that the highest divine potency was revealed in him. Under the influence of Philip's preaching and miracles he offered himself for baptism. But his request of Peter, to purchase the miraculous power of the apostles with money, abundantly proves that he wished to perpetuate his authority over the people. Condemned by Peter for his audacious and ungodly request, he craved the apostle's intercession; but, as most of the commentators hold, his last word breathes dread of the supernatural power which he did not possess, and not repentance. Turning to the ecclesiastical tradition, which represents Simon as the father of all those heresies with which men endeavored to corrupt the church, we must believe, that, in his subsequent history, he opposed Peter, sought to fan the opposition of the Samaritans to the Jews, and perhaps gave himself out as the SIMON MAGUS. 2184 SIMON MAGUS. Messiah. We shall now give a survey of the accounts current amongst the Fathers concerning his personal fortunes and his system. 1. Simon's Personal Fortunes. — The first post- biblical author to mention Simon is Hegesippus (Euseb. : H. E., iv. 22), who states that he be- longed to the Jewish sects with which the heretica.1 corruption of the church originated, the Samari- tans being counted among such sects. Justin Martyr, himself born in Samaria, has more to say about him; and his account, with that of the Acts, forms the firm foundation of all subsequent accounts. According to him, Simon was bornat Gitton, Samaria, and was revered by the majority of the Samaritans as the most high God; and his attendant, Helena, whom he had found in a brothel at Tyre, was his cvvoia. He visited Rome under Claudius, and created such an impression by his magical arts, that the Senate and people worshipped him as a god, and erected to him a statue bearing the inscription to the " Holy God Simon" (Simoni Deo Sancto). Hilgenfeld and others have supposed that Justin confounded a Sailiaritan village with Kittium in Cyprus, but without sufficient reason. The strange statue was explained by a discovery, in 1584, of a mai-ble pedestal bearing the inscription, Semoni sanco Deo fidio sacrum Sex. Pompejus . . . donum dedit. Justin, without doubt, was misled by this inscrip- tion. The Clementine Homilies speak of Simon's parents, and his education in Greek and magic at Alexandria, and represent him as originally one of the thirty disciples of John the Baptist. He travelled about with Helena, giving himself out as the highest power, superior to the Creator of the world, and representing Helena as having descend- ed from the highest heaven, and being the mother of all and. of wisdom. Many magical tricks are attributed to him. He commanded statues to walk, walked without in j ury in the fire, trans- formed himself into a serpent or goat, opened locked doors, etc. The relations between him and Peter are especially dwelt upon and elabo- rated. They held a disputation in Csesarea Strato- nis, which lasted three days. Simon travelled from place to place, spreading calumnies about Peter, but ever pursued by the apostle, until finally, at Antioeh, Simon was compelled by the latter to confess his own collusion with Satan, and the apostle's right to the claim of a true apostle of Christ. Another series of traditions cluster around Simon's sojourn at Rome. Grimm's state- ment, that the entire early church connected Peter with Rome, which he visited to oppose Simon, is not true of the first two centuries. Tertullian follows closely Justin and Irenaeus, who do not connect Peter with Simon's sojourn there. The case is different in the third century, when Hip- polytus speaks of Simon's controversy at Rome with the apostles Peter and Paul. The magician, seeing his influence waning, ordered himself to be buried alive, alleging he would rise again the third day. His disciples did as he desired, but formd him dead on opening the grave. Here Simon's sojourn at Rome is put in the reign of Nero, while Justin puts it in the reign of Clau- dius. Henceforth the story of the Roman meet- ing between Peter and Simon is associated with the Clementine descriptions. Thither the magi- cian fled, pursued by the apostle. His death is differently related. According to some, he prom- ised to fly to lieaven, and in fact did succeed in flying, until, stopped by the prayer of Peter, he fell dead to the earth. According to others, over- come with shame and chagrin, he threw himself from a rock (^Const. Ap., vi. 8 sqq. ; Arnob. : Adv. gentes, ii. 12; Cyrill. : Hieros., vi. 15, etc.). 2. Simon's Syslem. — The Fathers agree in rep- resenting Simon as the coryphaeus of the heretics, from whom came the devilish poison of heresy. From Justin on, a communion or sect is spoken of who recognized him as leader, or worshippedi him as God. , Justin expressly speaks of the "Simonian system" (ApoL, ii. 14). Irenseus, Clemens Alexandrinus, Tertullian (£)e an., 57),. Origen, and- even Celsus, speak of the sect of the Simonians. Epiphanius and Eusebius speak of its gradual disappearance, and Theodoret, of its extinction. The Simonian teachings gradually take on the form of an elaborate gnostic system. Simon is the highest power, the father over all. Helena is the prolific mother from whom he gets, the idea of creating angels and archangels. She brings them forth ; and they, in turn, create the world. These angels, which do not know their father, out of jealousy detain their mother in captivity. Confined for centuries, she passes from one female body to another, until she at last is found in a brothel at Tyre. Simon descended from heaven, and freed his lost sheep, and eman- cipated those who believed in him from the world and the service of the angels who created it. This. is in general the view of Tertullian (7)« an., 34), Hippolytus (v. 19 sqq.), Epiphanius, and, in part, Theodoret. Hippolytus (v. 7 sq.), however, speaks of another and quite different Simonian system, and mentions a writing by Simon, the u7T6aai.g fieyaXTj (the Great Denial). Simon, as the great power above all, is called the iard^, a designation which the Clementines and Clemens Alexandrinus also mention. Jerome (Com. in Matth., cxxiv.) preserves Simon's words to this effect : " 1 am the word of Ged, I am the light, the paraclete, the all of God." The following may be said concerning the growth and development of the Simonian sect. Simon was originally the false Messiah. A sect of Samaritans sprung up who worshipped him as the most high God. Around his person was formed a gnostic system compounded of mytho- logical and Christian elements. Baur (ManicJi. Sy.^t., 468 sqq.) was the first to show that the myth of Simon and lielena was a modificatior. of the Phoenician mythology ; the sun-god (Mel- quarth, Baal) representing the male, and the moon-god (Astarte) representing the female prin- ciple. These two principles are rej^resented as a syzygy from which all things that exist have been developed. The fall is connected with the woman, and redemption with Simon, who descends from heaven, and makes the highest revelation. See Mosiikim: Institut. li. eccl. mai. sect., i. 389 sqq.; SiMSON : Lehen u. Lehre Simon's d. Mag., in III- Gen's Zeitsclirift, 1841 ; the different works upon Gno.sticism; and Moller: Gesch. d. Kosmologie, etc., Halle, 1860, pp. 284 sqq. ; [Lipsius : Simon d. Magus, in Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, vol. v., 1875, pp. 301-321 ; Schaff : Church History, rev. ed., 1883, vol. ii. 461 sqq. ; Hilgenfeld : Ketzer- gesch. 1884, 163 sqq.]. W. mOlLER. SIMON. 2186 SIMONY. SIMON, Richard, the founder of biblical isago- gics; b. at Dieppe, May 13, 1638; d. there AprU, 11, 1712. He early became a novice of the Ora- torians ; but, as the prescribed ascetical practices embarrassed his studies, he left the order, and studied with private support in Paris. His con- nection, however, with the Oratorians, was not altogether dissolved. In 1662 he again entered the order as novice, having obtained permission to continue his studies ; but he never felt at home in the order. The Oratorians were at that time rather successful competitors of the Jesuits in the field of education, and this circumstance drew them nearer towards the Jansenists. But Simon, so to speak, a rationalist by nature, felt averse to the Jansenists ; and these conflicting tendencies made his position in the order somewhat difiicult. He was first sent to Juilly to teach philosophy, but afterwards appointed at the library of the order in Paris to catalogue its Oriental manu- scripts, — a task which was f uUy congenial to him, and of great advantage in his biblical studies. After the publication, however, of his great work on isagogics, he was again compelled to. leave the order; and the latter part of his life he spent mostly in his native city, in literary retirement. The earlier works of Simon have no special interest, — Fides ecclesice orientaHs (1671), a trans- lation from the Italian of Gaudini's " Travels among the Maronites " (1675), Comparaison des cere- monies des juifs avec la discipline de VSglise (1681), Histoire de I'origine des revenus eccle'siastiques (1684), etc. But in 1685 appeared his Histoire critique du Vieux Testament, and it was followed by his Histoire critique du texte du N. T. (1689), Histoire critique des versions du N. T. (1690), and Histoire critique des principaux commenlateurs du N. T. (1693). The first part of the work was done in 1678. It was passed by the censor, and printed; but its publication was retarded on ac- count of the dedication to the king. Meanwhile, some stray copies began to circulate, and attract- ed attention ; and Bossuet, on this occasion acting in unison with the Jansenists, succeeded in having the work suppressed. The whole edition was de- stroyed ; and only a few copies, in the possession of private persons, were saved. From one of those copies the Amsterdam bookseller, Elzevir, made a very incorrect edition in 1679 ; and from that edition Noel Aubert de Verse made his Latin translation, 1681. Finally, the author himself, who in the mean time had left the order of the Oratorians, published an authentic edition at Rot- terdam, 1685. It was anonymous, but the other parts of the work bear the name of the author. The work in its totality is the first scientific attempt at writing the history of the Bible con- sidered as a literary product ; and, in view of the immense amount of research which since that time has been bestowed on the subject, the idea of such an undertaking commands respect, both on account of its originality and on account of the courage it presupposes. The execution bears, of course, the marks of its time, of the scanti- ness of the materials and the insufficiency of the tools at the disposal of the author ; but it cannot be denied that it also bears the marks of his narrowness and peculiarities, his hobbies, and his antipathies. The amount of criticism which the work called forth was enormous ; and as Simon was a somewhat ticklish person, of a not altogether lovely temper, he could overlook nothing. The first attacks, by Weil, a converted Jew from Metz, and Spanheim, Prussian ambassador in London, with the responses of Simon, are added as an ap- pendix to the Rotterdam edition of the first part. But more vehement and more protracted contro- versies ensued, with Isaak Voss, Jean le Clerc (Clericus), and others. Generally speaking, the literary history of the work is very interesting, as most of the questions brought forward in the controversies were new ; but it is also difficult, as Simon published most of his answers pseudony- mously. Having criticised so many other translations of the Bible, Simon at last undertook to make one himself. The works appeared in 1702, in four volumes, printed at Trevoux, without the name of the author. It was soon discovered, however ; and Bossuet took pains to gather from the trans- lation a sufficient number of heresies, especially of a Socinian color. The book wa.s forbidden, first by episcopal authority in some single dio- ceses, then by royal authority in the whole king- dom. Simon did his utmost to avoid the verdict, but in vain. Among his later works are Lettres choisies de M. Simon (1700-05, 8 vols.), and Bibli- otheque critique (1708, 3 vols.), both of which con- tained striking evidences of the immense learning of the author, and valuable contributions to the literary history of the time. His papere and his excellent library he bequeathed to the cathedral of Rouen, but during the Revolution most of them disappeared. See the elaborate and reliable biography of Richard Simon by K. H'. Graf, in Strassburger theolog. Beitrdge, 1847, pp. 158-242 ; [also G. Masson : Richard Simon, London, 1867 ; and A. Bernus : Richard Simon et son Histoire critique du Vieux Testament, Lausanne, 1869 ; the same : Notice bibliographique sur Richard Simon, Basel, 1882, 48 pp.]. ED. reuss. SIMON OF TOURNAY lived in the beginning of the thirteenth century as teacher of philosophy and theology in the university of Paris. He was the first who applied the Aristotelian philosophy to theology, which circumstance filled his lecture- room to overflowing, but also seems to have made him crazy from vanity. Matthew Paris tells us that one day he exclaimed, "O Jesus! what have I not done for the consolidation of thy doctrine, though I could have done so very much more for its destruction!" after which he lost the powers of speech and memory, and had to learn his letters over again ; but he never reached farther than spelling the Creed and the Lord's Prayer. Thomas Cantipratensis ascribes the famous sajdng about the three impostors- — ^ Moses, Christ, and Mohammed — to him. But Henry of Ghent, who was a canon of Tournay, and doctor of the Sor- bonne in 1280, and who, consequently, ought to know, says nothing of those stories in speaking of Simon. None of his works have been printed, but they are said to be in perfect harmony with the doctrinal system of the church. C. SCHMIDT. SIMONY is, according to canon law, the heavi- est of all ecclesiastical crimes (delicta mere eccle- siastica), and has found its most pregnant descrip- tion in c. 21, § 1 ; c. 1, qu. 1. The name is derived from Simon Magus (Acts viii. 18) ; and by degrees, as the view developed of ordination by the laying- SIMPLICIUS. 2186 SIN. on of hands by the bishop as a communication of the Holy Spirit, and the power of forgiving sin, the buying and selling of ordination naturally became a crime against the Holy Spirit. The idea gradually extended to the buying or selling of any ecclesiastical offices, and, in the controversy between the Pope and the emperor concerning investiture, it formed the principal weapon in the hands of the Pope. Later on, the idea extended still farther: it became simony to obtain admission to a monastic order by money, or to buy or sell the right of ecclesiastical patronage. scheurl. SIMPLICIUS, Pope 468^83, was a friend of Acacius, patriarch of Constantinople, and took part in the Monophysite controversy by con- demning Timotheus Ailurus, Petrus Mongus, John of Apamea, Paul of Ephesus, and Peter the fuller. He is commemorated by the church on March 2. NEDDECKEE. SIN. 1. A city of Egypt, which is mentioned only in Ezek. xxx. 15, 16, in connection with Thebes and Memphis, and is described as " the strength of Egypt." It is identified in the Vul- gate with Pelusium, " the clayey or muddy " town, and seems to be preserved in the Arabic Et-Tineh ("tineh" signifying TTiurf). Pelusium is famous for the many battles fought here. Here Sethon drove back the army of Sennacherib, and here Cambyses defeated Psammenitus (Herod., 11. 141, III. 10 sq.). The Persians defeated here also Nectanebos (Diod., 16, 42 sq.). 2. A wilderness between Elim and Rephidim, where the Israelites arrived on the fifteenth day of the second month after their departure out of the land of Egypt, and where they received quails and manna. It is generally held to be the region near the source of Murkha, south of Ras Zelima, the northern part of the plain el kaa, which reaches from the south end of the Red Sea to the mouth of the Wady Taiyibeh in the north. Its desolate aspect appears to have produced a most depressing effect upon the Israelites. [Cf . Exod. xvi. 3.] LEYREE. SIN. Though Scripture gives no definition of the idea of sin, it leaves no elements of the doc- trine of sin unnoticed, but gives a full account of how sin penetrated into human nature by the fall of man, how it develops into special acts through the self-determination of man, and how its power is finally broken by the atoning sacrifice of God. This account is the basis of the whole historical development of the Christian dogma of sin : the impulses which pushed on the development it de- rived from the steadily increasing clearness and depth with which the ideas of freedom and neces- sity, and their reciprocal relation, were conceived. The older Fathers, the apologists, Justin Mar- tyr, Tatian, Athenagoras, and Theophilus of Anti- och, as well as Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Athanasius, the two Gregories, Chrysostora, Cyril of Jerusalem, and Methodius, defined sin as oppoi sition to the holy will of God, and affirmed that such an iniquity involved death as its necessary consequence. But, though they were well aware that sin had spread throughout the whole human race without leaving one single human being as an exception, they did not put that univer- sal state of iniquity in any necessary connection with the fall of Adam. Every single sin, they taught, is an act of free will, and, in its relation to the sin of Adam, only a repetition ; and conse- quently an infant is as incapable of committing a sin as unable to do any thing good. Even Ter- tullian, though he taug-ht that the sinfulness of human nature, with death as its consequence, is propagated by generation (corpus tradux animce\ asserted that man in his natural state had still the power to do good, that the natural state of man was not one of sin and guilt. It was first during the controversy between Pelagius and Augustine that people became conscious of the contradiction between sin as an act of individual freedom and sin as the result of organic necessity. Pelagius and his adherents, Celestius, Julian of Eclanum, and others, held that the propagation of sin by gen- eration is unthinkable ; that good and evil are not born with us, but done by us ; that man has now the same nature as Adam had when he was cre- ated ; that sin is an act of free will, etc. Thus the concupiscentia, or that sensual movement from which, when not governed by man, sin originates, is not an effect of the sin of Adam, but, like death itself, an element of the very nature of man ; and between the sins of Adam and those of his off- spring there is no other connection than that of example and imitation : the power which sin ex- ercises over man is simply the power of habit. Augustine, who in his earlier writings spoke with marked composure about Manicheism, but who afterwards absolutely submitted to the idea of a total change of human nature, spiritual and phys- ical, as the result of the first sin, placed against the Pelagian views the following propositions : that the sin of self-vindication and disobedience which Adam committed with free self-determina- tion completely corrupted his whole nature ; that the corruption consists in concupiscentia, or the dominion of the lower sensual instincts over the spirit, which unfits man for good, and makes it impossible for him to escape sin by his own power ; that the corruption and its consequence, death, are propagated by generation, which means that sin is hereditary sin [vitiam originis, peccatum originate), and the offspring of Adam a massa perdidonis ; that the natural state of man is not only one of sin, but one of guilt and punishment, as sin and guilt are coi'relative ideas, etc. Between these two extremes Semi-Pelagianism reared its system, ac- cording to which man, though the victim of heredi- tary sin, and subject to death, has still a desire for good. His powers have been weakened ; he is neither completely dead nor fully alive ; he is sick. But the liberum arbitrium has not been lost. In vindicating the freedom of the will, however,. Semi-Pelagianism actually oversteps the dividing- line between Pelagianism and Augustinism, and sides with the former ; and it continued to incline that way, even in the milder forms which it de- veloped after its condemnation. In the East, John of Damascus, the systema- tizer of the theology of the Greek Church, taught that death, and the loss of communion with God and converse with the angels, are the necessary consequences of the first sin, and are propagated by generation and birth. But he knows nothing of an unfitness for good and an hereditary guilt propagated in the same manner : on the contrary, according to him, man is still as free as Adam was on the day of his creation-; and the image of God, in which man was created, and which SIN. 2187 SIN. consists in reason and a free will, has not been lost. The later Greek theologians, Theodorus, Studita, Theophylact, Euthymius Zigabenus, and others, followed in the same track. In the West the sub- ject received a very peculiar treatment by John jScotus Erigena. In his system of Platonizing philosophy, he ascribed to sin, not as Augustine did, a relative, but an absolute, necessity ; and thereby he really destroyed the sin idpa. Sin, he said, is an element of human nature, just as evil is an element of the universe ; and consequently sin is just as necessary for the perfect development of human nature, as evil for the perfect develop- ment of the universe. But by itself evil is only something negative, the mere negation of good, and has no positive existence, as little as sin. Eri- gena, however, exercised very little influence on this point ; and, generally speaking, medieval the- ology may be said to have left the subject nearly in the same state in which it received it. Of the schoolmen, Anselm of Canterbury, Peter the Lom- bard, and Thomas Aquinas expounded the dogma on the basis of the category of necessity; Abe- lard, Duns Scotus, and the Scotists generally, on the iDasis of the category of freedom. According to the former, sin is disobedience to God, caused by pride, and the sinfulness of the race is the effect of the fall of Adam. In Adam, the person corrupted nature (^peccatum originale originans) : in his offspring, nature corrupts the person (pecca- tum originale originatum). Consequently, although the senses are by themselves not of the character of sin, and only enter as an element into the single, actual sin, hereditary sin is, nevertheless, truly sin, and the unbaptized infant is justly damned. In this sense of the word, neither Abe- lard nor Duns Scotus recognized the existence of hereditary sin. That which was lost by the fall of Adam was, according to Duns Scotus, the jus- titia originalis ; and the Scotists in general laid great emphasis on the free activity of man, a cir- cumstance which aided them considerably in the defence of the doctrine of immaculate conception. In all essential points of the doctrine of sin the mystics of the middle ages agreed with the school- men. To them, too, sin had its root in the inner- most core of the human -personality, the self, the I, and consisted in the turning-away of the crea- ture from his Creator; while the Cathari, the Albigenses, and other mediaeval sects, sought the source of sin in the very body of man. A deeper conception of the dogma was prepared by the Reformers through the clearer conscious- ness of sin to which they appealed. On the one side, Protestantism awakened a more vivid feeling of the unity of the race and the organic necessity of sin ; on the other, it more strongly vindicated the individual person, and proclaimed the freedom of the will as one of its chief principles. A new and fuller mediation between the two opposite elements of the doctrine was necessary, and the change is already apparent in the symbolical books both of the Lutheran and the Reformed Church. The Lutheran theologians Gerhard, Quenstedt, and others, starting from the distinction between peccatum originale originans (the fall) and the pec- catum originale originatum (hereditary sin), defined the latter as a loss of the original perfection, en- tailing a lack of true knowledge, love, and fear of God; as a faulty concupiscentia rising from a com- plete corruption of the body in all its qualities, so that the capacity for salvation is reduced to a mere possibility; as a reatus (guilt) which brings man, on account of the evil which is propagated in him, under the wrath and judgment of God. Calvin, although, on account of his supralapsarian views, he experienced some difficulties in refuting the charge that he made God the origin of evil, taught, nevertheless, that hereditary sin is connected with guilt ; and the later Reformed theologians, Pola- nus, Alstedt, van Til, and others, defined the fall as a breach of the fcedus naturce, and sin as a defectus naturm. A transition to a stronger em- phasizing and a more minute elaboration of the second element of the doctrine, the freedom of the will, became visible in Calixtus (who rejected the idea of hereditary sin asa guilt) and the syn- cretists in general ; and during the period of ra- tionalism and supernaturalism the movement was completed. The rationalists, who generally liked better to speak of the dignity of man than of his sin, argued that a transferrenee of the guilt of Adam to his offspring contradicted the good- ness, wisdom, and justice of God; and instead of hereditary sin, which term they hated, they spoke of a certain weakness of the will, a certain incli- nation towards the sensuous side of existence, a certain instinct for pleasure, etc., which was propa- gated by example, or perhaps by generation, but which formed part and parcel of human nature as created by God, and presented no insuperable ob- stacle to the absolute exercise of the freedom of the will. The principal representatives of these views were Henke, Stein bart, Eberhard, Wegschei- der, and De Wette. The supernaturalists were, of course, very far from going this length. Nev- ertheless, Reusch explained the transferrenee of guilt from Adam to his offspring by an imputatio metaphysica ; God knowing that in Adam's place: any and every man would have sinned like him. Reinhard explained the fall as a kind of poisoning, and hereditary sin as the inheritance of a poisoned constitution. Indeed, most of the supernatural- ists, such as Michaelis, G. F. Seller, Bretschneider,. and others, taught that no man is declared guilty, and surrendered to punishment, on account of the sin of Adam and the sinfulness he has inherited from Adam, but only on account of those actual sins in which, with free self-determination, he allows his sinful disposition to realize itself. It is apparent, that, in the whole process of de- velopment as above described, each onward step has been accomplished by a more or less one- sided emphasis on one of the two elements of the dogma, — the organic necessity, or the individual freedom. It is the characteristic of the theology of our age, that a perfect mediation between the two opposites is now demanded. Daub's attempt,, in his Judas Ischarioth, at explaining the origin of evil as having taken place before the creation of man, found no favor; but, under the influence of the Hegelian philosophy, Marheineke, in his Grundlinien der theolog. Moral, defined sin as a contradiction between the finite and the infinite spirit, necessarily arising from the abstract, un- conscious unity of God and man, and as necessa- rily resulting in a concrete and conscious unity ; and this idea did not prove altogether sterile. By Vatke, Romany, and others, sin was repre- sented as a necessary transition through evil. SIN AGAINST HOLY SPIRIT. 2188 SINS. without which man can neither fully know nor fully do that which is good; and generally the Hegelian school of theology taught the absolute necessity of sin as a condition of the development of the human spirit. Schleiermacher, however, abandoned this track. He sought to establish unity by explaining sin as a double fact, — a free deed of the subject on the one side, and a neces- sary result of the objective development on the other, — and the sinful state of man as a dis- turbance of his nature, not necessary to it; so that we become conscious of our suis, partly as something we ourselves have done, and partly as something which has its cause outside of our being. Later theologians generally show an in- fluence either from Hegel or from Schleiermacher, and their treatment of the doctrine of sin is gen- erally shaped after one of those two models. But hardly any of them can be said to have established a perfect balance between freedom and necessity in their solutions of the problem. Nitzsch, Mar- tensen, and Rothe incline towards the absolute freedom of the will ; Lange, Thomasius, and Philippi towards the absolute necessity of organic nature. F. DORTEJSTBACH. Lit. — The greatest work in this department is Julius MOller's Die Christliche Lehre von der Silnde, Breslau, 1839-44, 2 vols., 6th ed., Stutt- gart, 1877, 2 vols. ; Eng. trans., Christian Doctrine of Sin, from 3d ed., Edinburgh, 1852, 2 vols., from 5th ed., 1877. Of recent treatments of the subject may be mentioned, John Tulloch: Christian Doctrine of Sin, Edinburgh, 1876 ; A. Brown : The Doctrine of Sin, London, 1881. The doctrine is, of course, treated in every work upon system- atic theology and in innumerable essays. The profound work of Jonathan Edwards, The Great Doctrine of Original Sin Defended, deserves particular mention. See Hagenbach's History of Doctrines. SIN AGAINST THE HOLY SPIRIT (Matt. xii. 31, 32), The, must be carefully distinguished from blasphemy against the Holy Spirit. The latter is unforgivable : the former is not. As Matthew Henry well says, " It is not all speaking against the person or essence of the Koly Spirit, or some of his more private operations,, or merely the resisting of his internal working in the sinner himself, that is here meant; for who, then, should be saved?" But blasphemy against the Holy Spirit implies complete deadness to spiritual things ; so that holiness is hateful and hated. Wherever there is apprehension felt that the " unpardonable sin " has been committed, there has been no commission of it ; for he who really sins in this way feels no contrition. And the latter fact is the reason why it is never forgiven. The sinner continues obstinate and malignant till his death. It is therefore equivalent to final 'impenitence. Cf. Lange on Mattheio (Am. ed., p. 227) ; Philip Schafp : Die Sunde wider den heiligen Geist, Halle, 1841 ; A. von Oettingen : De peccato in spiritum sanctum, Dorpat, 1856 ; Lemme : Die Sunde wider d. heiligen Geist, Breslau, 1883 ; and art. by Hermann Weiss, in Herzog ^ vol. xxi. 182-190. SIN-OFFERINGS. See Offerings. SINS, The Forgiveness of, is the negative effect of justification, which in conception precedes the positive, adoption, and rests as the subjective im- partation of the work of Christ upon the atone ment as the objective fact. The doctrine is foun( in the Old Testament (Num. iv. 14, xviii. 19 2 Chron. vii. 14 ; Ps. ciii. 10, 12, 13, cxxx. 4 ; Isa lii. ; Mic. vii. 18, 19, etc.), where, however, it rest upon sacrifices (see Offerings) ; but in the Ne\ Testament it is frequently represented as thi immediate result of Christ's death (Matt, xxvi 28 ; Rom. iv. 25 ; 2 Cor. v. 19, 21 ; Eph. i. 7 ; Col i. 13 ; cf . Heb. ix. 14 ; 1 Pet. i. 18, 19), and agaii as the result of the acceptance of the atonemen on the part of the individual (Matt. vi. 12, ix 2; Luke vii. 47; Acts ii. 38, xiii. 38; Rom. iii 25; Col. ii. 13). Man, renouncing all works am all merits, is forgiven out of God's grace, for thi sake of Christ's merits, through faith (Matt, ix 2; Rom. iii. 25; iv. 4, 5). Righteousness is, how ever, reckoned as the condition of faith (Act xiii. 39 ; Gal. ii. 16). Forgiveness, which removei guilt and its attendant punishment (Rom. v. 19) and sin itself (Rom. viii. 2 sqq.) is granted to al believers (cf. Rom. v. 12-21 ; 1 Cor.^xv. 21, 22) See Sin against the Holy Spirit. In the historical development of the doctrine there was at first no clear understanding of thi relations of God and man in the act of forgive ness ; and so the apostolic Fathers represented i simply as the result of the atonement, and con ditioned it upon a better life. Clement of Romi conditions it upon "faith," i.e., in the conceptioi of the time, mere reception of the truths of Chris tianity, and obedience to the divine commands the Shepherd of Hernias, upon " faith " and re pentance, only once possible ; Justin Martyr, upor "faith," baptism, and a righteous life; Clemen of Alexandria, upon " faith " and good works Origen, in his commentary upon Romans, upor "faith," but in other places adds good works which he enumerates, — baptism, martyrdom, re pentance, virtue, alms, forgiveness of sins agains us, conversion of a sinner, brotherly love. Th< Latin Fathers — Irenseus, TertuUian, and Cypriar — attribute forgiving efficacy to baptism and tc good works, as alms, and lay great stress upoi penance. So the Greek Fathers — Cyril of Jera salem, Basil the Great, Gregory Nazianzen, The odoret, Chrysostoni — condition forgiveness upoi the "new lue," and good deeds (martyrdom, fast ing, alms, etc.). Augustine made an advance ii the development of the doctrine, in that he repre sented forgiveness as a declarative act of God He maintained that the works which justify fol low, not precede, justification. But Pelagiar teaching, that forgiveness was only a work of th( general divine grace, and Catholic teaching re- specting works of supererogation, prevented anj immediate use from Aug\istine's advance. Johr of Damascus, it is true, distinguished two kinds oi faith, — one mere acceptance of truth, the otliei firm confidence upon God's promises, but did nol attain to a perception of the connection betweer the latter and forgiveness. Scotus Erigena deniec forgiveness, since all that man needed to be reoon ciled with God was intellectual perception of the evil. The scholastic theologians were Semi-Pela gians. They taught that penance, which atonec for actual sin, consisted in contrition of the heart confession of the mouth, and works of satisfac tion, which were such as fasting, prayers, a!lms flagellation, pilgrimaging. They taught also, ii SINAI. 2189 SINAI. favor of the doctrine of purgatory, that, although guilt could be forgiven, punishment followed sin until the soul was cleansed by the purgatorial fire. They emphasized auricular confession and indul- gences, the equivalent for penance, and thus per- verted the doctrine of forgiveness. The mystics of the middle ages emphasized the inward con- nection between God and the heart. The Roman- Catholic doctrine, since the Council of Trent, is that forgiveness is received by man along with faith, hope, and love through Christ, in whom he is planted. It designates baptism as the only instru- mental cause of justification, and hence of forgive- ness. Roman-Catholic theologians, like BeUarmin, eliminate yet more decidedly from their systems the doctrine of forgiveness as removal of guilt. The Lutheran theologians first lay the empha- sis upon God's side, in that they teach that sin is atoned for by the vicai-ious death of Jesus Christ. The removal of guilt is the first effect of the declaratory and forensic act of justifica- tion. Faith (assent) in connection with baptism is the only condition of participation in the work of Christ. Among Reformed theologians Zwingli and Calvin present forgiveness as an act of God's grace to the objects of his electing love. The Reformed symbols, however, agree with the Lutheran in connecting forgiveness immediately with justification. The Socinians and .Irmini- ans emphasize the human side. They represent justification as forgiveness, and that God forgives sins when he sees faith in him, and obedience to his commands. The rationalists of the eigh- teenth and nineteenth centuries maintained that forgiveness depended upon repentance, and return to virtue. The supranaturalists re-affirmed the necessary connection between the objective fact of Christ's death and forgiveness, but weakened their doctrine respecting the latter by represent- ing that its principal effect was removal of pun- ishment. The speculative theologians have endeavored to find how correctly to unite the human and divine factors in the work of forgiveness. Schleiermacher finds the unity thus : forgiveness (1) is an effect of justification, (2) exists whenever man in repent- ance and faith enters into fellowship with Christ, and (3) is no result of a divine decree ; but every act of conversion which includes the conscious- ness of deliverance from guilt, and desert of pun- ishment, is only a declaration of the general decree to justify for Christ's sake. Martensen and Rothe deny that forgiveness is possible out of Christ. Nitzsch considers forgiveness as a direct act of God, resultant upon faith in the atonuig death of Christ. Lange also holds fast to the objec-. tivity of the act, which, according to him, is judi- cial. DORTENBACH. SI'NAI, i.e., "sharp-pointed," "toothed," or "notched" (Exod. xvi. 1; Deut. xxxiii. 2), also Mount Sinai (Exod. xix. 11, 18, 20, 23, xxiv. 16, xxxi. 18, xxxiv. 2, 4, 29, 32 ; Lev. vii. 38, xxv. 1, xxvi. 46, XKvii. 34 ; Num. xxviii. 6), also Horeb,' i.e., " dry," " dried up " (Exod. iii. 1, xvii. 6, xxxiii. 6), also " the mountain of God," and " mount of the Lord" (Exod. iii. 1, iv. 27, xviii. 5; Xum. x. 38), denote, in the narrower sense, a single moun- tain, the historic mountain on which God re- vealed the law unto Moses, but, in a wider sense, the mountain range in the peninsula formed by the Gulfs of Suez and Akabah. On the north it is bounded by the upland plain of Ei'-Rahah, and on the south by the Um-Shaumer mount. A distinction has been made bet%veen Sinai and Horeb ; and Hengstenberg {Aulhentie des Penta- teuch, ii. pp. 396 sq.), with whom Robinson (Re- searches in Palestine) agrees, explains the change in the names, in that he makes Horeb the mountain ridge, and Sinai the individual summit from which the Ten Commandments were given. Gesenius suggested that Sinai might be the more general name, and Horeb a particular peak ; and in this conjecture he was followed by Rosenmiiller. Ewald sees not a local, but a temporal, difference in the use of both names (Geschichte, ii. 89, note). According to Ewald, Sinai is the older name, therefore it occm's in the ancient song of Deborah (Judg. V. 5) ; whereas Horeb is not discoverable before the time of the fourth narrator, in whose time, however, it had become quite prevalent. But there really seems to be no local difference between Horeb and Sinai ; but it rather belongs to the peculiarity of the author using the name. Josephus and the Xew Testament (Acts vii. 30, 38; Gal. iv. 24 sq.) only speak of Sinai; and modern Arabs call the whole mountain range in the peninsula Jebel-et-Tur, sometimes with the addition of Sina, though Robinson says extremely rarely. As to the locality, it is very difficult to desig- nate a certain spot. Some, as Bm^ckhardt and Lepsius, have claimed that the mountain on which the law was given was the Jebel Serbal. But the nature of the country around Serbal is against this hypothesis (comp. Dieterici : Reise- bilder, ii. 54 sq.). A second hypothesis is the one which claims the Ras es-Sufsafeh to be the Sinai of the Bible. This hypothesis was advo- cated by no less an authority than Robinson, who was followed by all writers and travellers tiU Leon de Laborde (in his Commentaire sur t'Exode Append., pp. 1, 41 sq.), who advocated the old tradition in favor of Jebel Musa, and was fol- lowed by Krafft, Strauss, Graul, Ritter, and in part, also, by Tischendorf . Above aU things, it is necessax-y to pay attention to the notices of the Bible. According to Exod. xix. 2 sq., the Israel- ites, after their departure from Rephidim, came into the wilderness of Sinai, and encamped be- fore the mount. God sends his message by Moses unto the people out of the mount, to tell them how he will receive them as his covenant people. Barriers are put up, to prevent any of the people from approaching or touching the mount. " On the third day there were thunders and lightnings, and a thick cloud upon the mount, and the voice of the trumpet exceeding loud, so that all the people that was in the camp trembled. And Moses brought forth the people out of the camp to meet with God ; and they stood at the nether part of the mount. And Mount Sinai was alto- gether on a smoke, because the Lord descended upon it in fire. . . . And the Lord came down upon Mount Sinai, on the top of the mount ; and the Lord called Moses up to the top of the mount, and Moses went up." -And in Exod. xx. 18 sq. we read, "And all the people saw the thunderings, and the lightnings, and the noise of the trumpet, and the mountain smoking ; and when the people saw it, they removed, and stood afar off. . . . And SINAI. 2190 SIX ARTICLES. Moses said unto the people, Fear not; for God is come to prove you, and that his fear may be before your faces, that ye sin not. And the people stood afar off, and Moses drew near unto the thick darkness, where God was." And in Exod. xxiv. 1 sq. Moses is called up into the mountain with Aaron, Nadab, and Abihu, and seventy of the elders of Israel. Moses alone was to come near to the Lord : the rest weve to worship afar off. Moses does according to God's commandment, and then continues alone on the mountain forty days and forty nights. In the mean time Aaron makes the golden calf. On going down from the mount Moses hears the rejoicing of the people ; and as he came nigTi unto the camp, and saw the calf and the dancing, his anger waxed hot, and he cast the tables out of his hands, and brake them beneath the mount. From this description we must infer that immediately at the base of the mount there was a large plain, where the camp of the Israelites was, and from which the mount ascended immediately, because barriers were put up to prevent any of the people from approaching or touching the mount. Robinson and those who follow him find this plain in the plain Er-Rahah, from which the granite wall of Sinai rises with the three-toothed peak Ras es-Sufsafeh, asserting at the same time that no such plain is found on the south side. Others, who are in favor of the Jebel Musa, claim the Wady Sebatyeh to be that plain, which has been overlooked by Robinson, and from which, also, the cone of Sinai imme- diately rises like a gigantic altar of God. The plain Er-Rahah they claim as that spot of the camp from which Moses brought forth the people to meet with God, through the Wady Sebaiyeh, and through which the people fled back into the camp. It is remarkable that Sinai never became a place of Jewish pilgrimage. Elijah went there to es- cape the vengeance of Jezebel (1 Kings xix. 3-8). At a very early period, however, in the Christian era, Sinai began to be an object of reverence. It appears that refugees from persecution in Egypt first sought an asylum amid the mountains. An- chorets consequently flocked to it, and convents were at length founded. In the early part of the sixth century the Emperor Justinian caused a church to be erected, and a fortified convent [the present Convent of St. Catharine] to be built round it. The number of resident monks is now usually about twenty-four. They are ruled by a prior (Wakll), but there is an archbishop who always resides at Cairo. The library of the con- vent contains some fifteen hundred (according to Lepsius sixteen hundred) printed books, and about seven hundred manuscripts. [Among them Tisch- endorf discovered, in the year 1859, the celebrated Codex Smailicus.'\ Lit. — NiEBUHR : Reisebeschreibung, i. pp. 243 sq. ; Seetzen ; Reisen, iii. pp. 80 sq. ; Burck- HARDT : Reisen in Syrien, ii. pp. 870 sq. ; Schu- bert : Reise in das Morgenland, ii. pp. 307 sq. ; Ruppel : Reise in Nuhien, pp. 257 sq. ; Reise in Abyssinien, i. pp. 117 sq. ; Leon de Laborde: Voyage de I'Arabie Pe'tre'e, Paris, 1830-34; Rob- inson : Researches in Palestine ; Russegger : Reisen, iii. pp. 84 sq. ; Wellsted : Reisen in Arabien, ii. pp. 69 sq. ; Lepsius : Reise von Theben nach der Halbinsel Sinai, Berlin, 1845 ; Strauss : /Sinai und Golgotha, 7th ed., Berlin, 1859, pp. 130 sq. ; TiscHENDORF : Reise in den Orient, Leipzig, 1846, vol. i. pp. 218 sq. ; Stanley : Sinai and Palestine, London, 1855, [rev. ed., 1881 ; Beam : Israel's Wanderung von Gosen bis zum Sinai, El- berfeld, 1859 ; Unruh : Der Zug der Israeliten am JEgypten nach Kanaan, Langensalza, 1860; B. Bausman : Sinai to Zion, Philadelphia, 1861 ; Gaussen: From Egpyt to Sinai, London, 1869; Ebers ; Durch Gosen zum Sinai, Leipzig, 1872, 2d ed., 1881 ; E. II. Palmer : The Desert of the Ex- odus, London and New York, 1872 ; Edersheim : The Exodus and the Wanderings in the Wilderness, London, 1876; C. Beke: Discoveries of Sinai in Arabia and of Midian, Lond., 1878 ; H. S. Palmer ; Sinai from the Fourth Egyptian Dynasty to the pres- ent Time, London, 1878 ; Schaff : Through Bible Lands, New York, 1878 ; Bartlett : From Egypt to Palestine, through Sinai, the Wilderness, and the South Country, New York, 1879 ; Field ; On the Desert, New York, 1883]. ARNOLD. SINAITA. See John ScHOLASTicus. SINAITICUS, Codex. See Bible Text, p. 270. SINCINC. See Hymnology, Music, Psalm- ody. SINTRAM, monk, afterwards deacon, and final- ly presbyter, in the monastery of St. Gall ; lived in the tenth century, and was so celebrated as a copyist, that every place of note was eager to have a manuscript by him. The so-called Evangelium longum, bound between the tablets of Charle- magne, is his work. He was, however, not a simple copyist, but a real artist, and combined in his art the vigorous but somewhat rough and awkward Lombard style with the refined and ele- gant style of the Irish monks. E. T. GELPKE. SION COLLEGE, or the college of the London clergy, which has been a religious house from the earliest times, under the domination of a priory or of a hospital, was dissolved under Henry VIII., but again organized. It now exists under charter of 1631, and is both a clergy house, and a hospital for ten poor men and ten poor women. See Diet, of the Church. SIRACH. See Apocrypha. SIRICIUS, Pope 384-398 ; condemned the monk Jovinian and Bishop Bonosus of Sardica, and suppressed the Manicheans and the Priscillianists in Rome. His Epistola ad Himerium Episcopum Tarraconsensem is the first decretal concerning celibacy. SIRMOND, Jacques, b. at Riom, Oct. 12, 1559 ; d. in Paris, Oct. 7, 1651. He was educated by the Jesuits at Billom ; entered the order in 1576 ; was in 1590 called to Rome as secretary to the general ; returned in 1608 to Paris ; became rector of the Jesuit college in Paris in 1617, and was appoint- ed confessor to Louis XIII. in 1637. He edited works of Ennodius, Flodoardus, Fulgentius of Ruspe, Petrus Cellensis, ApoUonius Sidonius, Paschasius Radbertus, Hincmar of Rheims, and others. SISTERS OF CHARITY. See Charity, Sis- ters OF. SISTERS OF MERCY. See Mercy, Sisters OF. SISTERHOODS. See Deaconesses. SIVA. See Brahmanism. SIX ARTICLES, The, passed by the English Parliament, June 28, 1539, mark the retrograde movement of Henry VIII. from the principles of SIX-PRINCIPLE BAPTISTS. 2191 SIXTHS. the Reformation. They imposed upon the Eng- lish people the doctrines of transubstantiation, the usefulness of private masses, auricular confession, the celibacy of the clergy, and the communion in one kind. They were popularly called the " Bloody Articles " and the " Whip with six strings." See Articles of Religion. SIX-PRINCIPLE BAPTISTS, so called from their six doctrines, contained in Heb. iv. 1, •>; viz., (1) repentance from dead works, (2) faith toward God, (3) the doctrine of baptisms, (4) | the laying-on of hands, (5) the resurrection of the dead, (6) eternal judgment. Their '■ laying- on of hands " is similar to episcopal confirmation. They refuse to fellowship with those who do not practise it. Their general type of theology is Arminian. They claim to date, as an organiza- tion, from 1639, and have always been, for the most part, confined to Rhode Island. In 1700 they formed a Yearly ^Sleeting. In 1880 they had not more than a dozen (very weak) churches in Xew England, all but two in Rhode Island. They have no periodical organ, and no institutions or societies. See Cathcakt's Baptist Encydo- pcedia, s. v. SIXTUS, the name of five Popes. — Sixtus I., the successor of Alexander I., ascended the Papal throne either 116 or 119, and died a martyr's death, by decapitation, 128 or 139. He introduced the celebration of Easter at Rome, and was the author of the law prohibiting women touching the vessels on the altar. — Sixtus II. (Pope 257- 258) was executed in the reign of Valerian. — Sixtus III. (432-440) was appealed to by the metropolitans of Tyana and Tarsus, who were afraid of being deposed. The erection of several churches is ascribed to him, especially the Basil- ica of St. Maria ilaggiore. — Sixtus IV. (1471- 84), whose family name was Francois d'Albes- cola della Rovere, a man of humble origin, was b. July 22, 1414, at Celle, near Savona ; d. Aug. 14, 1484, at Rome. Entering the Franciscan order, he became its general, was elevated to the cardinalate by Paul III., and chosen pope, Aug. 9, 1471. He was one of those popes who showed a deep interest in art and church architecture, and promoted the interests of the conventual orders, but who, incited by ambition and lust, filled Italy with blood, wrought confusion in the church, and secured the contempt of their own generation. He studied to raise the fortunes of his family, [and made five of his nephews car- dinals]. Peter Riario, who was looked upon as the Pope's son, an immoral and extravagant fellow, was made cardinal ; and for another sup- posed son, Hieronymus, he sought to secure a princely inheritance. In order to accomplish this, and out of jealousy and hatred for the house of Medici, he was an accessory to the plot of the Pazzi to murder Julian and Lorenzo Medici in the St. Raparata Church at Florence. Julius was killed : Lorenzo escaped with a harmless wound. The Florentines fell upon the murderers, and put to death some priests who had participated in the plot. Sixtus hurled the ban at all who had taken part in the uproar against the conspirators, and laid the province of Florence under the interdict. The Florentine clergy appealed to a general council ; the corporation sent a vigorous letter to the Pope (July 21, 1478) ; and Bishop Gentilis of Arezzo declared him to have been in collusion with the conspii'ators. Louis XT. of France sent a deputation to Rome, accusing the Pope of stir- ring up strife, and calling upon him to summon a general council. The Pope refused to call a council, but the demand was again made by a synod of French jDrelates at Lyons (1479). Other princes expressed themselves in positive language ; and, threatened with an invasion of the Turks, Sixtus concluded peace with Florence. The fear of the Turkish invasion led him to the I'esolve to emii^rate to Avignon. He, however, did not cany out this resolution. The danger was hardly over, before he again began to iutrigxie in the interests of his relations. Seeking to secure the posses- sions of the house of Este in Feriara for Giro- lamo Eimio, he concluded an alliance with A'enice against Ferrara. When King Ferdinand, who was an ally of Ferrara, made a treaty with Rimio, Sixtus endeavored to induce Venice to relinquish its conquests. Failing in this, he laid the inter- dict upon the city (May 23, 1483). The wars which Sixtus began in the hope of promoting the interests of his family and favorites led him to exact tithes from the prelates, to sell ecclesiastical positions, etc. He built the chapel named after him, founded churches, beautified Rome with magnificent structures, built the bridge over the Tiber ; but the damage he did the church by his ambition overbalanced the good that accrued from these works. In a bull of 1477 he recommended the celebration of the feast of the Immaculate Con- ception, confirmed the Franciscans and Domini- cans in their privileges in two bulls (1471), which these orders call their mai-e magnum (gi'eat sea), etc. — Sixtus V. (1585-90) combined with unusual energy and vigor great and statesmanlike versatil- ity and foresight, revived the glory of the Roman chaii', built splendid buildings, and filled the Papal treasury, but subordinated religious to political interests. He, without doubt, is one of the most distinguished of the bishops of Rome. He was a descendant of a family of Sclaves which had emigrated to Italy, and settled at JNIontalto. Felix Peretti, who later became Sixtus V., was b. Dec. 18, 1521, at Grotte-a-]Mare, a village near Fermo; d. Aug. 24, 1690, at Rome. He visited the uni- versities of Ferrara and BologTia, and was made professor of canon law at Rimini in 1544, and at Siena in 1546. He was a Franciscan. From Siena he went to Rome, became noted as a preacher, secured the friendship of men in power, but, on account of complications, went to Venice (1556), where he held high positions in the Franciscan order. Paul IV. showed him favor ; and in 1565 he accompanied the Papal legate to Spain, where he secured the confidence of Philip II. by his preaching. Paul V. also showed him favor, and appointed him vicar-general of the Franciscan order. His success won for him the bishopric of Agatha de Goti, which he administered well, attempting to reform the morals of the clergy. Honored with a cardinal's hat in 1570, he retired to Montalto, lived a solitary life, expended his means in deeds of charity, engaged in the prep- aration of an edition of Ambrose (1580), and gave the appearance of disinterested and saintly humil- ity. This policy disarmed the cardinals, who, at the death of Gregory XIII., elected him Pope (April 24, 1585). An unreliable tradition states, SKBLTON. 2192 SLAVERY AMONG HEBREWS. that, as soon as the majority of the votes had been given in his favor, he arose in the conclave, erect and resolute, threw away the staff with which he had been wont to support himself, and sang the Te Deum with great energy, so that the cardinals, carried away with astonishment, could hardly trust their eyes. Sixtus laid hold of power with a firm hand, suppressed the banditti bands, insisted upon the execution of the laws, promoted commerce, the manufacture of silk and wool, sought to drain the Pontine marshes, etc. By the bull Immensa (1587^ he appointed fifteen congre- gations, made up of cardinals, for the more expe- ditious transaction of business, fixed the number of cardinals at seventy, ordered that all bishops should appear at Rome once in three years, etc. His administration was frugal, and left a well filled treasury to his successor. He did much for the adornment of Rome, — built the dome of St. Peter's, placed the obelisk in its present position, built the Lateran Palace, removed the Vatican Librai-y to new and splendid quarters, and ordered an edition of the Septuagint (1587) and the received edition of the Vulgate. He was also involved in political matters. He supported the Duke of Guise, the author of the league for the extermination of the Huguenots, declared Henry of Navarre a heretic (Sept. 9, 1585), later, pro- nounced the ban upon Henry IH. of France, and, when that sovereign was murdered (Aug. 1, 1589) by the Dominican Clement, approved of the bloody deed. He encouraged Philip II. in the war with Elizabeth, but refused Philip's request to pronounce the ban npon Henry IV. of France. The people of Rome hated Sixtus, and tore down the monument the Senate erected to his memory on the Capitol. [See Leopold Ranke : History of the Popes; Leti : Vita di San Sisto V., Lau- sanne, 1669, Eng. trans., Lond., 1766 ; Tempesti : Storia della vita e geste di San Sisto V., Rome, 1754 ; HuBJ^ER : Sixte Quint, sa vie et son siede, Paris, 1871, 2 vols., Eng. trans, by Jerningham, Lond., 1872.] neudeckbr. SKELTON, Philip, Church of Ireland; b. in the parish of Derryaghy, near Lisburn, Ireland, February, 1707 ; d. in Dublin, May 4, 1787. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin ; entered holy orders, and held various livings. , He was noted for his benevolence, and his assiduity as a pastor. See life by Samuel Burdy, prefixed to Skelton's Complete Works, London, 1824, 6 vols. SKINNER, Thomas Harvey, D.D., UL.D., b. near Harvey's Neck, N.C, March 7, 1791 ; d. at New York, Feb. 1, 1871. He was successively a Presby- terian pastor in Philadelphia, professor of sacred rhetoric at Andover, pastor of the Mercer-street Presbyterian Church, New York, and, from 1848 to his death, professor of sacred rhetoric and pas- toral theology in the Union Theological Seminary, New York. He wrote Aids to Preachiny and Hear- ing (1839), Hints to Christians (1841), Life of Fran- cis Marlcoe, Discussions in Theology (1868) ; he also translated and edited Vinet's Pastoral Theology and Homiletics (1854). Dr. Skinner was a leader in the New-School branch of the Presbyterian Church, a preacher of great spiritual power, an able theologian, and a pattern of saintly goodness. See Dr. Prentiss : A Discourse in Memory of T. H. Skinner, N.Y., 1871. G. l^. puentiss. SLATER FUND FOR THE EDUCATION OF FREEDMEN. In the spring of 1882 a fund of one million dollars was given to trustees by John F. Slater of Norwich, Conn., for the purposes of educating and uplifting tlie freedmen of the United States, and preparing them for the duties of citizenship. The trustees were incorporated by the State of New York, and were organized with ex-President Hayes as their chairman, and Chief Justice Waite as their vice-president. It is expected that the income only of the fund will be distributed, and that schools which combine industrial training with mental and moral in- struction will receive particular encouragement. The donor of the fund is a descendant of William Slater, to whom is largely due the establishment of cotton manufactures in this country ; and he acquired a fortune by business-pm-suits in Con- necticut and Rhode Island. SLAVERY AMONG THE HEBREWS. Ac- cording to the Old Testament, which ascribes to man the inalienable trait of his nature, because of his being created in the image of God, and which presents the brotherhood of mankind, because originating from one blood, slavery as it appears among Gentile nations is inadmissible from the very beginning. That one tribe, however, at the very beginning of the history of men, is dedi- cated to slavei'y (Gen. ix. 27), is only because of a curse effected through a special depravity. Yet the Old Testament presupposes slavery, according to which servants, like other possessions, formed a part of property (Gen. xxiv. 35, xxvi. 14 ; Job i. 3) ; and also the sale of slaves, as something which was customary in the patriarchal age. The servants of the patriarchs were of two kinds, — those "born in the house" (Gen. xiv. 14), and those "bought with money" (Gen. xvii. 13). Abraham appears to have had a large number of servants. At one time he armed three hundred and eighteen young men " born in his house." The servants born in the house were, perhaps, entitled to greater privileges than the others, and were honored with the most intimate confidence of the masters, as may be seen in the case of Eliezer (Gen. xxiv. 1 sq.), who would have been Abraham's heir-, should the latter have died with- out issue (Gen. xv. 2 sq.). The servants of Abraham were admitted to the same religious privileges with their master, and received the seal of the covenant (Gen. xvii. 9, 14, 24, 27). Slavery, as far as it was allowed by the Mosaic law, was regulated by laws, which, on account of their humane character, form a contrast to that degra- dation of human nature which was so prominent in heathenism. The laws regulating slavery may be divided into two classes, ^ — such as relate to the Hebrew slaves, and such as relate to non- Hebrew slaves. I. Hebrew Slaves. — The circumstances under which a Hebrew might be reduced to servitude were, (a) poverty (Lev. xxv. 39, 47), (ft) the com- mission of theft (Exod. xxii. 1, 3 — in that case the thief could not be sold to a foreigner, Jos. : AntL, XV. 8, 27), and (c) the exercise of pater- nal authority (Exod. xxi. 7 — and in that case the authority was only limited to the sale of a daughter). The servitude of a Hebrew might be terminated in three ways, (a) by the satisfaction or the remission of all claims against him, (b) by SLAVERY AMONG HEBREWS. 2193 SLAVERY IN NEW TESTAMENT. the recurrence of the year of jubilee (Lev. xxv. 40), which might arrive at any period of his servi- tude, and, (c) failing either of these, by expira- tion of six years from the time that his servitude commenced (Exod. xxi. 2 ; Deut. xv. 12). There can be no doubt that this last regulation applied equally to the cases of poverty and theft. The period of seven years has reference to the sabbati- cal principle in general, but not to the sabbatical year. We have a single instance, indeed, of the sabbatical year being celebrated by a general manumission of Hebrew slaves (Jer. xxxiv. 14). If a servant did not desire to avail himself of the opportunity of leaving his service, he was to sig- nify his intention in a formal manner before the judges; and then the master was to take him to the door-post, and to bore his ear through with an awl, thus establishing a connection between the servant and the house in which he was to serve. A servant who had submitted to this operation remained a servant " forever " (Exod. xxi. 6) . The condition of a Hebrew servant was by no means intolerable. His master was admonished to treat him, not " as a bond-servant, but as a hired servant and as a sojourner;" and again, " not to rule over him with rigor " (Lev. xxv. 39, 40, 43). At the termination of his servitude the master was enjoined not to "let him go away empty," but to remunerate him liberally out of his flock, his floor, and his wine-press (Deut. xv. 13, 14). In the event of a Hebrew becoming the servant of a " stranger " (i.e., a non-Hebrew), the servitude could be terminated only by the arrival of the year of jubilee, or by repayment to the master of the purchase-money paid for the servant, after deducting a sum for the value of his services proportioned to the length of his ser- vitude (Lev. xxv. 47-55). The sei-vant might be redeemed either by himself or by one of his rela- tions. A Hebrew woman might enter into vol- untary servitude on the score of poverty; and in this case she was entitled to her freedom after six years' service, together with the usual gratuity at leaving, just as in the case of a man (Deut. XV. 12 sq.). Different is the case with a, young daughter whom a father sold to a Hebrew with a view either of the latter's marrying her himself, or of his giving her to his son. Should the mas- ter be willing to fulfil the object for which he had purchased her, she remained with her mas- ter forever ; if not, she was subject to the follow- ing regulations : (1) Should he not wish to marry her, he should call upon her friends to procure her release by the repayment of the purchase-money ; (2) If he betrothed her to his son, he was bound to keep her as one of his own daughters ; (3) If either he or his son, having married her, took a second wife, it should not be to the prejudice of the first. If neitherof the three above-specified alter- natives took place, the maid was entitled to imme- diate and gratuitous liberty (Exod. xxi. 7-11). II. Non-Hebrew Slaves. —The majority of non-Hebrew slaves were war-captives, — either the Canaanites who had survived the general exter- mination of their race' under Joshua, or such as were conquered from the other surrounding na- tions (Num. xxxi. 26 sq.). Besides these, many were obtained by purchase from foreign slave- dealers. That the law in general did not favor the increase of foreign slaves may be seen from the enactment in Deut. xxiii. 16 sq. ; and after the return from Babylon the Jews had only 7,337 slaves, or about one to six of the free population (Ez. ii. 65). The position of the slave in regard to religious privileges was favorable. He was to be circum- cised, and hence was entitled to partake of the paschal sacrifice (Exod. xii. 44), as well as of the other religious festivals (Deut. xii. 12, 18, xvi. 11, 14). He was to rest on the sabbath-day (Deut. V. 14) ; and, in case the master had no male issue, he could give him his daughter iu marriage (1 Chron. ii. 35). As to the treatment of female slaves, see Deut. xxi. 10 sq. The master had no power over the life of a slave (Exod. xxi. 20). Wilful murder of a slave entailed the same pun- ishment as in the case of a freeman (Lev. xxiv. 17, 22) ; but no punishment at all was imposed if the slave survived the punishment for a day or two (Exod. xxi. 20), because he is his master's "money" (Exod. xxi. 21). A minor personal injury, such as the loss of an eye or a tooth, was to be recompensed by giving the servant his lib- erty (Exod. xxi. 26, 27). The general treatment of slaves appears to have been gentle, occasionally too gentle, as we infer from Solomon's advice (Prov. xxix. 19, 21). The slave was considered as entitled to justice (Job xxxi. 13-15). The Essenes entirely abolished slavery. Cf . Philo : Quod omnis probus (Mangey's ed.), ii. 457. Lit. — Comp. Mielzinek : Die Verhaltnisse der Sklaven hei den alien Hehraern nach bibliscJien und talmudischen Quellen dargestellt, Copenhagen and Leipzig, 1859, [Eng. trans., by Professor Schmidt, in the (Gettysburg) Evangelical Review, January, 1862, pp. 311-355; Baunes: Scriptural Views of Slavery, Phila., 1846 ; Schaff : Slavery and the Bible, Mercersb., 1860 ; Eaphall : BMe View of Slavery, N.Y., 1861]. OEHLEE. SLAVERY IN THE NEW TESTAMENT. The New Covenant declares all mankind equal sharers in salvation (Tit. ii. 11 ; 1 Tim. ii. 4) ; and this principle was in itself sufficient to determine the view concerning slavery (Gal. iii. 28; Col. iii. 11), and to bring about its extinction. Since Chris- tianity does not deal with nations, and masses of people, but with individuals, whom it severally invites, exhorts, and receives into its communion, by setting forth faith as an inward, liberating life-principle (John viii. 36) through which the individual lays hold on Christ, and becomes unit- ed with him, it recognizes the rights of the inner man (Acts ii. 41, xiii. 46 ; Gal. ii. 19-21), which the heathen nations never apprehended, and which were veiled in the Old Testament, but which, in their progress and complete realization under Protestantism, must ultimately bring about the utter extii'pation of slavery from the earth. Christ postulated the law of liberty, and made freedom the privilege of believers (John viii. 32 ; Jas. i. 25, ii. 12 ; Rom. viii. 2), thereby accomplishing the predictions of the Old Testament (Luke iv. 18-21 ; Isa. Ixi. 1 sq.) ; and, though the proclamation of liberty by the apostles had primary reference to the inward states of the soul (1 Cor. vii. 23 ; Gal. V. 1 ; 1 Pet. ii. 16 ; comp. Gal. ii. 4, v. 13 ; 2 Pet. ii. 19), it necessarily led to the great principle, that, with Christ, liberty in general had come to man (Luke i. 79 ; 2 Cor. iii. 17), which, like a leaven, was to permeate all relations of life. SLAVERY IN NEW TESTAMENT. 2194 SLAVERY AND CHRISTIANITY. With regard to slavery, the passage in 1 Cor. vii. 21 is of especial importance; and, whatever explanation may be given, certain it is that Paul did not intend to subvert by force the then exist- ing condition, however adverse to the spirit of Christianity, but that first the inner freedom was to be implanted in the human heart, from which, in the course of time, the outer freedom was to proceed. It is evident from Rom. xiii. 1 sq., that a disposition to refuse obedience to government existed, to some extent, in apostolic times, and, from the case of Onesimus, that bondmen some- times broke away from their masters' rule. In the latter instance Paul succeeded in effecting the voluntary return of the fugitive Christian slave by imparting to him a deeper and more correct knowledge of the nature and aims of Christianity (Philem. 10-16). Similar tendencies we find among the slaves at Corinth, where many had no doubt become con- verts to Christianity (1 Cor. i. 20, 26-28). The apostle, therefore, laid it down as a rule, that converts to Christianity were to continue in the station and condition of life to which the provi- dence of God had assigned them (1 Cor. vii. 17, 20). The argument by which that rule is enforced — that the present is a time of distress, in which it becomes prudent for the unmarried to retain their virgin state, and the slave to remain contentedly in his bondage — indicates its primary reference to the Corinthian Christians of that day ; but the further considerations adduced — that the time is short, and the grand catastrophe through which the world's conditions shall be changed is drawing near — have universal force, and adapt the rule to the conditions of all Christians. It is, however, evident that the apostle does not strike at the right to liberty and personal independence in these instructions. 1 Cor. vii. 23 asserts that right most forcibly, and shows that the saving grace of the Lord involves a setting-aside of all human bondage. A denial of that right would bring him into conflict with his own claim to freedom (1 Cor. ix. 1) and with his fundamental state- ment, that in Christ all things must become new (2 Cor. V. 17). The principles of Christian liberty were already then exhibited in such a manner that Christian masters, even if they were not to give freedom to their slaves, as Philemon to Ones- imus, were exhorted to treat their slaves kindly and as brothers (Eph. vi. 6 ; Col. iv. 1 ; Philem. 16). [Bishop Lightfoot says, " The gospel never direct- ly attacks slavery as an institution ; the apostles never command the liberation of slaves as an absolute duty. It is a remarkable fact that St. Paul in this Epistle (Philemon) stops short of any positive injunction. He tells him (Philemon) to do very much more than emancipate his slave, but this one thing he does not directly enjoin " (p. 389).] .J. G. VAIHINGER. Lit. — Commentaries on Philemon, especially by Lange (American edition) and Lightfoot ; H. Wallon : Hisloire de I'esclavage dans I'anli- guite, Paris, 1837, 3 vols., new ed., 1879 ; Mohler : BruchslUcke cms der GescJiichte der Aufhebung der Sklacerei, 1834 (Fen«isc/i(e Schriften, vol. ii. p. 54) ; Hague: Christianily and Slavery, Boston, 1852; Schmidt : Esxai historique sur la socie'te civile dans le monde romain, el sur sa transformation par le Christianisme, Strassburg, 1854, pp. 81 sq., 332 sq.. 431 sq., 462 sq.; Philip Sch.4fk; Slavery and the Bible, JMercersburg, 1860; and his "Christianity and Slavery," in History of the Christian Church, rev. ed., 1882 sqq., vol. i. pp. 444 sq., vol. ii. pp. 444 sqq. ; Ozanam : La civilisation au cinquieme siecle, 1862, i. pp. 200 sq. ; A. Cochin : L'aboU- tion de I'esclavage, Paris, 1862, 2 vols. ; Hefele : Sclaverei und Christenthum ; Beitrage zur Kirchen- geschichte,^ Tubingen, 1864, i. pp. 212 sq. ; Rivi- EKE : L'jSglise el I'esclavage, 1864 ; I. A. Monod : Saint Paul et I'esclavage, Paris, 1866 ; H. Wiske- i\i.\XN : Die Sklacerei, Leiden, 1866 ; G. Haven : National Sermons ; Sermons, Speeches, and Letters on Slavery and its War, Bost., 1869; Buchmann : D. unfreie u. freie Kirche in ihr. Bezieh ung. z. Scla- verei,' Breslau, 1873; Overbeck: Studien, Hft. 1, Schloss-Chemnitz, 1875, pp. 158-230 (" Ueber das Verhaltniss der alten Kirche zur Sclaverei im romischen Reiche ") ; Allard : Les esclaves Chre- tiens depuis les premiers temps de I'e'gtise jusqu'a la fin de la domination romaine en Occident, Paris, 1876 ; G. V. Lechler : Sklaverei ti. Christenthum, Leip., 1877 (30 pp.); T. Zahn: Sclaverei u. Chris- tenthum in der alten Welt, Heidelb., 1879 (48 pp.); Haygood : Our Brother in Black, his Freedom and his Future, N.Y., 1881. — On Negro Slavery and the Slave-trade see C. B. Wadstrom : Observa- tions on the Slave-trade, London, 1789 ; Thomas Clarkson: History of the Abolition of the Slave- trade, London, 1808, 2 vols.; Hunb: Vollstandige historische Darstellung aller Verdnderung. d. Neger- sklavenhandels, Gottingen, 1820 ; Burkhard : Die evangelische Mission unter den Ne'gern in Westa- frika, Bielef., 1859; Williams: History of the Negro Race, N.Y., 1883, 2 vols. SLAVERY AND CHRISTIANITY. Christianity and slavery seem to the present generation, with its settled opinions concerning natural rights and the teachings of the New Testament, to form the opposite poles of the moral sphere ; and yet it is certain that society in antiquity was based on slavery, and that at no period of history was the slave system more completely organized than in the Roman Empire during the life of Christ in this world. It may be affirmed, also, that the Master never commanded that slavery as it then existed should be abolished, like other evils, — idolatry, for instance, — by the direct act of his followers ; and further, that, for three hundred years after his advent, no writer among either the defenders or the enemies of Christianity ever spoke of the abolition of slavery as a consequence of the new doctrine (Biot, 126). It seems, how- ever, equally clear that the total change which has since taken place in the opinion of the civil- ized world in regard to slaveiy has been mainly due to the gradual outgrowth of Christian doc- trine, morals, and example. This inconsistency can only be explained by a view of the history of the opinion of the church on this subject. 1. Relations of Christianity towards Slavery to the Reign of Constantine. — Among the early converts there were, of course, masters and slaves. The apostle Paul preaches liberty to the individual; because the gospel fully sets forth the folly of human distinctions in a race which had a com- mon Father, and were the subjects of a common redemption. He insisted, also, that in the new kingdom all men were equal in the sight of God, who was no respecter of persons, whatever they SLAVERY AND CHRISTIANITY. 2195 SLAVERY AND CHRISTIANITY. might be as subjects of the Roman emperor : nevertheless, he maintained the duty of obedience on the part of the slave, and the claim of author- ity on the part of the master, as not only sanc- tioAed, but commanded, by the new doctrine. The apostle, and his followers during the first three centuries, accepted slavery as a fact, a settled condition of Roman society which they Mere as powerless to change, had they so desired, as to change the imperial government itself. The ob- ject, the only object which was then practicable, was to remedy moral evils under existing institu- tions. The apostles and fathers addressed their exhortations to the heart rather than to the intel- lect of the down-trodden classes. They taught meekness and humility, and consecrated for the first time in history the servile virtues. They seem to have regarded the service of God by slaves as conferring upon them, in an important sense, perfect freedom, and as placing them on a foot- ing of equality with their masters in the new " City of God." In this city all, slaves and free, worshipped the . same Father ; they were bound by the same law ; their religion taught them that they wei'e all brethren, sharing in the offices of the church and the administration of its charities, members of the same collegium in the old Roman sense, with equal rights as such, and, above all, with the same hope of a common reward in the life to come. Doubtless there were many evils in Roman so- ciety, established by law or usage, which shocked the moral sense of the early Christians quite as much as slavery ought, we think, to have done ; but all these evils the Christians met with sub- mission and resignation and by their own exam- ple of good works and virtues. \Vhen the Roman law came in conflict with their Christian duties, they made no futile attempts at change by revo- lutionary force and violence. An illustration of their position is found in. the history of the Quakers, who gained all their early strength by protesting by voice and example against the ini- quities of society in the reign of Charles II. ; and yet they remained loyal subjects of the king. 2. Opinions of the' Christian Fathers in regard to Slavery.' — It cannot be doubted that the opinions of many of the Fathers on this subject were de- rived from the moral philosophy of the stoics of the empire. "Liberty," says Epictetus, "does not consist in the enjoyment of the things we desire, but in our having no desires." Marcus Aurelius made the question of true liberty dependent upon the mind and the will of the individual. The Fathers taught, after the example of St. Paul, that the true slavery was the slavery of sin. St. Jerome in.sists that 'there is no true freedom ex- cept in the knowledge of the truth. St. Ambrose sees above all conception of liberty a more noWe servitude, in which freemen and slaves may unite, and where both may work together for the good of others. According to St. Augustine, the infe- rior position of woman relatively to man, as well as slavery, was introduced into the world at the same time and by the same means, — the sin of Adam. So Chrysostom thinks that the apostle did not recommend the suppression of slavery, lest men should lose an opportunity of seeing how nobly liberty of soul could be preserved in the body of the slave. And yet, with these opin- ions of the advantages of the existing system, the Fathers speak of the original equality of mankind, of the fraternal love wmch should bind all men together, of that gi-eat human family of which tyranny, and not nature, had made two races, of the dignity of man created in the image of God, and, above all, of the noble destiny of man, who, while he became a slave through the sin of Adam, becomes a freeman through the sacrifice of Jesus Christ. (See Wallon: Histoire de I'Esclavage dans VAntiquite, vol. iii., for full details on this point.) While Christianity did not attack what may be called the principle of slavery in the Roman Empire, it did not content itself with preaching merely moderation to the masters, and resigna- tion to the slaves : it favored the manumission of slaves (Const, apost., iv. q. 1. 1, p. 297), and strove to suppress or mitigate those features of slavery which made men forget that they were aU chil- dren of the same Father, and heirs of the same promises (see '\^^allon, iii. 384 sq.) ; it sought to narrow the area of slavery by restricting as far as possible the sources of supply; it redeemed captives taken in war ; it purchased the freedom of debtors about to be sold into slavery ; and it strove by its charity to succor those fauiilies who had been reduced to the condition of slaves by the misfortunes of their fathers (Ambrose: De Officiis Ministr.; Greg. Magnus : J)ia/., iii.); above all, it brought into the Roman world a principle which had been unknown there for ages, — the dignity of human labor. There is no more strik- ing difference between Roman and modern society than that caused by the different ideas prevailing at the two periods in regard to the social status of the workman. In Rome, as soon as she began to conquer the world, all labor became sen'ile, and laborers were despised outcasts, because they were slaves. Christianity changed all this. It dignified and ennobled labor. The obligation to labor was inseparable from the law of love. The early Christians followed the example of the Mas- ter and his apostles in this respect, working and doing good at the same time and from the same motive. Work was regarded as quite as indis- pensable to the perfection of Christian character as prayer itself (Laborare est orare). Under the Christian emperors, Constantine and his successors, the principle of slavery was still maintained, and no slave-code ever existed which defined more sharply the line separating freemen from slaves than that of Justinian (A.D. 529). The Christian Fathers, at the Council of Nicsea and afterwards, procured some legislation which forbade the employment of slaves as gladiators, and of women as actresses ; but in practice these prohibitions were of no avail, such was the passion of the populace for theatrical spectacles. By the same influences, Constantine was moved to direct that manumissions should be thenceforth made in the church, in the presence of the bishop, rather than in that of the praetor, in order to give greater sacredness to the act. This custom was trans- mitted to the medifeval church. So Constantine gave the right to the parents of new-born children to sell them into slavery ; and this law, which was in direct opposition to the provisions of the old Roman code, was, it is said, rendered necessary by the increasing misery of the times, and was adopted as an alternative SLAVERY AND CHRISTIANITY. 2196 SLAVERY AND CHRISTIANITY. against permitting the children to perish from neglect and starvation. i'rom the time of Constantine to that of Alexis Commenus (1095), there was, it is now apparent, in the Eastern Empire, a secret conflict of opinion between the Christian authorities and the impe- rial government concerning slavery. A strong illustration of the nature of this conflict is found in the general opinion that the marriage of a slave in the church made him ipso facto a freeman. Up to the time of Basil the Macedonian, no such marriage was permitted to take place ; the union of male and female slaves being still regarded as contubernium, not having the sanction of the connu- bium, essential to the valid, legal marriage of the Romans. Basil (867-886) directed that the priestly benediction should hallow the marriage of slaves. This enactment met with violent opposition from the deeply rooted prejudices of centuries, and was often evaded. Alexis Commenus renewed the edict, invoking for its support the Christian maxim, " one God, one faith, one baptism," and directed that all slaves whose masters forbade that they should be married in the church should become at once free. See Wallon, iii. 462, and Milman's History of Latin Christianity, i. p. 494. In the Western Empire, after it was conquered by the Teutonic tribes, domestic slaves were still to be found; although the vast majority of the bondmen were serfs, who, like the Roman coloni, were adscripti glebw, and could not be sold apart from the land, of which they formed, in legal phrase, an incident. Many of the harshest features of the slave-code of the empire and of the Barba- rians were kept up for the government of these serfs. The tendency, under the feudal system during the middle age, was to replace slavery by serfage ; and this last form of servitude died out gradually in Europe, when the employers of labor, from a variety of motives, chiefly economic and selfish, found it to their advantage to pay wages, and to agree with their serfs that they should hold their lands on condition of rendering services therefor, certain in kind, and fixed in amount. We are not to suppose that either the church or the clergy (who were all, in the earlier period, of the conquered races) were unmindful of the treatment of the serfs and bond-laborers during this age. The church did not attack mere slave- holding, — indeed, under the operation of the feu- dal system, churches and monasteries became, by the gifts of the faithful, among the largest slave- holders and proprietors of serfs, — but it constant- ly protested against abuses of the system, and in favor of humane measures. Charles L. Brace (G'2sta Chrisli, p. 229) says that thirty-seven church councils passed acts favorable to slaves. In the middle age no Christian captives were permitted to be sold into slavery; the right of asylum in the churches was offered to fugitive slaves ; large Bums were spent for their ransom ; manumissions were frequent, and were encouraged by the church as acts inspired " by the love of God " for the benefit of the soul of the master. Still, the noble declaration of Pope Gregory the Great, towards the close of the sixth century, " that slaves should be freed because Christ became man in order to redeem us," does not seem to have been the guide if the church's policy during the middle age. Larroque (L'Esclavage chez les Natiom Ckretiennes, 65-116), indeed, gives a list of fifteen councils of the church, whose decrees, he claims, were un- favorable to the freedom of the slave. Personal slavery having disappeared in Europe in the fourteenth century, it was revived upon a gigantic scale on this continent shortly after the discovery of America. The scarcity of labor in the New World, and the necessity for it, seem to have overcome all objections to the system, whether founded upon motives of Christian duty, or upon economic considerations. All the European na- tions. Catholic and Protestant, who had colonies in America, engaged in transporting slaves from the coast of Africa to this continent. The result was, that, according to the calculation of Sir Arthur Helps, there were carried between the years 1579 and 1807 more than five millions of human beings from Africa to America, where they and their descendants became slaves. For more than two centuries and a half no voice, either in the church or out of it, was publicly heard against the slave-trade and its consequences. About the middle of the eighteenth century, however, two distinct movements become apparent. They are distinct ; because one was based on philosophical, and the other on Christian, grounds, and because one was confined to France, and the other to Eng- land. Upon one or the other of them, modern opinion and legislation in regard to negro slavery have been based. The philosophical basis is found in that portion of the celebrated work of Rous- seau, Mmile, called Profession de foi d'un Vicair.e Savoyard. The views there laid down made a profound impression upon all writers on theories of government during the remainder of the cen- tury, and formed the element of strength in the French Revolution. According to Rousseau, man is a being by nature good, loving jvistice and order. In an ideal state of society each member would be free, and the equal of every other, — equal, because no person, or family, or class, would seek for any rights or privileges of which any other was deprived ; and free, because each one would have his share in determining the rule common to all. ■These doctrines, and the vast system which grew out of them, were, for various reasons, em- braced with the utmost enthusiasm in France. People looked for the millennium as a consequence of their adoption to an age, when, according to Condorcet, " the sun shall shine only on freemen, when tyrants and slaves and priests shall survive only in history and on the stage." It is curious that the first public official document in which these opinions are clearly set forth should be our own Declaration of Independence ; for it is there proclaimed that all men are " equal," and that ■' they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights, among which are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." So in France, the first article of " The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen," adopted in 1789 at the beginning of the Revolution, asserts, "Men are born free and equal, and have the same rights." And as a logical result of this declaration, based upon the teaching of Rousseau, the French Con- vention (Feb. 4, 1794) decreed that negro slavery should be abolished in all the French Colonies, and that all men therein should have the rights of French citizens. Two things are worthy of SLAVERY AND CHRISTIANITY. 2197 SLAVERY AND CHRISTIANITY. remark concerning this decree : (1) That it was the first act by which any nation in Europe de- creed the abolition of slavery ; and, (2) That the men and the nation adopting it were so far from being Christians, that they had, only three months before its date, enthroned and worshipped a woman as the goddess of reason in the Cathedral of Notre Dame at Paris. By the side of these attacks of the French phi- losophers on slavery as a violation of natural rights, there began a movement about the same time, chiefly in England and in this country, hav- ijig the same object in view, but founded wholly upon convictions of Christian duty. Conscience was here substituted for mere sentiment, as the impulse to action ; and the result was that earnest, persistent, and personal work which is prompted by deep, conscientious conviction of duty. The African slave-trade was made at first the main point of attack by the abolitionists. In 1772 Granville Sharp urged its suppression on religious grounds. Just before the Revolution, Virginia petitioned that no more African slaves should be sent into the Colony ; a few years later, Clarkson, a man of deeply religious nature, gave up his whole life to efforts to convince his countrymen that they should prohibit the slave-trade by law, as violating every principle of Christian humani- ty. The only religious denomination which as a body took an active part in this work was the Quakers, who presented to the House of Com- mons a petition for the abolition of the slave- trade in 1784. By incessant woi-k, and constant agitation of the subject in the press and at public meetings, the little band of abolitionists gained the support of many prominent public men in Eng- land, Wilberforce, Pitt, Fox, and Burke among the rest. Such was the feeling roused by the dis- cussion of the subject, and especially the general conviction of the violation of Christian duty in maintaining the traffic, that, forced at last by the outcry of the public conscience. Parliament abol- ished the slave-trade in 1807. This movement in England may be considered as directed wholly by Christian sentiment. Iti the Urited States the foreign slave-trade was prohibited in 1808 by virtue of a power conferred upon Congress by the Constitution. Shortly after- wards, all the maritime nations of Europe followed the example of England and of this country ; and the work was fittingly crowned by the declara- tion of the European Congress of Vienna in 1815, engaging all the powers to discourage the traffic, as one "reproved by the law of religion and of nature:" thus recognizing the two forces, religion and philosophy, which had combined to bring about the result. In this country the testimony of the Quakers, as a religious body, against slavery has been uniform from the beginning. In 1688 the German Friends residing in Germantown, now a part of Philadel- phia, petitioned the Yearly Meeting to take meas- ures against slaveholding. From 1696 to 1776, the society nearly every year declared "the importing, purchase, or sale of slaves" by its members to 1 be a "disownable offence." John Woolman and Anthony Benezet, illustrious as Quaker philan- thropists, were the pioneer abolitionists of mod- ern times. In 1776 the holding of slaves was prohibited by the discipline of the Society of Friends, and since that time its members have alwa.ys been conspicuous in supporting autislavery opinions and legislation. The highest judicatory of the Presbyterian Church in this country is said (Stanton : The Church and the Rebellion, p. 398) to have made a formal declaration in favor of the abolition of slavery no less than six times between 1787 and 1836 ; viz., in 1787 ; in 1793, re-affirming its action in 1787; in 1795, by expressing "the deepest con- oern'that any vestiges of slavery remained in the country ; " in 1815, and again in 1818, denouncing slavery " as utterly inconsistent with the law of God." In 1845 and in 1849 the General Assembly (Old School) in its action, without avowing any change of opinion as to the sinfulness of slavery, dwelt more particularly upon the formidable ob- stacles to the practical work of emancipation . In 1864, during the Rebellion, that body being no longer hampered by complications of this kind, proclaimed openly " the evil and guilt of slavery," and its earnest desire for its extirpation. The Methodist-Episcopal Church has been opposed to slavery from the beginning. At the organization of the General Conference in 1784, a general rule of its discipline was adopted, declar- ing slavery contrary " to the golden law of God and the inalienable rights of mankind," and di- recting that preachers holding slaves should be expelled. Still, the rule was often evaded, and not executed, out of.regard for the position of the Southern members of the denomination. After 1808 slaveholding among the private members of the society was not made a subject of discipline, notwithstanding that the old rule affirming slave- ry to be a great evil, and that slaveholding should be a bar to office in the church, was still unre- pealed. The aggressive antislavery sentiment at the North was always very powerful among the Meth- odists ; and in the General Conference of 1844 it was strong enough to effect the passage of a reso- lution by which Bishop Andrew, who had come into the possession of certain slaves in right of his wife, was requested to suspend the exercise of all episcopal functions until the slaves were freed. This led to the disruption of the confer- ence, and the formation of two Methodist-Episco- pal churches in this country, — one at the North, ' and the other at the South. It must be remembered that there were, before the war, in the Northern States, vast multitudes of Christians of thoroughly antislavery sentiments who took no active part in the abolition move- ment, because they were restrained by conscien- tious convictions as to their duties as citizens ; but when slavery was made the pretext of rebellion, and war against the government, and an attempt was made to found an empire the corner-stone of which was slavery, and especially when' the Na- tional Government had decreed the emancipation of the slaves, every motive for its further tolera- tion was removed. Lit. ^ Wallon : Hist, de I'Esclavage dans I'an- tiquite; Frossard : La cause des Negres ; Biot : L'abolition de V esclavage dans I'Occideni ; Lar- ROQUE : L' Esclavage chez le.s Nations Chredennes ; Copley: Hist, of Slavery; Brace: Gesta Christi; Milman: Hist, of Latin Christianity; Levasseur: Hist, des classes ouvrieres ; Stanton : The Church SLAVIC BIBLE VERSIONS. 2198 SMECTYMNUUS. and the Rebellion; Wilson : Rise of the Slave-Power; Williams : Hist, of the Ncip-o Race ; Statement of the Rixe and Progress of the Testimony of Friends in Rer/uril to Slaveri/, 1843. C. J. STILLfi. SLAVIC BIBLE VERSIONS. See Bible Vek- sioxs. SLEIDAN (originally PHILIPPSOHN), Johan- nes, b. at Sleiden, neai- Aix-la-Chapelle, 1506; d. at Strassburg, Oct. 31, 1556. He studied ancient languages and literatures at Liege and Cologne, and afterwards j urisprudence and history in Paris ; embraced the Reformation ; settled at Strassburg, and was much used by the Protestant princes of (iermaiiy in diplomatic missions to England, the Council of Trent, etc. His celebrated work on the history of the Reformation in Germany (De statu religionis et reipiihlicce Carolo Quinto Ccesare commentarii, Strassburg, 1553-56) he wrote at the instance of the leaders of the Schmalcaldian League. It was translated into German, Dutch, Italian, English (with his life, London, 1689), and Swedish, and appeared in eighty editions before 1780. Ili.s De quatuor siiminis imperils lihri ires (1557) was very much read. On the Koman-Catho- lic side, Fontaine, Gennep, Surius, and Maimburg wrote against him. [See Baumgarten : Uelier S's Leben u. BriefiBechsel (Strassburg, 1878), and Briefwechsel (1881).] neudecker. SMALCALD ARTICLES AND LEAGUE. See Schmalcald Articles. SMALLEY, John, D.D., b. in Columbia, Conn., June 4, 1734; d. in New Britain, Conn., June 1, 1820, within three days of being eighty-six years old. He was prepared for Yale College by his pastor, Eleazer \\'heelock, afterward president of Dartmouth ; was befriended while at Yale by Ezra Stiles, afterward president of the college; was graduated in 1756. He was thought by Dr. A\ iieelock to have been converted in early child- hood. At the age of six years he had been deeply affected by the preaching of ^\' hitefield. In col- lege, however, he began to doubt the genuineness of his conversion, became painfully despondent, and at length ascribed what he sometimes called his actual, and sometimes his second, conversion, to the reading of Edwards on the Will. This was one of the facts which led him through life to oppose all religious excitements which did not spring fi-om the influence of religious doctrine. It led him to become a leader in the contest against the fanaticism of the Separatists, against the Half-way Covenant, — a leader in defence of the New-England theology. Having pursued his theological studies with Dr^ Joseph Bellamy, he was ordained April 19, 1758, over the Congregational Church in New Britain, Conn. He remained in this pastorate more than fifty-five years — without a colleague, more than fifty-one years. In the pulpit he fixed his eyes on his manuscript, i-ead it with a harsh and nasal voice, with few, and those awkward, gestures; yet he enchained the attention of his hearers by his exhibition of naked doctrines, — often the distinguishing dooti'ines of Calvinism. The marked success of his pastorate is a matter of liistorical interest. I lis success as a theologi- cal instructor was yet more remarkable. Twenty of his pupils can now be remembered. One of them was an eminent revivalist, and was accus- tomed to read in the pulpit a printed sermon of Smalley, and to read it with such impressive elo- cution that the reports of its influence are well- mgh fabulous. Two of Smalley's pupils were Nathanael Emmons of Franklin, and Ebenezer Porter, who, as a professor at Andover, exerted a formative influence on the seminary. Two other theological pupils of Smalley turned their atten- tion afterward from the ministerial to the legal profession. One of these was Oliver Ellsworth, who became chief justice of the United States : the other was Jeremiah Mason, to whom Daniel Webster ascribed much of his own success at the bar. The pupils of Smalley were charmed with his wit, but often awed by the severity of his criticisms. He studied fourteen hours a day, yet made no parade of learning. He was confident in his opinions, and impatient of contradiction, but was venerated for his profound and simple- hearted piety- Four of his sermons had an epochal influence. Two of the four were on Natural and Moral In- abil ill/, \mhlished in 1769, republished in England. Two were entitled Justification through Christian Act of Free Grace, and None but Believers saved through the All-Sufficient Satisfaction of Christ, 1786, 1787, repeatedly republished. In addition to other sermons in separate pamphlets. Dr. Smalley published in 1803 a volume of Discourses, and in 1814, when he was eighty years old, a second volume. ' EDWARDS A. PARK. SMARAGDUS, abbot of the monastery of St. Michael, situated on the Meuse, in the diocese of Verdun, was one of the most learned theologians of the Carolingian age, and held in great esteem both by Charlemagne and Lewis the Pious. His writings, however, consisting of commentaries on the New Testament, on the rules of St. Bene- dict, etc., are mere compilations, altogether with- out originality. They ai-e found in Migne : Patrol. Latin., vol. 102. — Another Smaragdus, 'whose true name was Ardo, was a friend of Benedict of Aniane, and wrote his life. See Act. Sanct., and MiGne: Patr. Lat., vol. 103. zciOKLER. SMART, Christopher, b. at Shipbourne, Kent, 1722; d. in the King's Bench prison, 1771; fel- low of Pembroke College, Cambridge, 1745; fol- lowed literature in London, and led a disoi-derly and dissi]iated life, which did not quench his religious feeling. Among his works are The Parables of Christ done into Verse, 1765; On the Divine Attributes; and A Translation of the Psalms of^ Da aid attempted in the Spirit of Christianity, with Hymns for the Fasts and Festioals, 4to, 1765. These are piously intended, and curious, but met with no success. More memorable is his Song to David, written on the wall of a madhouse, or, according to the old tradition, indented with a key on the wainscot, he being debarred the use of pen, ink, and paper. F. M. BIRD. SMECTYMNUUS, a word made up of the initials of 5(tephen) If(arsliall), .E(dmund) C(al- amy), 7'(honias) y(oung), il/(atthew) iV(ew- comen), and iy(illiam) iS'(pui'stow), who composed in common a treatise in reply to Bishop Joseph Hall's Humble remonstrance to the high court of Parliament, London, 1640, under the title, An answer to a booke entituled ".I n humble remonstrance, in which the originall of liturgy and episcopacy is discussed, 1641 (104 pp. 4to); and later in the same year, A rindicalion of the ansiver to the hum- SMITH. 2199 SMITH. ble remonstrance from the unjust imputations of frivolousnesse and falsehood : wherein the cause of liturgy and episcopacy is further debated. The debate was upon these two heads : (1) of the antiquity of liturgies, or forms of prayer ; (2) of the apostolical institution of diocesan episcopacy. See Neale : Hist. Puritans, vol. i. pt. ii. c. viii. Harper's ed., pp. 363 sqq. , SMITH, Eli, a distinguished Amei-ican mission- ary, and translator of the Bible into Arabic; was b. at Northford, Conn., Sept. 15, 1801 ; d. at Bey- rout, Syria, Jan. 11, 1857. He graduated at Yale College, 1821, and at Andover Seminary in 1826 ; and in May of the same year embarked as a missionary of the American Board to Malta. In 1827 he went to Beyroiit, and in March, 1830, undertook with Jlr. Dwight, under directions from the American Board, a journey through Persia, to get information concerning the Nesto- rian Christians. The expedition, which lasted a year, and during which the travellers visited the grave of Henry Martyn at Tocat, resulted in the establishment of a mission among that people. Smith published an account of the journey, in Missionary Researches in Armenia, of the Rev. Eli Smith and H. G. O. Dwight, etc. (Boston, 1833, 2 vols., London, 1834). 'in 1838 Dr. Smith ac- companied Dr. Edward Robinson on a journey from Suez through the Sinaitic peninsula and up the Jordan. He accompanied the same scholar on his journey in 1852, and contributed materi- ally to the accuracy and discoveries of Robin- son's Researches. In 1846 he began his translation of the Bible into Arabic, having the assistance of Butrus el-Bistany and Nasif el-Yasijee. By August, 1853, he had completed the translation of the four Gospels. Before his death he succeeded in translating the entire New Testament, and the Pentateuch, historical books, Isaiah, Jeremiah, and other portions of the Old Testament. His labors have been supplemented by the scholarship of Dr. Van Dyke. Dr. Smith possessed eminent attainments in Arabic, and will always have a distinguished place in the annals of the Ameri- can mission at Beyrout. For a good account of his life, see Missionary Herald, 1857, pp. 224- 229. SMITH, George, b. in England about 1825; d. at Aleppo, Aug. 19, 1876. He began life as bank-note, copper and steel plate engraver; taught himself the Oriental languages, and first came into prominence in 1866 by a contribution to The London Athenosum, upon the TrilnUe of Jehu, which revealed his studies, assiduously carried on at leisure moments, of the Ninevite sculptures in the British Museum. In 1867 he was appointed a senior assistant of the Lower Sec- tion in the department of Egyptian and Oriental Antiquities in the British Museum, and from thence on stood in the first rank of Assyrian scholars. He made expeditions to Nineveh in 1873 at the expense of the London Daihi Tele- graph (newspaper), and in 1874 and 1875 on behalf of the British Museum, and obtained immense treasure in cuneiform inscriptions, etc. His popular works were Assyrian Discoveries (1875), History of Assyria from the Monuments (1875), The Assyrian Eponym Canon (\S75), Chal- dean Account of Genesis (1876, new ed. by Sayce, 1880), History of Sennacherib. See Cooper : Bio- graphical Dictionary, supplement, s.v. ; art. Cunei- rouM Inscriptions. SMITH, Henry Boynton, D.D., LL.D,, an emi- nent American scholar and divine; b. in Port- land, Me., Nov. 21, 1815; d. in New York, Feb. 7, 1S77. He was graduated at Bowdoin College in the class of 1834 ; studied theology at AndoVer and Bangor, and then spent a year as tutor in Greek, and librarian, at Bowdoin. Late in 1837 he went abroad on account of ill-health, and passed the winter in Paris, hearing lectures at the Sor- bonne, at the Institute, and at the Royal Acade- my. The next two years were spent chiefly at Halle and Berlin, in enriching his mind with the treasures of German thought and culture. The friendships formed at this time with Tholuck, Ulrioi, Neander, Twesten,. Baron von Kottwitz, Kahnis, Besser, Godet, and others, eminent then or since as theologians and men of faith, he counted among the greatest blessings of his life abroad. After a short visit to England, he re- turned home in the summer of 1840, and was at once licensed to preach the gospel. But his health again gave way, delaying his settl'enieut until the close of 1842, when he was ordained as pastor of the Congregational Church at \\'est Amesbury, Mass. Here he labored four years with zeal and success, supplying also during two winters the chair of Hebrew at Andover. In 1847 he became professor of mental and moral philosophy in Amherst College. In 1850 he accepted a call to the chair of church history in the Union Theological Seminary of New- York City. Three years later he was transferred to the chair of systematic theology. In both de- partments he wrought with the hand of a master, and, alike by his teaching and his writings, won a commanding position as one of the foremost scholars and divines of the country. His influ- ence was soon felt throughout the Presbyterian Church, and was especially powerful in shaping- opinion in the New School branch of it to which he belonged. He wrote a good deal for the editorial columns of The Neic-York Evangelist, on religious and ecclesiastical topics of the day; while in The American Theological Review, in The American Presbyterian and Theological Re- view, and, later, in The Presbyterian Quarterly and Princeton Review, he discussed the leading philo- sophical and theological questions of the age. Of the first-named review he was the sole editoi-, and of the other two he was joint editor. He contributed articles on Schelling, Hegel, Calvin, Pantheism, the Reformed Churches, and other subjects, to Appletons' Cyclopmdia. In 1859 he published Tables of Church History, a work em- bodying the results of vast labor. In 1863 he was elected moderator of the General Assembly at Philadelphia, and the next year, at Dayton, preached a sermon before that body on Christian Union and Ecclesiastical Re-union, which did much to bring together again the two severed branches of the Presbyterian Church. He took a leading part in the memorable Union Convention at Philadelphia in 1867. During the war he wrote very ably in support of the national cause. In 1859 he revisited Europe, also in 1866, and again in 1869. The latter visit, which was caused by overwork and the breaking-down of his system, lasted a year and a half, and included a journey SMITH. 2200 SMITH. to the East. After his return he resumed his labors in the seminary, but with health so greatly enfeebled, that early in 1874 he resigned his chair, and was made professor emeritus. After long struggles with disease, and severe suffering, he entered into rest. AVhether regarded as a theologian, as a philo- sophical thinker, or as a general scholar and critic. Dr. Smith was one of the most gifted and accom- plished men of his time. Such was the opinion of him often expressed by those best qualified to judge, both at home and abroad. Unfortunately, with the exception of his invaluable History of the Church of Christ, in Chronological Tables, his writings consist chiefly of occasional discourses, essays, and reviews. But, although occasional, they discuss many of the most important and vital questions of the age; and they do it with such exhaustive power, that in several instances the discourse or essay might readily be enlarged into a book, with no other change than that of greater fulness of statement and illustration. His address at Andover in 1849, on The Relations of Faith and Philosophy, may serve as an example. The strong points are so vividly presented, the principles involved are .set forth with such dis- tinctness, the discussion is so luminous and com- plete, that a whole treatise on the subject could hardly add to the force of the argument. This address was greatly admired, and at once attracted to its author general attention. It was reprinted in Edinburgh, and elicited the highest praise from such men as Sir William Hamilton and Eev. Dr. John Brown. Referring to this address, and to the inaugural discourse on Church History, Mr. Bancroft, the eminent historian, wrote to Dr. Smith, " I know no one in the country but your- self who could have written them." It is not too much to say that the United States has produced no theologian who combined in a higher degree than Dr. Smith great learning, the best literary and philosophical culture, wise, discriminating thought, and absolitte devotion to Christ and his kingdom.! It is deeply to be regretted that he was not spared to give to the public his theologi- cal system. It had been elaborated with the utmost care, contained the ripe fruit of his genius, as well as of his faith and his lifelong studies, and would have been a lasting boon to the world. Its informing idea is happily expressed in his early address at Andover ; as, e.g., in the passage, "Christianity is not only an historic revelation and an internal experience, but also an organic, diffusive, plastic, and triumphant force in human history; and in this history, as in the revelation and as in the experience, the centre around which all revolves is the person of Jesus Christ." Pro- fessor Smith was specially gifted as a theological teacher, arousing enthusiasm in his students, inspiring them with reverence for the Holy Scrip- tures, fostering in them a devout, eai'nest, catho- lic spirit, dealing gently and wisely with their doubts; and impressing upon them continually, alike by example and instruction, the sovereign 1 "Ich habe Henry B. Smith als einen der ersten, wenn nicht ala ereten araerikanischen Theologen der Gegenwart au^esehen ; festgegriindet im christlichen Glauben, frei und weiten Herzens und Blickes, philosophiechen GeisteB und fiir systematische Theologie ungewohnlich begabt." — Db. Dor- mer of Berlin. claims of their Redeemer, the glory of his king- dom, and the blessedness of a life consecrated to him. His services to the Union Theological Seminary were varied and inestimable. The Presbyterian Church in the United States also' owes him a lasting debt of gratitude. He has been called "the hero of re-union," and certainly no man better merited the praise. His genial in- fluence as a teacher of divine truth was equally wide and strong, and, whei-ever felt, it \\as an ennobling and irenical influence, tending to exalt the faith once delivered to the saints, and to draw closer together all sincere disciples of Jesus. Nor did his influence cease with his death. His name continues to be spoken with love and reverence ; his opinions are still full of vital force ; and all schools of Christian thought appeal to him as to a master in Israel. A very full and admirable account of him will be found in Henry Boynton Smith; his Life and Work, edited by his wife. New York, 1881. See also Faith and Philosophy, Dis- courses and Essays by Henry B. Smith, edited by Dr. Prentiss, New York, 1877; Apologetics, a Course of Lectures, 1882; Introduction to Christian Theology, comprising (/.) A General Introduction, (IL) Special Introduction, or the Prolegomena of Systematic Theology, 1883 (both edited by Professor W. S. Karr, D.D.). GEOEGE l. prentiss. SMITH, John, the Cambridge Platonist; b. at Achurch, near Oundle, in Northamptonshire, 1618 ; entered Emmanuel College, Cambridge, April, 1638 ; chosen fellow of Queen's, 1644 ; d. there Aug. 7, 1652. His fame rests upon his posthumous Select Discourses (London, 1660, 4th ed., Cambridge, 1859), which "show an uncom- mon reach of understanding, and penetration, as well as an immense treasure of learning in their author." See his biography in the Discourses; John Tuli.och : Rational Theology, vol. ii. ; art. Platonists (Cambridge). SMITH, John Cotton, D.D., Protestant-Episco- pal ; b. at Andover, Mass., Aug. 4, 1826; d. in New- York City, Monday, Jan. 9, 1882. He was a descendant of John Cotton and Cotton Mather, and a grandson of Dr. Leonard Woods ; gradu- ated at Bowdoin College in 1847 ; was from 1850 to 1852 rector of St. John's Church, Bangor, Me.; from 1852 to 1859, assistant minister in Trinity Church, Boston ; and from 1860 till his death, rector of the Church of the Ascension, New-York City. He was an able scholar, an eloquent preacher, a most influential leader of thought in his church, and one of the originators of the " Church Congress ; " while in his public relations he was a large-hearted philanthropist, ready to do all in his power for the general good; prominently connected with the Bible Society, the Evangelical Alliance, the Board of Missions, and particularly interested in tenement-house reform. He edited Church and State, was a frequent contributor to the press, and published Miscellanies, Old and New (New York, 1876), and Brier Hill Lectures on Present Aspects of the Church, New York, 1881. By his writings, sermons, and addresses, and by the attractive influence of his personal character, he did more, perhaps, than any one person of his time to develop a generous spii-it of toleration between various schools of thought, and that state of harmony which now prevails in the Epis- copal Church. G. P. FLICHTNEK. SMITH. 2201 SMYTH, SMITH, John Pye, D.D., LU.D., b. at Sheffield, May 25, 1774 ; d. at Guildford, Survey (London), Feb. 5, 1851; an English Congregational divine and author ; studied theology at Rotherharn Col- lege, under Rev. Dr. Edward Williams ; was pro- fes.sor of theology at Homerton College from 1805 to 1850. A man of unusual learning, and of most admirable Christian spirit. He was one of the earliest among dissenters to recognize the value of the contributions to theology made by German scholars, and to essay a reconciliation between modern science and divine revelation, bringing on himself thereby no small suspicion on the part of less enlightened brethren. His Scripture Testimony to the Messiah (London, 1818- 21, 2 vols., 6th ed., 1868) is an elaborate exegetical study of all the passages of Scripture referring to Christ. In Four Discourses on the Sacrifice and Priesthood of Jesus Christ (London, 1828, 5th ed., Edinb., 1868) he defends the Evangelical against the Socinian doctrine. Scripture and Geology (London, 18-39, 5th ed., 1854) was the Congrega- tional Lecture for 1839. His First Lines of Chris- tian Theology was published after his death (1854, 2d ed., 1860), and contains his lectures to his classes, in syllabus form. See J. Medway : Me- moirs of the Life and Writings of John Pye Smith, London, 1853. F. H. marlu^G. SMITH, Joseph. See Mormons. SMITH, Samuel Stanhope, D.D., LL.D., Pres- byterian; b. at Pequea, Penn., March 16, 1750; d. at Princeton, N.J., Aug. 21, 1819. He was graduated from Princeton College, 1767; tutor there, 1770-73 ; first president of Hampden Sid- ney College, 1775 ; professor of moral philosophy, 1779 ; and president, 1794-1812. In 1786 he was a member of the committee which drew up the Form of Government of the Presbyterian Church. He had a high reputation as a pulpit orator and a college president. He published Sermons, New- ark, N.J., 1799 ; Evidenced of Christian Religion, Phila., 1809 ; Moral and Political Philosophy, Tren- ton, N.J., 1812 ; Principles of Natural and Revealed Religion, New Brunswick, N.J., 1815; (posthu- mous) Sermons, with 2Iemoir, Philadelphia, 1821, 2 vols. See Sprague : Annals, in. 335-345. SMITH, Sydney, Church of England; b. at Woodford, Essex, June 3, 1771 ; d. in London, Feb. 22, 1845. He was graduated at Oxford, 1792; took holy orders, 1794 ; was minister of Charlotte Episcopal chapel, Edinburgh, 1797-1802; canon of Bristol, 1828; and canon residentiary of St. Paul's, 1831. He is one of the most famous of English wits ; but he was also a forcible, earnest preacher, and a sagacious critic and reviewer. He was the first editor of The Edinburgh Review. Besides numerous Sermons, he published Letters on the Subject of the Catholics by Peter Plymley, London, 1808, which did much to promote Catho- lic emancipation, and Elementary Sketches of Moral Philosophy, 1850. See his Memoir by his daughter, Lady Holland, London and New York, 1855, 2 vols., and the art. in Alliboxe. SMITH, William Andrew, D.D., a leading min- ister of the Methodist-Episcopal Church South ; b. at Fredericksburg, Va., Nov. 29, 1802; d. at Richmond, Va., March 1, 1870. His parents dying when he vs'as quite young, he was kindly cared for and brought up in the family of Mr. Hill, a wor- thy merchant of Petersburgh, Va. He professed religion at seventeen years of age, prepared for the ministry, and was admitted into the Virginia Conference in 1825. He rose rapidly to eminence in the conference. In 1833 he was appointed agent for Randolph-Macon College, then in its infancy. In September of that year, by a painful accident, he was made a cripple for life. He con- tinued to fill many of the most important stations in his conference until 1846, when he was called to the presidency of Randolph-Macon College, and while here he raised, largely by his own per- sonal efforts, an endowment of one hundred thou- sand dollars. This position, as well as that of professor of mental and moral philosophy, he filled with great acceptability and efficiency until 1866, when he moved to St. Louis, Mo. After serving here as pastor of Centenary Church for two years, he became president of Central Col- lege, located at Fayette in that State, and raised for the institution at once, by his personal exer- tion, about a hundred thousand dollars. About this time he became the victim of a fatal mala- dy, which two years later, while on a visit to Richmond, Va., terminated in his death. He was a member of every general conference from 1832 till his death. At the eventful general con- ference of 1844 he took a specially prominent part ; and in the celebrated appeal of Rev. Francis A. Harding, and in the extra-judicial trial of Bishop James O. Andrew, he won a national reputation for deliberative and forensic eloquence and for rare powers of argoiment and debate. From that time he became one of the foremost men in Southern Methodism. He was a hard student and an earnest thinker. His sermons were clear, forcible, and instructive, being able discussions of the cardinal doctrines of the gospel. He was more of a logician than of an orator, yet his logic was not cold and dry, but steeped in emotion, and aglow with zeal. His ministry was blessed with powerful revivals. He was always bold to avow and defend his sentiments, regard- less of consequences. The vigor and clearness of his intellect, his candor, independence, energy, and unquestioned ability, caused him to stand in the front rank of the leading minds in the JNIethodist- Episcopal Church South. (See biographical sketch by Bishop J. C. Granbery, in the General Min- utes for 1870.) His Philosophy and Practice of Slavery (Nashville, 1857) attracted wide attention, and was universally recognized as one of the ablest presentations of the Southern side of the slavery question ever published. W. F. tillett. SMYR'NA, situated on the Hermsean Gulf on the coast of Lydia, became very prosperous after the time of Alexander the Great, and w'as, during the first two centuries of the Christian era, one of the principal commercial centres of the world, and the richest and most beautiful city of Asia Minor. It contained a Jewish and a Christian congi'egation, and the latter had occa- sion to prove its faith under persecutions insti- tuted by the former (Rev. i. 11, ii. 8). Its venerable bishop, Polycaip, suffered martyrdom under Marcus Aurelius in 169. The city was almost totally destroyed by an earthquake in 178. It has now a mixed population of about 180,000. SMYTH, John, founder of the General Bap- tists ; date of birth unknown ; d. in Holland in 1612. Like many of the separatists he was a SMYTH. 2202 SMYTH. Cambridge man; matriculated as a prizeman of Ciirist's College, 1571, where John Milton after- wards studied ; took his B.A. 1575-76 ; was elected a, fellow, and commenced his M.A. 1579; after- wards he was lecturer at Lincoln, and then became vicar of Gainsborough, Lincolnshire, Eng. Seized by the time-spirit, he was restless, fervid, earnest, and thoi'oughgoing. At the univei'sity he was cited before the vice-chancellor for defending Sun- day, and at Gainsborough he battled against the separatists in defence of the English Church. But his persistent pursuit of truth precluded con- tent with Puritanism. For " nine months " he was perplexed about the "separation," and dis- puted with the chief Puritan leaders, but only to become pastor of a church of the separatist or independent type in the year 1602. How he be- came a Baptist is not clear. An old church book at Crowle, Lincolnshire, whose authentic character l)r. Dexter vehemently denies, says he was bap- tized in 1606, at midnight, in the River Don, by pjlder John Morton. But his adversaries charged him with baptizing himself. Be that as it may, it is clear that he emigrated, along with his little flock, to Amsterdam, v/here "he was sometime pastor to a company of honest and godly men," forming "the Second English Churcli at Amster- dam," and sustaining himself by practising physic. Since 1591 James Arminius had been setting forth his theological theses in opposition to Gomarus ; and the " First English Church," a Barrowist or separatist Church, of which Francis Johnson was pastor, and Henry Ainsworth teacher, was vigor- ously discussing the burning question of the hour, — the nature of a visible church. In these cir- cumstances Smyth accepted Arminian doctrine, took an anti-Pajdobaptist view of baptism, and, along with Thomas Helwys, published a " Con- fession of Faith " in twenty-six articles, of the General-Baptist pattern. Smyth died; but Hel- wys and some of his comrades came to London, and founded the General-Baptist Cliurch of Eng- land. Smyth was a, man of incorruptible sin- cerity, beautiful humility, glowing charity, a fair scholar, and a good preacher. Smyth wrote Principles and Inferences concern- inij the Visible Church (Amsterdam, 1607), Paral- leles. Censures, Olisercations {1609), Character of the Beast (1609), Differences of the Churches of the Separation, Amsterdam. Lit. — H. M. Dextkk : The True Story of John Smi/th the Se-Baptist, Bost., 1881 ; General Baptist ]\faf/a:ine, Lond., 1882, pp. 149-150; John Clif- fohd: Leading English Baptists, App. x., xiii., Lond., 1881 ; B. Evans : Early English Baptists, vol. ii., Lond., 1862. JOHN Clifford, m.a., d.d. General Baptists, also called Anninian, Free- will, and Free Baptists. I. Origin. — Traces of churches of the General-Baptist type are found in the reign of Henry VHL, at Eyethorne, Kent, Eng., and Booking, or Braintree, in Essex. But the organized life of the General Baptists dates from 1611 (that of the Particular or Calvinistio Baptists from 1633), and becomes a distinct his- torical and continuous force under the leadership of John Smyth (q.v.), Thomas Helwys, John Morton. Leonard Busher, Henry Denne, and Dr. Du Veil. IL Their Doctrinal Basis embraced, (1) the universality of redemption, hence the name of " General," (2) the obligation of baptism on all believei's in Christ, (3) the essentially spiritual character of the church, and (4) the principle of absolute religious liberty, along with other doc- trines common to the Reformed Faith of the opening years of the seventeenth century. Pro- fessor Masson, in his Life of Milton, vol. iii., states that the General Baptists were the first to pronounce with energy and distinctness in favor of the great modern idea of absolute liberty of conscience. Cf. Busher's book quoted at end. III. Their organization embraced, (1) " assem- blies," for the transaction of business common to the welfare of all the churches, not annual at first, but as occasion required; (2) "messengers," or "apostles," who visited the churches to "stir them up," and were also sent out to preach, not only in different parts of England, but also to Ireland, and even to Virginia and South Carolina (^MSS. Proceedings of General Baptist Assembly, vol. ii. 32); (3) "elders," or pastors of churches; (4) " deacons," or helps in government. The churches were not fixed to any one building, but consisted of members scattered over wide areas, jneeting in several buildings, and sometimes hav- ing two or three "elders." The discipline was most I'igid, and extended to speech and dress. In this and other matters they were closely akin to the early Friends, or Quakers. IV. Growth. — The General Baptists spread rapidly in tjie first quarter of a century of their existence. In 1645 there were forty churches in London. During the Conurionwealth they were planted in most of the midland and southern counties of England, and had grown so extensive- ly, that Thomas Grantham (1634-92), author of Christianismus Primitirus (published 1678, Lon- don), describes a petition presented to Charles II. in 1662, as representing 20,000 General Baptists. Increased to 30,000 in 1692, they must have been one of the most numerous, as they were one of the most vigorous, of the English religious bodies. V. Decay. — Several causes contributed to the rapid decline which followed. (1) They lacked organizers, like George Fox and John Wesley, and not a few General-Baptist churches passed over to the Quakers. (2) Men of culture and ability were rare in the ministry. An educated pastorate was slighted. (3) They made their centre rural, and not metropolitan. (4) But chiefly they fell under the blight of that negative and critical spirit which nearly destroyed English Presbyte- rianism, enervated the Particular Baptists, In- dependents, and Episcopalians, and made the eighteenth century one of feeble convictions and sharp debate, of acute reasoning and practical godlessness. Matthew Caffyn, one of the "mes- sengers," and elder of Horsham Church, in Surrey, was charged with Arianisni. Discussion concerning the person of Christ became heated and hurtful ; and in 1696 a rupture took place, and a fresh body, called " The General Association," was formed, in repudiation of Arianism. Three years afterwards a reconciliation was eifected on a seemingly ortho- dox basis ; but it was not enduring, and in 1709 the friends of comprehension withdrew, and re- organized themselves on the " Six Principles " of lieb. vi. 1, 2, and the declarations of the Assem- bly of 1663. This division lasted till 1731, when they came together again on the understanding SMYTH. 2203 SOCIALISM. that difference of opinion concerning the Trinity and the person of Christ should be allowed. VI. The New Connection. — For the next forty years Arianism was quietly gaining sway, when in 1770 the New Connection of General Bap- tists was formed in Whitechapel, London, out of (1) ten churches, containing 659 members, belong- ing to the assembly, and located in the south; (2) five churches, embracing 870 members, in Leicestershire, Derbyshire, and Warwickshire, that had formed themselves on the General Bap- tist type solely by the study of the Scriptures; and (3) a community of 69 members, which arose in a similar fashion in Yorkshire under the Meth- odist Dan Taylor (q.v.), who forthwith became the leader of the Kew Connection. The object of this new federation was " to revive experimental religion or primitive Christianity in faith and practice;" and the basis of agreement added to the principles above named (§ii.) the declaration that " our Lord Jesus is God and man united in one person, or possessed of divine perfection unit- ed to human natm-e in a way which we pretend not to explain, but think ourselves bound by the word of God firmly to believe." The 1,600 members were 3,178 in 179.5, 7,673 in 1820, 17,913 in 1845, 21,066 in 1870, and 26,621 in 1883. A college (now at Nottingham, Kev. Thomas Goady, B.A., principal) was started in. 1797 by Dan Taylor. It has two scholarships (value, £30 each), a large library, thirteen students, an income of £800 per annum, and is affiliated for classical and scientific tuition with the Nottingham University. Home- mission work was started in 1811, and last year received over £2,000. Missions to Orissa, India, sprang in 1816 from the impact of the earnest spirit of the Kev. J. G. Pike (1784-1854), author of Persuasives to Earl;/ Piety, etc., and were greatly promoted by Francis Suttou, D.D. (1802-54), author of the hymn " Hail, sweetest, dearest tie that binds," and originator of the missions of the Freewill Baptists of America to Northern Orissa, and of the Baptist mission to the Telegus. The society also works in Rome, Italy. Income, £8,000 per annum. The Building Fund, established in 1865, has a capital of £6,000. Four thousand pounds were spent on Sunday-school work in 1882. The Magazine, started in 1798, has a large circulation (Rev. John Clifford, M. A., D.D., editor). There are 191 churches in England, with 25,431 members, and 143 ministers; in Orissa, 9 churches, 16 mission-stations, 16 missionaries, 22 native min- isters, 5 ministerial students, 1,175 church-mem- bers, and a native Christian community of 3,064 ; in Rome there is one church of 18 members, two mission-rooms, a missionary, and an evangelist. VII. In the original body an unaggressive Ari- anism has gi-adually gained the ascendant ; and for more than a century there has been a steady decline in numbers, interest, and power. Some of the churches have joined the new body ; others have united with the Psedobaptists ; but more have become defunct. In 1801 they were reduced to thirty-five phurches and 1,300 members : in 1883 there is not half a score of churches, nor 500 mem- bers ; and the only two churches that are thriving have pastors from the New Connection, who have been accepted without any surrender of belief. VIII. Present Numbers ■ — In England, 25,431 ; Orissa, 1,175; Rome, 18; in America, — Free- will (date from 1770), 78,000; Church of God (1830), 30,000; Free Christian Baptists of New Brunswick, and Free Baptists of Nova Scotia, 14,000; Generals, of the West (1824), 13,000; Separate, 7,000 ; the Original Freewill or General Baptists of North Carolina, 10,000; Cumberland Free Baptists, 1,000; the Goldsborough Baptists, 4,000. Total, over 183,000. IX. Lit. — John Smyth's Confession. See B. Evans, D.D. : Early English Baptists, London, 1862 ; Leoxard Busher : Religious Peace, a Plea for Liberty of Conscience, reprinted in Dr. Under- hill's Tracts on Liberty of Conscience, London, 1846 ; The Faith and Practice of Thirty Congre- gations, 1651, published by Taylor, Northampton, 1881 ; Humble Representation and Vindication, Con- fessions of Faith, Hanserd Knollys Soc, p. 327, London, 1854; Fenstanton Records (1644-1720), edited by Dr. IJnderhii,l, Hanserd Ktiollys Soc, London, 1854 ; English General Baptists, by Adam Taylor, Lond., 1818; English General Baptists, by H. Wood, Lond., 1847 ; Bye-Pathes of Baptist His- tory, by J. J. GoADBY, London, 1871 ; Baptists and Quakers in Northamptonshire,hj J . J. Goadby, Lon- don, 1882 ; Barclay's Lnner Life of the Religious Societies of Ike Commonwealth, London, 1878 ; The English Baptists, who they are and what they have done (eight lectures), edited by J. Clifford, M.A., London, 1881. JOHN Clifford, m.a., d.d. SNETHEN, Nicholas, MethodistProtestaut; b. at Fresh Pond (Glen Cove), Long Island, N.Y., Nov. 15, 1769; d. at Princeton, Ind., May 30, 1845. From 1794 until 1830 he was a minister of the Methodist-Episcopal Church; but in 1830 he joined in the organization of the Methodist- Protestant Church, and took thenceforth a promi- nent position in it. He preached in all parts of the country, and was much admired for his elo- quence. He published Reply to 0' Kelly's Apology, 1800 ; Lectures on preaching the Gospel, 1822 ; Ser- mons (posthumous edition, W. G. Snethen), 1846. See Alliboxe, s. v., Drake, s. v. SOCIALiSIVI. This word, of modern origin, does not explain itself fully. By its connection with social, socialize, it ought to denote a doctrine or system which aims to make men social, or, more exactly, to bring about the ends involved in the social nature of man ; or, if we give prominence to the supposed abuses of society, the system of equity and equality by which the abuses which are found in society, especially in old, established societies, may be removed. Giving to it some such definition, we find it to be a broader term than communism, which, by rules freely adopted, or by public force, aims at a common life on principles of equality, as far as their application is possible amid the natural differences of human beings. But comnmnistic experiments, although numerous if we glean them carefully out of the history of mankind, are all on the small scale, and, for the most part, are tried for particular pui-poses, such as for the pursuit of a religious life ; or they are merely philosophical speculations, which seldom are put into practice. They are temporary, like the early Christian community at Jerusalem, where the exceptional poverty of many believers led to an equality of goods ; or they are sanctioned by political communities, owing to a pervading opinion of their religious character, or for some other use, like monastic brotherhoods; SOCIALISM. 2204 SOCIALISM. or, •whatevei' be the principle of their unions, they need the consent of the government and society to their existence, and thus depend on the general will of the great community around them, as well as on the permanent will of a succession of mem- bers, to keep up the same forms of conuuon life. Thus, unless the society which surrounds them, although constructed on wholly different princi- ples, defends and protects them, they will dwindle away, or will disband of themselves. Where they have been tolerably successful, their success seems to be partly due to an abridgment of the rights of the families of which they are composed, and to a mode of life, wliich, if adoi^ted by all, would be far from promoting the ends of human brother- hood. Communism, then, is no cure, on any theory, for the evils or corruptions of society. If it had a cure within itself, it could be of little avail, inas- much as it withdraws its healing influences from society, and yet depends on society for protection. All separate communities, therefore, contain an anti-social piinciple. They are in spirit unlike families, and to a certain extent there is an oppo- sition between their feeling and that of families. The family is so small a society, that it is obliged to look for the supply of a multitude of wants to the outside world, and feels the protection of society in all things and continually. " The union of family life and communal life," as we have else- where I'emarked, " is not fitted to make the com- munity system flourish. The two ai-e different, and, to an extent, hostile principles. The family must draw ofi the interests of its members from the larger or communistic body which encloses it, and concentrate them on itself." "The family implies a sort of privacy and seclusion from the world, without separation : the community implies separation from the world, and a new unity, in- consistent with, or controlling, the family union." Plato, in his republic, would not let the citizens of the warrior class know who their own children were, because they would thus have separate and personal interests. The communistic spirit, as distinguished from the socialistic, is indifferent to the good of the family, or hostile to. it, and makes use of the power of society for its own protection, without doing any thing for society in return. If a whole nation were divided up into communities, the national' strength and the family tie both would be weakened. A state so constituted would resemble, in important respects, one consisting of small brotherhoods, or gentes, or septs, but with much less of the family tie than is found in the latter when general society is as yet undeveloped. "W'e now come to consider the essence and genius of- socialism:- and here at the outset we labor under a serious difficulty; it has never been tried, and remains as yet a theory. Communistic sys- tems have been tried, and one system learns from the failures and follies of an earlier system, with- out doing any great harm to society and the state ; or it may remain untried, a beautiful vision, serv- ing to show the distance of society at present from the perfect idea of a commonwealth. But a so- cialistic theory cannot be put to the test without becoming part of the public law, or, rather, with- out having a power given to a government, by which the state exercises control over labor and capital, and over every thing into which they enter. And, in order to do this, the existing capi- tal must be prevented from doing what it does now : hence as capital, through the rights of testa- ment and inheritance, now presents a firm front to sweeping changes of laws, and has continued to do this for ages, there must be a sudden or a gradual crippling of these rights, and a destruc- tion of capital on a scale such as the world has never seen. No conquest of civilized lands by barbarians ever swept from a land its motives to industry, its landowners, its manufacturers, its capital in general, to such an extent as such a sys- tem of reform. A revolution in industry, in prop- erty, in ownership, more thorough than has ever been known, must be the preface of this new social system ; and the principles on which the revolu- tion would be begun would prevent the system of free competition, free movement and choice of work, free use of capital, from appearing again, except by a similai- revolution long afterwards, begun on the ruins of a vast social experiment. It is evident, that, in order to bring about such a revolution in the relations of capital to labor, the government itself must be invested with new power, such as no constitutional government has ever had, and no people has ever favored. The necessity of absolute power in the state has been acknowledged by socialists to be indispensable, as a means of overthrowing the existing relations of capital to labor. And, indeed, the necessity is too apparent to be doubted. If the state itself is to take the office of being sole capitalist, all other propi'ietors must be sooner or later " expro- priated." If it is to be the sole producer, through its capital invested in machinery and land, it can have, of course, no competitor. If, for instance, it decides what kinds of stuff's for wear shall be made, of course no others from abroad can be imported and sold in the land. It must deter- mine the quality and, quantity of things made. It must own the mantifactories, it must put an end to all money-lending by private persons. Its power is shown to be tremendous by the single consideration that it must be authorized to re- move laborers en masse from place to place, and to decide practically what objects shall be made in all the employments of life. The experiment of modem times which comes nearest to socialism is that initiated by Louis Blanc, who has recently died, after winning dis- tinction by his historical writings, and who was so prominent in his party at the downfall of Louis Philippe, in 1848, as to be chosen a member of the Provisional Government in France. He had, however, but a brief opportunity to put his plan of organizing labor into practice. Being compromised in the disturbances of May, 1848, he fled to England, where he lived many years. His social starting-point is not a new one. "It is not the man who is responsible for his wrong-doings, but society ; and hence a society which is strong, and settled on a good 'basis, will make the individual good. The evils of slavery flow from inequality, and that from property. Property, then [i.e. , personal or family property], is the great scourge of society; it is the veritable public crime. " Government should be the supreme regulator of production, and be invested with power enough to accomplish its task. It shovild raise money, which should be appropriated without payment of interest, for the creation of social workshops (ateliers) In the most important branches of national industry. In SOCIALISM. 2205 SOCIALISM. these workshops there should be the same wages for all. They should form a solidarity among them- selves, and thus, when united with agricultural labor, would consolidate in one the whole industry of the country. The funds necessary for this organization of labor could be in part derived from lapsed collat- eral inheritances. The eilect of thus aiding the ateliers would obviously be to render it impossible for private undertakers to compete with the national .shops. Thus concurrence would cease, and private work would yield to the public, or socialistic system. " In 1S48 this system of Louis Blanc was so far put to the test that public ateliers were opened; and in Paris a hundred and fifty thousand workmen were employed in them at a daily expense of fifty thousand dollars. National ruin was near, if the system should continue. The workmen proved to be a dangerous element in the population. The emeiite of May and that of June, in which many of the workmen in these national ateliers took part, furnished a pretext for putting an end to the experiment." — See Commun- ism AND Socialism, pp. 123, 124, by the writer of this article. The impoitance of what Louis Blanc projected lay, not in the novelty of his suggestions, but in his bringing the minds of men to a practical point, where the transformation of society could begin without any preparatory overturning. It was also instructive in showing what could be easily foretold, — that the difficulties of a transi- tion from a condition of individual property and free acquisition to the abolition of individual property is no easy one. In fact, a change like this could not be accomplished without a struggle of classes and interests such as has seldom, if ever, been known in the world ; and, if it should succeed in a single country, every contiguous country, every civilized country, would feel the necessity of resisting it to preserve its own pros- perity, its commerce, its safety against the strife of classes, its good hopes for the future. Yet the danger in a number of European states from socialistic doctrines was soon shown to be serious. A class of society, which was now called the proletariat, or the laboring-class, began to take an attitude of hostility to the bourgeoisie, or class of employers, in many parts of Europe, and a division of society began to arise which had been unknown on so large a scale and in such favora- ble circumstances before. One peculiarity of the new movement was that the modern science of political economy had come to be propagated among the operatives of the towns ; another was the free movement of opinions from one country to another ; a third, the increasing decay of re- ligious faith and the spread of free thinking ; an- other still, the impunity with which demagogues could spread revolutionary opinions through the lower strata of society, and, again, the greater ease of co-operation, not only among the laborers of the same crafts in the same centres of industry, but also among workingmen of all civilized lands. These caus'es, appearing not suddenly, but by slow degrees, together with the increased communica- tion between diilerent lands, with the gi-owth of individual liberty, and, to an extent, with the progress of education, seemed to be leading society into new breakers on a great scale, and to be bringing on an antagonism between govern- ments and large masses of theii- subjects. Before the February revolution in 1848, there had been workingmen's associations in several countries of Europe, and some very able leaders began their career before that period, such as, among the Germans, Marx (recently dead), Engels, and Liebknecht ; but the International Working- men's Association was not formed until 1864. Long before this, Marx aided in a manifesto of the communist party, which called on the proletariats of all lands to unite. "It demanded the aboli- tion of private property in the soil, centralization of credit in a state bank, union of the means of intercourse in the hands of the state, national workshops, fertilizing and tilling the soil on a common prescribed plan, and gTatuitous instruc- tion." The plan of the General Association contemplated an annual congress of deputies, consisting of one from each branch association, section, or group, or of two when the members of the primaries amounted to more than five hun- dred. A general council of fifty was to meet at London, and every subordinate union, also, was to have a committee or council. The union spread through nearly all the countries of Europe, except in the German lands and in Austria, where the Workingmen's Union, founded by Lassalle, had pre- occupied the field. Our limits forbid us to speak of the proceed- ings of this union at any length. At the congress of Lausanne, in 1867, it was maintained that "modern production on a great scale renders co-operative industry a necessity," and " that the state ought to be made the holder of the means of transport and circulation in order to annihi- late the powerful monopoly of great companies." At the congresses of 1868 and 1869 a report on property revealed a difference of opinion, proving that the extreme theorists had not yet got com- plete ascendency. In 1868 it was decided that the ways of communication, and forests, soil, mines, coal-pits, and railroads ought to be com- mon property. Dnpont, general secretary of the International, used at this congress the following language: " We want no governments any longer, for governments oppress us by taxes ; we want no armies any more, for armies, butcher and murder us ; we want no religion any longer, for religion stiflesthe understanding." At the con- gress of Basel, in 1869, it was moved and carried that society may abolish individual property, put- ting collective property in its place in the soil. On the same occasion a motion that the right of inheritance ought to be completely and " radically " abolished did not meet with entire acceptance. In consequence of the outbreak of the Franco- Prussian war, no congress of this union was held in 1870 ; and the horrors during the siege of Paris in 1871, which were, without due cause, ascribed to the members of the International as origi- nators, put the International under the ban of Europe. Socialism could not stand under tlie crimes of those with whom it sympathized. The Workingmen's Union was founded a little after the International, by a bi'illiant and accom- plished man, Ferdinand Lassalle, whose early death was followed by the division of his adherents. Universal suffrage adopted by the North German Confederation weakened it again by satisfying the more moderate of the German socialists. In 1869 Liebknecht, an old socialist, founded the Social Democratic Workingmen's Party ; and this was succeeded by the Socialistic Workingmen's Party, at Gotha, in 1875. The extreme principles SOCIALISM. 2206 SOCIALISM. of the International prevailed in this new organi- zation, as they have done in Germany ever since, over the more moderate form of socialism that was in vogue before. Meanwhile, in 1871, the new empire was estab- lished ; and, in the Reichstag, socialistic represen- tatives, few, yet in hicreasing numbers, have had an opportunity to ventilate their opinions. Outside of the political arena, several professors of politi- cal economy have some leaning toward socialistic doctrines, although disagreeing among themselves. Such are Brentano, Schmoller, Schaeffle, F. A. Lange. The socialistic party is also extremely active in propagating its opinions through the press. Its strength at the polls has been esti- mated as being in 1877 from six to eight hundred thousand. We close our sketch of socialism with consider- ing some of the results to society from the system, if it should ever become predominant. 1. At present the instruments of work belong to the class of the capitalists. The dependence of the working-class, due to this fact, is held to be a cause of misery and servitude in all its forms. To liberate work, the means of production nmst be converted into the common property of society. Thus all land and instruments must cease to belong to private persons. All capitalists must be stripped of their possessions, however small in extent. The incomes of the present owners may be converted into terminable annuities, if states are able to take on them such a burden. 2. The reward of work, or wages, is, according to the doctrine of Marx, to be measured by time spent in work. Whether this principle would not ruin the whole plan is doubtful ; for a sense of injustice on the part of the faithful would be roused against the idle, and thus some other meas- ure of comparative wages would be demanded. 3. Tickets of work are to be given to each work- man, which will entitle him to the value of his day's work, estimated in the productions which he needs. As all production is for the state, and all wants supplied by the state, there is an infinite complication in the process, when the government takes the work of supply into its own hands. 4r. By this process all money is superseded, ex- cept so far as dealings with foreign lands, where barter cannot be made use of, are concerned. Drafts must be issued by the government, and be payable in so many tickets of work. .5. The govennuent, being the only employer, is free from all competition. But what is to pre- vent over-production, which is checked at present by want of sale? What is to prevent compara- tive over-production of articles in great use ; for instance if too little food were produced to meet the amount of things manufactured ? 6. The government, being the only transporter and distributer, will be liable to an infinity of mis- takes, which are at present reduced to their mini- umm by individual caution. Wants of one thing, or in one place, cannot be supplied in another place, or of another thing, by competition ; for competition is excluded by the system. Every change must be provided for by the government, and new wants be met by new supplies, according to its judgment. The present rapid movements of industry would be retarded by the clogs and breaks necessary in the action of central power. Could so vast a city as London, or even as New York, be sure of not .being exposed to famines on the plan of destroying private capital ? 7. International exchanges would add to the difficulties of a socialistic state. It must own ves- sels, collect things produced elsewhere, and pay for them by barter of productions not needed at home, or by purchasing gold and silver. Here, again, the stimulus of competition being neces- sarily absent, the agents of a government would be brought into straits which might be of most serious injury. 8. It must not be supposed that all the final results of labor will accrue to the laborer. The certificates of work will amount to an immense sum ; but the deductions from them must be im- mense also. The expenses of governments, the support of all transporters, of education, of the poor, the sick, the disabled, the police, of legisla- tion, official salaries, — which in such a state would include the payment to all who buy, sell, or carry, — the prevention, trial, and punishment of crime, the care of roads, protection of every sort, would still continue, and would of course involve an amount of certificates of work, which must be deducted from the reward of work, to an extent which no one can foresee. Lawyers, it is true, would, for the most part, cease. Inheritance would, or might, cease also, — at least the savings from labor invested in certificates of work would be, no doubt, small ; and the absence of private means of acquisition would take away a principal stimulus to work beyond the supply of pressing wants. A general equality just above the sub- sistence-point would, it is probable, prevail, and take away another most important stimulus. But perhaps we have indulged in a useless method of looking at socialism on the industrial side, when there is so much uncertainty in the action of causes under new conditions. We turn to another side of the subject, — to its relations to the family, the state, to individual character and the progress of society. Hei'e, whatever side we take, we can form opinions only which may prove to be wide of the mark. And first as to the fami- ly : if we judged from the free thoughts of many socialists in regard to marriage, divorce, free-love, and the like, we should not feel very hopeful that socialism would long retain in its purity the Chris- tian idea of the family tie ; nor should we be ready to think that a system which cut off the middle class of society altogether from existence would preserve the best models for a wholly new system. Yet there is at least no light or especial .hope drawn from the prospect which socialism holds out. I can believe, that, in some places, every thing would be hopeful, while elsewhere the phalansteries of Fourierism would be realized with the fewest redeeming features. The state, as we have seen, must be invested, in socialism, with all power over industry ; which thus may be called practically unfree. It must be a state of serfs with a democratic government over them. Is it harsh or unjust to say that the slaves on a Southern plantation, under a slave- driver, were in some respects better off ; for the master himself, over against the driver, might represent clemency and kindness ? Religion will not stand very high in the regard of socialists. Schaeffle says, in his Quintessence SOCIALISM. 2207 SOCINUS. of Socialism, that it is "through and through irre- ligious, and hostile to the church." But perhaps this may be owing to the fact that the religious institutions of society have hitherto been bulwarks against revolutionary causes like socialism, and that religious feeling involves a spirit of subordi- nation to existing order, except when such order strikes at the roots of religion itself. In the social state it would be whoUy uncertain whether a na- tion of laborers could or would restore religious brotherhood on the foundation of the New Testa- ment, when once state churches should be over- thrown. And again : how would socialism affect indi- vidual character ? Here we notice, first, that mere equality, with no power to rise above the condition of birth, — a form of life where competition, and advantage from special energy or ability are cut off, — would deaden nearly all the motives by which human nature is at present carried forward. Do we not thus come back again to a state of serfdom? And, if all have an equal voice in the choice of the governors of society, are not all equally under a government most absolute? The monotony, listlessness, and want of hope, of such a state of things, are not likely to improve human nature, or become a remedy for evils handed down from the past. But we may ask whether the system of social- ism in which the destruction of private capital, entire equality, the government's absolute control, are essential featiires, can ever become a reality. Certainly not, we should say, unless it can be shown that society on its present basis is incapa- ble of becoming better, or unless there is an inevitable tendency in every change, toward the point aimed at by socialism ; for otherwise, so- ciety as at present constituted would rise en masse against the movement. The spirit of the house- hold, the spirit of capital, aU that is interested in the present, every landholder down to the smallest farmer, every one who has property, would resist to the death. And all governments would form a mutual insurance against the theorists who should demand universal change. If freedom of opinion on the most practical of subjects became explosive, it would be met evej-ywhere by com- mon resistance; for all have a common interest to shield each other from ruin. In such a case, there would be no middle ground between the ruin of socialists and the ruin of society. Lit. — We give a very brief notice of the litera- ture of this subject. On Plato's republic, consult Grote's Plato, etc., 1865, and Aristotle's Poli- tics, especially ii. ch. 2. On the Buddhist monks, Rhys David : Buddhism. On the Essenes, Light- foot, Bishop of Durham, on Colossians, 1875. Christian monastic system, the church historians, as Neander, etc. On the Anabaptists of MUnster, Ranke : Gesck. Deutschland's, etc., book v. On the American communities, Noyes: History of American Socialism, 1875 ; Nordhoff : Commun- istic Societies of the United States, 1874; Hind: American Communists, 1878; Sir T.Morb: Utopia; Campanella: Civitas solis, 1623; Morelly: Code de la Nature, 1755. The theoretical communism in the works of St. Simon and his followers ; of Fourier, as the theory of the four movements ; Caret : Voyage d'Icaria, etc. ; Louis Blanc : Organisation de travail, etc., 1840, etc. ; Pierre 33 - Til Leroux. Lorenz Stein has written in German a valuable history of socialism and communism in France, 1844. Jager's Moderne Socialismus includes with France, Germany, etc. There have been numerous other writers on German social- ism, of whom we name, Contzen : Gesch. d. Soc. Fragen; MehrinG: Socicde Democ; Schaeffle: Quintessenz des Socialismus ; J. S. Mill's chapters in the Fortnightly Review (1879), published after his death, with the writings of half-socialists, as Lassalle, F. a. Lange {Arheiterfrage, etc.), and Marx (Capital, 1872, 2d ed.), the leading spirit of the movement. [Cf . R. D. Hitchcock : Social- ism, 'N.Y., 1S78; T. D. WooLSEY : Communism and SocialLim, 1880.] T. D. WOOLSEY. SOCIETE EVANCELIQUE DE GENEVE (the Evangelical Society of Geneva"), the oldest of the Continental evangelical societies, was founded in 1831 for the spread of sound apostolic doctrine throughout Switzerland and France. It has a theological school at Geneva, supports numerous missionaries, pastors, and colportors, and is en- tirely dependent upon the funds yearly collected, not only in Switzerland, but in different parts of Europe, and from the United States of America. It is undenominational, having as its confession of faith substantially the creed of the Evangeli- cal Alliance. It is the product of the revival of gospel truth which attended the labors of Robert Haldane (see art.). In the society's theological school, Gaussen, Malan, Pronier, and Merle D'Au- bigne have taught. In the year from March, 1881 to March, 1882, the receipts were, from gifts and sales, 254,187 francs. In 1881 it celebrated its fiftieth anniversary, and issued a memorial vol- ume, Re'cits et Souvenirs de quelques-uns de ses ouvriers. See its Annual Reports. SOCIETE CENTRALE PROTESTANTE D'EVANCELISATION. This society, connected with the Reformed Church of France, was found- ed in 1852. Its centre is Paris, but it operates in all parts of France. Its object is to develop the faith of Protestants, and in every way advance the Protestant cause. It supports theological schools at Tournon and Batignolles, and numer- ous churches, preaching-stations, and schools. ,It has also so fostered forty-two churches, that now they are independent of its help. During 1882 its receipts were 281,029 francs. SOCINUS (Faustus) AND THE SOCINIANS. Faustus Socinus, or Fausto Sozzini, was b. at Siena, 1539; d. at Luclawice in Poland, 1604, Left an orphan at a tender age, his early educa- tion was neglected. Following the example of his ancestors, he at first devoted himself to the study of law, but corresponded with his uncle Ijclio Sozzini about religious questions. In 1559 the misfortunes of his family forced him to leave Italy ; and he went to Lyons, and then to ZUrich, where he spent three years examining the manu- scripts of his uncle. It was from there, as he himself says, that Socinus got the suggestion of some of the characteristic features of his later sys- tem. His literary activity was inaugurated with an exposition of the first part of the first chap- ter of John (1562), which appeared anonymously. From 1562 to 1574 he was again in Italy, and at the court of Francesco de Medici in Florence, who heaped honors and offices upon him. The most of the time between 1574 and 1578 he spent SOCINUS. 2208 SOCINUS. in Basel, occupied with the elaboration of his system and disputations. The latter were the oc- casion of two of his principal writings. — De Jesu Christo servatore, against the Protestant preach- er Covet, and De statu primi hominis ante lapsuni, against the Florentine' Pucci. In 1579 he went to Poland, where the name of his uncle was still held in honor, and remained there till his death. At Cracow, Socinus applied for admission to the society of Unitarians, but was refused, except on condition of his being rebaptized, the Unitarians being leavened with Anabaptist notions. Socinus, not accepting admission on these grounds, em- ployed his powers and influence to have the law changed in this regard. He was active with his pen and at synods, and he lived to see his view accepted at the synod of Rakow in 1603. In 1583 he married into a Polish family of noble birth. He was not free from abuse and persecutions, and in 1598, while ill, was taken out of his bed by Cracow students who had been incited by Roman-Catholic priests, dragged half naked through the city, and scourged, but was rescued by a university professor, Martin Vadovita. On this occasion, all of his books, papers, and manu- scripts were burned in the market-place. In 1605, immediately after Socinus' death, the so-called Rakow or Socinian Catechism appeared in the Polish language, for which he had made preparations. It was completed, upon the basis of the^e and his writings, by Statorius, Schmalz, Moscorovius, and Volkel. A German translation was made in 1608, and a Latin one in 1609, of which a second, third, and fourth edition ap- peared at Amsterdam in 1665, 1680, 1684. This catechism is a very good compendium of the Socinian theology. At Socinus' death there were a number of Unitarian congregations in Poland, made up largely of noblemen. Good schools were connected with them. The city of Rakow was the chief citadel of Unitarianism, and the excel- lent institution of learning was attended at one time by nearly a thousand students, three hundred of whom were of noble birth. The general synod of the Socinians met there every year. Many of their theologians and preachers were celebrated. Among these were Schmalz (d. 1622), who wrote fifty-two works in defence of Socinianism ; Volkel (d. 1618), a student of Wittenberg, and for a time amanuensis of Socinus, whose work, De vera reli- gione, is a systematic presentation of the Socinian theology; Ostorodt (d. 1611), who advocated the specific Anabaptist principles of refusing to do military duty, serve in public offices, etc. ; and Moscorovius (d. 1595), who, amongst other things, wrote the Defence of the Socinians, which he sent to the king. Among the more distinguished men of the succeeding generation were Crell (d. 1631), a very prolific authoi-, whose biblical commen- taries, two books De una Deo patre (the keenest Socinian attack upon the doctrine of the Trinity),. and other works, fill vols. iii. and iv. of the Bibl. fralrum Polonorum; Schlichting (d. 1661), the author of a confession of faith (1642), De trinitate, de moralibus V. et N. T. itemque de eucharistice et baptismi ritibus< (1637), etc. ; Ludwig von Wolzogen (d. 1661), a distinguished exegete, and author of Compendium rel. christ. ; Wiszowaty (d. 1678), author of sixty-two works, editor of the Bibl. frat. Polon., etc.; and Morskowski, author of Politia ecclesiastica (1646). In the reign of Si mund III., and his son Wladislav IV., who \ completely under the influence of the Jesuits, Socinian congregations were persecuted and le ly abolished. By a decree of 1638 the schoo Rakow was suppressed, and the church ta away from " the Arians ; " the immediate occas of these harsh measures being the blasphem' some of the students in stoning a wooden cruc outside of the precincts of the city. -Rakow, saken of the Socinians, is now a poverty-stric village. John Casimir, who ascended the Po throne in 1648, treated the remaining Socini who dared to show their faces at the approacl the king of Sweden as ti'aitors ; and at the i of Warsaw (1658) it was decreed that the t fession and promotion of Socinianism should punished with death. Two years were allowei intervene before the execution -of the edict, ; during that time many Socinians emigrated, fresh edict in 1661 confirmed the preceding c In Germany, Socinian doctrines were first tau by Ernst Soner, professor of medicine and phy at Altdorf. He taught clandestinely, but v success, till his death, in 1612. His princ: writing is a treatise upon the eternal duratioi future punishment. Altdorf became the hea stone of Socinianism, but the Council of Ni berg forbade the publication of Socinian vi there. Socinian synods were held in Kreuzb in 1661 and 1663. Some of the Polish exiles vi permitted to remain for a while at Mannhe In Germany the movement was always very w and insignificant. In Holland it was more i cessf ul ; and, in spite of persecutions, the Socini increased. In 1653 the States-General dema ed a pledge of the University of Leyden tha would not tolerate Socinian teaching. Soms the Polish exiles found their way to Hoik Among them three especially deserve menti Felbinger (b. 1616), Sand (d. at Amsterd; 1680), who wrote the Bibliotheca Antitrinitarioi (1684), a full literary history of his sect, Zwicker (d. at Amsterdam, 1678), whose w< Jrenicum Irenicorum, produced a great excitem- The Socinians finally were identified with Remonstrants. For the history of the moveir in England and the United States, see art. Uni RIANS. The doctrines of Socinianism are not to be garded as identical with the doctrines of mod Unitarianism, and are laid down in the writi of Socinus, the Rakow Catechism, and the wc of the principal Socinian writers down to middle of the seventeenth century. The gem Socinians held firmly to the authority of Scriptures and to a very positive supranaturali The Rakow Catechism begins with the quest "What is the Christian religion?" Answer. "' Christian religion is the way revealed by God securing eternal life." Christianity is a spe revelation. It is made known in the Scriptu which, clothed with divine authority, is the c source of religious knowledge. The authorit the Old Testament, which only has an histoi value, rests upon the testimony of the New ' tament. Both the Testaments are inspired d( ments. The sacred writers wrote under the pulse and dictation of the Divine Spirit (di Spiritu impulsi eoque diciante). The Socinii SOCINUS. 2209 SOCINUS. however, taught that only the essential parts, those pertaining to doctrine, were of immediate divine inspiration. The views concerning the relation of reason to revelation differ somewhat from those of orthodox Protestants. Reason is man's spir- itual eye ; and, in all controverted matters, it is judge, and not the Pope or the believing Chris- tian. The truths of revelation are above reason, but never contrary to it. Miracles are above rea- son, and credible. The doctrines of the trinity and divinity of Christ are contrary to reason, and therefore incredible. Wiszowaty, in his Religio rationcdis, went so far as to teach the agreement between the true philosophy and religion. Thus the latent rationalism in genuine Socinianism became more and more prominent. In the department of theology proper the usual attributes are attributed to God. His omniscience is defined in suoh a way that it does not conflict with the contingency of events and the freedom of the will. God does not know in such a way that whatsoever he knows will surely come to pass. If God's knowledge, says Crell, were to make every thing to happen necessarily, which does happen, theii there would be no real sin, or guilt of sin. In the doctrine of the mode of the divine exist- ence, it is taught that God is one. This proposition is based upon such passages as Deut vi. 4, Mark xii. 29, Gal. iii. 20, Eph. iv. 6, etc. The antago- nism to the threefold personality of God forms the centre of the Socinian opposition to historical Christianity, and it is the special and single aim of many Socinian works to prove the docti-ine of the Trinity irrational and uuscriptural. The plural Elohim, Socinus explained, with Beza, as the plu- ral of majesty. The thrice-repeated " holy" (Isa. vi. 3) is properly explained to be used for the sake of emphasis. In the case of the three men who appeared to Abraham (Gen. xviii.), it is shown that only one of them was called " Lord." To the ar- gument from passages in the New Testament in which the Son and Holy Spirit seem to be placed on an equality with the Father, as in the formula of baptism (Matt, xxviii. 19), it is replied that he in whose name believers are baptized is not neces- sarily God, as appears from the case of Moses (1 Cor. X. 2), etc. In regard to the apostolical benediction (2 Cor. xiii. 14), it is asserted that the Son and Holy Ghost are distinguished from the Father. The genuineness of the passage of the three witnesses in 1 John is denied. The ra- tional argument against the Trinity is specially emphasized, as would naturally be expected. Man was created in God's image. That image consists essentially in the dominion which was given him over all creatures. Mind and reason are included under this head, as they are the effi- cient cause'of this dominion. Socinus denied that immortality was a constituent in this image. Man was created mortal. The passage in Eom. V. 12 means that Adam's sin involved eternal death. Socinus expressly said that Adam would have died if he had not sinned. The first sin is treated almost exclusively as the result of igno- norance and inexperience. So far as Adam's knowledge was concerned, he was armed against temptation. Original righteousness was not a cre- ated attribute, but subject to man's volition and voluntary activity. The reason was not absolute mistress of the sensual nature. Sin is an act of the free will, and as such it was not even known in advance by God. The sin of Adam did not entail upon his posterity the loss of freedom ; that is, the ability to choose between the right and the wrong. So far as the doctrine of original sin is in opposition to this view, the Socinians most posi- tively denied it. The i^'u oi Rom. v. 12 is ex- plained to mean quoniam, quatenus. The doctrine of original sin is opposed to the Scripture which calls upon men to repent and be converted. The mere inclination to sin, Socinus held, might exist in all, but did not necessarily so exist. But this inclination is not a consequence of the sin of Adam ; and, if this were the case, it would cease to be sin, for sin exists only where there is guilt. Hence no corruption came upon the human family by Adam's sin. In the Socinian system, Christ is not divine. He was more than a mere man. His attributes were extra-human, but he was not of divine na- ture. He had to be a man in order to redeem. Immortality, the goal of the Christian religion, was mediated by the resurrection of Christ. If, on the other hand, his superiority to men had con- sisted in his divinity, he could not have died. The argument from Scripture and reason is pressed. The divinity of Christ cannot be derived from the affirmation that he was God's Son, for all men are called the sons of God (Rom. ix. 26) ; and, when Christ is called the only-begotten Son, it is simply meant that he was the chief and highest of the sons of God, as Isaac and Solomon are also known by this designation. The expression " I and my Father are one " (John x. 30) refers to unity of will and power, as in John xvii. 22. The passages referring to Christ's pre-existence are explained away easily. In John i. 1, the expression "in the beginning " is declared to mean " in the be- ginning of the gospel," or the Christian dispensa- tion. The statement that " all things " were made by Christ (John i. 3; Col. i. 16) refers simply to all things pertaining to the gospel ; and the state- ment, " the world " was made by him (John i. 10), has reference either to the reformation of man- kind by the gospel, or to the future woild. From such passages as John iii. 13, 31, vi. 36, svi. 28, the conclusion is drawn, that Christ was caught up into the heavens for a season, like Paul. Stress is laid, in the argument against Christ's deity, on his habit of praying to the Father, his being sent by the Father, his ignorance of the day of judgment, etc. Christ, however, was more than man. He had superior endowments to the mass of mankind. He was (1) conceived of a virgin, (2) was perfectly holy, and (3) was exalted to absolute power, all things being made subject unto him. Christ's work is treated in the Catechism under his threefold office of prophet, priest, and king. As prophet, Christ ordained the Lord's Supper, which is simply a memorial feast, a declaration of that which we already possess by faith. He also promised the Holy Ghost, who is not a person, but a power or activity of God, and eternal life. Looking at the priestly office, Christ is regarded as a mediator ; but the view that salvation was secured by his sufferings and death is declared to be false and pernicious. The Scripture teach- es very often that God foi-gives sins gratuitously (2 Cor. V. 19, etc.), and the idea of satisfaction is SOCRATES. 2210 SOCRATES. at complete variance with a free gift (Eph. ii. 8, etc.). It is the resurrection upon which the stress is laid ; and Socinus expressly declares, that it is the head and ground of aU our faith and salva- tion in the person of Christ {caput et tanquam fundamenlum totius fidei et salutis nosirce in Christi persona). The obedience Christ rendered to the law was due from him, for God had commanded him to obey. But the guilt and punishment of one cannot be borne by another. Christ had to obey for himself, and could not obey or suffer for others. The word " redemption " in the New Tes- tament does not contain the notion of satisfaction, but simply means emancipation. The reconcilia- tion accomplished by Christ consists simply in this, that to us who were enemies of God he showed the way to become converted, and return to God. The meaning of the atonement is, that God in Christ has shown himself to be above measure gracious (propitius). Christ's high-priestly office consists in the help he gives us. He delivers us from the punishments of sin by reason of the absolute power which he received from the Father, and which protects us. He delivers us from the bondage of sin by keeping us from all manner of sins. This he does by presenting to our thought his own person, which remained sinless in tempta- tion. Predestination is nothing more than the divine decree to give eternal life to as many as believe on Christ. Faith consists of assent to the doctrine of Christ, trust in God through Christ, and obedience to God's commandments. Justifi- cation consists in this, that God treats us as right- eous ; and it is not an imputation of Christ's righteousness. The theory of an apprehension of his righteousness is a human fiction. In the Socinian theology scriptural and unsci'ip- tural elements strangely meet. It was the real forerunner of modern rationalism, and in this consideration lies its chief claim to prolonged attention. Lit. — The complete Works of Socinus are con- tained in the Blbliot. Fratrum Polonorum, vols, i., ii. . they consist of commentaries, polemic tracts against Catholics, Protestants, and Unitarians, etc. The principal of these writings are, Prcelectiones theologicce ; Christianm religionis brevissima institulio per interrogat tones et res]ionsiones, quam catechis- mum vulgo vacant. Otto Fock : D. Socinianismus, Kiel, 1847 ; [Hurst : History of Rationalism, oh. xxiii.]. See Unitarianism. HERZOa. SOCINUS, Laelius, uncle of Faustus; b. at Siena in 1525 ; d. at Zurich, May 16, 1562. He was an antitrinitarian. SOCRATES. The life and death, teaching and influence, of Socrates, were so remarkable, that although he was known as "the moral philosopher of Athens," and has always been known as " the ^ parent of philosophy," he is also entitled to a scarcely less conspicuous place in the history of religion. The events in the life of Socrates are so few and so familiar, that we need not dwell upon them. The following epitome will suffice for the pur- poses of this article. He was born in Paeania, a deme of Attica, 469 B.C. His father, Sophro- niscus, was a sculptor ; his mother, Phsenarete, was a midwife ; and as in youth he followed success- fully, if we may believe Pausanias, the occupation of his father, so, as he playfully remarked, he devoted his manhood, even till old age, to the assiduous practice of the profession of his mother, in bringing to birth, like a spiritual midwife, the thoughts and characters of his youthful country- men. In three battles — at Potidsea, at Delium, and at Amphipolis — he proved himself a brave and efficient citizen-soldier. At the age of sixty, as a senator (member of the j3o«A^), — the only instance in which he accepted office, — he showed his moral and political heroism by withstanding alone the excited passions, and for the time thwarting the perverse and vindictive purpose,.of the people in their popular assembly. At the age of seventy (B.C. 399) he was accused of corrupt- ing the youth, and not worshipping the gods of his country, tried before the popular dicastery, condemned by a small majority of votes, and died by drinking hemlock. The philosophy of Socrates is not so much a system of doctrines as a spirit of inquiiy, and a method of search for the truth. That method, the method of question and answer, was so char- acteristic of Socrates, and at the same time so full of life and power, that it was adopted more or less by all his disciples, and has ever since been known as the Socratic method. It is seen in its perfection in the Dialogues of Plato, which are the idealized conversations of the idealized Socrates. The subject-matter of the Socratic philosophy is ethics in contradistinction to phys- ics ; its aim is practical to the exclusion of barren speculation; and conscious ignorance, modesty, moderation, pure and high morality, humble in- quiry at the oracles of God about humble "human things," in a word, that childlike spirit, which, as Lord Bacon says, is the key both to "the king- dom of science and the kingdom of heaven," is among its most marked characteiistios. The chief good, our being's end and aim, according to the Socratic ethics, is happiness; not, however, that which most men call happi- ness; not ev-vxia, but evirpa^ia and evdai/imia; not the pleasure which springs from the possession of riches, honor, power, and the gifts of fortune, but that well being which results from well doing in obedience to the will of God and with the blessing of Heaven. The true, the beautiful, and the good are all essentially identical with each other, since they all consist in the useful and the fitting ; and that which is good for nothing is neither good nor beautiful nor true. Xenophon and Plato agree in making Socrates teach that he who knows justice is just, and the man who understands virtue is virtuous : in other words, he resolves all virtue into knowledge. But it is plain from both these writers that he used knowledge in S, high and comprehensive sense unusual in ethical treatises, but strikingly analogous to that in which it is used in the Scrip- tures. He makes knowledge identical with wis- dom, and ignorance with folly and sin, just as in the Bible piety is wisdom, and sin is folly : the wicked have no knowledge, while the righteous know all things. He who is truly master of the science or profession of virtue will be truly vir- tuous. In this high sense, knowledge is virtue, since really to know is certainly to do, and to do is the only way truly to know. Socrates believed in the existence of one su- preme Divinity, the Creator and Disposer of the SOCRATES. 2211 SOCRATES. universe, the Maker and Father of mankind, the Ruler and Governor among the nations, invisible, all-powerful, omniscient, and omnipresent, per- fectly wise and just and good. His method of demonstrating the existence of such a being was strictly Baconian, the same argument which Paley uses in his Natural Theology: indeed, we almost seem to be reading Paley when we read the chapters in which Xenophon records his master's arguments in proof of the divine existence and benevolence. And when we read, in the same author, of those unwritten laws in the soul of man which execute themselves, and make it im- possible for any man to be unjust, or impure, or licentious, without paying the penalty (which proves a greater and better than any human law- giver), we seem to be sitting at the feet of Bishop Butler himself. The doctrine of Socrates touching the inferior deities, whose existence he admite, and whose agency he recognizes, particularly in the provi- dential care of human affairs, probably did not differ essentially from the Christian doctrine of the angels ; though it marks the greater elevation of the Christian revelation and the Christian consciousness, that what the most enlightened heathen called gods, and worshipped, Christians consider as only ministers of God, whom to wor- ship were idolatry. We have not space to enlarge upon the teach- ing of Socrates respecting providence and prayer. He believed himself to be under the constant guidance of a divine voice, which always warned him when he was in danger of going or doing wrong, and thus, indirectly, always led him in the right way ; and he taught that every man might have the same divine guidance ; and he could not but wonder at the folly and madness of men who preferred a blind and ignorant guide to one who was unerring, and perfectly acquainted with the way in which they should go. Hence his one only and constant prayer was, that God would guide him, and give him, not riches, pleasure, honor, power, which were as likely to prove a bane as a blessing, but what was best for him ; since ,God only knew what was for his true and highest good. Socrates held the doctrine of the immortality of the soul and the future life as strenuously as Plato did, but without those dreams and chimeras of its pre-existence and successive transmigrations by which the creed of the latter was disfigured; and, with these exceptions, he doubtless relied on the same arguments in proof of the doctrine which have been stated in the article on Plato and Christianity : and — what has been usually wanting in heathen philosophers, and too often in the lives of Christians also — it was the beauty and glory of Socrates' character, that his doctrine of provi- dence and prayer and a future state was the con- trolling principle of his life. And so he died a martyr's death with a cheerful composure, in the full persuasion that it was God's will and the con- summation of his mission, and that it was better for him to die than to live ; not in the certainty, but in the belief, that death was not an evil, but the highest good and the richest blessing. "Bury my body as you please," he said to his friends, ''but do not mourn as if you were burying Socra- tes. Think of me, rather, as gone to be with the wise and the good, and with God, the fountain of wisdom and goodness, in that world where alone wisdom is to be found." Such teachings, illustrated by a conscientious, unselfish, heroic, missionary life, and sealed by a martyr's death — these are the main secret of his power, and these exhibit him in his true relation to Christianity. It would not be difficult, on the one hand, to point out defects in his teaching, and imperfections in his life, nor, on the other, to magnify the points of resemblance between him and the founder of our holy religion. Such comparisons have been elaborately made by Priestley, for example, in his tract, Socrates and Jesus Compared, and by Baur, in his Sokrates und Christus, the second of those three treatises (Drei Ahhandlungen), which were re-edited by ZeUer in 1876. But the disparity is so great as to forbid comparison. The intuitions of Rousseau, sceptic as he was, taught him this : " What prejudice," he says 0mile, bk. iv.), " what blindness, must it be to compare the son of So- phroniscus to the son of Mary ! ... If the life and death of Socrates were those of a sage, the life and death of Jesus are those of a God." Socrates himself would have aspired to no higher honor than that of being a forerunner of Christ among the Greeks. That honor justly belongs to him ; and his propsedeutic influence can easily be traced, like that of Plato, and largely through him and his followers, in the history and philosophy of the Greeks and Romans before and after Christ, while the power of his teaching and his life is stiU felt in the literature, the philosophy, and the i-eligion of all Christian nations. Lit. — The sources are, Xenophon : Memorah. Socr., Apol. Socr., Sympos., and a passage or two in the Hellenica; Plato, especially Apol. Socr., Crk., Phcedo, and Sympos. ; and Aristotle, espe- cially the ethical treatises. See also Pltjtaech : De Genio Socr. ; and Diogenes Laertius : Lives of Philosophers. Of the moderns, Geote {History of Greece, ch. Ixviii.) and Zeller (^Socrates and Socratic Schools) are particularly valuable. See also Ritter : History of Philosophy ; Lewes : Biographical History of Philosophy ; Butler : Lec- tures on Ancient Philosophy; Maurice: Ancient Philosophy ; and Manual of Philosophy, by French Academy; graphic sketches of the philosopher, in R. W. Emerson's Representative Men (imder Plato), T. Starr King's Substance and Show, W. S. Tyler's Socrates as a Teacher, Bibl. Sac., vol. X., Andover. (Anonymous) : A day in Ath- ens loith Socrates, N.Y., 1884. W. S. TYLER. SOCRATES, the Greek church historian, was born in Constantinople about 380, and lived there as scholasticus. His work is a continuation of that of Eusebius, and encompasses the period from 306 to 439. It is a simple and natural re- port of facts, supported by rich extracts from the sources, and marred by comparatively few mis- takes ; but it is not distinguished by an artistic form, nor is the author above his time with respect to a critical sifting of miraculous stories. It has been edited (Greek and Latin) by Valesius, Paris, 1659, together with the histories of Eusebius and Sozomen; by R. Hussey, Oxford, 1853, 3 vols., Greek text separately, with Introduction by W. Bright, Oxford, 1878. See Dupin, in his Nouvelle Bibliotheque, iv. ; Holzhausen : Defonlibus quibus S. et . . . usi sunt, Gottingen, 1825 ; and Baur : SODOM. 2212 SOLITARIUS. Epochen der kirchl. Geschichlschreibung, Tubingen, 1852. SOD'OM, the most important of four cities (Gomorrali, Admah, Zeboiim, and Sodom) in the vale o'f Siddim, which were destroyed by " brim- stone and fire " out of heaven, on account of the great wickedness of their inhabitants (^Gen. xix. 24). Lot lived there (Gen. xiii. 12, xix. 2), and there his daughters married (Gen. xix. 14). Ched- orlaomer and his allies' plundered the cities, but the captives and spoils were recovered by Abra- ham (Gen. xiv.). The fate of Sodom and the other cities of the plain is held up in the Bible as a warning (Deut. xxix. 23 ; Isa. i. 9, 10 ; Amos iv. 11; Matt. x. 15; 2 Pet. ii. 6-8; Rev. xi. 8), and so deeply impressed itself upon the neighbor- ing peoples, that Strabo, in his description of the Dead Sea (16, 2), which he erroneously calls the Sirbonian Sea, and Ta;citus {Hist. 5, 7), relate, that, according to tradition, there once were cities and fruitful plains where then there was death. The question, whether these cities of the plain were upon the southern or northern end of the Dead Sea, — for the old opinion, that the sea covers the site of the cities, is given up as con- tradicted by geology, — is one of the most vexed in biblical geography. For the southern end the arguments are : (1) Tradition from the time of Josephus (Antiq., I., 11, 4; War, IV., 8, 4), Eusebius {Onomast., s.v.), and Jerome {Ep- cviii. 11; Comm. in Esa., xv. 5) ; (2) The mountain of salt at that end is called Jebel Usdum, apparently an echo of Sodom ; (3) Pillars of salt detached from the great salt cliffs at that end have been called "Lot's Wife ; " (4) Abraham, standing near Hebron, saw the smoke of their burning (Gen. xix. 27, 28); (5) Numerous slime-pits, i.e., bitumen (Gen. xiv. 10) are found at that end ; (6) The portion of the sea south of the Lisan Peninsula is very shallow, as if it were beyond its original limits. If the sea now covered the site of the cities, this would be the case. This view has been advocated by Kobinson, Lynch, Porter, Baedeker, Schafi, and many others. For the northern end, the argu- ments are, (1) Lot chose the Plain of Jordan (Gen. xiii. 11), which must have been at the northern end, for in that case only could Abra- ham and Lot have seen it from Bethel ; (2) Since the hiU near Hebron was midway between the two ends of the sea, Abraham could just as well have seen the burning if it was at the northern end as if it was at the southern ; (3) The pres- ence of numerous slime-pits in the vale of Siddim, at the northern end ; (4) The account of Ched- orlaomer's attack fits best with the northern site for Sodom. Prominent advocates for the north- ern site are Grove, Tristram, and Merrill. The destruction of the cities of the plain was probably the result of natural causes under divine control. The explosion of gas would easily ac- count for it all. The soil, soaked with bitumen, would easily convey the fire until all the cities were destroyed. SODOR AND MAN, an English bishopric (So- dor coines from Surdureyar, Southern Isles, cor- responding to Nordureyar, Northern Isles), is the name applied to the western islands of Scotland, especially to those contiguous to the Isle of Man ; and hence the name of the bishopric. The in- come of the bishop is £2,000. SOHN, Qeorg, b. at Rossbach, Dec. 31, 1551; d. at Heidelberg, April 23, 1589. He studied theology at Marburg and Wittenberg, and was appointed professor at Marburg in 1574, and at Heidelberg in 1584. He was a pupil of the Me- lanchthonian school, and considered himself a member and teacher of the Reformed Church. His works, — the principal of which are Synopsis corporis doctrines Phil. Melanchthonis, De verba Dei, Methodus theologioe, etc. — appeared in a collected edition at Herborn, in 4 vols., 1591. HEPPe. SOISSONS, a town of France in the depart- ment of Aisne, was the seat of a number of important synods. — I. The synod of 743 was convened by Pepin the Short, and presided over by Boniface, Archbishop of Mayence. Besides a number of secular lords, twenty-three bishops were present; and the canons issued by Carloman in 742 were confirmed, forbidding the clergy to hunt, to marry, etc., prohibiting unknown persons from performing ecclesiastical duties, enjoining the counts to suppress Paganism, etc. — II. The synod of 852 numbered twenty-six bishops, and Charles the Bald was present. The Archbishop of Rheims, Ebbo, had some time previously been deposed for participation in a revolt against the king, — a quite frequent accusation against the Frankish bishops, — and Hincmar had been made his successor. As Ebbo, however, shortly after, was appointed bishop of Hildesheim by Lewis the German, and confirmed by the Pope, he con- tinued to ordain priests. But there was a canon forbidding the transferrence of a bishop from one diocese to another,' unless with the consent of his brother-bishops ; and the validity of Ebbo's ordi- nations was now impeached on account of that canon. The synod declared them invalid. — - III., IV., and V. the synods of 861, 862, and 866 treated the same subject. — VI. The synod of 1092 was convened to decide in the controversy between Anselm of Canterbury and Roscelin. The former accused the latter of tritheism, and the latter was compelled to recant. — VII. The synod of 1121 was convened by the Papal legate, Bishop Conon of PrsBneste, to examine the writ- ings of Abelard. As Abelard refused to attempt any defence of what he had written, he was com- pelled to throw his works into the fire with his own hands. — VIII. The synod of 1201 was con- vened by the Papal legate, Octavian, for the pur- pose of cancelling the permission to a second marriage which the French bishop had given King Philip August, and compelling the king to take back his first wife, the Danish princess Inge- borg, whom he had repudiated. — IX. The synod of 1449, finally, was convened by the Archbishop of Rheims, John Juvenal Ursinus. It adopted the decrees of the Council of Basel concerning lit- urgy, and treated a number of misuses which had crept into the church. See Chr. W. Fr. Walch : Entwurf einer voUstdndigen Ilistorie der Kirclien- versammlungen, Leipzig, 1759. NEUDECKER. SOLEMN LEAGUE AND COVENANT. See Covenant. SOLITARIUS, Philip, a Greek monk who lived in the latter part of the eleventh century in Con- stantinople, wrote a work in verse and in the form of a dialogue, under the title Aionrpa, " the mir- ror : " it is a representation of the ascetic views of the Greek mysticism of the time. It found SOLOMON. 2218 SOLOMON. much favor, was commentated by Michael Psel- lus, and translated into Latin prose by the Jesuit, Jacob Pontanus, Ingolstadt, 1604 ; but the trans- lation, which is also found in the Bild. Max. pair. Lugd., vol. xxi., is very incorrect. Of the Greek text, only a few fragments have been printed by Oudin, Lambecius, and Cotelerius. GASS. SOLOMON, 'second son of David by Bathsheba, his successor upon the throne, and third king over Israel, who reigned forty years (1015-975 B.C. ; according to Ewald, 1025-986). Compare 1 Kings i.-xi. ; 2 Chron. i.-ix. ; Joseph., Antt., VIII. 1-7. His early education was intmsted to the prophet Nathan, who called him Jedidiah, i.e., the beloved of Jehovah (2 Sam. xii. 24, 25). Through the influence of his mother, Nathan, and Zadok the priest, Solomon, at the age of twenty, was made king while his father was yet alive. Riding on the mule, attended by Nathan and Zadok, and by the king's special company of the thirty mighty men, and the body-guard under the command of Benaiah, he went down to Gihon, and was proclaimed and anointed king. His first acts, showing moderation, prudence, and energy, were well adapted to gain for him the esteetn and confidence of his people. The death of Joab, who had insidiously killed Abner and Amasa, and who had openly sided with Adonijah, com- bined justice with prudence, fulfilling at the same time David's dying counsels. Shimei also is killed at David's wish; Adonijah is put to death; Abiathar is deposed and exiled, sent to a life of poverty and shame, and the high-priest- hood transferred to another family, that of Zadok. To the descendants of Barzillai he shows kind- ness. Such a firm and circumspect appearance secured to the new king general obedience. Soon he displayed signs of wisdom which made him known throughout the country ; and, as it was the king's intention to walk in all the ways of Jeho- vah, the God of his father granted his desire, and endowed him with true royal wisdom. His name and his deeds made Solomon a. prince of peace, under whose sceptre the people and the country prospered. But at the beginning kud towards the end of his reign, in the south, north, and west some princes rose. Hadad the Edoni- ite, who had fled into Egypt, when he had heard that David and Joab were dead, returned into his country, of which he takes possession (1 Kings xi. 21, 22, 25). Rezon, also, gathered some men unto him, and took Damascus; but he had at last to yield to Solomon. The little kingdom of Gazer, or Geshur, between Israel and Philistea, rose also, but fell into the hands of the king of Egypt, who gave it to Solomon when he married his daughter. Solomon's success against the usurpers was suffi- cient to secure his authority, even beyond the confines of his own countiy ; and for a long time peace reigned throughout Jiis kingdom. In the beginning of his reign he married the daughter of King Psuchennes of Egypt. Many structures which Solomon had erected made his name very famous in the east and in the west. Like his father, he secured builders from Hiram, king of Tyre. For the lower menial work he used at first the " strangers," the remnant of the Canaanitish races: afterwards his own people, too, had to .help in the work. The first great building was the magnificent temple. built after the pattern of the tabernacle, but exe- cuted in accordance with the plans which David had received from the hand of the Lord (1 Chron. xxviii. 11, 19). After seven years and a half the work on the temple was completed. About the time of the feast of tabernacles, the temple was dedicated with great solemnities : the king him- self addressed the assembly (1 Kings viii.). As the temple, like the Holy of holies, was intended to be the habitation of God, the "cloud," "the glory of the Lord," filled the house of the Lord. With the building of the temple a new organi- zation of the order of the priests and Levites, which was made by David, undoubtedly took place. He appointed twenty-four orders for the service at the temple, and the same number for the choir of the temple-music. The second great building was his palace, which was built south of the temple (Neh. iii. 25). It consisted of many divisions, which served partly as magazines, partly as rooms for the king and his queens. The main building was a hundred cubits long, fifty cubits wide, and thirty cubits high. In the porch stood a great throne of ivory, and overlaid with the best gold. It stood on six steps, and twelve lions stood on each side of the same, while two lions stood beside the stays (1 Kings x. 18- 20; 2 Chron. ix. 17-19). The palace was con- nected with the temple by steps. A special seat was reserved for the king. That he also erected many other buildings, etc., we infer from 1 Kings ix. 1,.19; Eccles. ii. 4-6; Song of Songs viii. 11. He also fortified the capital, and many fortresses were built. In the organization of his army he imitated the Egyptians. He had a thousand and four hundred chariots and twelve thousand horse- men, whom he bestowed in the cities for chariots, or put them in small cities. The inner adminis- tration of the kingdom was also regulated. The highest officer was the chancellor; next to him was the " scribe," who also regulated the finances. Besides he had a captain over his body-guard. The king's enormous household was supplied with provisions by the provinces of his domain. Trade and commerce became also very flourish- ing under Solomon, and the revenues from these commercial entei-prises by land and by sea en- riched the royal treasury. Besides these direct revenues, the kings and princes of the subject- provinces paid tribute in the form of gift, in money and in kind, " at a fixed rate year by year " (1 Kings X. 25). Thus Solomon's reign marks the entrance of Israel on a nearer intercourse with the Asiatic peoples. That sugh an intercourse was not with- out an influence upon the intellect of the Jewish people, is certain. A special wisdom, whose most prominent representative Solomon himself was, was cultivated. The Queen of Sheba, attracted by his wisdom, came to his court to hear him. He also cultivated poetry (he himself is said to have composed a thousand and five hymns, besides three thousand proverbs) ; and historiography, no doubt, found in him a great patron. In spite of his greatnesses, Solomon had his blemishes. Nathan his teacher was dead, vfithout leaving another person in his stead to protect and guide the king. Outwardly Solomon appeared to have fulfilled the duties of the theocratic ruler, without exactly needing such a support as David SOMASCHIANS. 2214 SOPHRONIUS. had in Nathan and Gad. By and by the con- sciousness that such royal glory was incompatible with the advancement of the true theocracy was awake and alive : the prophets Ahijah of Shilo, Shemaja, and Iddo were not favorably disposed toward the king ; the first sees the coming of the ruin. The people was dissatisfied on account of the many oppressive contributions which were laid upon it. The gi'eatest stumbling-block, by which he wounded the religious feeling of the people, was his harem ; for, whatever might have been the number of his wives, the harem was in opposition to the spirit of true Jehovah-religion, and the more so as most of these women were for- eigners, " who turned away his heart after other gods." It was not Solomon's intention to change or abandon the religion of Jehovah, but "his heart was not perfect with the Lord his God" (1 Kings xi. 4). Beside the worship of Jehovah, he allowed the worship of strange gods, and built altars for Ashtaroth, Milcolm, and Chemosh. Thus Solomon came more and more in opposition with the true patriotic spirit of the people ; and the pious Jew connects, therefore, his highest hopes, not with his name, but with that of his father David, whilst among heathen and Mo- hammedans Suleiman is still highly celebrated. Comp. Koran ; Sura 27 ; Hottinger : Hist. 07-i- «n(.,pp. 97 sq. ; Herbelot : BiW. Orient., iii. 335 sq. ; Otho : Lex. Rabbin., pp. 668 sq. ; Weil : Bibt. Legenden der Muselmanner, pp. 225-279. Lit. — -EwALD : Gesch. des Volkes Israel, iii. 258- 408; Jahrbiicher fiir bibl. Wiss.,-^.. 32-46 ; Ewald : Salomo, Versuch einer psychol.-biogr. Darstellung (Gera, 1800) ; J. de Pineda : De rebb. Salom. libb. 8, Colon., 1686; Bertheau: Zur Israelit. Geschichte (Gottingen, 1842), pp. 318-325; Nie- MEYER : Charakterist. der Bibel, iv. 562 sq. ; [Hess: Gesch. Salomons (Ziirich, 1785) ; Miller : Lec- tures on Solomon (London, 1838); Stanley: Hist, of the Jewish Church, ii. pp. 184 sq. ; Baring- Gould: Legends of the Patriarchs and Prophets (N.Y., 1872), pp. 347-369]. l. diestel. SOMASCHIANS, The Order of the (or Clerici regulares S. Majoli Papice congregationis Somaschce), the most important institution resulting from the anti-reformatory revival within the Roman-Catho- lic Church in the first half of the sixteenth cen- tury, received its name from the village Somascho, between Milan and Bergamo, in which its founder, Girolamo Miani, or Hieronymus ^milianus, first established the association, and wrote its rules. Miani was born in 1481, and descended from a rich and distinguished family. He served in the campaigns against Charles VILI. and Louis XII. ; but having been taken pi-isoner at the storming of Castelnuovo (1508), and shut up in a German dun- geon, he was converted, and, after his release, he devoted himself to the nursing and education of poor orphans and the conversion of fallen women. In 1528 he formed the first orphan-asylum, and in 1532 the first Magdalen asylum in Venice ; and soon similar institutions were established in Milan, Bergamo, Pavia, and other cities. In 1533 he founded an association to administer his insti- tutions, and before his death (Feb. 8, 1537), the association had grown into a regular monastic order. It was confirmed by Paul III. in 1540, and hy Paul IV. in 1563, and adopted the rules of St. Augustine. It was for a short time united with that of the Theatines (1546-55), and with that of the Fathers of the Christian Doctrine (1616-47), but succeeded best when alone. In 1661, under Alexander VII., it comprised three provinces. See HoLSTENius : Cod. regul. mon., vol. iii., and Vita Hieronymi JEmiliani, in Acta Sanctorum, Feb- ruary, vol. ii. , ZOCKLER. SOOTHSAYER. Soothsaying and oracles owe their origin to the natural human desire to know the future, or, in doubtful cases, the best. This desire, in turn, springs partly from unwillingness to think deeply, and partly from the notion that the divine intention can be found out orinfluenced; that it is directed haphazardly and arbitrarily at men. Soothsaying is therefore characteristic of nature-religions. It was forbidden in the sternest manner in the Mosaic law, and punished with death by stoning, as essentially idolatrous (Lev. xix. 26, 31, XX. 6, 27; Jer. xxvii. 9), particularly because the divine will had been distinctly re- vealed to Israel in its history. Yet there were legitimate ways by which the divine will could be known ; e.g., by the Urim and Thummim, and by the seers. Soothsaying existed in Israel notwith- standing the law, and in one case Saul had re- course to a witch at En-dor. Here it was in the form of necromancy. The deceit practised is plainly revealed in the straightforward narrative (1 Sam. xxviii. 7-25). The king did not see the apparition of Samuel. The witch was apparently behind a curtain ; and only after she had uttered her curse upon the king, who had done his utmost to extinguish her trade, did she come out. In some cases ventriloquism was perhaps employed. The Hebrews also employed the teraphim in sooth- saying. In the New Testament a soothsaying slave-girl is spoken of in Acts xvi. 16 sqq. This form was Greek, and characterized by raving and convulsions. See Divination, Necromancy; SaalschUtz : Mosaiches Recht, Berlin, 1852, pp. 510 sqq., and the commentaries. L. dibstel. SOPHIA (Gr., wisdom), a name which occurs very often in the catalogues of saints and martyrs in the ancient church ; but the stories told there can in no case be verified. — One Sophia, a Chris- tian widow, is said to have suffered martyrdom in Rome under Hadrian, about 120, together with her three daughters. Fides (faith), Spes (hope), and Caritas (love) ; but the very names of the daughters make the story suspicious. See Act. Sanct., Sept. 30. — Another Sophia, Sophia Sena- trlx, was married to a Byzantine senator, but re- tired, after the death of her husband and their six children, to the monastery of IEmos in Thracia, became a nun, and devoted herself to deeds of charity. See Act. Sanct., June 4. — For other Sophias, see Act. Sanct., April 30 and June 4, and Martyrolog. Roman., Sept. 8. GASS. SOPHIA, St., Church, now mosque, of. See Architecture, p. 131. SOPHRONIUS, a native of Greece; made the acquaintance of Jerome in Palestine, and is men- tioned in De viris illustribus (cap. 134). Retrans- lated parts of the Old Testament, and some of Jerome's works, from Latin into Greek. His name has excited most interest, however, in con- nection with the Greek translation of De viris illustribus, which Erasmus and Fabricius ascribed to him, while Vossius simply considered it a Greek exercise of Erasmus. The translation is men- SORBONNE. 2215 SOTERIOLOGY. tioned by Suidas, however, but cau hardly be the work of Sophronius. See Vallarsius, in his edition of the works of Jerome, vol. ii. part 2, p. 818. — Another Sophronius, a monk from Damascus, is known from the Monothelite controversies as a violent adversary of the mediating attempts of the Emperor Heraclius. For a time he yielded to the admonitions of Sergius, patriarch of Constantino- ple ; but when, in 634, he was elected patriarch of Jerusalem, he issued an Epistola encyclica (see Harduin : Acta Cone, iii.), in which he rejected all concessions to the Monophysites, and caused there- by the emperor to promulgate the iKdeaic. Other writings by him exist in manuscript. GASS. SORBONNE, The, was originally simply a col- lege for poor students, connected with an element- ary school for the philological and philosophical education of ecclesiastics, but succeeded so well, developed so great an energy, and exercised so decisive an influence, that in course of time it came to be quite generally identified, not only with the theological faculty, but even with the univer- sity itself. The origin of the university of Paris may be dated back to the time of Charlemagne; but a real Corpus Universilatis, with distinct faculties and nations, and a sufficient number of colleges, was not in active operation until the twelfth cen- tury. When John of Salisbury arrived in Paris (1136), he found two flourishing faculties in the university, — artes (rhetoric and philosophy, or rather dialectics) and theologia (Scripture, the Fathers, the councils, and canon law). After Gratian's compilation of decretals had been ac- cepted and confirmed by Eugenius III., in 1151, a faculty of law was established ; and its professors, though theologians, lectured not only on canon law, but also on civil law, especially after the dis- covery of the pandects of Justinian by the sur- render of Amalfi. A faculty of medicine was not founded untU 1180. In 1160 people who wanted to study medicine were still compelled to go from Paris to Montpellier. Celibacy was obligatory on all professors, also the medical. A college was originally destined only for the material wants of the students : it was their home. They lived there under strict rules, yet with more freedom than in a monastery. The lectures were given in the schools ; the theological generally in the Domus, the archiepiscopal palace, though Wil- liam of Champeaux lectured in St. Victor, and Abelard in Ste.. Genevieve. The oldest coUege in Paris was founded by Robert de Dreux, a son of Louis the Fat, under the name of S. Thomas du Louvre. But as a course of theology com- prised from seven to nine years, and the custom soon arose that the older students in a college in- structed the younger, and as doctores issuing from a certain college often continued to reside there for a long time, and a library generally was formed in connection with the institution, the college nat- urally became a kind of minor university. Such was more especially ihe case with that of the Sor- bonne, founded by Robert of Sorbon, or Sorbonne, in Champagne (d. 1277). He was chaplain to Louis IX., and vei-y zealous for the promotion of the study of theology. From the king he ob- tained a suitable site in the Coupe-gorge ("Cut- throat " Street), — a rather significant name ; and there he built a magnificent college for his Con- gregatio pauperum magislrorum studentium in theolo- gica facultaie, which congregation was confirmed by Clement IV. in 1268. After the example of the Franciscan and Do- minican orders, a teacher of theology was also appointed at the Sorbonne ; and the happy choice of the first teachers — William of Saint- Amour, Eudes of Douai, and Laurent 1' Anglois — contrib- uted much to increase the reputation of the estab- lishment. Afterwards a considerable number of great doctors took up their abode in the college: and, when the regular lectures of the faculty were removed from the archiepiscopal palace to the Sorbonne, it was quite natural that people in gen- eral should identify the college with the faculty ; so much the more natural as its theology really determined the character of the theology of the faculty. The general tendency of that theology was that which must underlie all true theology, — a perfect mediation between faith and knowledge, religion and science, theology and philosophy ; but, in pursuing that tendency, the Sorbonne al- ways kept its doctrines pure, that is, in harmony with the teachings of the church, though without submitting in a slavish manner to ecclesiastical misuses or sacerdotal eccentricities. It was the Sorbonne which drove the scandalous Feast of the Fools out of the church; and it was also the Sor- bonne which successfully opposed the introduc- tion of the Peter's-pence and of the Inquisition into France. Among its other merits may also be mentioned, that it established the first printing- press in Paris, 1470 ; and, as an indication of the high rank it held in the world's estimation, it may be added that it represented the university of Paris at the councils. The decadence of the Sorbonne began when it fell into the hands of the Guises, and became the handmaid of Ultramontanism ; and the public soon discovered the antiquated and re-actionary tendencies of its activity. In 1624 it obtained an edict of the Parliament forbidding, under pen- alty of corporal punishment, and even death, to teach any thing against the accepted authoiities. The edict was directed against Descartes; and the Sorbonne was so far from learning any thing from Malebranche, Fenelon, or Leibnitz, that it wanted to have the edict renewed in 1671. The president of the Parliament, Lamoignon, found it difficult to refuse, until, one day, he found on his table Boileau's burlesque. Arret donne en la Grande Chambre du Parnasse. That decided the case. In 1751 appeared Voltaire's Le tombeau de la Sor- bonne; and no voice was raised in its defence, when, in 1790, the state seized all its property, as belonging to the nation, and disposed of it for other purposes. Lit. — BuLjEUS: Hist. Universilatis Parisiensis, Paris, 1665, 6 vols. ; Duvernet : Hist, de la Sor- bonne, Paris, 1790, 2 vols. ; Dubarle : Hist, de I' Uni- versite de Paris, Paris, 1844, 2 vols. MATTER. SOTER (pope 168-176 or 177), a native of Cam- pania, is said to have written a work against the Montanists, which was refuted by Tertullian ; but the work is lost, as is also his Epistle to the Corin- thians, which was not uncommonly read in the congregations at Sunday service. The decretals bearing his name are spurious. neudeckbr. SOTERIOLOGY (JIBTHP, auriipim) is that branch of Christian theology which treats of the SOTERIOLOGY. 2216 SOTERIOLOGY. work of the Saviour, — the doctrme of salvation, so far as such salvation has been wrought out by the second person in the Holy Trinity. It is to be carefully distinguished from soterology, or chris- tology (v. Christology), which treats solely of the person of the Redeemer, — his incarnation, his divinity, and his humanity, and the combination of these two ,elements in his single and perfect personality. Yet it should be borne in mind always, that any adequate conception of his sote- riological work must be based on right views, antecedently obtained and established, respecting the Christ as he is in himself, — the appointed and qualified Saviour of men. Soteriology does not include the concurrent work of the Son of God in other spheres, such as creation, or providence, or moral administration. Nor does it include those aspects of salvation which involve, on the one side, the elective pur- pose and love of the Father, or, on the other, the interior ministry of the Spirit in the application of saving grace. While the Son is concerned with the Father in the original plan of redemption and in the selection of those in whom that plan becomes effectual (v. Pkedestination), his spe- cific work lies rather in the execution of that plan, and in the actual securing of redemption to all who believe. While, again, the Son is concerned with the Holy Spirit in the conviction of sinners, and in bringing them, through regeneration and sanctification, into the full enjoyment of the sal- vation provided (v. Holy Spikit), his primary work is rather the provision itself on which, as a divine foundation, this subsequent work of spiritu- al restoration must be based. The Father creates, preserves, governs, plans, elects, as introductory ; the Spirit enlightens, educates, sanctifies, and completes the saving process in the individual soul ; the Son, acting as intermediate, represents, reveals, instructs, atones for sin, placates law, and lays a foundation in justice, whereby, under an economj' of grace, every one who believes in him, the Father and the Spirit concurring, may be saved. The most general conception of this specific work of the Son of God is expressed in the term mediation (v. Mediator, Mediation). His pe- culiar mission is to interpose, in the temper of grace and for the purpose of both forensic and spiritual reconciliation, between man as a sinner, and the Deity against whom man has offended, and with whom he is morally at variance. As a mediator, the Son of God, who was also the Son of man, was amply qualified, both by inherent endowment and through official appointment; and in his work of mediation he is actually successful in removing alienation, in restoring the lost har- mony between God and the sinner, and in secur- ing to man a complete and blessed and eternal at-one-ment with his heavenly Father. This ge- neric work of mediation is generally described by Calvinistic theologians under the three specific forms indicated in the terms prophet, priest, and king (v. Jesus Christ, Three Offices of). It has been questioned whether this distribution is in all respects desirable ; whether, by the division of the one work into these three parts or offices, our sense of the essential unity of that work is not impaired ; and whether the underlying idea of mediation is not weakened by such multiplicity i of particular functions and relations. (Van Oos- terzee : Christian Dogmatics, see cviii.) Is this central idea adequately expressed in these three forms? Do they contain neither more nor less than the underlying conception ? And, where the distribution is made, are these three officeR always kept in their proportionate place, and sev- erally invested with their proper dignity and value in the one mediatorial work ? Whatever answer may be given to these questions on exegetical or speculative grounds, there is no adequate reason for rejecting an analytic presentation which has gained such definite expression in current evan- gelical creeds {Heidelberg Catechism, Ans. 31 ; Westminster Confession, chap, viii.), and which has been so extensively adopted as a regulative guide in modern theology. Studying soteriology in this triple aspect, we may first note the prophetic function of the Sa- viour, as including that entire revelation of saving truth which he, as the divine Logos, came among men to make (v. Prophet, Prophecy). All re- ligious, and especially all inspired, teachers who were prior to him as revealers of sacred doctrine or duty, were only messengers to prepare the way before him ; and all who followed after had it as their mission simply to elucidate and expand what he taught. Christ was the one perfect Logos, in virtue both of his eternal relationship within the Trinity (v. Trinity) and of his specific appoint- ment as the Word of the Godhead to man. In him resided all the qualifications requisite to the complete fulfilment of this prophetical work, and from him came in highest form, and with most commanding power, all the truth which man needs to know in order to his salvation. This prophetical function may be subdivided into di- rect and indirect, — direct teaching through the formal enunciation of saving truths, and indirect teaching through the superadded power of ex- ample and personality. Christ, as teacher and prophet, becomes an enduring pattern also. In himself, as well as in his message, was light ; and the light was the life of men. It may be queried, whether, in consequence of the strong inclination of evangelical Protestantism to exalt ■ the priestly work of our Lord as central, thi.? prophetical mission has not been relatively too much ignored, and, more specifically, whether the biblical view of him as the true norm and example of our humanity has not been suiTen- dered too much to the uses of those who altogether reject his priestly character and mission. Concerning this priestly function, it is needless to repeat what has been said elsewhere (v. Atone- ment, Justification, Jesus Christ (Three Offices of). Priests, Priesthood, Offerings in the Old Testament, etc.). The essential fact in the case is the voluntary and vicarious surren- der of himself by our Lord as a sacrifice before God for sinners, on account of their sin, and in order to expiate sin, and to render possible the reconciliation and restoratioij of man as sinful. As a sacrifice, Christ was inherently and judi- cially perfect, a lamb without blemish and with- out spot : as a priest, he was in every way qualified for the sacrificial work in which he was thus en- gaged ; and his administration of the priestly office was voluntary, ofiicial, and acceptable. In him both the Aaronic priesthood and the peculiar SOTBRIOLOGY. 2217 SOTBRIOLOGY. priesthood of Melchisedec were singularly blend- ed. He was, in his own person, the absolute cul- mination of the priestly as well as the prophetic order and idea. As priest and as sacrifice he was perfect. That this vicarious intervention and offering of himself in behalf of sinners and for sin was an essential part of the mediatorial work of our Savioui-, is too clearly revealed in Scripture to be questioned by any who receive its testimony in the case as conclusive. It was not a merely arbitrary scheme, resting on no recognizable ne- ■ cessity : it was rather a scheme imperatively demanded by the ethical nature of both God and man, and by the character of the salvation which man as sinful needed. The exigencies of that moral government against which the sinner had rebelled, the requisitions of justice as an eternal principle in the Deity, and the needs of the soul itself in order to its spiritual recovery, alike re- quired — as the Bible in multiplied ways asserts — such a sacrifice of himself, even unto death, on the part of our Redeemer. Without this, media- tion would have been both inadmissible and in- effectual. Whatever may be the precise method or meth- ods in which that sacrifice in the divine econ- omy becomes efficacious in satisfying justice, in placating law, in revealing gTace, and making that grace potential, there can be no question in believing minds as to the fact. It must needs be that Christ to this end must suffer ; and it must needs be that through his suffering, vicarious and substitutional, we are saved. The nature and the extent of the atonement, as thus exhibited specifically in the priestly work of Christ, are matters respecting which wide differ- ences of opinion have long existed within evan- gelical circles. Whether he personally assumed our guilt, and became, by the direct imputation of that guilt, a transgressor, deserving the inflic- tion of actual penalty, or simply took our sin upon him as a weight to be carried and removed, meanwhile himself remaining sinless, alike in person and before the law ; whether he endured the actual penalty of human transgression, being literally made in his representative relation a curse for us, or simply suffei'ed what might be equitably regarded as an equivalent for penalty remitted, and a sufficient ground for the bestowal of pardon and all other spiritual blessings; whether his work was an actual and special provision for the redemption of the elect only, or was rather a ge- neric arrangement of which all men may, through grace, alike avail themselves, a salvation offered implying in the fullest sense a salvation provided, — these are questions respecting which evangeli- cal minds have diffaied, and which need no dis- cussion here. AVhatever may be the views of believers as to either the nature, or the extent and scope, of this sacrificial work of Christ, all are agreed in regarding the fact itself as both unques- tionable and vital. That our Lord suffered as well as taught, and that he suffered on account of our sin ai)din order to save us from it, and that through his suffering we are actually saved from both the condemnation and the power of evil, and that this salvation is immediate and certain, and will be complete at last, — these are the gTeat facts of grace which lie at the basis of the evan- gelical system, and which constitute the founda- tion of all evangelical hope. Justification is the divine act of pardoning sin, and accepting sinners as if they were righteous, on the ground generically of all that Christ has done in the Munus Triplex of mediation, and spe- cifically on the ground of what he has suffered as well as done in our behalf as our great high priest and sacrifice. The unconditional pardon of sin, with no appropriate regard for the nature of moral government and the claims of justice, would be an act unworthy of God. To accept the sinner as if he \Yere righteous, and to adopt him (v. Adoption) into the family of God, and make him an heir of spiritual privileges and bless- ings, without requiring from him repentance, and return to loyalty, as conditions, and with no pro- vision for his deliverance from the legal penalties incurred by his sin, would be a transaction still more unworthy. And the only adequate warrant for such pardon, acceptance, and adoption, must be found, not in any worthiness inherent in the nature of man or any merit seen in his life, nor even in his faith and repentance viewed as con- comitants or consequences, but simply in the mediatorial, and especially in the sacrificial, work of Christ only. Om- justification is in him, and in him alone. The kingly office of the Saviour is a necessary element in his broad work of mediation. He is king because he has been prophet and priest ; he is also king inherently, as divine. His kingdom commences in the believing heart, and is essen- tially spiritual : it is an authority exercised in love, and for the purpose of salvation. His church, as composed of those who have thus submitted to him personally, is his gracious empire ; and over that empire he is the supreme head, everywhere and ahvays. Within that church there can be no authority to supersede, or even, in the papal sense, to represent his : all its laws, officers, administra- tion, activities, are subject entirely to him. This kingdom was founded by him before his earthly advent; it has been extended through many lands and centuries by his grace and power; it will con- tinue to increase, through the agency of the forces now incorporated in it, untU it has filled the earth. The notion, that, as a kingdom of love, it will ere long be supplanted by a kingdom of power, in which Christ will visibly appear as an earthly monarch, subduing his enemies by irresistible strength, and exalting his saints with him to a species of temporal domination (v. Millenari- anism), is at variance with the view here pre- sented. Beyond this earthly empire of our Lord as already defined, we discern his princely exalta- tion even now, at the right hand of the Father, to be advocate and intercessor for his people. This advocacy and intercession are to continue until all who are his are finally brought together with him into what is literally the kingdom of heaven. Returning from this survey of the specific functions or offices of Christ to the underlying idea of mediation, we are able to comprehend in one view the full doctrine of salvation as wrought out by him on our behalf. There is indeed a subjective soteriology, which includes especially the work wrought within the soul of man by our Saviour through his spirit, and which is expressed in the terms regeneration and sanctification. But SOTO. 2218 SOUTH. objective soteriology, such as we are considering, is summed up rather in the triple phrase of Aqui- nas, — Christus Legislator, Sacerdos, Rex. To the Protestant mind it is pictured forth essentially in the term justification, which, equally with regen- eration and sanctiflcation, shows us wherein the divine salvation consists. For the literature of the subject, in addition to the specific references already made in this article, see the treatises on systematic divinity mentioned under Dogmatics, e. D. MORRIS. SOTO, Dominicus de, b. at Segovia in 1494; d. at Salamanca, Nov. 15, 1560. He studied at Alcala and in Paris ; began in 1520 to teach phi- losophy at Alcala, where he re-established realism in its old rights as the true principle of philoso- phy, and published Commenlarii in Aristotelis Dia- lecticam (Salamanca, 1544), Categorias (Venice, 1583), Libris viii. physicorum (Salamanca, 1545), etc. In 1524 he entered the Dominican order, on which occasion he changed his baptismal name Franciscus for that of Dominicus; and in 1532 he was appointed teacher of theology at Sala- manca. By Charles V. he was sent as a deputy to the Council of Trent in 1545 ; and there, too, he appeared as a stanch champion of realism, publishing De natura el gratia (Venice, 1547), Apologia (Venice, 1547), etc. ; but, after the transferrence in 1547 of the council to Bologna, he returned to the court, where he was appointed confessor to the emperor. In 1550 he resigned that position, and retired to Salamanca, where he spent the rest of his life, partly as teacher in the university, and partly as prior in a monastery. Among his works from this last part of his life, are commentaries on the Epistle to the Romans (against the Protestants) and on the Gospel of St. Matthew (unprinted), and De justitia et jure, Salamanca, 1556, etc: neudecker. SOTO, Petrus de, a passionate adversary of the Reformation ; b. at Cordova ; d. at Trent, April 20, 1563. He entered the Dominican order in 1519, and accompanied Charles V. as confess- or to Germany, where he was appointed teacher of tlieology at Dillingen. Afterwards he went with Philip to England, and taught theology at Oxford ; but after the death of Mary, in 1558, he returned to Dillingen, whence he was called in 1561 to the re-opened Council of Trent, by Pius IV. He wrote Institutiones Chrisliance, Augs- burg, 1548; Methodus confessionis, Dillingen, 1553; Compendium doctrince catholicce, Antwerp, 1556 ; Traclatus de institutione ' sacerdotum, Dillingen, 1558. etc. NEUDECKER. SOUL-SLEEP, or PSYCHOPANNYCHISIVI (from soul-all-night), denotes a peculiar view of the state of the soul between the death and the resurrection of the body, according to which the soul is asleep. It somewhat resembles the still gi-osser error of soul-death, or thnetopsychism, which was defended by Petrus Pomponatius (d. 1525), and according to which the soul is actually dead from the death of the body to the day of the last judgment. The idea of soul-sleep origi- nated among the Arabian and Armenian sects, but found also some favor in the west : traces of it occur in the writings of the Fathers. It was condemned by the councils of Lyons (1274), Fer- rara (1438), Florence (1439), and Trent (1545- 68) ; though Pope John XXII. (d. 1304) accepted it and openly advocated it. In the period of the Reformation it was revived by the Socinians and Arminians, and fully developed by the Anabap- tists. Calvin wrote against it in his De psycho- pannychia, 1534, and in his Tract, var., vol. ii. See C. F. Goschel : Zur Lehre von den letzten Dingen, Berlin, 1850, and Der Mensch nach Leih, Seele, und Geist, Leipzig, 1856. C. f. goschel. SOULE, Joshua, D.D., a bishop of the Method- ist-Episcopal Church South ; b. at Bristol, Han- cock County, Me., Aug. 1, 1781 ; d. at Nashville, Tenn., March 6, 1867. He was converted in June, 1797, was licensed to preach the following year, and in 1799 was admitted into the New- England Conference. In 1804 he was appointed presiding elder, and served as such, with one year's excep- tion, until 1816, when he was appointed Book Agent in New- York City. He was the author of the plan for a delegated general conference of the church, which was accepted at Baltimore in 1808. He was editor of the Methodist Magazine from 1816 to 1819. In 1820 he was elected to the episcopacy, but declined to accept the office on the ground that the office of presiding elder had been made, by the General Conference of that year, elective, rather than subject to the appointment of the presiding bishop. In 1820-22 he preached in New- York City, and in 1822-24 in Baltimore. In 1824 he was again elected bishop, and accepted, as the office of presiding elder had now been made again subject to episcopal appointment. After his election to the episcopacy, he resided for some time at Lebanon, O. In 1842 he went as a fraternal delegate to the British Wesleyan Conference. At the division of the church in 1844, he adhered to the Methodist-Episcopal Church South, and thereupon moved to Nashville, Tenn. He continued active in the discharge of his epis- copal duties until about ten years before his death, which occurred in the eighty-sixth year of his age. He was a presiding officer of great executive abil- ity. In the graver and more important councils of the church he had no superior for discreet judgment, and prudence in counsel. He was emi- nentlj' fitted in mind and character for control- ling wisely and successfully measures and men. As a preacher he was slow and deliberate, but always sound in doctrine, strong in argument, and vigorous in style. His discourses evinced both breadth and depth, and are said to have been at times overwhelmingly impressive. He was a man of remarkable strength, Doth of char- actei; and of intellect. W. v. tillett. SOUTH, Robert, b. at Hackney, a subm'b of London, in 1633; d. in London, July 8, 1716. His father was a wealthy London merchant, who afforded his son every advantage for a thorough education. His preparatory studies were pursued in the Westminster School, where he became a king's scholar, under the famous master, Dr. Busby. South is said to have read the Latin prayers in the school on the day of the execution of Charles I., and .prayed for him by name; thus early showing that attachment to the established government and religion which ever afterwards distinguished him. In 1651 he was admitted as a student of Christ Church, Oxford, at the same time with John Locke. In 1655 he took the de- gree of bachelor of arts. During this year he composed a Latin poem congratulating Oliver SOUTH. 2219 SOUTHWELL. Cromwell on the peace which he had concluded between England and Holland. As this was a prescribed university exercise, it is not necessary to infer that South was ever a Cromwellian at heart. Indeed, he appears to have been unpopu- lar, even at that early day, with the Puritan party then in power ; for when, in 1657, he obtained the degree of master of arts, John Owen, then dean of Christ Church, opposed his application. South was ordained in 1658 by one of the bishops who had been deprived of his bishopric during the Protectorate. In 1660, the year of the restoration of the moijarchy. South was elected orator to the university of Oxford, and preached before the royal commission a sermon entitled the Scribe instructed, which immediately placed him in the front rank of English preachers. He delivered the university oration when Clarendon was in- stalled Chancellor of Oxford, — a discourse which so impressed Clarendon, that he appointed him his domestic chaplain. This led to his installa- tion, in 1663, as the Prebendary of St. Peter's, Westminster. In the same year he took the de- gree of doctor in divinity; and in 1670 he was made a canon of Christ Chm-ch, Oxford. In 1677 South accompanied the son of the Earl of Claren- don, Lawrence Hyde, on an embassy to congratu- late John Sobieski upon his election to the crown of Poland. He gave an interesting account of what he saw abroad in a letter to Pococke, the professor of Hebrew at Oxford, and a fellow-canon. Soon after his return to England, in 1678, he was presented to the rectory of Islip in Oxfordshire, the revenue of which, some two hundred pounds, he applied, half to the payment of his curate, and half to educating and apprenticing the poorer children of the parish. South soon became one of the king's chaplains, and preached a sermon before Charles II., marked by invective against Cromwell, and, what is not very common with South, violation of good taste. This recom- mended him to the monarch, who suggested his appointment to the next vacant bishopric. But South declined aU such offers, both in this reign and in that of James II. WhUe he was a strenu- ous defender of the English Church, he was a determined enemy of the Roman-Catholic. The concealed Popery of Charles and the open Popery of James met with no support, but with deter- mined opposition, from South. His stifE loyalty led him to refuse to sign the invitation, drawn up by the archbishop and bishops, to the Prince of Orange to assume the throne, saying, that "his religion taught him to bear all things ; and, how- ever it should please God that he should suffer, he would, by the divine assistance, continue to abide by his allegiance, and use no other weapons but his prayers and tears for the recovery of his sovereign from the wicked and unadvised councils wherewith he was entangled." But subsequently, when James had formally abdicated the throne, and the crown was settled upon William and Mary, South gave in his allegiance to the new govern- ment. He would, however, accept no bishopric from it, though his friends exerted themselves in this behalf. And he continued to be of this mind, when in the next reign, that of Anne, the same effort was repeated to raise him to what is the height of worldly ambition for many churchmen. But, while he did not seek the honors of the Establishment, he was the determined enemy of Dissent, and preached against it. He opposed the Act of Toleration. When an attempt was made, through a royal commission, to unite the Dissenters with the Established Church, by modi- fying the Liturgy, South entreated them to part with none of its ceremonial. In 1693 he had a controversy with Dr. WiUiam Sherlock, a fellow- churchman, and dean of St. Paul's, who, in his construction of the doctrine of the Trinity, fell into tritheism. South advocated the Nicene view with " great power of argument, and infinite wit and humor; more, indeed, than suited the so- lemnity of the subject." The last part of South's life was clouded with sickness and debility which laid him aside from the active duties of his calling. His life was prolonged; and Dean Swift, it is said, waited impatiently, with other aspirants, for his decease, that he might get his prebendary and rectory. South died at the age of eighty-three, and was buried beside his old master. Dr. Busby, in West- minster Abbey. South's distinction is that of a preachet, and he is second to none in any language. No one has combined and blended logic and rhetoric in more perfect proportions. Every sermon is founded upon a clear and clean plan that can be analyzed, and presented in its parts ; and yet every sermon moves forward, from beginning to end, like a flowing stream, without break. He argues closely and rigorously; but the argument never inter- feres with the fluency and impetuosity of the dis- course. The fire of his intellect kindles into a flame all his materials, however heavy and un- wieldy. Even such subjects as predestination and the trinity are made popular and interesting by his powerful grasp and handling. And all this is heightened by his remarkable style. His mas- tery of English is almost unrivalled^ The close- ness and intimacy of the connection between the thought and the word is hardly excelled even by Shakspeare himself. South was a Calvinist at a time when the drift of the High-Church Episcopacy, which he favored, set strongly towards Arminianism. Though anti- Puritan, and bitterly so, in regard to polity, both civil and ecclesiastical, he was a Pmitan in the- ology. John Owen was not a higher predesti- narian than he, and Richard Baxter was a lower one. It must have been from an intense convic- tion of the truth of this type of doctrine, that South, in the face of all his prejudices and of his ecclesiastical and courtly connections, defended it with might and main. For this reason, the great anti-Puritan has had, and always will have, warm admirers among Puritans and Nonconformists. South's Sermons have been often reprinted ; e.g., Oxford (1823, 7 vols.), Boston (1867-71, 5 vols.), London (1878, 2 vols.) ; and in these editions memoirs will be found. A volume of selections, with a memoir entitled The Wisdom of the Falhei-s, appeared in London, 1867. W. G. T. shedd. SOUTHCOTT, Johanna. See Sabbatarians. SOUTH-SEA ISLANDS. See Fiji Islands. SOUTHWELL, Robert, poet and martyr; was b. at Horsham, St. Faith's, Norfolk, about 1562 ; and hanged at Tyburn, Feb. 22, 1595. He was educated at Paris, Douay, Tournay, and Rome ; received into the Society of Jesus, Oct. 17, 1578, SOZOMBNOS. 2220 SPAIN. when not yet seventeen ; ordained, 1584, and made prefect of the English college at Rome ; sent as a missionary to England, 15S6 ; chaplain to the Countess of Arundel ; betrayed to the government, 1592, imprisoned for three years in the Tower, found guilty of " constructive treason," and exe- cuted. According to Cecil, he, though "thirteen times most cruelly tortured, cannot be induced to confess any thing, not even the color of the horse whereon, on a certain day, he rode, lest" thereby his friends might fall into the same trouble. His poems were published shortly after his death, and a complete edition appeared 1856, edited by W. B. Turnbull. Some of them, since then widely copied, are of a very high order, and no less philo- sophic than Christian. F. M. BIRD. SOZOMENOS, Salamanes Hermias, a contem- porary of Socrates ; lived, like him, as a scholas- ticus in Constantinople, and wrote, like him, a history of the church from 323 to 439, edited by Valesius (1659), together with the histories of Eusebius and Socrates, and found in Dupin, JVoti- velle BiUiotheque. He seems to have known and used the work by Socrates. What he adds of his own, concerning hermits and monks, is of no great interest. But his style is better than Socrates'. SPAIN. Christianity penetrated into Spain from North Africa. It is uncertain whether St. Paul carried out his intention to visit Spain. The first Christians were found in Andalusia. The story of the martyrdom of the apostle James at Compostella dates from the ninth century. To- wards the end of the fourth century the whole country was Christianized, and divided into eccle- siastical provinces. The Council of Elvira (306) was attended by nineteen bishops and twenty-six presbyters, under the lead of Hosius. The councils and synods were presided over by the oldest bishop, afterwards by the metropolitan, of the province. Communications with Rome began during the Pris- cillianist controversy, and became more frequent and intimate after the conquest of Spain by the Visigoths, in 456. The Goths were Arians, and, the Orthodox Church naturally sought for sup- port from without. Nevertheless, when the Goths adopted the Catholic faith, at the Third Council of Toledo (589), the Spanish Church at once assumed a proud and reserved attitude with respect to Rome. The pallium was not asked for in Rome ; and, when Gregory the Great sent it to Leander, the reason was simply that the latter was an in- timate friend of his. , Towards the end of the seventh century Spain numbered sixty-six bishops. They were original- ly elected by the congregations, but afterwards appointed by the king on the presentation pf the churches of the diocese, and finally by the king alone with the concurrence of the Archbishop of Toledo. They could be deposed only by a coun- cil, just as a minister could be deposed only by a synod. The oldest monasteries date from the sixth century. They had rules of their own, and multiplied rapidly after the victory of the Catho- lic Church. They stood at first under the abso- lute control of the bishops ; but, on account of the frequent complaints, the episcopal authority was afterwards limited. The clergy were subject to the secular jurisdiction in all cases but the ec- clesiastical ones, which were decided in the bish- op's court. The general standard of the Spanish cler'gy seems to have been rather low ; though several brilliant names occur, such as Orosius, Leander and Isidore of Hispalis, Ildefous, and Julian of Toledo, and others. During the rule of the Visigoth kings (456- 711) the Jews were kept under strict ecclesiasti- cal supervision, on account of their dangerous connections with their co-religionists in Africa; but, under the Arabian dominion (711-1492), all spiritual and political pressure was removed, and they prospered very much. They produced men of consequence in almost every department of life ; and by their wealth and commercial talent they exercised great influence, even in the Christian states of the country, though they generally ex- cited the hatred of the people by their avarice. As soon, however, as the Christians gained the ascendency, persecutions were instituted ; and in 1492, the year of the conquest of Granada, all Jews were expelled from Spain. Many were con- verted to Christianity, and remained in the coun- try : but their conversion was generally nothing but a mask ; and, whenever the Inquisition detect- ed the fraud, it was cruelly punished. Under Arabian rule (711-1492) the Christiana were allowed to retain their faith ; though very heavy taxes were levied on them, — one-tenth of their revenue on those who submitted without resistance, and one-fifth on those who, were sub- jugated by armed foixe. They were commanded not to speak disparagingly of the Koran and the Prophet, not to marry a Mohammedan woman, not to try to convert a Moslem to Christianity, not to make alliances with the enemies of Islam, etc. They were requested not to wear the same dress as the Mohammedans, not to build their houses higher than the Moslem, not to let their bells be heard, nor their cross be seen, in the street, not to drink wine or eat pork in public, etc. In the north-eastern part of the country, which, since the days of Charlemagne, stood under Christian rule, a peculiar liturgy, the so-called Mozarabic, was in use, until the Roman Liturgy was introduced in Aragonia in 1071, and in Castile in 1086. Be- tween the twelfth and the sixteenth centuries, monasticism spread widely in the country. The Franciscans, who came to Spain in 1206, had a hundred and twenty-one monasteries there in 1400, and a hundred and ninety in 1506. The revival of letters in Italy in the fifteenth century was soon transplanted to Spain ; and there, as everywhere, it effectively prepared the way for the Reformation. The Protestant doctrines found from the very first many adherents .p,mong the Spaniards, especially among the higher classes; and several Spanish translations of the Bible were published, — by Francisco Enzinas (Dryander) in 1543, Juan Perez in 1556, Cassiodoro de Reyna in 1569, and Cypriano de Valera in 1596. King Philip II., however, and Pope Paul IV., supported by the Inquisition and the fJesuits, finally succeed- ed in completely suppressing the movement. But the means they employed are among the greatest horrors history ever heard of. Tho first auto-da-fe took place at Valladolid, May 21, 1559 : when Charles II. celebrated his marriage with Louise of Orleans in 1679, an auto-da-fe formed part of the solemnities, and for fourteen hours the young couple sat looking at the burning of twenty-three heretics. During the latter part of the eigh- SPALATIN. 2221 SPANGENBERG. teenth and the first part of the nineteenth century, various moves were made in a more liberal direc- tion. In 1780 the Inquisition performed the last auto-da-fe, and its office was reduced to the mere censorship of books. In 1835 the Jesuits were expelled, and all monasteries numbering less than twelve monks were closed. But with the concor- dat of 1851 a heavy re-action set in. The Virgin was appointed generalissimo of the Spanish army in 1854; and in 1861 a number of persons en- gaged in the Protestant propaganda, which had its seat in Gibraltar, were seized, and condemned to the galleys. It proved impossible, however, for Queen Isabella to carry out the concordat : it final- ly cost her the throne. [The new constitution of 1876 grants toleration, and makes all civil and political rights independent of denomination. The number of Protestants is hardly 60,000, of a population of nearly 17,000,000.] klose. Lit. — J. A. Llorente (Roman-Catholic) : Histoire ci-itique de V inquisition d'Espagne, Paris, I8I7, 4 vols., abridged Eng. trans., London, 1826 ; Thomas M'Crie : History of the Progress and Sup- pression of the Reformation in Spain, London, 1829 ; George Borrow: The Bible in Spain, 1843; Adolfo de Castro : Historia de los protestantes Espanoles, Cadiz, 1851 ; A. Helffrich : Der West- gothische Arianismus und d. spanische Ketzer- GescMchte, Berlin, 1860 ; Gams : Die Kirchengesch. von Spanien, Regensburg, 1862 sqq., 3d vol. 5th part, 1879 (this is the great work) ; P. Rousselot : Les mystiques espagnols, Paris, 2d ed., 1869 ; E. BoEHMER : Biblioth. Wiffeniana, Spanish Reform- ers of Two Centuries from 1520, Strassburg and London, 1847-8-3, 2 vols. ; H. Baumgarten : Die religiose Entwickelung Spaniens, Strassburg, 1875; Fr. Pressel : Das Evangelium in Spanien, Freien- walde, 1877 ; M. Droin : Histoire de la reformation en Espagne, Lausanne, 1880 sqq. ; M. M. Pelayo : Historia de los heterodoxos Espanoles, Madrid, 1880- 82, 3 vols. ; J. Stoughton : The Spanish Reform- ers, their Memories and Dwelling-places, London, 1883 ; J. Lasalle : La reforme en Espagne au X VI" Steele, Paris, 1883. SPALATIN, Georg, b. at Spalt in the diocese of Eichstadt, 1484 ; d. at Altenburg Jan. 16, 1545. He studied at Erfurt and Wittenberg; was ordained a priest in 1507, and appointed librarian, secretary, and chaplain to the Elector Frederick the Wise in 1512, and superintendent of Alten- burg in 1525. As he was an intimate friend of Luther and the other Reformers, and enjoyed the full confidence of Frederick the Wise and his suc- cessors, he exercised a very great influence on the course of the Reformation. See his life by CiiR. Schlegel, Jena, 1698 (Latin), and by J. Wagner, Altenburg, 1830 (German). nbudecker. SPALDINC, Johann Joachim, b. at Tribsees in Pommerania, Nov. 1, 1714 ; d. in Berlin, May 26, 1804. He studied theology at Rostock and Halle, and was appointed pastor of Lassahn in 1749, of Earth in 1757, and of the Church of St. Nicholas in Berlin in 1764, from which last olfice he retired in 1788, after the promulgation of the Wolner edict. He early abandoned the old-fash- ioned, scholastically developed Lutheran ortho- doxy of his time, and occupied a position between the rationalism of the WolfiSan philosophy a,nd the sentimentalism of the pietists, from which stand-point he fought with vigor and success against the deism and atheism, which, from France and England, penetrated into Germany. His principal works are [fber die Bestimmung des Menschen (1748), l/ber den Werth der GefUhle im Christenthum (1764), tfber die Nutzbarkeit des Pre- digtamts (1773), Vertrauten Briefe, die Religion betreffend (1784), etc., most of which were several times reprinted, and translated into French. He also left an interesting autobiography, published by his son, Berlin, 1804. HAGENBACH. SPANGENBERC, Augustus Gottlieb, b. July 15, 1704, at Klettenberg, Prussia; d. Sept. 18, 1792, in the eighty-ninth year of his age, at Berthelsdorf, Saxony; was a bishop of the Mo- ravian Church, and, next to Count Zinzendorf (q.v.), its most illustrious leader. He attended the grammar-school at Ilefeld, and the university of Jena, where an exegetical lecture of Buddeus, at which he happened to be present, induced him to give up the study of law, and devote himself to theology. He graduated in 1726 as master of arts, and soon after began to lecture in the uni- versity, and occasionally to preach. The free schools in the suburbs of Jena, established by a circle of pious students to which he belonged, en- listed his ardent support ; and he was particularly active in training teachers for this work. In 1727 he met Zinzendorf, who made a deep im- pression upon him. Their acquaintance soon ripened into a warm friendship ; and, on the occa- sion of a visit to Herrnhut (1730), Spangenberg formed a very close fellowship with the Brethren. His labors at Jena continued to be crowned with great success. After having declined various advantageous offers, he was induced, in 1732, to accept the position of adjunct of the theological faculty of the university of Halle, and superin- tendent of the schools connected with Francke's Orphan-House. But it soon became evident that he was not in sympathy with his colleagues. They took offence at some of his doctrinal views, at his association with separatists, and especially at the intimate con^aection which he persisted in keeping up with the Brethren. Complaints were lodged against him, and in 1733 he was dismissed from the university by a royal mandate. He immediately went to Herrnhut, and entered the service of the Moravian Church, laboring in various parts of Germany, in America, in the West Indies, and in England, where he organized (1741) the Society for the Furtherance of the Gospel among the Heathen ; which association still exists. His work in America was particu- larly distinguished. After having been conse- crated a bishop in 1744, he stood at the head of the Moravian Church in this country, with occa- sional interruptions, until 1762. He showed himself to be a wise ruler, a .faithful pastor, an ardent evangelist. So prudent was the fore- thought with which he cared for his brethren, both in temporal and spiritual things, that they gave him the name of "Joseph," which he adopted, often signing official documents in this way. Nor was his work confined to his own church. The settlers in various Colonies, and especially the Indians, learned to know and revere him as a faithful messenger of the gospel. In 1762 he returned to Europe, took an active part in framing the new constitution of the Brethren's Church, and became the most prominent member SPANGBNBERG. 2222 SPARROW. of its governing board. The enthusiasm of Zinzendorf, which sometimes led him beyond bounds, was supplemented by the prudence and wisdom of Spangenberg. Among his numerous writings the most important are Idea Fidei Fra- trum, oder Kurzer Begriff der christl. Lehre in den evangel. Brildergemeinen, Barby, 1782, translated into English by La Trole, and' entitled Exposition of Christian Doctrine, London, 1784 ; and Leben des Grafen von Zinzendorf, 1775, in 3 vols., abridged English translation by Jackson, London, 1838. Spangenberg composed many hymns, some of which are known and used wherever the German tongue is spoken; for instance, Die Kirche Christi die Er geweiht (Eng. trans., Moravian Hymnal, No. 612, " The Church of Christ, that he hath hallowed here "), and Heil'ge Einfalt, Gnadenwunder (Eng. trans., abridged, Moravian Hymnal, No. 432, " When simplicity we cherish "). The two most im- portant biographies of him are, Lehen Spangenhergs, von Jeremias Eislek, Barby, 1794, French trans., Neuchatel, 1835, and Ledderhose's Leben Span- genhergs, Heidelberg, 1846, Eng. trans., London, 1855. BISHOP B. DE SCHWEINITZ. SPANCENBERC, Cyriaous, b. at Nordhausen, June 7, 1528 ; d. at Strassburg, Feb. 10, 1604. He studied theology at Wittenberg, and was in 1551 appointed court-preacher to the Count of Mans- field. As a passionate adherent of Flaoius, he became implicated in the controversy concerning hereditary sin, and was in 1575 compelled to flee from Mansfield, disguised as a midwife. Ap- pointed pastor of Schlitzsee-ou-the-Fulda shortly after, his stubborn advocacy of the Flacian views once more disturbed the peace of the congrega- tion, and again drove him into exile, in 1590. He found refuge at Vacha in Hesse, but only for a time, finally returning to Strassburg. His writings are devotional, polemical, and historical. See his life by J. G. Leuckpeld, Quedlinburg, 1712. G. H. KLIPPEL. SPANHEIM is the name of a family which has produced several noticeable theologians. — Fried- rich Spanheim, b. at Amberg in the Upper Palati- nate, Jan. 1, 1600; d. at Leyden, April 30, 1648. He studied at Heidelberg and Geneva, visited Paris and England, and was in 1631 appointed professor of theology at Geneva, and in 1641 at Leyden. He was a very prolific writer, and wrote in the controversy with Amyraut, Disputatio de gratia universali, 1644; Exercitationes de gratia universali, 1646 ; Epistola ad Matlhaium CottieHum, 1648 ; VindicicB exercitationum, 1649. — Friedrioh Spanheim, son of the preceding; b. at Geneva, May 1, 1632 ; d. at Leyden, May 18, 1701. He studied theology and philosophy at Leyden, and was appointed professor of theology at Heidelberg in 1655 and at Leyden in 1670. He wrote in de- fence of Calvin against Descartes and Cocceius. His collected works appeared at Leyden, 1701-03, 3 vols. SPARROW, William, an eminent theologian of the ^Protestant-Episcopal Church, United States; descended from a highly respectable Irish family ; b. in Massachusetts, March 12, 1801. His parents returning to Ireland in 1805, he attended board- ing-school in the Vale of Avoca. Returned to America, 1817. In his seventeenth year was ap- pointed principal of Utica Academy ; student at Columbia College, New York, 1819-21 ; professor of Latin and Greek at Miami University, 1824-25; ordained in 1 826 ; colaborer with Bishop Chase in founding Kenyon College; eleven years Milnor professor at Gambler ; professor of systematic di- vinity and Christian evidences in the Theological Seminary of Virginia, 1840-74 ; for thirty years delegate to General Convention from Virginia, and chairman of standing committee. Died at Alexandria, Va., Jan. 17, 1874. During the civil war (1861-64) he carried on the work of the seminary in the interior of Vir- ginia. At its close his unique relations to both sections enabled him to exert important influence in restoring the church in Virginia to its former ecclesiastical relations. As he had by the fame of his powers raised the Virginia seminary to an important position, so now his hand was chiefly concerned in its restoration. Dr. Sparrow was recognized as the ablest theo- logian and the most original thinker of the evan- gelical school in the Protestant-Episcopal Church. His acute and powerful intellect, enriched by accurate learning, and strengthened by patient thought, moved with freedom among the pro- foundest questions of metaphysics and of theol- ogy. He bowed with unquestioning faith to the supi-emacy of Scripture, yet he welcomed modern criticism as an ally ; and all his thinking pro- ceeded on the conviction of the ultimate harmony of revelation and science. An earnest evangel- ical and a zealous Protestant, he was usually classed as Arminian in theology ; yet he abhorred the narrowness of theological systems, and led his pupils up into the pure atmosphere of inde- pendent thought and rational inquiry. By the hundreds of young men who sat at his feet at Gambler and at Alexandria he was looked up to as a great teacher; and many of the best minds in the church have acknowledged their indebted- ness to his suggestive and stimulating instruction. He was an earnest Episcopalian, but he put doc- trine before order : hence he felt himself at one with Protestant Christendom, and rejoiced in the Evangelical Alliance as an expression of Protes-^ tant unity. He earnestly maintained the scrip- tural character of the Prayer-Book, but desired a revision, to remove ambiguities, and to relieve weak consciences. Accordingly, though he sym- pathized with the difficulties of Bishop Cummins, he deprecated his secession, and remained firm in his adhesion to the church. Perhaps no man of his time in America did more to check the spread of the tractarian theology. He was also an earnest antagonist of the dogma of a tactual apostolical succession, holding it to be essentially unscriptural and anti-Protestant. To his great intellectual powers he added the influence of exalted piety, a character of great modesty and humility, and a life of simplicity and self-denial. He sealed his deep interest in Christian missions by the cheerful surrender to the Chinese mission of a daughter of remarkable talents. His lifelong feebleness of health, com- bined with an almost morbid aversion to appear- ing in print, unhappily prevented his entering the field of authorship; but a number of his occa- sional sermons and addresses saw the light, and a posthumous volume of Sermons appeared in 1876, New York (T. Whittaker). The spirit of his teaching ancl of his life is well SPBB. 2223 SPBNER. ned up in words of his own, graven on his ) : " Seek the truth, come whence it , COST WHAT IT WILL." See his Life and espondence, by Rev. C. Walker, D.D., New C, 1^76. Il.-USrDOLPH H. MclOM. 'EE, Friedrich von, b. at Kaiserswerth in ; d. at Treves, Aug. 7, 1635. He entered the sty of Jesus in 1610 ; taught grammar, philoso- and morals in the Jesuit college in Cologne ; for several years engaged iu the persecution itches, and led more than two hundred of I to the stake j and worked during the last s of his life as a missionary among the Prot- its of Northern Germany. He published a ;, Cautio crimincdis, against the common meth- if trying witches, but is chiefly known as a ious poet, — Trulz-Xachligal, Cologne, 1649 ted by Hiippe u. Junkman, 1841), and Giitdene mdbach, probably published in the same year ; ed., Coblence, 1850). Selections from those collections of poems have been made by W. ts and Karl Forster. [See Diel : Spee, Esquisse ■aphique et lUteraire, 1873.] PAiMEE. 'ENCER, John, D,D., Church of England; : Bocton-under-Blean, Kent, 1630 ; d. at Cam- ge, May 27, 1695. He was gTaduated M.A. orpus Christi College, Cambridge, 1652, and led fellow 1655. Ten years later he became . ; on Aug. 3, 1667, master of his college, in the same year archdeacon of Sudbury. 372 he was made prebendary of Ely, and dean fly 1677. His fame rests upon his De legibus •CEoruni ritualibus et earum rationibus, Cam- ge, 1685, 2 vols. fol. ; reprinted, The Hague 6), Leipzig (1705), Cambridge (1727), edited /. Chappelow ; reprinted, Tubingen, 1732, ed. I. Pfaff. In the two editions last-meutioned fourth book, left in manuscript by the author, the first time appears. The object of this learned book is to show that Jewish law ritual are in origin independent of those of Dunding nations, and expressly designed to gulf between the Jews and their neighbors. Spencer has been accused by Witsius, in his iptiaca, and by Archbishop Magee, in his A tone- , of maintaining the hypothesis of the Egyp- origin of the Jewish ritual. Besides this )us work, Spencer wrote A discourse concern- wodigies, London, 1663, 2d ed. with Discourse srning vulgar prodigies, 1665 ; Dissertatio de 1. et fhummim, Cambridge, 1669 (a comprehen- work upon several obscure Bible matters, Hebrew lustrations and purifications, circum- n, music, dancing, and burials). >ENER, Philipp Jakob. Among the theolo- 3 of the Lutheran Church of the seventeenth ary, Spener was the purest and most spotless iaracter, and the most successful in his work, vas born Jan< 13, 1635, in Rappoltsweiler, in er Alsace, and d. at Berlin, Feb. 5, 1705. But )th father and mother came from Strassburg, he himself was chiefly educated in that city, ler usually called himself a Strassburger. 1 justice he is coimted among those who ned their baptismal grace, and in it harmoni- j continued to develop their Christian life. natural piety was nourished by congenial ly associations, by his relations to the noble w of the Count of Rappoltstein, and by his ten by Urban Gottlieb Haussdorff, Nuremberg, 1741. NEUDECKER. SPENSER, Edmund, b. at East Smithfield, probably in 1553; d. at Westminster, Jan. 16, 1599 ; has a place in sacred literature by his Faerie Queene (1590-96), wherein religion, though subordinated to poetry, is by no means absent, and more definitely by his Hymnes of Heavenly Love and Beautie (1596), in which " may be found the germ of Paradise Lost, including the epitome SPBRATUS. 2226 SPICE AMONG THE HEBREWS. of Milton's 'great argument.'" He graduated at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, 1573; issued The Shephearde's Calendar, 1579 ; was intimate with Sidney and Raleigh; held offices, and received an estate in Ireland ; was expelled and ruined by the insurgents in Tyi-one's rebellion, 1598, and ended his life miserably in London. His works, whether read or not, continue to be printed and praised; and his rank among the poets of that great age is next to Shakspeare. F. M. bird. SPERATUS, Paulus, an active Reformer and much esteemed hymn-writer; b. at Rottweil, Franconia (whence the surname a Rubilis), Dec. 13, 1484 ; d. at Marienwerder, Aug. 12, 1551. He studied theology in Paris and Italy, but embraced the Reformation, and preached its ideas at Din- kelsbiihl, Wurzburg, Salzburg, and Vienna, whence he was compelled to flee, in 1521, on account of a sermon against the monastic vows : Von dem liohen Gelubd der Tauff, Kbnigsberg, 1524. Appointed preacher at Iglau, he became middle-man be- tween Luther and the Moravian Brethren, and made so deep an impression on the inhabitants, that he was an-ested by Bishop Thurzo of 011- miitz, and accused of heresy. Released at the instance of Margrave Albrecht of Brandenburg, he went to Wittenberg, where he aided Luther in his collection, of German hymns, and was in 1525 made court-preacher to Duke Albrecht of Prussia. To this period belong most of his own hymns, original and translated; and in 1529 he was made bishop of Poraerania, in which position he was very zealous for the consolidation of the Protestant Church in Prussia. His life has been written by Cosack (1861), [Pkessel (1862), and Tkautenbeuger (1868)]. D. eedmann'. SPICE AMONG THE HEBREWS. By spice, especially aromatics aire meant, which the Israel- ites used in common life. The common word for these aromatics is besamhn : another term seems to be neshek (1 Kings x. 25). The terms rolcach, rikuchim, merkacliah, mirkachath, signify more especially salves prepared from aromatics ; whilst merkach seems to be the general term for aromatic plants. In the gardens of kings and nobles, such exotic plants were often raised (Cant. i. 12, iv. 13 sq., v. 13); but the gums, wood, etc., for the preparation of incense and salves, were mostly imported to Palestine and Egypt from the south of Arabia, Sabita, and India, and negotiated by the Phoenicians (Ezek. xxvii. 22) and Ishmael- ites (Gen. xxxvii. 25). Some of the species be- longing here have already been treated, as Balm (q.v.), Bdellium (q.v.). Frankincense (q.v.), Galbanum (q.v.), Mykrh (q-v.). We must not omit the ladanum and spikenard. As to the for- mer, which is mentioned in Gen. xxxvii. 25 and xliii. 11 (Authorized Version, " myrrh "), it is the name of a bitter, aromatic, slimy, and sticky resin, flowing from the juice of oistus, of which there are several species. It was gathered from the beards of goats, where it is found sticking. The ancient versions, knowing the meaning of the Hebrew word no more, rendered it "stacte," — pistachio- nut, or chestnuts. As to spikenard, the far-famed perfume of the East, there were several kinds, one a very precious, the other less valuable. The former was gathered from a plant growing in North and East India, South Arabia, and Gedrosia, and belonging to the family Valeriana. It still grows at the foot of the Himalayan Mountains. The Phoenicians imported this perfume to the West, and thus it came also .to Palestine. Less precious than the Indian was the Syrian (espe- cially well prepared at Tarsus), which was com- posed of oils, most of which also belonged to aromatic plants of the Valeriana family. It was sold in small alabaster boxes (Mark xiv. 3), and was carried in smelling-bottles. It was used not only as salve, but also for seasoning the wine. With such precious nard, Mary of Bethany anoint- ed the Saviour six days before the passover (John xii. 1). This oil was also iised for the purpose of preserving the dead. The name " nard " is of Sanscrit origin, and points to the home of the plant: it denotes "giving an odor." Besides these different species, the Bible also mentions the fol- lowing spices. Aloes (Num. xxiv. 6 ; Prov. vii. 17;, Cant. iv. 14; Ps. xlv.'8; John xix. 39), a fragrant wood (hence aloe-wood) growing in India, where it is called agldl. The Europeans call it lignum aquilce [i.e., eagle-wood]. The wood is resinous, of a dark color, heavy. The Indians regard the aloe-trees as holy. Another aromatic wood is the algum, from Ophir (1 Kings x. 11 sq. ; 2 Chron. ii, 8, ix. 10) ; also almug, not " pearls," as the rabbis explain, but probably sandal-wood. Besides the wood we must also mention the hark of different trees growing in India, and which the Hebrews at a very early period counted among the spices ; thus especially the cinnamon (Exod. XXX. 23, where it is enumerated as one of the ingredients employed for the preparation of the holy anointing oil) . It also occurs Prov. vii. 17 ; Cant. iv. 14; Rev. xviii. 13. The home of the cinnamon is Ceylon. According to Nees von Esen- beck (^Disp. de cinnamono, Bonn, 1823), the cassia was not a distinct species, but only a wild or original form of the Cinnaniomum Ceylonicum. There are two Hebrew words rendered " cassia," — kiddah and ketsiah, — which were among the ingredients of the holy incense, according to the rabbis. To these ingredients the Talmud adds also the koshel, the costus-root. Another ingre- dient was the calamus (kaneh bosem, alsp kaneh ha-tob , Exod. xxx. 23 ; Jer. vi. 20 ; Isa. xliii. 24) and karkom, or saffi'on, only mentioned in Cant, iv. 14. To the resinous and balmy spices already mentioned we may perhaps add the nekoih (Gen. xxxvii. 25, xliii. 11), some kind of gum; the libneh, or poplar (Gen. xxx. 37), by some regarded as the storax-tree ; the mastic (Susan, v. 54), a tree growing in Greece, Asia Minor, and Palestine, — the Pislacia lentiscus. It is extensively used in the East in the preparation of spirits, as a sweetmeat, as a masticatory for preserving the gums and teeth, as an anti-spasmodic in medicine. To the spices we may also add the cypress-branch (kopher, A. v., camph'ire, but in the margin cypress, Cant, i. 14, iv. 13), carried by the Mohammedan women in the bosom. The powdered leaves, which are mixed with the juice of citrons, are used to stain therewith the hair and nails. The sirpad, in Isa. Iv. 13, translated " brier," is, according to some (Eichhorn, Ewald), the while mustard. Finally, we mention the gourd (kikayon, Jon. iv. 6-10), whose growth was miraculous : it is the Ricinus communis, or castor-oil plant. In the Talmud the kik-oi\ is mentioned, prepared from the seed of the ricinus. LEYRER- SPIERA. 222T SPINOLA. SPIERA, Francesco, the unfortunate man, who, for worldly considerations, denied his Protestant profession, and in consequence died in a condition of maddened despair and remorse ; was b. at Cit- adella, near Padua, Italy, about 1498; d. there December, 1548. A lawyer and public official in his native city, greatly honored, rich, and ardently devoted to the pursuit of wealth, he accepted the message of the Reformation; and experiencing peace, comfort, and joy in a remarkable degree, according to his own account, he preached every- where, on the streets and in private, to his fellow- townsmen. He studied the Scriptures carefully. His change of life produced a great excitement. He was accused by the priest of the town at Rome. When Spiera learned that he was about to be summoned to appear before the papal authorities, he lost courage, and went of his own free will, but only after a terrible struggle with his con- science, to Venice, to confess repentance to the papal legate, della Casa. He subscribed a peni- tential document which the legate drew up, and read a similar document, recanting the doctrines of the Reformation, in the church of Citadella, before two thousand people. No sooner, however, had he arrived at his own home than he was over- come by the most terrible fears of the judgment and eternal condemnation. He could not leave his bed, lost his appetite, attempted several times to take his own life, was can-ied to Padua, but brought back to Citadella, and died a few days afterwards in despair. These experiences, and the manner of Spiera's death, produced an intense excitement. Spiera believed he had committed the sin against the Holy Ghost, and refused all the consolations drawn from the consideration of the divine mercy. He held he belonged to the number of those who were lost, and lost eternally. " Oh, if I were only greater than God ! for I know he will not have mercy upon me," he ex- claimed. In his assurance that God had forsaken him, he had the most painful visions. Devils surrounded him, stuck needles into his pillow; a fly buzzed about his head, which was sent by Beelzebub ; and, in his terrilale consciousness of sin, he often roared like a lion, causing those about him to tremble. Criticising the history of Spiera, we come to the conclusion, that in spite of his preaching the gospel, and laying claim to the finest Christian experiences, he was never truly penitent for his sins. He professed to accept the doctrine of jus- tification by faith, but did not accompany his profession by a forsaking of sin. Calvin and the other Reformers took a deep interest in the case ; and Calvin, who wrote a preface (December, 1549) to the account of Henricus Scotus, regarded his sufferings and remorse as a terrible judgment of God, sent to awaken Italy. He regarded Spiera as one of those who deceive themselves with the belief that they are of the predestinate, when they are not. There have been other cases similar to that of Spiera, as Henry IV. of France. Other cases are mentioned in Coquerel : Hist, des Eglises du Desert. Spiera is to be looked upon as one of the negative evidences for the truth of Protestantism. We have no instance of any pei-vert from the Roman-Catholic Church to Protestantism having a similar experience. There are several accounts of Spiera's life and death. Those of Vf.rgerius, Gribaldcs (professor of law at Padua), Henri- cus Scotus, and Gelous (professor of philosophy at Padua), are contained in the work Francisci Spieros . . . historia, a qualuor summis viris summa Jide composha, cum clariss. virorum prcefationibus, Ccelii S. C. et Jo. Catvini, et Petri Pauli Vergerii Apologia, accessit quoque Martini Borrhai de usu, quern Spiera turn exemplvm, turn doctrina afferat, judicium. See Roth : Francesco Spiera's Lebens- ende, Niirnberg, 1829 ; [Bacon : Francis Spira, Lond., 1665, 1710 ; Schaff: Sunde wider den heil- igen Geist, Halle, 1841, Appendix]. herzog. SPIFAME, Jacques Paul, Sieur de Passy, b. in Paris, 1502 ; beheaded at Geneva, March 23, 1566. He studied law in his native city, and was in the course of a brilliant career as councillor to the Parliament, when he suddenly broke off, and en- tered the service of the Church. In this field, too, he made a brilliant career; became vicar- general to the Cardinal of Lorraine, whom he accompanied to the Council of Trent; and was in 1548 made bishop of Nevers. But in 1559 he resigned his see in favor of his nephew, and went to Geneva, where he embraced the Reformation. One of the reasons for this move was his relation to Catherine de Gasperne, a married woman whom he had seduced, and who lived with him after the death of her husband. At Geneva they were married ; and Spifame was ordained a minister of the Reformed Church, and appointed pastor of Issoudun. In 1562 he went to Francfort as the ambassador of the Prince of Conde ; and in 1564 he went to Pan as an agent of the Queen of Navarre, Jeanne d'Albret. But he_ made the queen his irreconcilable enemy by saying that her son, Henry IV., was not the son of Anton of Bour- bon, but of Merlin ; and on his return to Geneva he was arrested. During the investigation, some forgery with respect to his own marriage was proved against him ; and he was sentenced to death, and beheaded. theodor schott. SPINA, Alphonso de, a Christian apologist of Jewish descent; lived in Spain in the fifteenth century ; entered the Franciscan order after his conversion ; was for some time rector of the school of Salamanca, and became finally bishop of Orense in GaUicia. His celebrated work, Fortalitium fidei contra Judceos, Saracenos, etc., was written in 1458, but not printed until 1484 ; espe- cially the part against the Mohammedans is of great historical interest. H. mallet. SPINOLA, Cristoval Rojas de, a Roman- Catholic unionist; d. March 12, 1695; a native of Spain, and general of the Franciscan order in Madrid ; came to Vienna as confessor to the vrife of Leopold I., a Spanish princess, and was made bishop of Wienerisch-Neustadt in 1685. A peace- able union between the Protestant churches and the Church of Rome was the great idea of his life ; and the religious indifference of the Protes- tant courts in Germany, the disgust of the higher classes at confessional controversies, the mild character of the school of Helmstadt, etc., made, for a time his exertions look successful A con- ference took place in 168-3. Spinola presented his Regulce circa Christianorum omnium ecclesiasticam reunionem, and the Helmstadt theologians, their Metliodus reducenda unionis, etc. But, though the Emperor and the Pope were in favor of the scheme, serious Roman Catholics considered Spinola a SPINOZA. 2228 SPINOZA. fool, and serious Protestants were scandalized at Molanus. The negotiations, however, continued after the death of Spinola. See Leibnitz and Molanus. h. mallet. SPINOZA, Baruch de, b. at Amsterdam, Nov. 24, 1632; d. at The Hague, Feb. 21, 1677. His parents were Jews who had been driven from Portugal by religious persecution. His teacher in Hebrew was the celebrated rabbi, Saul Levi Marteira, who introduced him to the study of the Bible and the Talmud ; besides, he studied Latin under the celebrated physician, Franz van der Ende. Differences between his views and the Jewish doctrine were soon noticed, and so he was expelled from the Jewish communion on account of " frightful heresies." He left Amsterdam, and lived in the vicinity from 1656 to 1660, then at Rhynsberg and Voorburg, near The Hague. Final- ly he settled at The Hague ; residing there to the end of his life, and supporting himself by grind- ing lenses. In 1673 he refused to take a call as professor of philosophy to Heidelberg, saying that he might be hindered there in his liberty of phi- losophizing. Clearness and calmness are the main feata]-es of his character. He was never seen laughing, nor very sad, but kind and gentle to all. Free from hypocrisy, a man of few wants, he was the image of a true sage. His writings are, Renati Descartes Principiorum philosophies, pars i. et ii., etc, Amstelodami apud Joh. Rieuwertsz, 1663; Tractatus theolocjico-politi- cus, Hamburgi apud Henrioum Kunraht, 1670; Baruch de Spinoza's Opera posthmna, Amsterdam, apud Joh. Eienwertsz, 1677, containing Ethica ordine geometrico demonstrala, etc., Tractatus politi- ■ cus, Tractatus de inteltectus cmendatione, Epistolce ; Baruch de Spinoza tract, de Deo et homine ejusque felicitate (recently discovered) ; The unfinished Essays of Spinoza, ed. Hugo Ginsberg, Heidel- berg, 1882. We shall only consider here the Ethics and the Tractatus theolor/ico-potiticus as the most important works for philosophy and theology. Spinoza, the second great philosopher in the course of the purely rationalistic development of modern philosophy, stands in very close connec- tion to his great predecessoi', Descartes. The fundamental notion of Spinoza's system is the notion of substance, which is thus defined: "By substance I understand that which is in itself, and which is conceived by itself ; i.e., the concep- tion of which does not need the conception of another thing in order to be formed. There is but one substance, which is identical with God. We cannot predicate any thing of it, as omnis delerminatio est negatio, and the infinite cannot contain any negation, because it is the absolute affirmation of existence." All predicates used by Spinoza to define its nature are therefore but a circumlocution of the first definition. In order to comprehend something of the in- finite substance, we must look to the second im- portant notion in the system, ^ the notion of the attributes. Substance cannot be comprehended by its mere existence, but only by attributes, which are what reason perceives as constituting the essence of substance. The attributes, there- fore, belong only to our mind, not to substance itself, which cannot admit any determination, i.e., negation. Our mind may therefore ascribe a number of attributes to substance. Spinoza, however, considers substance only under the attributes of thought and extension. The cause of these two attributes is not in God, but in the hu- man mind, which finds both thought and extension in itself. The attributes are independent of each other, and must be comprehended per se, not by substance ; as the notion of attributes is not de- pendent on the notion of substance, which ex- cludes every determination. Res cogitans and res extensa are the same thing, i.e., considered from different stand-points; but it is indifferent to substance how it is considered. The notion of substance, being but one, seems to imply that substance = every thing existing, i.e., the world. But how can the finite proceed from the infinite? This question is senseless according to Spinoza, because the finite, as the finite, does not exist ; for all determination is non esse, and the finite is determination. The finite things have real being only as far as they are in God, in whom omnia sunt simul natura. This pro- duces the third important notion, — the notion of the modes or affections. Modes are the accidents of substance, or that which is in something else, i.e., in God, by whom, also, they are conceived. For modes are nothing in themselves: they are like the waves of the ocean. There is nothing existing outside of God, and it would be absurd to say that God was composed of modes. It is false, therefore, to say of Spinoza that he taught God and the world were identical, because we can con- ceive of the world only as being composed of single objects. Single objects do, therefore, not exist as such, but only as modifications and acci- dents of substance. There is a threefold mode of considering things. The first kind of cognition, which he calls opinio or imaginalio, is cognition through unregulated experience or signs, by which we connect certain ideas. The second kind of cognition, ratio, is cognition thi-ough the peculiarities of things, and notiones communes. The third kind of cognition is the intuitive knowledge of the mind, or true knowledge. Looking at the world through imagi- nation, it appears to us as being composed of real things ; and so we have the idea of a natura natu- rata, i.e., of a world. But it is the nature of our mind to know things as necessary or external; and substance considered in this way, i.e., the true way, produces the idea of a natura naturans. There is no relation between both, not even the z'elation of causality. Spinoza, speaking, however, of causality, means an immanency of causality. God is therefore only the substance, or the substratum of objects. As will is but a mode, it is self-evident that God cannot act with free will : everything fol- lows from his necessity, i.e., his nature being his power. It is foolish to assume that God acts according to aims, for this means to subject him to something else. The basis of his being is the basis of his acting. The law of causality rules, however, in the natura natiirata,. In like maimer as substance is conceived under the modes of thought and extension, single ob- jects must be conceived, because they are modes of thought and extension ; for the world is either a material world, or a world of ideas. Being modes of the same substance, they must stand in SPINOZA. 2229 SPINOZA. rdance, so that the order and connection of i is identical with the order and connection ings. A thing is, however, caused only by a J, and an idea by an idea ; not a thing by an or an idea by a thing. This is true of all le modes, which are things or ideas according le way they are considered. All things are jfore animated, but they differ in the grade aimation. Body and soul are, according to identical, considered under difierent modes, self-evident that the mind cannot act upon )ody, and the body cannot act upon the mind, as there is an idea of the human body, there 30 an idea of the soul, or the idea of the idea, le individual man is therefore nothing but a B of the divine substance. The human mind thus be called a part of the divine reason, we can say that all intellects together form nfinite intellect. Man, being only a mode of tance, stands in an endless series of causes, will as a modification of the body is therefore determined. ]Men think to be free because are not conscious of the determinating es. Will is the faculty to aiBrm or deny : is again determined by the idea of that :h is to be affirmed or denied. Will and lect are therefore identical. We are active 1 any thing happens of which we are the uate cause; passive, however, if any thing )ens of which we are not, or only partly, the e. The mind is therefore active only when ng adequate ideas; passive, when having in- nate ideas, or being under the influence of imagination. The endeavor to become free I this, and to reach a state of perfection, is d will, or, speaking of the body, appetite, transition of the mind to greater perfection y: the opposite is sadness. Joy accompanied le idea of its external cause is love : sadness mpanied by its external cause is hate. All r passions are derived from these. The ser- ie of man consists in his inability to control )assions. The common conceptions of good evil are wrong. These terms denote nothing iive which exists in themselves, but are con- ions and notions which result from our com- ig of things. The evil, or sin, is nothing live ; for nothing happens against the will of It is therefore a negation which appears to omething only in our conception. There is lea of the evil in God ; for, if sin was some- 5 real, then God would certainly be its author, rder to get a precise notion of the terms )d " and " evU," he defines good to be that hich we know with certainty that it is useful 1, and evil, that of which we know with like inty that it hinders us in the attainment of jood. rtue is nothing but the power to produce which is according to one's nature. I do not igainst all laws, or approve crimes, because against my nature ; and reason does not re- i any thing which is against nature. That is !al usefulness which brings man to a greater iction. But as the true nature oi reasoi;i is fledge, then nothing is useful but that which !S knowledge. The highest good is the ?ledge of God. Joy is something good; ess, something bad; likewise all passions h involve sadness, like compassion, meek- ness, or repentance. A passion ceases to be a passion, i.e., a state of suffering, as soon as we have a clear idea of it. Every man may thus free himself of his passions, because he is able to have a clear idea of the passions of his body. This is possible by looking at things as being necessary. He who knows his passions rejoices, and has at the same time the idea of God ; i.e., he loves God. This love, or the intellectual love of God, results from the third kind of cognition, — the cognition sub specie mternilalis, by which we know God as an eternal being. God, being supe- rior to all passions, can, strictly taken, neither love nor hate ; and whosoever wishes to be loved by God wishes that God should cease to be God. But, as our ideas are really thoughts of God, we may say that our love to God is a part of God's infinite love to himself. Our blessedness and freedom consist in this eternal love of God, and in this sense we may say that man is eternal (immortal). The idea of eternity has nothing to do with time or duration. Knowing things under the third form of cognitiou, man will be free of his passions, and will not fear death, be- cause his spirit is eternal. This eternal part of the spirit is the reason ; the part disappeai-ing, his imagination. Even if we knew nothing of our eternity, virtue and piety would be our aim, for blessedness is not the reward of virtue, but virtue in itself is blessedness. These are the outlines of Spinoza's philosophy as contained in his Ethics, the principal work of his life. The Traciatjis theologico-polilicus, one of his earlier essays, was probably caused by his personal experience, and is very important as a defence of liberty of thought. The difference of men is nowhere more dis- tinctly shown than in their opinions, especially their religious opinions. It must be left, there- fore, to the judgment of every individual to be- lieve whatever he wants, as long as his belief produces good works ; for the State has not to care for the opinions of men, but for their actions. Faith, religion, and theology have no theoretical importance or truth : their object is an entirely practical one, i.e., to bring those men who are not ruled by reason to obedience, virtue, and blessedness. It is the object of philosophy to give truth. Philosophy and theology have nothing in common. The reason for their difference is the following : God as the object of religion is a hu- man being, i.e., he is represented in his relation to man ; while God as the object of philosophy is not a human being, i.e., he is considered in relation to himself. Holy Scripture does not give a definition of God : it only reveals to us the attri- butes of justice and love. This is a clear proof that philosophical knowledge of God cannot serve as a model for human life. God is represented in Scripture to the imagination as a ruler, as just, gracious, etc. Philosophy, which deals with clear notions, cannot make use of these attributes. Theology has, therefore, no right to rule over philosophy, as the result of such a dominion wiU be fanaticism without peace. That will, of course, undermine the foundations of the State, and the State should not allow the encroachments of theology. His biblical criticisms and views on the person SPIRES, 2230 SPIRIT. of Christ, contained in this essay, are also of great interest. The logical fallacies and other defects in the system of Spinoza have been frequently pointed out. The pi-incipal objections to be made are the following. The idea of substance is motionless, and insufficient for an explanation of growth and life : the modes stand, therefore, in hardly any connection with substance, and thus do not fulfil what they are intended for. The practical phi- losophy, although grandly drawn, does not cover the whole realm of the social, artistic, and ethical life of man : nevertheless, the system, and espe- cially the sublime idea of substance, has had the gi-eatest influence upon modern philosophy. Fichte, Schelliug, Schleiermacher, Hegel, and many othei'S, owe very much to Spinoza. And many of the thoughts expressed in the Tractaius' theologico-poUlicus, for which he was persecuted by the theologians of his time, are to-day accepted as true by theology. The old reproach of atheism and pantheism, so often made by ignorance, will disapppear more and more by a thorough knowl- edge of his writing. And, while the scholars at present disagree as to the influence of Descartes and the old Jewish philosophers upon Spinoza, they should not forget the consumptive state of the philosopher's health ; for our sublimest thoughts are not reached by the syllogism of the reason, but are born in the depth of the soul. Spinoza's in- fluence upon poetry (Goethe,_ Schefer, Auerbach, etc.) has tlierefore been almost equal to his influ- ence on philosophy. Lit. — Editions of Spinoza's works have been published by Paulus (Jena, 1802-03), Gporer (Stuttgart, 18.30), and Bkuder (Leipzig, 1843-46); but the edition which supersedes all others is by J. Vloten and J. P. N. Land, The Plague, 1882 sqq. For biography and criticism, see Amand Saixtes : Hist, de la vie et des ouvrages de Baruch de Spinoza, Paris, 1842 ; Ant. van der Linde : Spinoza's Lehre, etc., Gottingen, 1862 ; KuNO Fischer: Geschichle der neuern Phil., Bd. i.; H. Ginsberg : Leben und Characterhild Baruch Spino- za's, Leipzig, 1876; J. A. Voigtlander: "Spinoza nicht Pantheist sond. Theist," in Theol. Stud, und Krit., 1841-42 ; A. Trendelenburg : Ueher Spi- noza's Gi-undgedanken. Hist. Beitrilge zur Phil., Bd. ii., Berlin, 1855 ; A. v. Oettingen : Spinoza's Ethik und der mod. Material. ,Dor-pa,t{" Zeitschr. f . Theol. IK Kirehe"),1866 : P. Schmidt: Schleiermacher und Spinoza, Berlin, 1868; T. Camerer : Die Lehre Spinoza's, Stuttgart, 1877. In English, R. Willis : Benedict de Spinoza, London, 1870; Fred. Pol- lock: Spinoza, his Life and Philosophy, London, 1880 ; Knight : Spinoza, Four Es.iays by J. P. N. Lqud, Kuno Fischer, J. Van Vloten, and Ernest .Renan, London, 1883 ; James Martineau : Spi- noza, London and New York, 1882, 2d ed., 1883. Spinoza's works were translated into German by B. Auerbach (Stuttgart, 1840, 5 vols.), and into French by Saisset (Paris, 1842, 2d ed., 1861) ; the Tractalus theologico-politicus , into English, 2d ed., London, 1868; and the Ethics [by D. D. Smith], New York, 1876, and by W. H. White, 1883. DR. .JULIUS GOEBEL. SPIRES, a city of Bavaria on the Rhine, is noticeable in church history as the seat of four diets concerning the Reformation. — 1. The fii-st diet was opened June 26, 1526. The situation was very trying to the emperor. Francis I. had just broken the peace of Madrid with the consent of the Pope, and the Turks were threatening in the East. Under those circumstances the einperor dropped the religious question altogether, and left to the states to manage it as they could best defend before God, until a council, oecumenical or national, should finally settle it. — II. The sec- ond diet was opened March 15, 1529, under very different circumstances. Francis I. was suing for peace, and the Turkish hordes had retired. The Roman-Catholic majority consequently de- creed that the mass should be restored wherever it had been abolished, that a rigid censorship of books should be established, and that every preacher who did not recognize the real presence in the sacrament should be excluded from the pulpit. Against these decrees the evangelical minority entered a formal protest, whence their name, Protestants. — IIL The third diet was opened Feb. 9, 1542 ; and the emperor confirmed the peace of Ratisbon (1541) in order to get the neces- sary subsidies against the Turks. — IV. The fourth diet was opened by the emperor in person, Feb. 20, 1544; and again the Turkish affairs compelled the emperor to concede toleration in religious matters. See Sleidan : De statu reli- gionis, etc., Frankfort, 1786, xv. pp. 328-350; [C. Jager : Die Protestation zu Speyer, 19 April, 15S9, Strassburg, 1879 (28 pp.) ; J. Ney : Geschichte des Reichstages zu Speier im Jahre 1529, Hamburg, 1880.] NEUDECliEE. SPIRIT, Holy. See Holy Spirit. SPIRITUAL GIFTS. See Gifts, Spiritual. SPIRIT, the Human, in the Biblical Sense. The biblical terms for " soul " are E'^J, V^CT ; and for " spirit," nn, Trvev/Jia. We owe the conception of the human spirit, as, indeed, of spirit in gener- al, to the Sacred Scriptures, to the religion of reve- lation. It is peculiar to these to speak of inifoim in the psychological sense as the cause of the human existence, particularly of his personal life. Where the Scriptures speak of the spirit of man in its widest acceptation, that is, of life (as in Job X. 12, xvii. 1 ; Ezek. xxxvii. 8 ; Zech. xii. 1), and ascribe to men and animals the same spirit (as in Eccles. iii. 19 sqq. ; cf. Gen. vi. 17, vii. 15, 22; Ps. civ. 30; Isa. xlii. 5), they do this under the idea that this gift of life, which conditions the existence of the creature, comes from God, and binds it to God (cf . Job xii. 10, xxxiii. 4, xxxiv. 14; Ps. civ. 29). God is a god of the spirits of all flesh (Num. xvi. 22, xxvii. 16), towards man " the father of spirits," in distinction from " the fathers of our flesh " (Heb. xii. 9). Where life is, there is spirit, and the spirit points to God ; for it is God's sign and God's possession, and the point at which God and the creature meet. And we thus understand how and what the Bible speaks by the spirit of man. Soul and spirit are in a number of passages interchangeable (Gen. xlv. 27, cf. Ps. cxix. 175; 1 Sam. xxx. 12, cf. 1 Kings xvii.- 21 sq. ; Ps. cxlvi. 4, cf. Gen. xxxv. 18; Ps. Ixxvii. 3, cf. Ps. cvii. 5 ; Ps. xxxi. 5, cf. 2 Sam. iy. 9 ; Ezek. xxxvii. 8, cf . Acts xx. 10) ; because, in these, both are used in their primary Significance, i.e., of the breath, that by which man lives, and which lives in him. Yet the Bible does make a distinction between these terms. Thus, dying is both a giving-up of the spii-it and of the soul: SPIRIT. 2231 SPIRITUALISM. it IS never said that the spirit dies, but that the soul dies (Num. xxxi. 19 ; Judg. xvi. 30 ; Matt. X. 28 ; Mark iii. 4). Only the soul is the subject of will and desire, inclination and aversion, pleas- ure and disgust (cf. Deut. xii. 20, xiv. 26 ; 1 Sam. 11. 16 ; Job xxiii. 13 ; Ps. xlii. 2, Ixiii. 1 ; Prov. XXI. 10; Isa. xxvi. S; Mic. vii. 1, etc.)'; but soul and spirit are alike the subject of perception, self-consciousness. It must not, however, be over- looked, that consciousness, perception, willing, are attributed to the heart ; and soul and spirit are spoken of only as they concern the hidden state to which these functions and phenomena belong, and because some weight would be laid upon it. Again : the dead are spoken of as spirits (Luke XXIV. 37, 39 ; Acts xxiii. 8 sq. ; Heb. xii. 23 ; 1 Pet. iii. 19), but the living as souls, for the soul as such outlasts death. Finally, and this is the most important difference in the Bible use of these words, whereas soul is applied to the indi- vidual, the subject of life, spirit is never so used. Spirit as an independent subject is alwavs some- thing different from the human spirit. This latter distinction rests upon the original difference of the terms : nn, 7n>tv/ia, " spirit," is the condition, while l^fJ, rjwxv; "soul," is the manifestation, of life. But for the explanation of this and the other peculiarities of usage, it is, of course, not sufficient always to call to mind the different points of view from which the inner being of man is described, now as spirit, and now as soul. One must go a step beyond the original relation of the two descriptions. Granted that spirit and soul are related as vital principle and life, still it is possible to distinguish them, not only in conception, but in fact ; because the spirit, the principle of the soul, is the divine vital prin- ciple, immanent in, but not identical with, the individual life. Soul and spirit cannot be sepa- rated as soul and body, but they can be distin- g^nished. Spirit is the principle of the soul ; and it cannot be said of the spirit, which proceeds from God, and always bears the divine vital prin- ciple, that it sins or dies. It is the knowledge of God and of the fall which leads us to make the distinction between the present actuality of life and its divine origi- nal creation. Spirit is wherever life is ; and this spirit is the spirit of God, but in a peculiar man- ner. This spirit belongs to man. Not by the mere fact of creation does the holy spirit come to man, for this spirit is something different from the human spirit. The holy spirit is the cause of the soul, not identical with it. Sin has broken the connection between the human spirit and the spirit of God. • So death came in as the opposite of the spirit wrought and filled eternal life, which was man's before the fall. Man now has a consciousness of guilt. He feels the press- ure of law, and his inability to obey it. Through the impartation of the spirit, man is, however, renewed. He has life in its true sense. And this renewal affects his whole being in all its relations (Horn. viii. 11; 2 Cor. v. 5; Eph. iv. 23,30; IThess. V. 23). The distinction between spirit and soul is the peculiar characteristic of the Bible's idea of the nature of man. But this is not saying that the Bible teaches a trichotomy. On the contrary, nothing is farther from it than such a trichotomy as, for instance, the Platonic. The biblical tri- chotomy, as we find it in 1 Thess. v. 23, Heb. iv. 12, and which there rests upon the knowledge of sin and the experience of salvation, does not exclude a decidedly dichotomic expression, as 1 Pet. ii. 11, where the soul is regarded simply according to her spiritual determination as the bearer of the divine life-principle (cf . Phil. i. 27). Lit. — Beck : Outlines of Biblical Psychology, [Eng. trans., Edinb., 1877]; Delitzsch: A Sys- tem nf Biblical Psychology, [Eng. trans., Edinb., 1867]; Oehler: Old-testament Theology, [Eng. revis. trans., ed. Day, N.Y., 1883] ; '\^'eiss : Bib- lical Theology of the New Testament, [Eng. trans.. Edinburgh, 1882, 2 vols.] ; Wendt : Die Begriffe Fleisch und Geist im biblischen Sprachgebrauch : Crejier: Biblio-theological Lexicon of New-Testa- ment Greek, [Eng. trans., 2d ed., Edinburgh and Xew York, 1880, s.v. ; William P. Dickson : St. Paul's Use of the Terms Flesh and Spirit, Glasgow, . 1883]. H. CREMEK. SPIRITUALISM is a term, which, in its wider I sense, is often applied to various forms of mys- j ticism and quietism, as represented by Jacob Boehme, De Molinos, Mme. Guyon, and others ; [ while in its narrower, but now more common, sense, it simply denotes a belief in a natural com- munication between this and the other world. A leading Spiritualist paper. Spiritual Magazine, established in London in 1860, defines Spiritual- ism as " based on the cardinal fact of spirit com- munion and influx ; " as an " effort to discover all truth relating to man's spiritual nature, capacities, relations, duties, welfare, and destiny;" as aim- ing, " through a careful, reverent study of facts, at a knowledge of the laws and principles which govern the occult forces of the universe, of the relations of spirit to matter, and of man to God and the spiritual world." In this sense of the term the phenomenon has attracted more physio- logical than theological interest ; though its devo- tees pronounce it an indispensable weapon in the contest with the religious indifference, material- ism, and atheism of our age. Spiritualism, or, as it is sometimes called. Spirit- ism, dates back only to 1848. In that year it was discovered that certain rappings which were heard in the house of John D. Fox in Hydeville, Wayne County, N.Y., and which could not be accounted for in any ordinary way, conveyed in- telligent communications. In 1850 the two girls Margaret and Kate Fox came to New York ; and soon " spirit-rapping," the moving of heavy bodies without any mechanical agency, involuntary writ- ing, etc., were phenomena which everybody had witnessed, or heard discussed by witnesses. StiU more powerful mediums — that is, persons of such sensitive organization that the spirits can act upon them or through them — appeared. One of the most remarkable of these was Daniel Douglas Home, a lad of seventeen years, who gave sittings before Napoleon III. in Paris, and Alexander IL in St. Petersburg. Greater things were now accom- plished, — speaking in foreign languages ; lighting of a phosphorescent light in the dark; producing of drawings, pictures, and photographs ; and, finally, the complete embodiment of a departed spirit, at least so far as to make him recognizable to friends and relatives. Numerous books were written for and against, and a multitude of prose- SPITTA. 2232 SPRAGUB, lytes were made ; but a sect or party, properly so speaking, was not formed. The Spiritualists generally reject the doctrine of the Trinity, considering Christ simply as one of the great teachers of mankind, not in any essential point different from the founders of the other great historical religions. They also gen- erally reject the doctrine of a personal devil, though they believe in evil spirits, ascribing to them a power over man which may amount to possession. But they all believe in a future life, and in a natural, not miraculous, communication between that life and life on earth. The idea of miracles they have completely discarded, and the miracles of Scripture they accept as natural though unexplained facts. Life on earth they consider as a preparation for the life to come ; but, when the transition from the one phase of life to the other takes place through death, no very great change occurs. The new life is only a supplement to the old, and in its initial state almost wholly determined by the character of that. Communications between these two spheres of life have always been possible, though under certain conditions of which we as yet have only very slight knowledge; but the motives which bring the spirits to reveal themselves to us are simply love and mercy, a desire to convince man of the existence of a future life. Lit. — R. D. Owen : Footfalls on the Boundary of Another World (Phila., 1860) and The Debata- ble Land between thii World and the Next, N.Y., 1872; Home : Incidents in my Life, N.Y., i., 1882, ii., 1872, iii., 1875; De Mouran: From Matter to Spirit, London, 1863 ; Sargent : Planchette, or the Despair of Science, Boston, 1869 ; Crookes : Researches in the Phenomena of Spiritualism, Lon- don, 1874 ; Wallace : On Miracles and Modern Spiritualism, London, 1875. SPITTA, Karl Johann Philipp, a distinguished German hymn-writer; was b. in Hanover, Aug. 1, 1801 ; d. in Burgdorf, Sept. 28, 1859. His mother, a converted Jewess, was left a widow in 1805. Sent to school, Spitta's studies were interrupted for four years by a dangerous sickness. At the close of this period he was apprenticed to a clock- maker. Continuing his study of Latin and Greek in private, he again entered school in 1818, and in 1821 passed to the university of Gottingen, where he studied theology. His faith wavered for a time, and he associated with the circle to which Heinrich Heine belonged. It was re-assured by the perusal of the works of Tlioluck and De Wette. From 1824 to 1828 he acted as private tutor at Liine, near Luneburg, then became co-pastor at Sudwald ; and after holding pastorates at liameln (1830) and AVechholt (1837), he was made super- indent at Wittingen, Liineburg (1853), and at Burgdorf (1859). His success as a pastor and preacher brought him calls in 1844 and 1846 to Bremen, Barmen, and Elberfeld. In 1855 he was made doctor of divinity by the university of Got- tingen. Spitta was a man of deep piety, and earnestness of faith. He excelled as a pastor. His fame rests upon his hymns. In ^lay, 1826, he wrote to a friend, " In the way that I used to sing, I now sing no more. I consecrate my life and my love, and also my song, to the Lord. His love is the one great theme of all my songs, and it is the longing of the Christian hymnist to praise and magnify him adequately." He stands along- side of Albei't Knapp as the best and sweetest of the recent German hymn-writers. It was not till 1833 that he acceded to the repeated requests of friends, and published a collection of hymns in Psalter und Harfe (Psaltery and Harp), which has gone through many editions. A second collec- tion appeared in 1843, and a thii'd in 1861 (edited by Professor Adolf Peters. [Among Spitta's best hymns are Ein lieblich Loos ist uns gefallen (" Our lot is fallen in pleasant places "), O Jesu meine Sonne (" O blessed Son, whose splendor "), selig Haus wo man dich aufgenommen (" O happy house ! O home supremely blest"), all translated by Massie, 1860.] See Life of Spitta by Munkel, Leipzig, 1861, and Petees's edition of the Psalter und Harfe. G. H. klippel. SPONDANUS (Henri de Sponde), b. at Mau- leon, Jan. 6, 1568; d. at Toulouse, May 18, 1643. He was educated in the Reformed faith at Orthez ; studied law, and entered the service of Henry TV., but was, by the writings of Bellarmin and Du Perron, induced to embrace Romanism in 1595 ; went to Rome ; was ordained a priest in 1606, and was in 1626 made bishop of Pamiers. He pub- lished an abbreviation of Baronius's Annales, Paris, 1612, which was often reprinted, and trans- lated into other languages ; also a continuation from 1127 to 1622. neudeckee. SPONSORS. See Baptism, p. 202. SPORTS, Book of, a royal proclamation drawn up by Bishop Morton for James I., issued by that king in 1618 ; republished by Charles I., under the direction of Laud, in the ninth year of his reign. Its object was to encourage those people who had attended divine service to spend the re- mainder of Sunday after evening prayers in such " lawful recreation " as dancing, archery, leaping, vaulting. May games, Whitsun ales, Morris dances, setting of May-poles, etc. The proclamation was aimed at the Puritans, and Charles required it to be read in every parish church. The majority of the Puritan ministers refused to obey, and some were in consequence suspended. See Eadie : Eccles. Cyclop., s.v., where the full text is given. SPOTSWOOD (SPOTISWOOD), John, Scotch prelate; b. at Mid-Calder, near Edinburgh, 1565; d. in London, Dec. 26, 1639. He was educated at Glasgow University, and succeeded his father as parson at Calder, in 1583, when only eighteen. In 1601 he accompanied the Duke of Lennox as chaplain in his embassy to France, and in 1603 James VI. to England. In 1603 he was made archbishop of Glasgow, and privy-councillor for Scotland. In 1615 he was transferred to St. Andrews, so that he became primate and metro- politan. On June 18, 1633, he crowned Charles I. at Holyrood. In 1635 he was made chancellor of Scotland. He was the leader in the movement to introduce the Liturgy into the Church of Scotland, which occasioned the rebellion (1637). When the Covenant was signed (1638), he retired in disap- pointment to London. He wrote The History of the Church and State of Scotland (203-1625), Lou- don, 1655; best ed., Edinburgh, 1847-51, 3 vols., with life of the author. SPRACUE, William Buell, D.D., LL.D., b. in Andover, Conn., Oct. 16, 1795; d. at Flushing, L.I., N.y., May 7, 1876. He was graduated with honor from Yale College in 1815; was tutor for SPRAGUE. 2233 SPRING. about a year in the family of Major Lewis (whose wife was the adopted daughter of A\'ashiugton), at Woodlawn, near iMount Vernon ; entered the Princeton Theological Seminary in the fall of 1816 ; was graduated in 1819, and immediately settled over the Congi-egational Church in West Springfield, Mass., as colleague with the Rev. Dr. Joseph Lathrop, who was then eighty-eight years of age, and had spent his whole professional life of sixty-three years in that parish. Dr. Lathrop died in the following year, and Mr. Spragiie was left sole pastor. In 1829 he accepted the call of the Second Presbyterian Church of Albany to become its pastor ; and here he passed the succeed- ing forty years of his life, and closed the period of active labor by resignation of his charge in 1869. He then removed his residence from Albany to Flushing, L.I., where he died in the eighty-first year of his age. In 1828 Columbia College con- ferred upon him the degree of D.D. : he received the same honor from Harvard in 1848, and the degree of LL.D. from Princeton in 1869. Among the preachers and public speakers of this country. Dr. Sprague attained very high emi- nence. In 1848 he delivered the oration before the Phi Beta Kappa Society at Harvard, in 1860 the annual address to the Yale alumni, and in 1862 the discourse to the alumni of the Princeton Seminary upon the semi-centennial anniversary of that institution. More than one hundred and fifty of his sermons and occasional discourses were published by request. He was a voluminous au- thor. He published more than a dozen separate works, among which may be mentioned Letters from Europe (1828), Lectures on Revivals (1832), Life of Rev. Dr. E. D. Griffin (1838), Aids to Early Religion (1847), Wwds to a Young Man's Conscience (1848), Visits to European Celebrities (1855), Memoirs of the Rev. Drs. John and William A. McDowell (1864), Life of Rev. Dr. Jedidiah Morse (1874). The great literary work of his life, however, which earned for him the title of " biogTapher of the church," was the Annals of the American Pul- pit, begun in 1852, when he was fifty-seven years of age, of which nine large octavo volumes were published, and the manuscript of the tenth and concluding volume completed for publication, be- fore his death. "Vols. i. and ii. are devoted to the Trinitarian Congregationalists ; vols. iii. and iv., to the Presbyterians ; vol v., to the Episcopa- lians; vol. vi., to the Baptists; vol. vii., to the Methodists; vol. viii., to the Unitarians; vol. ix., to the Lutheran, Reformed, Associate, Associate Reformed, and Reformed Presbyterian ; Slnd the unpublished volume includes Quakers, German Reformed, Moravian, Cumberland Presbyterian, Freewill Baptist, Swedenborgian, and Universal- ist. The volumes are made up of biographical sketches of all the prominent clergymen of each denomination, from the earliest settlement of the country to the close of the year 1855. The work •contains about fifteen hundred of these sketches; and to each sketch are appended, as far as practi- cable, letters of personal recollections contributed by writers who had intimately known the clergy- men commemorated. In the preparation of this work. Dr. Sprague received cordial assistance from the eminent clergymen and laymen of each denomination, and probably had a more extended acquaintance throughout the churches of this country than any other man of his time. liis successor at Albany, Rev. Dr. A. J. Upson, in his commemorative discourse, referred to the Annals as follows: — " This book of our venerated friend is successful. It may have yielded no adequate pecuniary compen- sation ; it may not be drawn from the circulating libra- ries, nor sold at the book-stalls : but it is so peculiar, it fills its own sphere so completely, it can never be supplanted. It is a treasury of Christian examples. It is the testimony of a cloud of witnesses. It is a chronicle of the everlasting church. Its author has identified himself with God as his agent in fulfilling his promise, that ' the righteous shall be in everlast- ing remembrance.' " Dr. Sprague was thus described by an old and intimate friend. Rev. Dr. Ray Palmer, in the Con- gregationalist of May 24, 1876 : — • " In his personal appearance Dr. Sprague was a very notable man. More than six feet in stature, erect, large-framed, and well-proportioned, with a grand head and dark-brown hair (which was un- changed to the day of his death, in his eighty-second year), he was sure to be observed in almost any as- sembly. His bearing was natural, as of one entirely self-possessed, and the expression of his countenance pleasing; so that, while he impressed by his dignity, he yet attracted by a certain kindliness and simpli- city of manner which at once set even a stranger entirely at ease with him. In conversation one was sure to find him animated, cheerful, rich in material derived from reading, travel, and intercourse with men, yet as ready to listen as to talk, and chiefly in- tent on imparting the utmost possible pleasure to his friend or visitor. He had come into personal contact with many distinguished men, both at home and abroad ; and he liked to describe them, to relate an- ecdotes of their peculiarities, and to repeat what they had finely said, or eloquent passages from their writings. He did this with great felicity. No one could spend an hour with him, and not be conscious of having enjoyed a rare pleasure. Of all that makes a Christian gentleman he was certainly a rare exam- ple." EDWARD E. SPRAGUE. SPRENG, Jakob (generally called Probst, from his being prcepositus in an Augustine convent in Antwerp), d. at Bremen, June 30, 1562. He was one of Luther's first adherents in the Netherlands ; preached his views in Antwerp, and founded a Lutheran congregation there, but was arrested, and compelled to recant; went to Spern, his native city, and continued to preach the Reforma- tion ; was arrested a second time, but escaped to Wittenberg ; and was in 1524 appointed preacher at Bremen, where the Reformation was established in 1.525. He left some minor treatises. See J. G. Neumann's preface to Spreng's edition : M. Lutheri Commentarius in Joannis epistolam, etc., Leipzig, 1708 ; and especially the rare book of Sr,ELf:x : De vita J. Prcepositi, Liibeck, 1747. klose. SPRING, Gardiner, D.D., LL.D., Presbyterian, b. at Newburyport, Mass., Feb. 24, 1785; d. in New- York City, Aug. 18, 1873. He was gradu- ated from Yale College, 1805 ; taught in Bermuda until 1807 ; admitted to the bar, 1808 ; abandoned law for theology, and studied at Andover Theo- logical Seminary, 1809-10 ; ordained pastor of the Brick (Presbyterian) Church, Aug. 8, 1810, and held the position till his death. The first four years of his ministry were years of steady, quiet growth; but from 1814 to 1834 there were fre- quent revivals, the result of God's blessing upon his faithful preaching, and utterly independent SPRING. 2234 STABAT MATER. of machinery. During this period he took part in the formation of the American Bible Society (1816), American Tract Society (1825), and Ameri- can Home Missionary Society (1826). From 1834 to the close of his ministry, there were no revivals ; but there was steady growth, and in himself great increase in his power as a preacher. It was then that he used the press to extend his usefulness, and published a number of volumes of connected discourses. His congregation first met in Beek- man Street, but in 1856 removed to their present church, Fifth Avenue and Thirty-sixth Street. After 1861 he had a colleague. His ministry, both for length and power, is remarkable. His princi- pal publications are Essays on the DistinguisMng Traits of Christian Character, New York, 1813 ; Fragments from the Study of a Pastor, 1838 ; Obli- gations of the World to the Bible, 1839 ; The Attrac- tion of the Cross, 1846; The Bible not of Man, 1847 ; The Power of the Pulpit, 1848; The Mercy-Seat, 1850 ; First Things, 1851, 2 vols. ; The Glory of Christ, 1852, 2 vols. ; The Contrast between Good and Bad Men, 1855, 2 vols. ; Pulpit Ministration, 1864, 2 vols. ; and Personal Reminiscences of the Life and Times of Gardiner Spring, 1866, 2 vols, (his autobiogi-aphy). See the Memorial Discourse by Rev. Dr. J. O. Murray, New York, [1873]. SPRING, Samuel, D.D., b. in Northbridge, Mass., Feb. 27, 1746 ; d. in Newburyport, Mass., March 4, 1819, in the seventy-fourth year of his age. A graduate of Princeton College in 1771 ; a classmate and room-mate there with President James Madison. The friendship between these two men remained uninterrupted through life ; although Spring was an ardent Federalist, and a determined opposer of Madison's administra^ tion. He began the study of theology with his par- ticular friend. Dr. John Witherspoon, president of Nassau Hall. He continued the study with Dr. Joseph Bellamy, Dr. Samuel Hopkins, and Dr. Stephen West. With the three divines last named he became very intimate, as likewise with Dr. Jonathan Edwards, who had been Spring's tutor at Nassau Hall. He coincided, however, in his theological opinions, with his brother-in-law, Nathanael Emmons, more nearly than with any other man. In 1775 he connected himself, as a chaplain of the Continental army, with a volunteer corps of eleven hundred men under the command of Bene- dict Arnold. With this corps he marched through the wilderness to Quebec. He stood with Col. Burr on the Plains of Abram when Gen. Mont- gomery fell. At Nassau Hall he had become in- terested in his college-mate, Aaron Burr. This interest was deepened as he became more inti- mate with Burr during the disastrous expedition to Canada. After the death of Hamilton, in 1804, Dr. Spring, although a distant relative of Burr, published a terrific sermon against duelling, and did not spare either the murderer or the murdered. Dr. Spring was pastor of the Second Congre- gational Church in Newburyport, Mass., forty-one years and seven months. He was ordained Aug. 6, 1777 ; was a distinguished patriot during the war of the Revolution and that of 1812. He was eminently a doctrinal preacher, vigorous, digni- fied, commanding, subduing. He deserves the gratitude of the churches for the impulse which he gave to the cause of theological education between the years 1777 and 1819. To him, as much as to any one man, may be traced the ori- gin of at least four important institutions of learning. To him and Eliplialet Pearson may be ascribed the founding of Andover Theological Seminary. To him, more than to any one man, is due the formation of the Massachusetts Mis- sionary Society, — a society which trained the principal men by whom the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions was first conducted. To Dr. Spring or Dr. Worcester, or both united, is due the honor of having fii-st sug- gested the idea of forming the American Board. Twenty-six of Dr. Spring's published sermons are, some doctrinal, some political, some addressed to charitable societies, some to children. His most memorable theological treatises are his Dia- logue on the Nature of Duty, 1784 ; his Moral Dis- quisitions and Strictures on the Rev. [Professor] David Tappan's Letters [in reply to the Dialogue], 2d ed., 1815. He also published The Youth's As- sistant, or a Series of Theological Questions and Ansivers, 1818, and a large number of essays in The Massachusetts Missionary Magazine, of which he was an editor. EDWARDS A. PARK. STABAT lyiATER are the first words of the famous hymn of Jacopone da Todi (d. 1306), and mean " The mother was standing." It is the most pathetic hymn of the middle ages, and, in spite of its adoration of the Virgin, is one of the softest, sweetest, and chastest lyrics in Christian literature. Suggested by the scene depicted in Jolin xix. 25, it describes with tender feeling the piercing agony of Mary at the cross. It has fur- nished a theme for musical composition to Nanini (about 1620), Palestrina (whose music is the best, and is sung at Rome on Palm-Sunday), Astorga (about 1700), Pergolese (about 1736), Haydn, and Rossini (whose composition, according to Palmer, may be compared to a mater dolorosa painted standing under the cross, and clad in a Parisian court-dress). The original is in ten stanzas (Wackernagel, i. 136, 162; Moke, ii. 147-154; Daniel, ii. 133). Lisco (Stabat Mater, Berlin, 1843) gives fifty-three German and several Dutch translations. It has been translated into English by Lord Lindsay, Caswall, Mant, Coles, Benedict, etc. One of the best translations, " At the cross her station keeping," is found in Schaff's Christ in Song, p. 169. Dr. Coles's translation, begin- ning " Stood the afilicted mother weeping," is also vei'y excellent. See Jacopone da Tom and the literature there given. Another Stabat Mater celebrates the joy of the Virgin Mary at the birth of Christ, as the former celebrates her grief at the cross, and may be called the " Mater speciosa " as distinct from the "Mater dolorosa." It was published in the edi- tion of the Italian poems of Jacopone at Brescia, 1495, but attracted no attention till Ozanam pub- lished a French translation in his work on the Franciscan poets (Paris, 1852), and John Mason • Neale, an English translation shortly before his death (1866). It is not equal to the Mater dolo- rosa, and seems to be an imitation by another hand. It was discussed by P. Schaff in Hours at Home (a monthly magazine), New York, May, 1867, and translated again by Erastus C. Benedict, Hymn of Hildebert, etc.. New York, 1869, p. 20. STACKHOUSE. 2235 STANISLAUS. STACKHOUSE, Thomas, Church of England, ). 1680 ; became vicar of Beenham, Berkshire, Yhere he died, Oct. 11, 1752. He is remembered ;or his New History of the Holy Bible, from the )eginning of the world to the establishment of Chris- ianity (London, 1732, 2 vols, folio ; frequently re- )ublished and reprinted ; best ed. by G. Gleig and Oewar, 1836), and his Complete body of divinity 1729; 3d ed., 1755). STAHL, Friedrich Julius, b. at Munich, Jan. M, 1802 ; d. at Bruckenau, Aug. 10, 1861. He vas of Jewish parentage, but embraced Chris- ianity in his seventeenth year : four years after- wards, his whole family followed his example. ie studied jurisprudence at Wurzburg, Heidel- jerg, and Erlangen ; and was appointed professor it Erlangen in 1832, and in Berlin in 1840. In Berlin he gathered crowded audiences, not only (f juridical students, but at times, also, of edu- lated people in general : as, for instance, in 1850, Then he lectured on The Present Party-Position in Ihurch and State; which lectures were published iter his death by W. Hertz, Berlin, 1863. He Jso held the highest positions in the state-gov- rnment of the church, and took a very active )ai-t in Prussian politics. His brilliant parlia- nentary talent soon made him one of the most irominent leaders of the conservative party, both n political and ecclesiastical affairs. Democracy Old free-thinking he understood, and was not iraid of ; but he hated liberalism and rational- 3m. The former is revolution, he said ; but the itter is dissolution. His ideas are clearly defined a his Die Philosophie des Rechts, 1830, thoroughly evised in 1847, vol. i., under the title, Geschichte 'er Rechtsphilosophie, vol. ii., Rechts- und Staats- 3hre. Of the fundamental problems of human ife, he considered two solutions as possible, both hilosophically and juridically, — one on the basis f pantheism, and one on the basis of faith in a ersonal God who has revealed himself to man ; ne giving the absolute power to the mass of the eople, the majority, and one organizing the tate after the idea of the highest personality, as sphere of ethical action. What lay between bose two extremes he despised as destitute of haracter. But he did not consider the two pos- ible solutions as equally good : on the contrary, rem the depths of his conviction he cried out, No majority, but authority ! " Nowhere, perhaps, as he set forth his ideas more forcibly and more ointedly than in the two Sendschreiben he pub- shed in the Hengstenberg controversy in 1845. 1 1840 appeared his Die Kirchenverfassung nach ehre und Recht der Protestanten, in which he sub- sets the three systems prevailing in the Lutheran hurch — the episcopal, the territorial, and the jllegial system — to a searching examination, !commending the first. The constitution of the eformed Church has not found an equal treat- lent. He was an able advocate of high Liitheran ■thodoxy, and an intimate friend of Hengsten- srg. In his Die lutherische Kirche und die Union 860) he went so far in his opposition to the union : the two Protestant churches as to declare that uther at Marburg, refusing to join hands with wingli, was as great as Luther at Worms. Among s other works are Der chrislliche Staat und sein erhaltniss zu Deismus und Judenthum, 1847 ; Der rolestantismus als politisches Princip, 1856, etc. See Groen van Prinsterer : Ter nagedachtenis van Stahl, Hague. Rudolph kogel. STANCARO, Francesco, b. at Mantua, 1501 ; d. at Stobnitz, Poland, Nov. 12, 1574. As a friend of the Reformation, he was in 1543 compelled to leave Italy. In 1546 he published a Hebrew grammar at Basel, and in 1550 he was appointed professor of Hebrew at Cracow. His relation, however, to the Reformation, was soon discov- ered, and he was arrested ; but he escaped, and was in 1551 ^appointed professor of Hebrew at Konigsberg, and the next year at Frankfurt-on- the-Oder. There he immediately entered into the Osiandrian controversy, and published his Apolo- gia contra Osiandrum, in which he set forth his peculiar ideas of Christ as being the mediator between God and man, only on account of his human nature. The ideas caused great scandal ; and Stancaro went first to Poland, then to Hun- gary, where he took active part in the controver- sy between the Lutherans and the Reformed. Having returned to Poland in 1558, he settled at Pinczow, and came naturally in contact with the Italian Antitrinitarians active in Poland, — Blandrata, Lismanini, and others. In the corre- spondence between the Polish Protestant aud the German and Swiss Reformers concerning the Ital- ian Unitarianism, which was spreading in the country, some regard was also paid to Stancaro and his anti-Osiandrian ideas ; and he published in 1561 De Trinitate. But though he gathered some pupils, called " Stancarists," he soon fell into oblivion. H. SCHMIDT. STANHOPE, Lady Hester Lucy, daughter of Earl Stanhope, and niece of William Pitt, the great Earl of Chatham ; b. in London, March 12, 1776 ; d. at Jun in the Lebanon, June 23, 1839. She was the private secretary and confidante of her distinguished uncle, and a member of his fam- ily from her twentieth year until his death, 1806, when, unable to live in her accustomed style upon the twelve hundred pounds yearly stipend granted her as the ward of the nation, she retired to a solitude in Wales, and in 1810 to Syria ; and in 1813 she established herself at the deserted con- vent of Mar Elias, near Jun, and eight miles from Sidon, where she lived until her death, exerting a remarkable influence upon the Arabs around. Her servants were Albanians; her house, a fortress which afforded shelter to the persecuted. She dressed like an emir, ruled despotically, practised astrology, and preached a creed compounded of Bible and Koran. She was eccentric to the verge of insanity. See her Memoirs, London, 1845, 3 vols., 2d ed., 1846; The Seven Years' Travels of Lady Hester Stanhope, 1846, 8 vols. STANISLAUS, Bishop of Cracow, the patron- saint of Poland ; was b. near Cracow, July 26, 1030, and, after studying canonical law at Gnesen and Paris, entered the clerical profession. He was a stern ascetic, distributed his patrimony amongst the poor, and boldly denounced the cruelty and licentiousness of Boleslas II., king of Poland, whom he finally excommunicated. In revenge, the king had Stanislaus murdered while he was celebrating mass near Cracow, May 8, 1079. Mir- acles are ascribed to the bishop, both alive and dead. In 1254 Innocent IV. placed him among the saints. Many altars and churches were built to his memory in Poland. His day is May 7. See STANISLAUS. 2236 STANLEY. Stanislai vita, Cologne, 1616. Roepell : Gesch. Polens, Hanib., 1840, i. 199 sqq. NKUDECKEli. STANISLAUS, St., was b. Oct. 20, 1550, at Kostcou, Poland ; d. in Rome, Aug. 15, 1568. In his fourteenth year he went to Vienna; had a vision of two angels and the Virgin Mary, who urged him to become a Jesuit ; sought admission to the order at Vienna, which was refused on ac- count of his father's aversion to the step; and finally went to Rome, where he was admitted Oct. 28, 1567. He predicted the day of his death, and on account of his severe ascetic practices was be- atififd by Clement VIII. in 1604. NEUDECKKR. STANLEY, Arthur Penrhyn, b. Dec. l;5, 1815, was son of Edward Stanley, at that time rector of Alderley, in Cheshire; d. in London, July 18, 1881. In the village made memorable from being his birthplace, he spent his childhood under the fostering care of his father and mother, whose admirable characters he has embalmed in a vol- ume of family memoirs. Their influence on him for good was very great, and to this is to be added the effect of intercourse with the Leycesters, amia- ble and interesting relatives on the mother's side. The scenery of Alderley Edge, its pine-trees and beacon-tower; also the rectory-garden, with bird- cages hung among the roses, no doubt served to stimulate the child's active imagination. When eight years old he was remarkable for retentive- ness of memory, — a faculty which was singularly powerful in after-life. But this was associated with an incapacity for mathematical studies, and even a sum in arithmetic puzzled him to the end of his days. In January, 1829, he was entered as a schoolboy at Rugby ; and there he exhibited the amiableness and decision so well described in " Tom Brown," and came under the formative power of Dr. Thomas Arnold, prince of school- masters, to whom he owed much of the mental and moral strength which distinguished him in the whole of his subsequent career. He early showed a fondness for history, and, as he records, "got through all Mitford and all Gibbon, and several smaller" authors. Rugby became to Stanley a second home ; and, when he had received the last of five prizes, his master said to him, " Thank you, Stanley : we have nothing more to give." He was elected a scholar of Balliol at Oxford in 1833, and signalized his undergraduateship by a prize-poem entitled 7'Ae Gipsies. His father was made Bishop of Norwich in 1837 ; and there, of course, he was wont to spend his vacations : in no other way did he become connected with the old East-Anglican city. He undertook a tour in Greece in 1840-41, and there, as was his wont, studied nature on its poetical side and in its his- torical relations, and returned to the university full of knowledge and inspiration derived from the acquaintance he formed with the classic scene- ry amidst which he wandered. He soon com- menced as college-tutor, and the attachment he inspired in the hearts of his pupils foretold what was to be the result of his social intercom'se in after-years. His lectures on history and divinity awakened much attention, and gave promise of what he subsequently accomplished as a popular lecturer and author. Sermons and Essays on the Apostolic Age, in which he broke up new ground by dwelling on the individual peculiarities of the apostles, were published in 1846 ; but before that, in 1844, he made a mark on biographical litera- ture by his Life of Arnold, a book said at the time to set everybody talking about the hero, rather than the author, — a sign of the wonder- ful success he had achieved. He was appointed secretary to the first Oxford Commission, which resulted in considerable improvements of univer- sity education; and, watching the progi-ess of theological controversy, he wrote in 1850 an arti- cle on the Gorham Judgment, the harbinger of several successive criticisms on ecclesiastical'ques- tions, which he afterwards published. In 1851 he became a canon of Canterbury, and then entered on the second stage of his public life. There he wrote his Commentary on the Epis- tles to the Corinthians and his Memorials of Canter- bury; and, having already travelled in the East, he added to these his Sinai and Palestine. A tour in Russia was taken by him whilst he was a Canter- bury canon, and this awakened in him a deep interest respecting the Eastern Church. Of this he availed himself in lectures on its history, after he entered upon the Regius professorship of eccle- siastical history at Oxford, in 1858. These lec- tures were published in 1861. It should further be recorded of his work at Canterbury, that there his influence was deeply felt by both clei'gy and laity ; for he succeeded in breaking down walls of partition surrounding the intercourse of ca- thedral dignitaries, and brought together persons who had before stood aloof from each other. In 1862 he accompanied the Prince of Wales dur- ing his tour in the East, and, after his return to England, published a volume of sermons preached to the royal party, from time to time, as they trav- elled over never-to-be-forgotten Bible lands. The death of Stanley's mother, to whom he was ten- derly attached, occurred while he was absent from England. In 1863, soon after his return, he was appointed Dean of Westminster. That appoint- ment was speedily followed by his marriage with Lady Augusta Bruce, who was " the light of his dwelling " to the day of her death. The fascina- tion of her society, and the perfect sympathy she manifested in all his literary, religious, and social enterprises, contributed to the popularity of those gatherings in the deanery which will ever live in the recollection of those who were privileged to enjoy them ; and she also strengthened her hus- band to perform those illustrious labors which rendered him most distinguished among all the Westminster deans of ancient or modern times. This brings us to the third and last stage of Stanley's public life. , His residence in Westminster, which opened up to him a new and wide sphere of exertion, he em- ployed for the purpose of improving and popular- izing the abbey, of promoting objects connected with the welfare of the neighborhood, and of ad- vancing the interests of literature, charity, and religion in general. He really loved that ancient edifice, so grand and picturesque in itself, and so rich in its historical associations ; and, when he had familiarized himself with its details, it was no common treat to wander through its aisles and chapels with him for a cicerone. This ofiice he condescended to fill for the gratiflcation of the poor as well as the rich. The hospital at West- minster and other local institutions found in him STAFFER. 2237 STARK. , warm supporter ; whilst his garden-parties^ in onnection with the encouragement of floral cul- ivation amongst the humbler classes, were attrac- ive, not only to the gentry and nobility around, rat to many living at a distance. As a lecturer, an idvocate at public meetings, and especially as an ibbey-preacher, he commanded large audiences, md delighted those who listened to his original emarks. A Broad-Churchman, and too often hrowing into the backgTound truths which evan- gelical Christians love to hear, he interested all ilasses by his earnest devoufcness, his catholic pirit, and his abstinence from all factious com- )inations. He was a zealous son of the Church )f England ; and, making no secret of his strong ittachment to the principle of an Establishment, le nevertheless conciliated Nonconformists, and felighted to cultivate among them some intimate Tiendships. He was busy with his pen through- rat the whole period of his residence in the dean- sry. His Lectures on the Jetcish Church appeared n three successive volumes under the dates of L863, 1865, and 1879. Historical Memorials of Westminster Abbey was published in 1868; Essays m Church and State followed in 1870. The His- oryofthe Church of Scotland, delivered as lectures n Edinburgh, issued from the press in 1872. A lumber of minor works, including controversial etters, sermons, and lectures, were the product of lis pen in this last and most important period of lis life ; and the publication of his final volume, I rather large one, on Christian Institutes, occurred n 1881. The death of his beloved wife in 1875 was, a bereavement from the effect of which he lever fully recovered. For a short time he could iccomplish but little; but, gradually recovering lis energy, he devoted himself anew to works of iaith, and labors of love, and in 1880 found some •elief by preparing for the press Memoirs of Ed- vard and Catherine Stanley, his father and mother, [t was a solace to go back to early days ; and he ilso contemplated writing memorials of Lady A.ugusta, a work he did not accomplish. He visited the United States in 1878, and re- lumed home greatly refreshed, when his friends in England were gladdened by accounts he gave if his cordial reception by friends in America. His addresses and sermons delivered there were published in New York in 1879, and have since Been republished in. England. Always rather ielicate, the state of his health in latter years iften awakened anxiety ; but, as he rallied from ittacks, hopes were entertained of his life being prolonged for some years to come. However, in the summer of 1881, he felt ill after delivering a short lecture on one of the beatitudes, and then, ifter being confined to his bed a few days, died m Monday, the 18th of July. As in the case of liis wife, so at his own funeral, all ranks of society, from the royal family down to the inmates of ilmshouses, and all denominations, Established md Nonconforming, united in paying honors to the deceased, not only as a public man, but as a lamented personal friend. Lit. — See G. G. Bradley: Recollections of A. P. Stanley, London and New York, 1883. An idequate biography by Sir George Grove has been announced (1883). JOHSr stoughton, STAFFER, the name of a gifted and erudite [amUy of Bernese theologians. — I. Johann Fried- rich was b. at Brugg in 1708; d. in 1775 at Diessbach, near Thun, where he settled in 1750. He studied at Bern and Marburg, and became a devoted Wolffian. He was a zealous and success- ful pastor. He wrote, amongst other works, In- stitutiones iheologicce, polemicce, universce, Ziirich, 1743, 5 vols. (4th ed. of vol. i., 1757) ; Grundleg- ung zur wahren Religion, 1746-53, 12 vols. ; Sitten- lehre, 1757-66, 6 vols. The first-named work is widely known as a most reliable compend. It is characterized by learning, insight, and a kindly spirit. Stapf er is careful always to state the op- ponent's views correctly. — IT. Johannes, brother of the preceding, was b. 1719 ; d. 1801 : is more es- pecially remembered by his version of the Psalms. Of the seventy-one psalms introduced into the Bern Hymn-Book of 1853, forty-one are his. He published Theolog. Analytica (Bern, 1763), seven volumes of sermons, etc. — Philipp Albert, one of the most distinguished ornaments of French Protestantism, was b. at Bern, Sept. 23, 1766 ; d. in Paris, March 27, 1840. In 1792 he was ap- pointed professor of the fine arts, and subsequently professor of philosophy and theology. In 1798 he was appointed minister of education of Swit- zerland. His generosity enabled Pestalozzi to give his method a fair trial in the castle at Burg- dorf . After conspicuous services for his country, he retired to private life in 1804, and soon after went to Paris to reside. In a time of religious indifference he retained his evangelical fervor, and occupied a conspicuous position in religious circles in France. His salon was the meeting- place of great men, as Guizot, Cousin, and others. He also endeavored to introduce Kant to the knowledge of the French. He was president of a number of religious societies. Among his works, most of which were written in French, are De vita immortalis spe, etc., Bern, 1787; La mission divine et la nature sublime de Jesus Christ, deductes de son caraclere, Lausanne, 1799. A volume cohtaining some of his writings, and introduced by a biog- raphy from the pen of Vinet, appeared in 1841 under the title Melanges philosophiques, lilteraires, historiques et religieux. STAPHYLUS, Friedrich, b. at Osnabriick, Aug. 17, 1512; d. at Ingolstadt, March 5, 1564. He studied theology at Wittenberg ; became an inti- mate friend of Melanchthon, and was, on his recommendation,, appointed professor at Kouigs- berg, in 1546. As he felt unable to carry through the controversy which he had begun with Osian- der, he resigned his position, went to Breslau, embraced Romanism, and entered the service of the Duke of Bavaria. The duke gave him a fief ; the emperor, the title of nobility ; the pope, a purse with one hundred gold crowns ; and he was very active for the restoration of Romanism in Bavaria and Austria. Among his many polemical writings, the most noticeable are Epitome Martini Lullieri theologice trimembris ; Defensio pro trimembri M. L. theologia, etc. He also wrote a life of Charles V., and published a Latin translation of Diodoras Siculus. G. H. klippel. STARK, Johann August, a well known Crypto- Catholic ; was b. at Schwerin in 1741 ; studied at Gottingen; became an enthusiastic Freemason; was made professor of Oriental languages (1769) and theology (1776) at Konigsberg ; and died as court-preacher and councillor, in Darmstadt, in STATISTICS. 2238 STAUPITZ. 1816. Among his -works are Hephcestion (1775) and Gesch. d. Arianismus (1783-84). Accused of being a Crypto-Catholic, he defended himself in a work, Ueber Kri/plokdtholicismus, etc. (Frank- fort and Leipzig, 1787), and was protected and Honored by the court. His anonymous book, Tkeoduls Gastmal, 1809 (7th ed., 1828), was the occasion for renewed attacks, which the discovery, after his death, of a room in his iiouse arranged for the celebration of the mass, and his order to be buried in cowl and in the Catholic churchyard, proved to be justified. H. mallet. STATISTICS, Religious. See Religious Sta- tistics. STAUDENMAIER, Franz Anton, a distinguished Roman-Catholic theologian ; was b. at Donzdorf, Wurtteniberg, Sept. 11, 1800; d. in Freiburg, Breisgau, Jan. 19, 1856. He studied at the Wil- helmsstifl, Tiibingen, under Mohler ; in 1827 was ordained priest; and in 1830 published, at Mohler's suggestion, a Hislori/ of Episcopal Elections {Gesch. d. BischnfswaMen, Tubingen), and accepted a call to Giessen, as professor of theology in the Roman- Catholic faculty. In 1837 he exchanged this position for a simijar one at the university of Freiburg-im-Breisgau, where he had Hug for a colleague. Staudenmaier was not the equal of his teacher, Mohler, in originality and profundity, but not behind him in the extent of his learning. Among his works, several of which rernained un- finished, are Johannes Scotus Erigena u. d. Wissen- schaft seiner Zeit, Frankfort, 1834 (2d part never written) ; Die christl. Dogmatik, Freiburg-im-Br., 1844-52, 4vols. (not complete); JD. Geist d. Christen- thums, dargstellt in d. heit. Zeiten, etc., Mainz, 1834, 2 vols. [7th ed., 1866] ; D. Wesen d. kath. Kirche, Freiburg, 1845. [He was a frequent contributor to the Kirchenlexikon of Wetzer and Welte. See MiciiELis : Staudenmaier' s wissenschaftl. Leistungen, Freiburg-iin-Br., 1877.] hamberger. STAUDLIN, Karl Friedrich, a fertile German theological author; was b. July 25, 1764, at Stutt- gart ; was educated at Tiibingen ; called to Gdttin- gen University, 1790 ; d. at Gdttingen, July 5, 1826. He was a believing theologian. Among his many works are Grundriss d. Tugend- und Religions-lehre, Gotting., 1798-1800, 2 vols. ; Grundsdtze d. Moral, 1800; Philos.u.biUische Moral, 1805; Lehrbuch d. Moral fur Theologen, 1815, 3d ed., 1825; Gesch. d. Sittenlehre Jesu, 1799-1822, 4 vols. ; Kirchengesch. von Grossbritannien, Gbttingen, 1819, 2 vols. ; The- olog. Encyklopddie u. Melhodologie, Hanover, 1821; Geschichte und Lit. der KirchengescMchte, Hanover, 1827. His autobiography was edited by Hemsen, Gbttingen, 1828. STAUPITZ, Johann von, the noble friend of Luther; d. at Salzburg, Dec. 28, 1524. The time and place of his birth are unknown. Entering the Augustinian order, he studied at several uni- versities, at last in Tubingen, where in 1500, as prior of the Augustinian convent, he was made doctor of theology. Rejecting the scholastic the- ology,, he had recourse to the Scriptures and the mystics, and was indeed a theologian 'not only of the school, but of the heart. His culture, practi- cal ability, and courteous and manly bearing, won for him the favor of the Elector of Saxony, by whom he was invited to take part in the founda- tion of the new university at Wittenberg. In its interests he went to Rome to secure the Papal permission, and in 1502 was settled in Witten- berg as professor and dean of the thedlogical faculty. In 1503 he was chosen vicar-general of the Augustinians in Germany. In 1512 he sub- stituted in the convents under his supervision the Scriptures for Augustine's writings, to be read during meals. The same year he acted as the substitute of the Archbishop of Salzburg at the Lateran Council. That which gives Staupitz a place in history is his relation to Luther. He became acquainted with the young monk at Er- furt in 1505, secured a higher position for him in the convent, and sought to turn his attention from ascetic thoughts and metaphysical specula- tions to the cross and the atoning love of God. " Your thoughts are not Christ," said he to Luther on one occasion, as the latter looked with a shudder at the elements which Staupitz was carrying in a funeral-procession ; " for Christ does not terrify, but console." In 1508, at his recom- mendation, Luther was called to Wittenberg, and at his advice Luther entered the pulpit. In 1516, while absent on a mission in the Netherlands, Staupitz showed his confidence in Luther by making hira temporary inspector of forty con- vents in Saxony and Thuringia. As late as October, 1518, he sympathized with his young friend, and was at his side in the discussion with Cajetan in Augsburg. On that occasion he said, " Remember, my brother, that thou hast begun this work in the name of Christ." He soon after- wards drew back from the Reformation ; but he did not oppose it, like Erasmus. He was "a pious Christian mystic," who deplored the abuses of the church, but had not the heroism to be a Reformer. In 1519 he went to Salzburg (not be- cause he had fallen into disfavor with the Elector of Saxony, as D'Aubigne supposes), became court- preacher in 1522, abbot of the Benedictine con- vent of St. Peter at Salzburg, having changed his order previously, and, later, vicar of the archbishop. In 1519 he wrote to Luther, offering him a refuge at Salzburg. But Luther was displeased with the course of his old friend, and wrote, Feb. 9, 1521 (De Wette, i. '556), "Your submission has sad- dened me very much, and shown me another Staupitz than the preacher of grace and the cross." In another letter, of Sept. 17, 1523 (De Wette, ii. 407), he writes to him as the one "through whom the light of the gospel was first made to shine from the darkness in our hearts " {per quern primum coepii Evangelii lux de tenehris splendescere in cordibus noslris). Some of Luther's writings which he took with him to Salzburg, and gave to the monks to read, were burned by one of his successors. Staupitz exercised a deep influence upon Luther ; so that the latter, in his dedication of the first collection of his writings to Staupitz, in 1518, could call himself his disciple. In his letter of May 30, 1518, to accompany his Theses to Leo X., he says he heard from Staupitz, as " a voice from heaven," an explanation that true penance starts from love, and ends in right- eousness. This truth, he said, acted like a sharp arrow in his heart until the word " repentance " became to him the sweetest word in the Bible. Besides ten letters which Grimm edited, only one of which is to Luther, he left behind him some tracts, Von d. Nachfolge d. willigen Slerbem Christi (1516), Von der holdseligen Liebe Goltes STEDINGBRS. 2239 STBNNBTT. (1518), etc. See Ullmann : Reformers before the Reformation, [a new edition of his works by Knaake, Gotha, 1867 ; Kolde : D. deutsche Augustinerorden und Johann von Staupitz, Gotha, 1879]. H. MALLET. STEDINCERS, The, a heroic German family living on the banks of the Weser, near its mouth, which offered a bold resistance to the presump- tion of the clergy in the latter part of the twelfth, and the beginning of the thirteenth, century. The conflict originated with the indignity of a priest to the wife of a nobleman, who, at the com- munion, instead of the host, put into her mouth the groschen which she had given him at the con- fessional. Her husband, taking up the case, and only receiving denunciation from the priest, mur- dered him. The deed stirred up the priesthood ; and Hartwig II., archbishop of Bremen, demanded not only the delivei'y of the murderer, but a large indemnity. Being refused both, he put the dis- trict under the ban, and in 1207 led an army against the refractory Stedingers, who were sup- ported by the powerful Duke Otto of Liineburg, the bitter enemy of Bremen. The war lasted for a number of years, until, the Stedingers being victorious, the case was brought before Pope Gregory IX. The Stedingers were accused of being not only heretics, but in league with Satan, whom they worshipped under the image of an idol of Ammon, to whom they offered their chil- dren. When a candidate for admission to their mysteries appeared before them, a large frog entered the room, which the members kissed, a shudder passing through their system with the kiss ; and with the shudder the memory of the Christian faith completely disappeared. I'hese and other calumnies were taken up by the Papal inquisitor-general, Konrad of Marburg, who per- suaded the Pope in 1233 to issue the ban against the Stedingers as cursed heretics. A crusade was preached against them. They raised an army of eleven thousand, and successfully resisted the Archbishop of Bremen and his allies till May 27, 1234, when the battle of Altenesch completely broke their resistance. Half the army was de- stroyed, and many of the survivors fled to Fries- land. The territory of the Stedingers was divided between the Archbishop of Bremen and the Counts of Oldenburg. The defeat was celebrated in the archiepiscopal church of Bremen by a yearly festival on the fifth Sunday after Easter. All the writers of the middle ages speak disparar gingly of the Stedingers as heretics. It remained for the impartial historian since the Reformation to honor their resistance as a just opposition to the oppression of a presumptuous priesthood. See ScHMiNCK : De expeditione cruciata in Ste- dingos, Marburg, 1722 ; Rittek : De pagoSteding et Stedingis soec. XIII. hcereticis, Viteb., 1751; Lappenberg : Vom Kreuzzuge gegen d. Stedinger, Stadt, 1755, etc. G- H. klippel. STEELE, Anne, author of many popular and useful hymns ; was the daughter of a Baptist min- ister at Broughton in Hampshire, where she was b. 1716, and d. November, 1778. She was always an invalid; and her /ance was drowned on or just before the wedding-day. Her Poems on Subjects chieflg Devotional, by Theodesia, appeared in two volumes in 1760, and were reprinted, 1780, with a third volume of Miscellaneous Pieces in Verse and Prose ; the profits in each case being devoted to benevolent uses. The whole were re-issued at Boston in two volumes, 1808, and most of them in one volume by D. Sedgwick, 1863. Her hymns, to the number of sixty-five, were included in Ash and Evans's Collection, 1769, and were found to be accordant with the best taste of that period, and remarkably adapted to public worship. Dr. Rippon (1787) used fifty-six of them, and Dobell (1806), forty-five. To probably a majority of the hymn-books published in England and America she is the largest contributor after Watts, Dod- dridge, and C. Wesley, often preceding the latter, and sometimes standing next to Watts, though occasionally outnumbered by Newton. This im- plies an amount of influence in leading devotion, in moulding thought and character, and in assua- ging sorrow, which any one might be proud to gain, and which can be attained by very few. On the other hand, James Montgomery, a dis- cerning ci'itic, relegated her to the tenth rank in his Christian Psalmist (1825), and said nothing about her in the Introductory Essay. She cer- tainly had more elegance than force, and was less adapted to stand the test of time than her mas- culine rivals. Her hymns are a transcript of a deeply sensitive, humane, and pious mind, with little intellectual variety or strength; but they have a free and graceful lyrical flow, and no positive faults beyond a tendency to repetition and too many endearing epithets. A fragment of one of them, " Father, 'whate'er of earthly bliss," may last as long as any thing of Watts or Doddridge. F- M. bird. STEINHOFER, Maximilian Friedrich Cliris- toph, b. at Owen in Wurtemberg, Jan. 16, 1706; d. at Weinsberg, Feb. 11, 1761. He studied theology at Tiibingen; entered into connection with the congregation of Herrnhut; became court- preacher at Ebersdorf early in 1734 ; joined the Moravian Brethren in 1746, but returned in 1749 to Wurtemberg, and held various minor pastoral charges, finally that of Weinsberg.' He wrote a number of sermons and devotional books, — Tagliche Nahrung des Glaubens, 1743 (last edition, Ludwigsburg, 1859, with his autobiography) ; a commentary on 1 John ; a collection of sermons on the life of Jesus, Francfort, 1764. STEITZ, Ceorg Eduard, D.D., b. at Frankfort- on-the-Main, July 25, 1810 ; was pastor and d. there Jan. 1, 1879. He wrote Die Privatbeichte u. Privatabsolution d. luther. Kirche dus den Quellen des 16ten Jahrhunderts, Frankfort, 1854 ; Das romische Busssacrament, 1854 ; and forty-one arti- cles for the first edition of Herzog, most of which have been re-issued in the second edition, besides numerous contributions to the Studien u. Kiitiken and elsewhere. He was a man of rare and ac- curate learning, and sound judgment. His articles in Herzog are very elaborate and valuable. See Jung u. Dechent : Zur Erinnerung an Herm Senior Dr. theol. G. E. Steitz, Frankfort-on-the- Main, 1879. STENNETT, Josepli, an English hymn-writer; wash, at Abingdon, Berks, 1663; d. at Knaphill, Bucks, July 11, 1713. In 1690 he was ordained pastor of a Baptist congregation in Devonshire Square, London, which he served till his death. He was the author of a reply to Russen's Funda- mentals without a Foundation, or a True Picture of STENNETT. 2240 STEPHEN. the Anabaptists. His Hymns for the Lord's Supper appeared in 1697, and were increased from thirty- seven to fifty in the third edition, 1709. He also published a Fereion of Solomon's Song with the Forty- Seventh Psalm, 1700 (2ded., 1709), and twelve hymns on the Believers' Baptism, 1712. A com- plete edition of his hymns, poems, sermons, and letters, was published, with a memoir, in 4 vols., 1732. Stennett is the author of the familiar hymn, "Another six days' work is done," which in the original had fourteen stanzas. STENNETT, Samuel, an English hymnist, and grandson of the preceding ; was b. 1727, in Exeter, where his father was pastor of the Baptist Church ; d. in London, Aug. 24, 1795. He assisted his father as pastor of the Baptist Church in Little AVild Street, London, and in 1758 became his suc- cessor, remaining with the church till his death. He was a fine scholar, and was made D.D. by Aberdeen University, 1763. He was a man of influence among the dissenters, enjoyed the confi- dence of George III., and had John Howard for a frequent hearer. Writing from Smyrna under date of Aug. 11, 1786, the great prison-reformer speaks of the pleasure he experienced in review- ing his notes of Stennett's sermons. Stennett's works {On Personal Religion, 1769, 2 vols., 4th ed., 1801, being the most extensive) were published with a memoir in 1824, 3 vols. Thirty-four of his hymns are given at the end. Five others have been found in Rippon's Selection. His best hymns are "On Jordan's stormy banks I stand," "Majes- tic sweetness sits enthroned," " 'Tis finished I so the Saviour cried." STEPHAN, Martin, and the Stephanists. Mar- tin Stephan (b. at Stramberg, Moravia, Aug. 13, 1777 ; d. in Randolph County in the State of Illi- nois, Feb. 21, 1846) was of humble parentage, and early apprenticed to a weaver. In 1798 he went to Breslau, where he soon became intimate with the pietist circles, and finally contrived to enter the gymnasium. From 1804 to 1809 he studied theology at Halle and Leipzig in a pecul- iarly narrow way, but not without energy ; and in 1810 he was appointed pastor of the congregation of Bohemian exiles in Dresden. He was a Luther- an of the strictest type of orthodoxy. His success as a preacher and an organizer was very extraor- dinary. Though he severed his connection with the Moravian Brethren, and though the revival movement he started bore a decidedly separatistio character, his congregation grew rapidly, and gifted and serious men became exceedingly de- voted to him. He maintained stations all through the valley of the Mulde ; he sent out young mis- sionaries whom he had educated; and he found followers, even in Wurtemberg and Baden. The separatistio tendency, however, of his work, and perhaps,, also, the very success of his labor, brought him in manifold conflicts with the regular clergy of Dresden ; and certain peculiarities in his person- al habits and in his arrangements finally brought him into collision with the police. In the spring of 1838 the congregation for which he originally had been appointed pastor formally accused .him of unchastity and fraud, and in the fall he secretly left the city for Bremen. In Bremen he was joined by no less than seven hundred followers ; and at the head of this congregation, " the Ste- phanists," he sailed for America on Nov. 18. But, if there previously had been something wrong in his conduct, it now became apparent that the root of the evil lay deep in his character. Before the vessel arrived at New Orleans, he had himself elected bishop, and made master of the emigra- tion-fund; and at St. Louis, where the colony stopped for two months, he gave himself up en- tirely to a life of pleasure. A tract of land was finally bought at Wittenberg, Perry County, Mo. ; and in April, 1839, the larger portion of the congregation, and the bishop, removed thither. Hardly one month elapsed, however, before the accusations from Dresden were renewed, but by other members of his congregation, and referring to later times ; and, as the statements made were found to be correct, he was deprived of his dig- nity, and excommunicated. But the congregation, after passing through various vicissitudes and troubles, prospered, and became the nucleus of the " Missouri " type of High-Church Lutheran- ism, which adheres most closely to the symbolical books, and has its headquarters in the Concordia College at St. Louis. Among the writings of Mar- tin Stephan the most important are Der christliche Glaube (a collection of sermons, Dresden, 1825) and Gaben fur unsere Zeit (Nuremberg, 1834). See Von Polenz : Die offenlliche Meinung und der Pastor Stephan, Dresden, 1840 ; Vehse ; Die Ste- phan'sche Auswanderung nach America, Dresden, 1840 ; and the elaborate art. by Kummee, in Her- ZOG : Real-Encyklopddie, 1st ed. vol. xv. pp. 41-61. STEPHEN, deacon of the congregation at Jeru- salem, and first martyr of the Christian Church. It is only in our day that his influence upon the development of Christianity has been adequately brought out. All that we know of him is found in Acts vi., vii. He was chosen in an emergency deacon of the church ; and no one doubts any more that he was a Hellenist, although this is not definitely stated. He did not confine himself to the duties of the diaoonate, but devoted him- self to preaching, and was especially successful in those synagogues of Jerusalem where the Greek language was used. In connection with him, we for the first time hear of discussions in the synar gogues (Acts vi. 10). He was accused of blas- pheming Moses and God, and was brought up for trial, false witnesses being suborned to testify against him. The people finally exercised lynch- law upon the accused. Stephen preached, as the apostles up to that time had not preached. He was accused of speaking against the Jewish reli- gion; fathei's, and temple. He had entered most deeply into the meaning of many of Christ's say- ings about the difference between the law and the gospel, and especially the saying recorded in John ii. 19. Can there be any doubt that he had become convinced that the Mosaic institutions could not be combined with the spiritual contents of the gospel as a basis for the church and the kingdom of God? This is made certain, not only by the form of the accusation, but by the address of Stephen. At first sight the latter seems to be disconnected and irrelevant. Closer inspection, however, reveals that this is not the case. The speaker proves that God had revealed himself independently of the forms of- the law, and that the history of revelation was progressive, and closes by showing the temporary nature of the temple, and the other forms of the law. Noth- STEPHEN. 2241 STEPHENS. >■ of the kind had ever been brought out by 3 apostles before. Stephen was not merely the atomartyr of the church. He was the first iristian preacher who fully understood the dis- iction which Christ taught between Judaism d Christianity, a forerunner of Paul ; yea, per- ps, in the deepest sense the one who prepared 3 way for Paul's conversion. At any rate the tension of the gospel beyond the limits of the lagogue was, according to the statement of 3 Acts, the immediate consequence of his death, d not the planned work of the elder apostles, ugustine said, " If Stephen had not prayed, the urch would not have had Paul " (^Si Steph. non isset, ecclesia Pauluni non haberei) . Archdeacon ,rrar calls him the "undeveloped St. Paul."] adition did not forget Stephen. The Fathers t him among the seventy disciples. The Apoca- c, and two syllables for each occur- rence of iJiaovc and nvpiog, with perhaps a few other rarely recurring words, as -nar^p, ovpavoc:. Our data for Euthalius are taken from Cod. Escorial, tp. iii. 6, as there are some errors in Zacagni's figures. Allowing for one or two obvious corruptions, such as the dropping of the figure p in lection 6, the agreement is very complete. The lines of the following table ai-e nearly' hexameters, so that the table affords a picture of the arrangement of an early bicolumnar Co- dex : — STICHOMBTRY. 2247 STIBKNA. Lection. Begins. Cod. Esc. Westcott and Hoit. 1 1.1 40 40 2 1.15 30 30 3 2.1 109 111 i 3.1 136 143 5 4.32 100 121 6 6.1 88 190 7 8.1 (eyeVcTo) 92 94 8 9.1 75 77 9 9.23 216 210 10 11.27 283 272 11 15.1 193 201 12 17.1 164 164 13 19.1 239 242 14 21.15 293 307 15 24.27 168 160 16 27.1 198 192 Still more remarkable is the harmony between the measured text of Westcott and Hort and the Euthalian figures, when we allow for the ab- breviations previously mentioned. We give the results for the Epistles in a form suitable for comparison. The first column represents the stichometric number supplied by Euthalius and the best manuscripts ; the second gives the result of the actual subdivision of the text of Westcott and Hort into sixteen-syllabled verses; and the third expresses the same result with the proper deduction made for four leading abbreviations. James .... 237 or 242 240 237 1 Peter .... 236 or 242 245 240 2 Peter. . . . 154 162 158 1 John . 274 268 262 2 John . 30 31 30 3 John . . . 32 31 31 Jude . . . . 68 70 68 Komans . . . 920 942 919 1 Corinthians . 870 897 874 2 Corinthians . 590 610 596 Galatiaiis . . . 293 304 296 Ephesians 312 325 314 Philippians . . 208 218 209 Colossians . . 208 215 209 1 Thessalonians, 193 202 194 2 Thessalonians, 106 112 106 Hebrews . . . 703 714 705 1 Timothy . . 230 239 234 2 Timothy 172 177 170 Titus . . . . 97 98 97 Philemon . . . 38 42 40 The agreement between the first and third col- umns is very complete and decisive as a test of the hypothesis proposed with regard to the nature of the Euthalian otixoi. In the Gospels the data may be handled in a similar manner ; but the difficulties arising from variety of text, etc., are great : moreover, many manuscripts transmit not only the number of verses, but also another number corresponding to the (tfiiiara of the separate books. We have from a large group of cursive manuscripts the following numbers for the four Gospels : — Matthew. Marlt. Luke. John. priiiaTtL CTTt'xot 2524 2560 1675 1616 3808 2740 1938 2024 From this it appears that the number of ^/nara is sometimes in excess, and sometimes in defect, of the number of verses. What these (i^fiara are is a hard question. Some persons have identified them with the otIxoi, — a supposition that will scarcely bear scrutiny. It is doubtful, moreover, whether the verses of the Gospels are measured by the same unit as we found employed in the Acts and Epistles. A fifteen-syllabled hexameter seems to agi-ee best with the ti-aditional figure. The Gospel of John, in the text of Westcott and Hort, is 2,025 abbreviated fifteen-syUabled hex- ameters, an almost absolute agTeement with the result given above (2,024). For the other Gospels the matter must be left for more extended inves- tigation. Lit. — Birt: Das Aniike Buchwesen, 1882; Blass : " Zur Frage iiber die Stichometrie," RTiein. Mus., N.F., xxiv., 1869; " Stichometrie u. Kolom- etrie," Rhein. Mus., N.F., xxxiv., 1879; Christ: Attikus-Ausgabe des Demos^Aenes, Miinchen, 1882; DiELs: "Stiehonietrisches,"fl^e;-mes, xvii.; Fuhr: " Stiohometrisches," Rhein. Mus., xxxvii., 1882 ; Graux : " Stichometrie," Revue de PhUologie, Avril, 1878; Harris: American Journal of Phi- lology, No. xii. Supplement, and Nos. xiv., xv. ; RiTSCHL : Opuscula Philologica, vol. i. ; Schanz : " Stichometry," Hermes, xvi. p. 309, 1881 ; Scrive- ner : Prolegomena to Codex Bezm, etc. ; Tischen- DORF : Monumenta Sacra Inedila, .Nov. coll., i. p. xvii., etc. ; Y omel : Rhein. Mus., N.F., ii. ; Wachs- muth: "Stiohometrisches u. Bibliothekarisches," Rhein. Mus., N.F., xxxiv., 1879; " Stichometrie und kein Ende," Rhein. Mus., N.F., xxxiv., 1879 ; Zacagni : Collectanea monumentorum veterum Ec- clesicB GrcBCCE, Rome, 1698. J. EBNDEL HAREIS. STIEFEL (STIFEL), Michael, a distinguished arithmetician of the Reformation ; was b. at Ess- lingen, April 19, 1486 ; entered the Augustinian convent there, left it for AVittenberg in 1520; stood on friendly terms with Luther ; after hold- ing several pastorates, was appointed in 1558 professor of mathematics at Jena, with a salary of forty florins (afterwards increased to sixty florins); d. in Jena, April 19, 1567. In 1532 he published Ein Rechenbuchlein vom End Chrisii, in which, upon the basis of the figures in Daniel, he set the day of judgment at eight o'clock in the morning of Oct. 19, 1533. His arithmetical studies and works (Rechenbuch von d. welschen und deutschen P'racktick, 1546, etc.) did much to promote the study of mathematics in Germany. Luther called Stiefel a " pious, learned, moral, and industrious jjian." C. SCHWARZ. STIEKNA (or DE STEKEN), Conrad, also called Conradus ab Austria, one of the forerunners of John Hus; d. at Prague, 1369. Balbinus speaks of him as preacher in the Tein church, Prague. He zealously condemned the hj-pocrisy, simony, and licentiousness of the priests, which he de- scribed in dark colors. In his larger work, Accu- sationes Mendicantium, he attacked with gi-eat heat the orders of begging friars, and did not spare the bishops. See Bohnslav Balbinus: Epitome historica rerum Bohemicarum, Prag, 1677 ; Zitte: Lebensbeschreibungen d. drey ausgezeich- netsten Vorlaufer d. beruhmten M. J. Hus, Prag, 1786 (to be used with caution); Jordan: D. Vorlaufer d. Hussitenthums in Bohmen, Leipzig, ;^84g. • NEUDECKER. STIER. 2248 STILES. STIER, Rudolf Ewaldj a distinguished German exegete; was b. at Fraustadt, March 17, 1800 ; d. at Eisleben, Dec. 16, 1862. Set apart for the study of law, he entered the university of Jena in 1815, but the year following enrolled himself among the students of theology. His ideals at that time were Jahn and Jean Paul, with the latter of whom he carried on a correspondence. In 1818 he went to Halle, whei-e he was chosen president of the Halle Burschenschaft. It was not till 1819 that he truly gave himself up to Christ, and began the study of theology from the proper motive. The occasion of this change was the death of a young lady whom he loved. He then went to Berlin, and after completing his studies, successively held the position of teacher at Wittenberg, Karalene, and in the missionary institute of. Basel. In 1829 he became pastor at Frankleben. The writer of this, at an inn, got the following answer to a question about Stier: " He is a mystic." On asking what that meant, he received the reply, " They are the preachers who live as they preach." In 1838 Stier was called to Wichlinghausen in the Wup- perthal, from which he retired in 1846, and passed three years in literary activity at Wittenberg. He was then appointed superintendent at Schkeu- ditz, and in 1859 at Eisleben. If any theolo- gian has had to learn the " theology of the cross " by bodily pains, it was Stier. He was married to the sister of the distinguished theologian Nitzsch. Stier's principal works are in the department of biblical exegesis. He was interested in the German translation of the Bible ; wrote Altes u. Neues in deutscher Bibel, Basel, 1828, and Darf Luther's Bibel unbericMigt bleibenf, Halle, 1836; was associated with Von Meyer in the last edi- tion of his translation, 1842, and prepared an edition of his own in 1856 (Bielefeld), in which many changes were introduced. His principal work was the Words of the Lord Jesus (Reden d. Herrn, 1st ed., 1843, 3 vols.), [3d ed. 1870-74, 7 vols. ; Eng. trans, by Pope, Edinb., 9 vols. ; revised by Drs., Strong and H. B. Smith, N.Y., 1869, 3 vols.]. It is a storehouse of information and practical suggestion for ministers, among whom it has had a wide circulation. Stier bases his exegesis upon a firm faith in inspiration, and is dogmatic and mystical rather than historic and critical. I wrote to him, " You are a Chris- tian cabalist ; " to which he replied, " You are a pietistic rationalist." The Words of the Lord Jesus, like all his works, lacks in conciseness and point. Among his other exegetical writings are, Auslegung von 70 ausgewahlten Psalmen, 1834-36 ; IJesaias nicht Pseudo-Isaias, 1851 ; D. Reden d. Apostel, trans, by Venables {The Words of the Apostles), Edinb., 1869 ; D. Reden d. Engel, 1860, Eng. trans.. The Words of Angels, Lond., 1862]. Among Stier's other writings are a treatise on homiletics, Grundriss d. Keryktik, 1830, 2d ed., 1844; Formenlehre d. hebraischen Sprache, 1833, Berlin, 1849; Luther's KatecMsmus, etc., 6th ed., 1855. [See his Life, by his sons, Wittenberg, 1868, 2d ed., 1871.] THOLUCK. STIGMATIZATION (from the Greek anyim "a mark ") denotes a spontaneous formation of wounds closely resembling those our Lord re- ceived by being crowned with thorns, crucified, and pierced with a spear. The first instance of such stigraatization is that of St. Francis of Assisi, who in 1224, two years before his death, saw the crucified Saviour in a vision, and, when he awak- ened from the trance, found himself marked on hands and feet with the marks of crucifixion. Thomas of Celano, Bonaventura, Alexander IV., and many others testified as eye-witnesses to the truth of the statement. Only the Dominicans would not believe it. In Castile and Leon they openly denied the fact ; a bishop of Olmiitz for- bade to sell in his diocese representations of St. Francis with the stigmata; and a Dominican monk, Evechard of Oppau in Moravia, protested that the whole story was a product of the egotism and deceitfulness of the Franciscans. Later on, stigmatization became not so very rare in the Roman-Catholic Church. The last who was canonized on that account was the Capuchin nun Veronica Giuliani (d. at Citta di Castello in 1727): the canonization took place in 1831. But several pretended instances have occurred in the present century. Maria of Mori, living at Kal- tern, in the southern part of Tyrol, received the stigmata on her hands and feet in 1833, when she was twenty-two years old. She was visited by more than forty thousand people before she re- tired into the Franciscan nunnery at Kaltern. [Even the Protestant Church can boast of in- stances of stigmatization. In 1820 a pious maiden in Saxony received the stigmata under great suifer- ings, fell into a deathlike state on Good Friday, but began to recover on Easter morning. The most recent case in the Eoman-Catholio Church is the Belgian Louise Lateau, who in 1873 at- tracted great attention by her flowing wounds. Thousands came to see her, but suspicion was aroused by the air of secrecy which surrounded her. She was closely watched, and the priests re- fused to allow her to be examined by surgeons. The excitement soon passed away ; and she died (set. 32), scarcely noticed, in August, 1883. It is note- worthy that stigmatization occurred on a man in only one case, and that the women thus signalized were sickly and hysterical. Leaving out of account the element of fraud, it may be said that " stigmatic neuropathy " is a pathological condition of occa- sional occurrence, explicable by physical and men- tal conditions. Therefore, while freely admitting the fact, one must not lay any stress upon it. It is no more a sign of divine favor than the shattered constitution and disordered brain which produce it.] See Malan : Histoire de S. Franfois d' Assise, Paris, 1841 (ch. 14, 15); Das bittere Leiden unseres Herrn J. C, Munich, 8th ed., 1852 (introduction); Jo. Ennemosek: Der Magnetismus im Verhattniss zur Natur u. zur Religion, Stuttg., 1853, 2d ed., 92- 95, 131-142; J. Gorres: Christliche Mystik, 1838- 42 (ii. pp. 410-456, 494-510). J. hamberger. STILES, Ezra, D.D., LL.D., Congregational; b. at North Haven, Conn., Dec. 15. 1727 ; d. in New Haven, May 12, 1795. He was graduated at Yale College, 1746; tutor there, 1749 to 1755; studied theology, then called to the bar, 1753, but began preaching in 1755 ; was pastor in Newport, R.I., from 1755 to May, 1777, when the place was occupied by the British, and the congregation dispersed. In September, 1777, he was elected president of Yale College, and shortly after pro- fessor of ecclesiastical history, and in 1780 pro- fessor of divinity. He published An Account of STILLING. 2249 STILLINGFLBBT. the Settlement of Bristol, R.I., Providence, 1785 ; History of, three of the Judges of King Charles I., Major-Gen. Whalley, Major-Gen. Goffe, and Col. Dixwell . . . with an Account of Mr. Theophilus Wale of Narragansett, supposed to have been one of the Judges, Hartford, 1794. He left an unfin- ished Church History of New England, and more than forty volumes of manuscripts. See his life by Abiel Holmes, Boston, 1798, and by James L. KiNGSLEY, in Sparks's American Biography, 2d ser., vol. vi. STILLING, a famous German writer, whose proper naine was Johann Heinrich Jungj b. at Grund in Nassau-Siegen, Sept. 12, 17J0; d. at Carlsruhe, April 2, 1817 ; a mystic and a theosoph- ist, but childlike and pure-minded, with a ready and energetic sympathy for the actual sufferings around him, which, more than his apocalyptic visions, made him one of the most popular devo- tional writers of Germany. His parents were ex- ceedingly poor ; and while a young man he taught school two days a week, and tailored four, har- assed by the anguish of poverty, and fired by the enthusiasm for studies. He learned mathematics, Latin, Greek, and even Hebrew. A Roman- Catholic priest confided to him a secret means by which to cure certain eye-diseases, and this cir- cumstance changed his destiny. An audacious but successful cure made hiiu acquainted with a well-to-do gentleman, whose daughter he after- wards married ; and in 1771 he went to Strassburg to study medicine. He there obtained something of a scientific training, and became doctor medi- cinm; but it was of still greater consequence to him, that he there became acquainted with Goethe and Herder, and elevated above the level of a somewhat narrow and barren pietism. He settled first at Elberfeld as an eye-physician ; and there he published, by the aid of Goethe, his H. Stilling's Jugend, which by its wonderful blending of poesy and fact, of fiction and truth, at once established him as a writer of rank. But he had a genius for getting into debt ; and for many years his time and labor were divided between managing credit- ors, curing poor people's eyes, and writing devo- tional books which were the consolation and admiration of the German people. In 1778 he was made professor of political economy in the academy of Kaiserslautern, whence he removed, in the same quality, to Heidelberg in 1782, and to Marburg in 1787. But it was not until 1805 that he, by being appointed privy-councillor to the grand duke of Baden, was liberated from drudg- ery and pecuniary troubles, and allowed to follow his genius as an eye-physician and a devotional writer. He was three times married, and every time happily. When he grew older, his house, though ever so singularly managed, became a centre towards which every thing grand, or noble, or suffering, tended, while every thing base or hard crept skulking away. The most successful of his writings were his mystical tales, a kind of romances at which both Lavater and Jacobi tried their powers, and which had a peculiar charm for that time: Geschichte des Herrn von Morgenthau (The Life of Sir MorningdeW), Theodore von den Linden, Florentin von Fahlendorn, etc. The great- est literary value have his autobiographical writ- ings: Jugend, Jiinglingsjahre, Wanderschaft, and Lehrjahre. His chief theological works are, Siegesgeschichte, an exposition of the Revelation, and Geisterkunde, partially based on Swedenborg. See Heinroth : Geschichte des Mysticismus, Leip., 1830; Rudelbach: Christliche Biographien ; Aus den Papieren einer Tochter Johann Stillings, Bar- men, 1860 ; Xessler : jStude theologique sur Johann Stilling, Strassburg, 1860. [There have been translated of Jung's works. Theory of Pneuma- tology, London, 1834; Autobiography, 1835, 2 vols., 2d ed., 1842, abridged, 1847 ; Interesting Tales, 1837.] iDlTTEE. STILLINGFLEET, Edward, b. at Cranbome in Dorsetshire, April 17, 1635 ; d. at Westminster, March 27, 1699. He was educated at Cambridge, where he obtained a fellowship in 1653. Just after the Restoration, he published his Irenicum, a weapon salve for the Churches wounds (1661), a moderate and healing treatise, very appropriate in that age of fierce ecclesiastical strife, and re- flecting honor on the courage and catholicity of the author at that particular crisis. The follow- ing year appeared his Origines Sacrce, or Rational Account of the Christian Faith as to the Truth and Divine Authority of the Scriptures. In this work he criticised the history and chronology of heathen writers, undermining their credibility, and con- trasting them with the authors of the Bible rec- ords. He dwelt upon the knowledge, fidelity, and integrity of Moses, and the inspiration of the prophets, as inferred from the fulfilment of their prophecies. Afterwards he treated of the being of God, the origin of the universe, the nations of mankind, and Pagan mythology ; and it is inter- esting to find that he appears in harmony with modern geologists, by maintaining, not the univer- sality, but the partial extent, of the Deluge. Of course, in many points, the work is superseded by later productions ; yet it remains a storehouse of learning, and displays much logical ability and lawyer-like habits of thought. This volume was followed, 'in 1665, by A Rational account of the grounds of the' Protestant Religion, a timely publi- cation, when Popery was . favored by the court and by personages in the upper circles. Other attacks upon Romanism, from the same pen, were made in publications we have not room to specify : it is sufficient to say that StiUingfleet was perhaps the most learned and effective champion of Prot- estantism just before the Revolution. The Mis- chiefs of Separation, a sermon which he preached in 1680, and which was immediately published, gave unmistakable proof that he had abandoned the moderate opinions, and dropped the concili- atory temper, expressed in his Irenicum. This brought on him answers in the way of defence, written by Owen, Baxter, and other nonconform- ists.' But he candidly acknowledged his mistake, being perfectly subdued by what John Howe vfrote on the subject, " more like a gentleman," he said, "than a divine, without any mixture of rancor." In 1695 a violent dispute went on amongst cer- tain nonconformists, respecting Antinomianism ; and some of the disputants appealed to StiUing- fleet as a sort of arbitrator, a circumstance which showed that by this time he had recovered his reputation as a healer of strife. An active mind like his would meddle in all sorts of questions, and he could not refrain from taking part in the great doctrinal controversy of the age. A Dis- course in Vindication of the Doctrine of the Trinity, STOCKBR. 2250 STOLBBRG. by Stillingfleet, was published in 1697. He was a metaphysician, as well as a divine, and criti- cised Locke's Essay on the Human Understanding the same year, following that up soon afterwards by a rejoinder to Locke's reply. He wrote also on other subjects, and gave " the best account," says Bishop Nicolson, " of the present state of our tithes. " A collected edition of this author's works, with his life and character, was published after his death in 1699. As bishop of Worcester, which he became in 1689, he 'took part in the commission for revising the Prayer-Book; and in his episcopal capacity he procured a stall in Worcester Cathedral for Bentley, the great classical scholar, who was the prelate's chaplain. jomsr stoughton. STOCKER, John, of Honiton, Devonshire, pub- lished in the Gospel Magazine (1776-77) nine hymns, which were reprinted by Daniel Sedgwick, London, 1861. Two of them, " Gracious Spirit, Dove divine," and " Thy, meA'cy, my God," have been widely used. F. M. bird. STOCKTON, Thomas Hewlings, D.D., Meth- odisf^Protestant ; b. at Mount Holly, N. J., June 4, 1808; d. in Philadelphia, Oct. 9, 1868. Con- verted in the Methodist-Episcopal Church, he joined the Methodist-Protestant Church on its organization, and in 1829 was placed upon a cir- cuit. He was stationed in Baltimore, 1830; chap- lain to the House of Representatives, 1833-35, 1859-61, and of the Senate, 1862. lie preached in Philadelphia, 1888-47, in Cincinnati until 1850, in Baltimore until 1856, in Philadelphia, over an independent church, until his death. He was one of the most eloquent preachers of his day. He compiled a hymn-book for his denomination (1887), and published some original poetry, and several volumes in prose. See his biography by A. Clark, New York, 1869, and by J. G. Wilson, Philadelphia, 1869. STODDARD, David Tappan, Congregational missionary; b. at Northampton, Mass., Deo. 2, 1818; d. at Tabriz, Persia, Jan. 22, 1857. He was graduated at Yale, 1838, and at Andover Theo- logical Seminary, 1841 ; sailed as missionary to the Nestorians, 1843, among whom he labored successfully for the rest of his days. From 1848 to 1851 he was in America on a visit. He Vas particularly interested in the Nestorian youths whom he gathered in the seminary established in 1844 at Oroomiah. He was a model missionary. Ilis Grammar of the Modern Syriac Language was published in the journal of the American Oriental Society, New Haven, Conn., 1853. See J. P. Thompson: Memoir of D. T. Stoddard, New York, 1858. STODDARD, Solomon, Congregationalist ; b. in Boston, Mass., 1643; d. at Northampton, Mass., Feb. 11, 1729. He was graduated at Harvard College, 1662 ; was chaplain in the Barbadoes for two years ; preached at Northampton from 1669 until his death, when he was succeeded by his grandson, and colleague from 1727, Jonathan Ed- wards. From 1667 to 1674 he was first librarian to Cambridge. He is remembered for his theory that "the Lord's Supper is instituted to be a means of regeneration," and that persons may and ought to come to it, though they know them- selves to be in a "natural condition." He wrote The safety of appearing at the day of Judgement in the righteousness of Christ, Boston, 1687 (2d ed. 1729; republished, Edinburgh, 1792, with Preface by Dr. John Erskine) ; The doctrine of instituted churches explained and proved from the Word of God, Boston, 1700, 34 pp., 4to ; a reply to Increase Mather's The order of' the Gospel, professed and practised by the churches of Christ in New England justifed, etc., Boston and London, 1700; An Ap- peal to the learned, being a vindication of the right of visible saints to the Lord's Supper, though they be destitute of a saving work of God's Spirit in their hearts, 1709 ; A guide to Christ, or the way of direct- ing souls that are under the work of conversion, 1714; An answer to some cases of conscience, 1722 (" among other things, it discusses whether men have the right to live at an inconvenient distance from church; when the Lord's Day begins; whether the Indians were wronged in the purchase of their land "). See art. Congregationalism, p. 538 ; and Dbxter : Congregationalism as seen in its Literature. STOICISM, the noblest system of morals devel- oped within the pale of Greek philosophy, received its name from the place in Athens in which its founder, Zeno of Citiuni (about 308 B.C.) as- sembled his pupils, the Stoa, or colonnade. The metaphysical foundation of the system involves a final identification of God and nature, submerging both those ideas in that of an inevitable destiny. In its more austere forms, stoicism defines moral perfection as complete indifference to destiny. Man shall do that which is good, independently of surrounding influences and circumstances ; and, having done that which is good, he shall feel happy, independently of the sufierings and misery which may result from his acts. In its later and somewhat mitigated forms, stoicism defined that which is good, virtue, as conformity to the all- controlling laws of nature, or even as agreement between the human and the divine will. Always, however, it placed action far above contemplar tion or enjoyment ; and, by so doing, it exercised a great influence on the Roman mind. In Rome it found its most eloquent expounder, Seneca, and its noblest representatives, Marcus Aurelius the emperor, and Epictetus the slave ; and by in- culcating the duty of absolute obedience to the commandments of duty, of absolute self-sacrifice for the sake of virtue, it actually prepared the way for Christianity. The best representation of the whole subject is found in Zeller : Philosophie d. Griechen, iii., Eng. trans.. The Stoics, Epicureans, and Skeptics, London, 1869. See also Ravaisson: Essai sur le Stdicisme, Paris, 1856 ; Dourif : Du Stdicisme et du Christianisme, Paris, 1863 ; H. A. WiNCKLER : Der Sloicismus eine Wurzel des Chris- tenthums, Leipzig, 1878 ; W. W. Capes : Stoicism, London, 1880; H. W. Benn: The Greek Philoso- phers, London, 1882, 2 vols., ii. 1-52. See Epic- tetus, Marcus Aurelius, Seneca. STOLBERC, Friedrich Leopold, Count von, b. at Bramstedt in Holstein, Nov. 7, 1750 ; d. at Sondermuhlen in Hanover, Dec. 5, 1819. He was educated in Copenhagen, but, under the influence of Cramer and Klopstock, studied at Halle and Gottingen, where he became one of the most prominent members of the Hainbund, and trav- elled (1775-76) through Germany and Switzer- land with Goethe and Lavater. In 1777 he went to Copenhagen as the representative of the prince- rONING AMONG HEBREWS. 2251 STRAUSS. )p of Liibeck to the Danish court, in 1789 lie ; to Berlin as Danish ambassador, and in he settled as president of the government of principality of Eutin. But the literary and ical enthusiasm of his youth, the fruits of h were lyrical poems, translations of Homer, hylus, and Ossian, dramas, etc., gradually me concentrated on religion ; and by the in- ice of the Princess Gallitzin he was converted omanism in 1800. He resigned his position lutin, retired into private life, and occupied ielf mostly with religious authorship. His cipal work is Geschichte der Religion Jesu sti, Hamburg, 1806-18, 14 vols. Among his r works are Betrachlungen und Beherzigungen 9-21), 2 vols.; a life of Vincent of Paula, ister, 1818; BucMein von der Liebe, 1820, etc. collected works appeared in Hamburg, 1825, ols. His life was written by A. Nicolovius, '6I1CG 1846. rONiNG AMONG THE HEBREWS. This tal punishment was ordained by the Mosaic for the following classes of criminals: [(1) who trenched upon the honor of Jehovah, i.e., iters (Lev. xx. 2 ; Deut. xvii. 2 sq.) and en- 's to idolatry (Deut. xiii. 6 sq.), all blasphem- [Lev. xxiv. 10 sq. ; comp. 1 Kings xxi. 10 sq. ; > vi. 13, vii. 56 sq.), sabbath-breakers (Num. 32 sq.), fortune-tellers and soothsayers (Lev. 27), also false prophets (Deut. xiii. 6, 11 : in those who had shared in any accm-sed thing ih. vii. 25) ; (2) Notoriously and incorrigi- disobedient sons (Deut. xxi. 18 sq.) ; (3) les whose tokens of virginity were wanting ut. xxii. 20 sq.), and so an affianced woman i had complied with a seducer, together with seducer himself (ver. 23 sq.)] According to ish criminal procedm^e, the same penalty was irred by those who cursed their parents, or sexual connection with their mother, step- her, daughter-in-law, or with a beast. Adul- also was punished with stoning (Ezek. xvi. xxiii. 47 ; John viii. 5). An ox that had royed human life was also stoned (Exod. xxi. q.). The mode of stoning seems to be indi- d in the expressions sakal, i.e., to hit with a ?y stone, and ragam, i.e., to overload one with es. The place of execution appears to have 1 outside of the city (Lev. xxiv. 14 ; Num. xv. 1 Kings xxi. 10, 13 ; Acts vii. 58) ; and that witnesses threw the first stone upon the cul- , we see from Deut. xvii. 7 ; Acts vii. 57 sq. ling was a frequent resort of a mob (a very practice, Exod. viii. 26, xvii. 4) in order to ige itself on the spot upon such as had ex- i popular ill will (1 Sam. xxx. 6 ; Luke xx. 6 ; a. X. 31 sq., xi. 8 ; Acts v. 26, xiv. 5-19 ; 2 Cor. 15 ; Josephus, Ant. XIV. 2, 1, XVI. 10, 5 ; War, , 3 ; Life, 13, 58). It was resorted to, not only he Jews, but also by Syrians (2 Maco. i. 16), 3ks (Herod., ix. 5 ; Thucyd., v. 60 ; Paus., viii. ; iElian, Var. Hist. v. 19 ; Curtius, vii. 21), and r nations. IT. — Ring : De lapidatione Hehrmorum, Franc- , 1716 ; MiCHAELis : Mosaisches Recht, § 234 SaalschOtz : Mosaisches Rechi, pp. 459, 462 ; [O : Lex. Rabb., pp. 317 sq. ; Carpzov : Appar. icus, pp. 121, 581 sq., 583 sq. LEYKEB. rORR, Gottlob Christian. See TIjbingen STOWELL, Hugh, an eminent evangelical clerg-yman ; rector of Christ Church, Salford ; canon of Chester, etc. ; was b. at Douglas, Isle of i\lan, Dec. 3, 1799 ; and d. at Salford, Oct. 8, 1865. A memoir by Rev. J. B. Marsden appeared 1868. He wrote The Pleasures of Religion, with other Poems (1832), Tractarianism tested (1845, 2 vols.), and A Model for Men of Business ; and edited A Selection of Psalms and Hymns (1831), containing the very popular " From every stonny wind that blows." His forty-six hymns were published by his son and successor, 1868. F. M. bird. STRABO, Walafried (Walafridus Strabus, "the squinter "), d. July 17, 849 ; was, according to some writers, a Suabian by birth, according to others an Anglo-Saxon ; studied at St. Gall, Reichenau, and finally at Fulda, under Rhabanus Maurus, and was in 842 made abbot of Reichenau. He was a very prolific writer. His principal work is the so-called Glossa ordinaria, a huge exegetical compilation, the oldest printed edition, — without date or place, comprising four volumes in folio, — which for several centuries formed the principal source and the highest authority of biblical sci- ence in the Latin Church, and was used down to the seventeenth century. Another work of his, De exordiis et incrementis rerum ecclesiasticarum, printed in Hittorp's Scriptores des officiis divinis, Cologne, 1568, is also of interest. It is a kind of handbook in ecclesiastical archaeology, treating in thirty-one chapters various ceremonies, altars, bells, images, etc. He also wrote poems, and his- torical works. ED. EEUSS. STRAPHAN, Joseph, was author of three hymns in Rippon's Selection, 1787. They have been more or less copied, and one, on Sunday- school work, extensively. F. M. bird. STRAUSS, David Friedrich, b. at Ludwigsburg near Stuttgart, in the kingdom of AViirttemberg, Jan. 27, 1808 ; d. there Feb. 8, 1874. He studied theology (1825-30) at the university of Tiibingen, where he came under the influence of Baur, who had formerly been his teacher in the seminary at Blaubeuren. He took up first with the ideas of Schelling, and then with those of the mystic Jacob Boehme. He became profoundly interested in natural magic in its different forms. But the study of Schleiermacher dissipated his mysticism. Theology had, however, less attractions for him than Hegel's philosophy, which, indeed, combined the two. He passed his final examinations with distinction, and became assistant miuister in a little village near Ludwigsbm-g. His simple dis- courses were enjoyed by his parishioners, and his pastoral duties were well performed; but after nine months he resigned (1831), since he found himself too much distracted by religious doubts to stay, and was for six months temporary pro- fessor in the seminary at Maulbronn ; then went to Berlin to hear Schleiermacher and He^el. The latter died of cholera shortly after his arrival. In 1832 he was called to Tubingen as repetent in the seminary. He also lectured upon Hegel's phi- losophy in the university. His lectures were a brilliant success ; but he soon found his position uncomfortable, owing to his opinions. He had planned a life of Jesus upon critical principles, and attacked with such ardor his great task, that in a year he wrote the book which has made him immortal, — Das Leben Jesu, kritisch bearbeitet, STRAUSS. 2252 STRAUSS. (Tiibingen, 1835, 1836, 2 vols., 4th ed., 1840; . French trans, by Littre, Paris, 1839, 2 vols. ; Eng. trans, by George Eliot, London, 1846, 3 vols.). He was removed from his position at Tubingen after the appearance of the first volume (see Wiezsacker, in Jahrh. fur deutsche Theologie, 1875, 4th part), and transferred as provisional professor at Ludwigsburg. In 1836 lie retired to private life. The action of the authorities was wise, for his book raised a storm of opposition. He applied the mythical theory which had made such havoc with Greek and Roman history, and which De Wette had applied to the Old Testament, to the Gospels, with the result that all miracles were turned into myths (see Mythical Theory) : all that remained was a Christ idea. There was no such thing as prophecy, an incarnation, or a miracle; for nothing which is supernatural can be historical. There was no God-man as a per- son. The Incarnate God is the human race. Humanity is the child of a visible mother, but invisible father. It is the race which works mira- cles by its use of natural forces. It dies, and lives again, and mounts to heaven, because, raised above personal existence, it is united with the heavenly and eternal spirit. In this work Strauss ignoi-ed critical study of the text. He considered the four Gospels as the altered oral tradition. He accepted, however, the synoptical discourses. His theory was confronted by the dilemma so masterfully put by Ullmann in his Historisch Oder Mytliiscli? (Hamburg, 1838) that either the Christ was the invention of the apostolic church, or the apostolic church was founded by Christ. Neander, Tholuck, Liicke, Lange, and others successfully refuted his theory ; and his book is of value only for its purely negative criticism. In the second and third editions, and in his StreitscJiriften (Tubingen, 1837-38, 3 vols.), he endeavored to reply to the attacks made upon him, and conceded spiritual authority to the Founder of Christianity. It was his desire to make his peace with the theologians, which led him in 1838 to write the Zivei friedliclie Blatter, Altona, 1839. In 1839 the radical party at Zurich nominated him professor of theology in the uni- versity there ; but a popular outbreak prevented his acceptance, although for the rest of his life he continued to draw a thousand francs yearly (half the salary). In 1839 he published at Leipzig Charakteristiken u. Kritiken, 2d ed., 1844, embra- cing essays upon Schleiermacher, Daub, Kerner, animal magnetism, and modern possessions, etc. In the fourth edition of his Leben Jesu (1840), the first one printed iu German characters, Strauss withdrew all the concessions of the second and third, and boldly threw down the glove to the theo- logians. His second chief work was Die christliche Glaubenslehre in ihrer geschichtlichen Entwickelung und irii Kampf mit der modernen Wissensckaft dar- gestellt (Tubingen, 1840, 1841, 2 vols.), which has been characterized as resembling a theology in the same way that a cemetery resembles a city. Strauss maintains that the opposition between science and religion is hopeless. The latter is indeed an inferior form of thought, which no longer satisfies cultivated spirits. He establishes his thesis by picking to pieces the different doc- trines successively, and showing their worthless- ness. The work made little impression. Strauss was now definitely relegated to private life, and wandered about through Germany, finding no permanent home. While living at Stuttgart he met the popular opera-singer Agnes Schebest, and married her in 1842. Two children, a son and a daughter, were born of this union ; but it proved unhappy, and in 1847 they separated by mutual consent. His wife died Dec. 22, 1870. His next work was Der Romantiker auf dem Tliron der Casaren, oder Julian der Abtrilnnige (Mannheim, 1847), an ironical parallel between the restoration of heathenism attempted by the Emperor Julian and the restoration of Protestant orthodoxy by Frederick William IV. of Prussia. He was elected as a liberal to the WUrttemberg diet in 1848, by the citizens of Ludwigsburg, but disappointed their expectations by advocating anti-liberal sentiments, and resigned soon after, to their gi'eat satisfaction. In this connection, see his Seeks theologiscli-politlsche Volksreden, Stuttgart, 1848. In the last portion of his life he produced a number of literary works by which his reputa- tion as a critic was enhanced, and four theological works, large and small, in all of which he plainly showed how widely he had departed, not only from tradition, but from the Christian religion. His literary works were Schubarts Leben in seinen Brie/en, Berlin, 1849, 2 vols. ; Christian Mdrklin, ein Lebens- und Character-bild aus der Oegcnwart, Mannheim, 1851 ; Leben und Schriften Nikodeirius Frischlins, Frankfort, 1855; Ulrich von Hutten, Leipzig, 1857, 4th ed., 1878 (English condensed, trans., London, 1874) ; Gesprdche Huttens, fibers, u. erl., Leipzig, 1860; Hermann Samuel Beimarus, Leipzig, 1862 ; Voltaire, seeks Vortrage, Leipzig, 1870, 5th ed., 1878. The theological works were (1) Das Leben Jesu fur das deutscke Volk bearbeitet, Leipzig, 1864, 4th ed., 1877 (Eng. trans., London, 1805, 2 vols.) ; (2) Die Halben und die Ganzen, Berlin, 1865; (3) Der Christus des Glaubens und der Jesus der Gesckichte, Berlin, 1865; and (4) Der alte und der neue Glaube, ein Bekenntniss, Leipzig, 1872, 11th ed., Bonn, 1881 (Eng. trans, by Mathilde Blind, London and New York, 1873), with appendix, 1874. In the first of these four books, Strauss supplied the grave defect of his first Leben Jesu by prefacing the history with a critical study of the Gospels, particularly Mat- thew, to whose discourses he assigned historical importance. He granted that Jesus " stands fore- most among those who have given a higher ideal to humanity," and that it was impossible to re- frain from admiring and loving him. He also says we cannot do without Christianity, and it cannot be lost. In the second work, Strauss ridi- culed Schenkel's liberalism as contrasted with Hengstenberg's whole-souled orthodoxy. In the third, he reviews Schleiermaoher's life of Christ, then first published. In his fourth work he sets himself to answer four questions : Are we yet Christians? Have we still a religion? How do we look at the universe ? How shall we regulate our life? The first question he answers nega- tively. He repudiates his former veneration for Christianity, and calls Christ's resurrection "a world-historical humbug." To the second query he replies, that " we can only believe in an abso- lute dependence upon the universe ; an absolute being cannot be conscious or personal." To the third, he says, the universe is "only a develop- STRIGBL. 2253 STRONG. ment from a blind force or law, without any fore- seen end." The fourth question is answered by saying, that we must live for " the good we find here, for science and art." There is no hereafter. Strauss died of cancer of the stomach, after great sufferings borne with stoical patience. The deaconess who nursed him in his last illness re- lates (according to good authority), that during his agony he repeatedly called out, " Lord, have mercy upon me ! " But he was buried, by his own re- quest, without religious rites of any kind. Lit. — Stkauss's Oesammelte Schriften, with an Introduction by EduaM Zeller, appeared at Bonn, 1876-78, 12 vols. In this edition the first Leben Jesu, Die Christliche Glauhenslehre, and Character- isliken u. Kritiken, are not reprinted, but Denkwur- digkeiten aus meinem Leben, zum Andenken an meine gute Mutter, and Poetisches Gedenkbuch, appear for the first time. For the biography of Strauss see E. Zellek : D. F. Strauss, in seinen Leben u. in seinen Schriften, Bonn, 1874, Eng. trans., London, 1874 ; and A. Hausrath : D. F. Strauss u. die Theologie seiner Zeit, Heidelberg, 1876-78, 2 vols. ; also ScHLOTTMANN : David Strauss als Romantiker des Heidenthums, Halle, 1878. Among the many replies to Strauss's Old Faith and the New may be mentioned Ulrici's, translated and annotated by Krauth, Philadelphia, 1874; and Dr. H. B. Smith's brilliant review in Faith and Philosophy, New York, 1877. Cf. the art. on Strauss by A. Freydinger, in Lichtenberger's Encyclopedie, xi. 714-729, and by Professor H. B. Smith, in Johnson's Cyclopaedia, iv. 590-591. STRICEL, Victorinus, a pupil of Melanchthon, and an advocate of synergism ; was b. at Kauf- beuren, Dec. 26, 1514 ; d. at Heidelberg, June 26, 1569. He studied at Wittenberg, under Melanch- thon; was professor at Erfurt, and in 1548 be- came the first professor and rector of the new school at Jena. Here he came into conflict with Flacius, whom he recommended for a professor- ship in 1557. It was a conflict between the Me- lanchthonian theology and strict Lutheranism. A public controversy, lasting fifteen days, between these two men, was held in 1560 at the castle of Weimar. The only point discussed was the rela^ iton of the human will to divine grace in the work of conversion. In 1563 Strigel became professor at Leipzig ; but in 1567 the lecture-room was closed to him on account of his moderate Lutheranism, and he became professor at Heidelberg. His principal work was Hypomnemata in omnes libros N. T., etc., Leipzig, 1565. See Erdmann : De Strigelianismo, Jena, 1658, Hanover, 1675 ; Merz : Hist, vitas et controvers. V. Strigelii, Tubingen, 1732 ; Otto : De Strig. liberioris mentis in eccles. luth. vindice, Jena, 1843. C. SCHWAEZ. STRIGOLNIKS. See Kussian Sects. STRONG, Nathan, D.D,, b. in Coventry, Conn., Oct. 16, 1748; d. in Hartford, Conn., Dec. 25, 1816, in the sixty-ninth year of his age. Having been graduated at Yale College in 1769, he pursued the study of law for a time ; was a tutor in Yale College in 1772, 1773 ; and, after a brief course of theological reading, was ordained pastor of the First Congregational Church in Hartford, Conn., Jan. 5, 1774. He found the church weak: he left it the strongest in the State. Some of the ablest men in the country belonged to it. He During the flrst part of it, amid our colonial troubles with Great Britain, he published many political papers which exerted a wide and deep influence. He possessed one faculty which gave him gTeat power in political discussions. His wit was woven "into the very texture of his mind." "Notwithstanding all his struggles against it," he could not entirely repress it ; and he often let it fly like a javelin against the opponents of the Revolution. He never yielded to it in the pulpit : there he was uniformly and eminently solemn and impressive. In his controversies, however, with the infidels of his day, he did not restrain his instinctive tendency to sarcasm. Their safety lay in letting him alone. Like many other pas- tors, he suffered in his finances from the influence of the Revolutionary war. His salary became insufiicient and uncertain. In order to relieve his failing exchequer, he invested a part of his patrimonial estate in a mercantile establishment, which afterward became bankrupt. Several cir- cumstances connected with this loss, followed as they were by two severe bereavements, had a decisive influence on his ministerial character. During the last twenty years of his pastorate he became eminent as a " revival preacher." In the best sense of the term he was a pulpit orator. His person was attractive and imposing, his elo- cution was earnest and emphatic, his thoughts were clear, his sympathies ardent, his religious feelings profound. He had a wonderful memory, and a command of appropriate language. He was sometimes thought to be preaching extem- pore when in fact he was reading his manuscript, and sometimes he was thought to be reading his manuscript when in fact he was preaching extem- pore. His knowledge of human nature was re- markable. This gave him an exceptional degree of authority among the churches, and a rare degree of skill in conducting religious revivals. He was an indefatigable student; but his learning was developed in his intellectual character; and not in his references to books. His talents were versatile : his attainments were multifarious, and not concentrated on a few points. His method of writing was rapid : he did not stop to perfect his style; and accordingly, among the many works which he performed, he left no single one which will endure as a visible monument of his real greatness. He published two volumes of ser- mons, — one in 1798, and one in 1800. Both of them were designed and adapted to guard the purity of religious revivals. He was a pioneer in the cause of Christian missions. He has been considered the father of the Connecticut Mis- sionary Society, the oldest of the permanent missionary societies in the land. He was the projector of the Connecticut Evangelical Magazine, the principal editor of it for fifteen years, and the sole editor of it for five of these years. His numerous contributions to it had a memorable influence on the religious welfare of what were then our "new settlements." He was also the projector of the Hartford Selection of Hymns. Several of these he composed himself, and was the chief editor of the volume published in 1799. The most elaborate of his productions is entitled The Doctrine of Eternal Misery reconcileable with the Infinite Benevolence of God (1796). The his- ¥m-rr nf tViis vnliimp. is remarkable. In addition STRYPB. 2254 STUART. to these ■writings he published fourteen sermons in pamphlet form, the iirst in 1777, ,the last in 1816. EDWARDS A. PARK. STRYPE, John, a distinguished historiographer of the English Reformation ; was b. at Stepney, Nov. 1, 1643 ; d. at Hackney, Dec. 11, 1737. After passing through St. Paul's school, he entered Jesus College, Cambridge (1662), from which he was transferred to Catherine Hall, where he took his degree. He was made curate of Theydon- Boys, Essex, in 1669, and of Low Leyton, Essex, the same year. Archbishop Tenison afterwards conferred upon him the sinecure of Tarring, Sus- sex, and he received the lectureship of Hackney, which he resigned in 1724. His principal writings are an edition of Lightfool's Works, London, 1684, 2 vols. ; Memorials of Archbishop Cranmer, 1694, new ed., Oxford, 1848, 3 vols. ; Life of Sir Thomas Smith, 1698 ; Life of Dr. John Aylmer, Bishop of London, 1701 ; Life of Sir John Cheke, 1705 ; An- nals of the Reformation, 1709-31, 4 vols.; Life and Actions of Archbishop Grindal, 1710; Life and Let- ters of Archbishop Parker, 1711 ; Life and Acts of Archbishop Whitgift, 1718; Ecclesiastical Memori- als, 1721, 3 vols. The most important of these works, which have been a storehouse for modern historians of the Elizabethan period, is the Annals of the Reformation, which, as the author says in his dedication to the king, " commences at the happy accession of Queen Elizabeth to the throne, when the great and divine work was taken in hand again of removing the gross superstitions and errors of Kome which had been restored by Queen Mary." Strype was a diligent collector of mate- rials, faithful and minute, but lacked skill of arrangement. The complete works of Strype were issued at Oxford, 1820-40, in 27 vols. STUART, Moses, b. in Wilton, Conn., March 26, 1780; d. in Andover, Mass., Jan. 4, 1852, aged seventy-one years, nine months, and nine days. When a lad of but twelve years, he became absorbed in the perusal of Edwards on the Will. In his fifteenth year, entering an academy in Norwalk, Conn., he learned the whole Latin grammar in three days, and then joined a class who had devoted several months to Latin studies. In May, 1797, having been under the careful tui- tion of Roger Minot Sherman, he was admitted as a sophomore to Yale College. Here his tastes were pre-eminently for the mathematics. At his graduation, in 1799, he delivered the salutatory oration, at that time the highest appointment awarded to the class. One year after leaving Yale he taught an academy in North Fairfield, Conn., and in the following year was principal of a, high school at Danbm-y, Conn. Having pur- sued the study of the law, he was admitted to the bar in 1802, at Danbury. His fertile and versatile mind, his enthusiasm and prodigious memory, ga^ve promise of eminent success in the legal profession. Erom his legal study at this time he derived signal advantages through life. A few weeks before his admission to the bar, he was called to a tutorship in Yale College. Here he distinguished himself as an inspiriting teacher. At this time he publicly devoted himself to the service of God. Having pursued the study of theology with President Dwight, he was ordained, March 5, 1806, pastor of the First Congregational Church in New Haven, Conn. During his pastorate of three years and ten months, two hundred persons were admitted, all but twenty-eight by profession,, into his church. His deep, solemn, sonorous voice, his commanding and impassioned manner, his translucent style, his vivacity of thought, his energy of feeling, contributed to make him one of the most eloquent of preachers. Many sup- posed that he mistook his calling when he left the pulpit for the professor's chair. On the 28th of February, 1810, he was inaugu- rated professor of sacred literature in Andover Theological Seminary. In about two years he composed a Hebrew grammar for the immediate use of his pupils. They copied it day by day from his written sheets. When he printed it, he was compelled to set up the types for about half the paradigms of verbs with his own hands. He was a pioneer in the introduction of German litera- ture into our country. Thus he opened a new era in our theological literature. I5y his fresh, easy, enthusiastic, and open-hearted way of teach- ing, by his multifarious acquisitions in the sci- ences and arts, he won the admiration of his pupils, and in an altogether unusual degree quick- ened their literary zeal. From the fact that he awakened the enthusiasm of many eminent men in his department, and gave to his department a new fascination as well as dignity and impor- tance, he has been called " the father of biblical literature " in our land. He was the inspiring teacher of more than fifteen hundred ministers, of more than seventy presidents or professors in our highest literary institutions, of more than a hundred missionaries to the heathen, of about thirty translators of the Bible into foreign lan- guages. He i-etained his professorship thirty- eight years. During these years his health was so feeble that, as he was wont to remark, he " never really studied more than three hours a day." The catalogue of his published writings is a proof that during these daily study-hours the invalid accomplished a good work. Several of the following books and essays have been repub- lished in Europe, and several have been repub- lished in this country since his decease : Grammar of the Hebrew Language, without Points, 1813; Letters to Rev. William E. Channing, D.D., on the Divinity of Christ, 1819 (republished in five suc- cessive editions) ; Grammar of the Hebrew Lan- guage, with points, 1821 (6th ed. in 1838) ; Letters to Rev. Samuel Miller, D.D., on the Eternal Gen- eration of the Son .of God, 1822 ; Winer's Greek Grammar of the New Testament, translated by professors Stuart and Robinson, 1825; Practical Rules for Greek Accents, 1829 ; Elementary Prin- ciples of Interpretation, from the Latin of Ernesti, 4th ed. in 1842 ; Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews, 1827-28, 2 vols. (2d ed., 1833, in 1 vol.); Hebrew Chreslomathy, 1829 (2ded., 1832); Grammar of the New-Testament Dialect, 2d ed., improved, 1834; Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans, 1832, 2 vols. (2d ed., 1835, in 1 vol. ) ; Notes to Hug's Introduction to the New Testament, 1836; Hints on the Prophecies, 2d ed., 1842; Commen- tary on the Apocalypse, 1845, 2 vols., pp. 1008; Critical History and Defence of the Old-Testament Canon, 1845 ; Translation of Roediger's Gesenius, 1846 ; Commentary on Daniel, 1850 ; Conscience and the Constitution, 1850 ; Commentary on Eccle- STUDITBS. 2255 STYLITES. siastes, 1851 ; Commentary on the Book of Proverbs, 1852. In addition to the preceding works, he pub- lished fourteen pamphlets ; thirty-foui- articles, containing fifteen hundred pages, in the American Biblical Repository; fourteen articles, containing four hundred and ninety pages, in the BiUiolheca Sacra; thirty-three important articles for other periodicals, — in all more than three thousand printed octavo pages. Edwards a. i>aek. STUDITES, Simeon, is mentioned as a monk in the famous monastery of Studium in Constan- tinople, and as author of a number of noticeable religious hymns. See JMijller {Studium coen. Const., Leipzig, 1721) and Leo Allatius (De Symeonum scriptis, Paris,' 1664), where another Simeon Studites, a theologian, and writer of homilies and hymns, is also mentioned. STUDITES, Theodore, b. in Constantinople in 759; d. in the Island of Chalcis, Nov. 11, 826. He became a monk in the monastery of studium in 781, and in 794 its abbot. He was an ardent champion of image-worship, wrote tracts, letters, poems, etc., in its defence, and was four times sent into exile by iconoclastic emperors. See Jacob SiRMOND : Opera varia, Venice, 1728, especially part V. NETJDECKEE." STURM, the first abbot of Fulda; b. in Bava- ria in 710; d. at Fulda, Dec. 17, 779. He de- scended from a rich and distinguished family ; joined Boniface on his second missionary tour through Central Germany ; studied in the clois- tral school of Fritzlar, and was ordained a priest there in 733. As he took a prominent part in the foundation of the monastery of Fulda, he was by Boniface made its first abbot, and under his rule the institution became very prosperous. But after the death of Boniface, in 755, conflicts arose between his successor, LuUus, and the abbot of Fulda, first concerning the possession of the re- mains of St. Boniface, and then concerning the administration of the property of the institution. As internal troubles were added, Sturm was sum- moned before King Pepin, and banished to the monastery of Jumedica; but the sympathy for the abbot was so strong throughout the whole Frankish Empire, that Pepin ntft only restored him, but also presented him with the gTcat estates of Thininga and Umbstadt. He also enjoyed the favor of Charlemagne, acted as mediator between him and Duke Thassilo of Bavaria, followed him as missionary on his campaigns against the Sax- ons, and received from him the great estate of Hamelburg. His life has been written by Eigil, abbot of Fulda, 818-822 (found in Mabillon : Acta Sanctorum 0. B., ii. pp. 242-259 ; and in Pertz : Monum. Script., ii. pp. 365-377), Stur- Mius Bruns, Fulda, 1779 and K. Schwartz, Fulda, 1858. G- H. klippel. STURM, Jakob, b. at Strassburg in 1489 ; d. there Oct. 30, 1553. He studied at Heidelberg and Freibm-g, — first theology, together with Capito and Eck, afterwards jurisprudence ; and, belong- ing to a family which for more than two cen- turies had given Strassburg its ablest magistrates, he entered upon a political career, became a mem- ber of the city council about 1522, and stood for the rest of his life at the head of the city govern- ment. From 1525 to 1552 he took part, as the representative of Strassburg, in ninety-one politi- cal and religious colloquies and negotiations. In 1524 he openly declared in favor of Luther; and freedom of conscience, without any interference either by emperor or pope, was the great idea for which he labored throughout his life. But he was always very zealous for a union between the Swiss and the Saxon Reformers ; and, though he failed in that point, he exercised great influence in the course of the Reformation. C. SCHMIDT. STURM, Johann, b. at Sleida, in 1507; d. at Strassburg, in 1589. He was educated at Liege, and studied at Louvain. He then visited Paris, where he lectured on dialectics, after the method of Rudolph Agricola, and was in 1537 called to Strassburg, where he founded the celebrated gym- nasium on humanist principles, completely dis- carding the scholastic methods. In Paris he had adopted the Reformation ; and, as he was a man of tact and eloquence, he was often employed in the negotiations between Protestants and Ro- manists, and maintained to the end of his life a hope of their final reconciliation. Personally acquainted with Calvin and the French Reformers, he inclined towards the Reformed conception of the Lord's Supper ; and after the death of Jakob Stm-m, in 1553, he was vehemently attacked by the Lutherans in Strassburg. After ten years' controversy, a consensus was brought about in 1563 ; but the disagreement broke forth again, and in 1581 Sturm was deposed from his office as rector of the gymnasium. See C. Schmidt: La vie et les travaux de .Tean Sturm, Strassburg, 1855. C. SCHMIDT. STYLITES (from arvlog, " a pillar "), or PILLAR- SAINTS, denote one of the most extreme forms of Christian asceticism ; a class of anchorets who spent their life on the top of a pillar, never de- scending, always standing (protected from falling only by a frail railing), exposed to the open air day and night, summer and winter. The inventor of this monstrosity was Simeon, generally called the " Syrian," or the " Older," to distinguish him from other Simeons, also Stylites ; b. at Sesan, in Northern Syria, in 390 or 391 ; d. at Telanessa, near Antioch, in 459. His parents were Chris- tians, and he grew up as a shepherd; but when, in his thirteenth yeai-, he for the first time attended service in a church, he was so completely over- whelmed, that he decided to leave his herds, and become a monk. He entered first a monastery in the vicinity of his home, where he spent two years, and then the monastery of St. Eusebonas, near Teleda, where he spent ten years. But the asceticism of the monastery was not severe enough for him. He settled as anchoret at Telanessa, and one of the feats to which he trained himself was fasting for forty days in imitation of Moses and Elijah. He first lived in a hut : but the crowds of admirers which thronged around him disturbed him ; and, in order to escape them, he ascended a column seventy-two feet high and four feet in diameter. On the top of that column he spent thirty years. From sundown to sunrise he medi- tated, genei-ally bending forwards and backwards, in regular alternation, without intermission: from sunrise to sundown he preached to the people assembled at the foot of the pillar, advised them, and gave them what spiritual aid he could. He wrote sharp letters to Theodosius II. , Leo I., and the Empress Eudoxia, and his admonitions were SUAREZ. 2256 SUCCESSION. followed ; and when he died he was buided with all possible ecclesiastical and militarjf pomp at Antioch. There was, indeed, something in his life, which, though it seems almost monstrous to the eyes of our time, impressed his own time as truly great, and he found many imitators. Stylites are mentioned as far down as the twelfth century. Simeon Fulminatus, who was hurled from his pillar by a thunderbolt, lived from 1143 to 1180. The champion of the whole class was Alypius, who spent seventy years on his pillars. At one time it was almost a fashion among rich people to maintain a stylite on a magnificent pillar : at others, the religious life of the congregations was, no doubt, invigorated and purged by the example of the pillar-saint. Lit. — The life of Simeon was told by Theodo- RET : Hist. EccL, c. 26 ; by his pupil Antonius, in Act. Sand., January, torn. i. p. 261 ; and by another contemporary, Cosmas, in Assemani : Act. Mart., p. 268. See also Leo Allatius : De Simeonum scriptis, Paris, 1664 ; Sieber : De Sanctis columnaribus, Leipzig, 1714. H. MALLETT. SUAREZ, Francis, a learned and authoritative teacher of the order of the Jesuits; was b. at Grenada, Spain, Jan. 5, 1548 ; d. in Lisbon, Sept. 25, 1617. Following the desire of his parents, he began the study of law. Deeply impressed in his seventeenth year by a sermon of the Jesuit John Ramirez, he determined to enter the order of the Jesuits, and began the study of philosophy and theology at Salamanca. At the close of his studies he discoursed upon Aristotle at Segovia, taught theology at Valladolid, and acted as pro- fessor for eight years in Rome. Obliged by sick- ness to return to Spain, he taught for eight years at Alcala, and one year at Salamanca, when Philip II. appointed him principal professor of theology at Coimbra. His lectures must have produced an immense sensation, if the half of the reports is to be believed. Some attributed his wisdom to divine inspiration (infusam ei divi- nitus esse sapientiam), and called him "the second Augustine," " the prodigy and oracle of the age," etc. In spite of this adulation, Suarez remained humble, flagellated himself daily, fasted three times a week, and never ate more than one pound of food a day. He was on a visit to Lisbon to compose a difficulty between the Papal legate and the royal councillors, when he died. His epitaph ran, " The teacher of Europe, as also of the whole world, an Aristotle in the natural sciences, an angelic Thomas in divinity, a Jerome in style, an Ambrose in the pulpit, an Augustine in polemics, an Athanasius in the explication of the faith, a Bernard in mellifluous piety, a Gregory in the exposition of the Scriptures, and, in a word, the eye of the Christian world, but in his own judg- ment, nothing {ac verbo oculus populi Christiani sed suo solius judicio, nihil)." The literary activity of Suarez was for the most part concerned with the treatment of the Aristotelian philosophy and the scholastic theolo- gy. His works appeared in twenty-three volumes, at Lyons and Mainz, 1630 ; a reprint of this edi- tion, in twenty-four volumes, Venice, 1740. The Jesuit Noel made an excerpt from his works in two volumes, Geneva, 1730. The rich invention and casuistry with which Suarez spins out the discussion of scholastic questions suited the taste of his time and his order. Especially famous was his Defence of the Catholic and Apostolic Faith against the Errors of the Anglican Sect (Defens. fidei Cath. et Apost. adversus Angl. Sectce errores), Coimbra, 1613. He wrote the work against James I. of England, and at the suggestion of Paul V. Its main burden is, that the Pope has the right to depose and set up kings in virtue of his authority reqeived from Peter. Applauded by Paul V. in a letter to its author, dated Sept. 9, 1613, it was burnt by the public hangman in front of St. Paul's, London ; and by a decree of Parlia- ment it received a like treatment in Paris, June 26, 1614. See Deschamps' Latin Life of Suarez, Perpignan, 1671 ; Alegambe : Bihl. Script. S. J., Antw., 1643 ; Werner : Suarez u. d. Scholastik d. letzten Jahrhunderte, Regensb., 1861. STEITZ. SUBDEACON. The primitive church knew only two classes of officers, — leaders (j^poLaraiievot, TTOi/iivES, ijyovfievoL, imoKO'Koi, npeajjiiTEpoi) and ser- vants (tSm/coi'oi) ; the former for the functions of worship, the latter for the administration of chari- ties. But as the episcopate on one side developed from the presbyterate, so, on the other, the sub- deaconate from the deaconate. The Roman- Catholic Church, however, while vindicating for the episcopate immediate establishment by Christ himself, has never hesitated to concede that the subdeaconate is a merely human institution {vMi- talis causa). Its existence in the middle of the third century in the churches of Italy and Africa is proved by the letter of Pope Cornelius to Bishop Fabius of Antioch (Eusebius : Hist. Eccl. VI. 43) and by the letters of Cyprian (2, 3, 29, 30, etc.). In Spain it is first mentioned by the synod of Elvira 305 (can. 30) ; in the Orient, by the synod of Laodicea, 361 (can. 21-28). From Amalarius (De divin. offic. 1, 11) it appears, how- ever, that in the middle of the ninth century it was not yet universally established. (With respect to dignity it was reckoned among ordines majores; though all its offices were of a subor- dinate character, — guarding the tombs of the martyrs, watching doors during the celebration of the Lord's Supper, etc. It became more ele- vated, however, when Gregory the Great extended the law of celibacy to its members, and when Urban II., in 1091, admitted them to competition for the episcopal chair. See Morinus : De sacris ordinationibus, iii. 12. E. feiedberg. SUBINTRODUCTff is a term of canon law applied to women living in the houses of clerical persons for purposes of unchastity. When the unmarried state became identified with chastity, relations to subintroductm very soon sprang up, and gradually developed into actual concubinage. They were noticed by the councils of Eliberis (30^, Ancyra (314), Nicsea (325), etc., down to the Council of 'Trent {Sess. 25, cap. 14). SUBLAPSARIANISM, a theory held by moder- ate Calvinists, according to which the fall of man was not decreed, though it was foreseen, by God; the purpose of that distinction being to avoid ascribing the origin of sin to God. See Infra- lapsarianism and Supralapsarianism. SUBORDINATIONISM. See Trinity. SUCCESSION, Apostolical, means an unbroken series of ordination from the days of the apostles to our time. It is claimed, in the most absolute sense of the words, by the Roman-Catholic SUCCOTH-BENOTH. 2257 SULZER. irch, which for that reason declares all other rches schismatic or heretic. But it is also :med, though in a less dogmatic way, by the lek, the Syrian, the Coptic, and the Armenian rches, and by various Protestant churches, Bcially the Church of England and the Prot- mt Episcopal Church in the United States. iUCCOTH-BENOTH (^booth of daughters) oc- s (2 Kings xvii. 30) as the name of some deity, 5se worship the Babylonian settlers in Samaria said to have set up on their arrival in that ntry. Opinions vary as to its meaning. (1) Ac- ding to the connection and according to the lent versions (Septuagint, Vulgate, Arabic, iac, Targum), it is the name of an idol. Ac- ling to the rabbins it was a goddess under the [u of a hen and chickens : others regard it as astronomical emblem of the Babylonians. A •d opinion is this, that it denotes the Mylitta. ttgstenberg's view is, that it means "the ighters of Bel and Mylitta, whose images were tained in small tabernacles, where they were ^shipped with others." "With this view he ap- aches (2) the more general one, that it denotes le booths in which the daughtei's of the Baby- ians prostituted themselves in honor of their I (i.e., Mylitta). Thenius, who mediates be- en these two main views, says that the oi'igi- meaning of Succoth-Benoth was booth, in ich the daughters or the servants of Mylitta stituted themselves in her honor; but the word i later pronounced as one, and was used to lote the name of the deity which was wor- oped in the booths. Thus, according to the nection, and according to the Septuagint, some cial idol was meant. leybee. lUDAILI, Stephanus Bar, a monophysite monk, D lived about 500, first at Edessa, and after- :ds at Jerusalem ; was, according to the Can- ibrum Sanctorum, the author of a book, which, the basis of a pantheistic interpretation of or. -xv. 28, taught that the punishment in hell i not eternal; which book afterwards circulated ler the name of Hierotheus, the famous prede- ior of Pseudo-Dionysius. As there is some jmblance between the theology of Bar Sudaili . Hierotheus, it is by no means improbable t the former may have borrowed the celebrated ne of the latter for the purpose of introducing srodox views into the church. See Assemani : ;. Orient., ii. 291. ZOCKLEK. UFFRAGAN (suffraganeus) was, according to explanation of the word given by Alcuin in itter to Charlemagne, any ecclesiastical person )se duty it was to assist (suffragari) his supe- . But the term was more especially applied Mshops, and that in a double sense, both to lops in partibus infidelium, who assisted as irs some regular diocesan bishop, and to the er when they were not exempt in their rela- 1 to the metropolitan. H. F. JACOBSON. UGER, Abbot of St. Denis; b. probably in 1, and in the neighborhood of St. Omer ; d. 5t. Denis, Jan. 12, 1151 ; the contemporary of Bernard and Abelard, and one of the greatest esmen France produced during the middle i. He was educated in the monastery of St. lis, together with Louis "VI. ; and when the er ascended the throne, in 1108, he immedi- y called the monk to his court, and made him his principal councillor. In 1122 Suger was elect- ed abbot of St. Denis; but he remained at the court, and continued to live as a man of the world, untU, in 1127, he suddenly was seized by the reformatory movement of his time. He at once discarded all worldly pomp and vanity, and assumed the habits and practices of severe asceti- cism. But he continued to be a politician rather than an ecclesiastic. After the death of Louis VI., in 1137, he was appointed regent during the mi- nority of Louis VII., and again when the latter, in 1149, made a crusade to the Holy Land ; and during his lifetime hardly any thing of conse- quence took place in French politics without his immediate intervention. His leading idea was the consolidation of the monarchy as a divinely established institution ; and he strove to realize that idea, not only in spite of the resistance of the feudal lords, but sometimes, also, in spite of the opposition of the hierarchy. His life was written by Nettement (1842), Huguenin (1857), Combes (1858), and by a contemporary monk, in Guizox : Coll. cles memoires, vol. viii. H. PETEE. SUICERUS (SCHWEIZER), Johann Caspar, the author of .the Thesaurus Ecclesiasticus ; b. at Zurich, June 26, 1620; d. there Deo. 29, 1684. After studying at Ziirieh, he finished his educa- tion at Montauban and Saumur. In 1644 he was made teacher in the schools of his native town, and was promoted to a professorship of Hebrew, and later (1660) of Greek. His philological works are valuable. They are, Sylloge vocum N. T., Tig., 1648, 1659, edited by Hagenbaeh in 1744, under the title, N. T. Glossarium Graco-Latinum, etc. ; and especially Thesaurus eccles. e patribus Greeds ordine alphabetico exhibens qucecunque phrases, ritus, dogmata, hcereses et hujusmodi alia spectant, insertis injinitis pcene vocibus, loquendi generibus Greeds hactenus a lexicographis nondum vel obiter saltern trac- tatis, opus viginti annorum indefesso labore adorna- tum, Amst., 1682, 2 vols., 2d ed., 1728; Symbol. Nicmno-Constant. expositum et ex antiquitate eccles. Ulustratum, Utrecht, 1718. A. SCHWEIZER. SUIDBERT, an Anglo-Saxon monk who in 690 accompanied "Willibrord to Friesland as a mis- sionary, and was ordained bishop of the Frisian congregation whep Willibrord went to Home. On the return of the latter, however, Suidbert went into the land of the Bructerians, between the Ems and the Lower Khine ; and, when the con- gregation which he formed there was disturbed by the invasion of the Saxons, he founded a mon- astery and missionary school at the present Kai- serswerth, under the protection of Pepin. See Beda : Hist. Eccl.,Y. 19. • The Vita in Act. Sand. Boll., March 1, is a later and fully unreliable fabrication. "^v. liEAPFT. SULZER, Simon, b. at Interlaken, Sept. 22, 1508 ; d. at Basel, June 22, 1585. He grew up under very humble circumstances, but was enabled by the support of- the government of Bern to study at Basel and Strassburg. After he finished his studies, he spent ten years in reconstructing the schools in the' canton of Bern, and was in 1549 appointed preacher at Basel, and professor of theology. In the controversy between the Swiss and the German Reformers concerning the Lord's Supper, he occupied a peculiar position, as he held the views of Luther, and openly labored for their introduction in Switzerland. See Hundes- SUMMERPIBLD. 2258 SUN. HAGEN : Conflikle des Zwinglianismxis, Lutherlhwns, und Calvinismus, Bern, 1842. HAGENBACH. SUMMERFIELD, John, Methodist-Episcopal ; b. in Preston, Eng., Jan. 31, 1798; d. in New- York City, June 13, 1825. He was tlie son of a Wesleyan local preacher, but educated at the IMoravian Academy at Fairfield, near Manchester ; was sent into business at Liverpool ; removed to Dublin, 1813 ; was converted in 1817, and next year became a local Wesleyan minister. In 1819 he was received on trial in the Methodist Con- ference of h'eland, and in March, 1821, having emigrated to America, in the New-York Confer- ence. He leaped into astonishing popularity by reason of his eloquence. In 1822 he preached in Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, every- where listened to by great crowds ; but in June of that year his health gave way. He spent the winter of 1822-23 in France; returned to New York, April 19, 1824, but was not able again to do full work. He was a founder of the Ameri- can Tract Society. He published only one ser- mon; but in 1842, at New York, many of his Sermons and Sketches of Sermons were published. His life was written by JoH^f Holland, New York, 1829, 2d ed., 1830, and William M. Wil- LiTT, Philadelphia, 1857. SUMMERS, Thomas Osmond, D.D., LL.D., an eminent Methodist minister, professor of sys- tematic theology in Vanderbilt University, and general book editor of the Methodist-Episcopal Church South ; b. near Corfe Castle, Isle of Pur- beck, Dorsetshire, Eng., Oct. 11, 1812 ; d. at Nash- ville, Tenu., May 5, 1882. His parents, James and Sarah Summers, died when he was quite young, leaving him to the foster care of a grand- aunt. ' While yet a youth he came to America, and settled in Baltimore. His parents being independents, his early religious training and reading were Calvinistic. Not being satisfied with the teachings of that system, and knowing no other, he was fast drifting, as he writes, into scepticism and infidelity, when some one to whom he communicated his state of mind gave him a copy of Adam Clarke's Commentary on Romans. This he read with eagerness and intense inter- est, and became from that tim§ strongly Armin- ian in his religious belief. Visiting about this time, out of cui'iosity, a Methodist camp-meeting near the city of Baltimore, he was happily and soundly converted to God, experiencing most sensibly a change of heart. Ever after that, he was a strong believer in and advocate for experi- mental religion. He began at once to prepare for the ministry, and was " admitted on trial " into the Baltimore Conference in March, 1835; was ordained deacon by Bishop Hedding in 1837, and elder by Bishop Andrew in 1839. In 1840 he was sent as a missionary to Texas, where he remained three years. He was then transferred to the Ala- bama Conference, of which he continued to be a member until his death, though he remained in that State only three years : during these three years he was stationed, in turn, at Tuscaloosa, Livingstone, and Mobile. He was secretary of the Louisville Convention in 1845, at which the Methodist-Episcopal Church South was organ- ized. In 1846 he was appointed by the General Conference to assist the late Bishop (then Dr.) Wightman as editor of the Southern Christian Advocate, published at Charleston, S.C. While here, he started, and edited for four years, the Sunday- School Visitor. At the organization of the Southei-n Church he was elected general book editor, which ofiice he continued to fill with emi- nent ability and with great acceptability till his death. In this capacity he edited over three hundred volumes. In 1855 he moved to Nash- ville, Tenn., where the publishing-house was located, and where he continued to reside until he died. He was chairman of the committee that compiled the hymn-book, which he edited. He was considered an authority in hymnology, hav- ing devoted much time to its study. He was for many years editor of the Nashville Christian Advocate, and of the Quarterly Remewot the Meth- odist-Episcopal Church South. At the organi- zation of Vanderbilt University he was elected professor of systematic theology ; which position he retained until he died, being also dean of the theological faculty. He died, after only two days' illness, during the quadrennial session, in Nash- ville, of the General Conference, where for the tenth consecutive time he had been elected and was acting as secretary. Surrounded by his brethren and colleagues, he died, as he had wished, at the post of duty, in the midst of his labors, ceasing at once to work and live. Possessed of encyclopedic knowledge, always abreast of the times, thoroughly Wesleyan and Arminian in his creed, but in hearty sympathy with all evangeli- cal denominations of Christians, simple as a child in faith, consecrated, earnest, outspoken, an uncompromising enemy of sin and error in what- ever form, he was an ornament to Christianity and an honor to the church of his choice. Dr. Summers is the author of the following works : Commentary on the Gospels, Acts, arid Romans, in 6 vols. ; Commentary on the Ritual of the Methodist-Episcopal Church South; Christian Holiness; Baptism; Golden Censer; The Sunday- School Teacher, or the Catechetical Office .of the Church; Seasons, Months, and Days ; Talks Pleas- ant and Profitable; Refutation of the Theological Works of Paine; Way of Salvation; and some twenty other books and pamplets on various doc- trinal and practical subjects. W. F. tillett. SUMNER, John Bird, D.D., b. at Kenilworth, Warwickshire, 1780; educated at Cambridge, where he obtained a fellowship ; assistant master at Eaton, rector of Maple Durham, 1820-28; canon of Durham, 1820 ; bishop of Chester, 1828 ; arch- bishop of Canterbury, 1848; d. in London, Sept. 6, 1862. He was the leader of the " evangelical party " in the Church of England, and earnestly opposed to Romanism and the Oxford movement. His primacy covered the restoration of " Catholic hierarchy " to England, the " Essays and Reviews " controversy, and the revival of the synodioal power of the convocations. His publications in- clude Apostolic Preaching, considered in an Exam- ination of St. Paul's Epistles, London, 1815, 9th ed., 1850; Records of the Creation, 1816,2 vols., 7th ed., 1850 ; Evidence of Christianity, 1824, 9th ed., 1861 ; Practical Exposition [of the New Testa- ment], 1833-51, 9 vols. SUN, Worship of the. The common Hebrew name for sun is shemesh ; but in poetry chammdh and cheres are used. In Gen. i. 16 the sun is called the greater light, and is to serve, in conjunction SUN. 2259 SUNDAY. ith the moon, "to rule the day" (Gen. i. 14; 3. cxxxvi. 8; Jer. xxxi. 35) and the year; i.e., le solar year. The sun has not only been once ■eated by God (Ps. Ixxiv. 16 ; Gen. i.), but is ways under his command. In the end of the irth he hath set a tabernacle for the sun (Ps. xix. ; Hab. iii. 11) ; from thence he appoints his ay (Ps. civ. 19), or " commandeth, and it riseth jt" (Job ix. 7), and at his command the sun ands still (Josh. x. 12; 2 Kings xx. 11). He, id not the sun, is the God Sabapth : before his ory the sun is no more light (Isa. Ix. 19 ; Job sv. 5). This is especially the case before the dgment of God (Joel ii. 10, 31, iii. 15 ; Isa. xiii. ), xxiv. 23). As the sun was called into exisi> ice, there will also be once a time when it shall line no more (Matt. xxiv. 29 ; Luke xxiii. 45 ; ev. vi. 12, viii. 12, ix. 2, xxi. 23, xxii. 5). But le same God will make the light of the sun venfold (Isa. xxx. 26). The sun is also spoken ; in scripture in a figurative sense. Thus the m is used to express the image of the ruler i Sam. xxiii. 4), especially of his lasting gov- ■nment (Ps. Ixxxix. 36, 37). The glory of the ghteous is compared to the sun (Judg. v. 31), so the divine protection (Ps. Ixxxiv. 11; Isa. ;. 20). The benefit, glory, and purity of right- lusness is called the " Sun of righteousness " lal. iv. 2). Like brightness, the salvation t)f Zion id Jerusalem goes forth (Isa. Ixii. 1). The sun also the image of moral purity (Cant. vi. 10). hus we read (Matt. xiii. 43) that "the righteous lall shine forth as the sun." But the sun is also le image of destruction (Ps. cxxi. 6 ; Job xxx. !, xlix. 10; Rev. vii. 16). Even poetical personi- lations are found in the Bible. Thus, when the m praises God (Ps. civ. 19, cxlviii. 3 ; Job xv. 15, EV. 5, xxxviii. 7), or when the sun comes out of s chamber like a bridegToom, "and rejoiceth a strong man to run a race" (Ps. xix. 5). ut there will be a time when the sun shall be ishamed, when the Lord of hosts shall reign in ount Zion, and in Jerusalem, and before his icients gloriously " (Isa. xxiv. 23). Worship of the Sun among the Israelites. — To orship the sun was expressly forbidden (Deut. di. 3). This worship, which commenced during e Assyrian period, was abolished by Josiah Kings xxiii. 5, 11 ; 2 Chron. xxxiv. 4). It con- sted in burning incense on the house-tops, in idication of chariots and horses to the sun (Jer. X. 13 ; Zeph. i. 5), in adorations directed towards e rising sun (Ezek. viii. 16), in lamentations of e women for Tammuz (Ezek. viii. 14). Worship of the Sun among the Adjacent Heathen aliens. — The worship of the sun as the most ominent and powerful agent in the kingdom of iture was widely diffused throughout the coun- tes adjacent to Palestine. This worship was ;her direct, without the intervention of any statue symbol, or indirect. Among the Egyptians the n was worshipped under the title of Ka. The ief seat was On (sun, light), the Greek, Heliopo- , and Hebrew, Beth-shemesh, [i.e., the house of e sun] (Jer. xliii. 13). To the temple at On longed very many learned priests, one of whom came the father-in-law of Joseph (Gen. xli. 45). an indirect manner the sun was worshipped Amun-ra, " the king of all the gods," and which longed to the first order of gods. To the sec- ond belonged Khunsu-Hercules, the god of the pil- lars of the sun. The sun-god of the third order was Osiris. Among the Phmnicians the sun was worshipped under the title of Baal. At Tyre, Gaza, and Carthage, human sacrifices were offered to him. Among the Chaldceans the sun was wor- shipped under the title of Tammuz ; and that the\4 raJi'ans worshipped the sun we. know from Theophrastus (De plant., 9, 4, 5) and Strabo (16, 784). Still more propagated was the worship of the sun among the Syrians (Aramseans). Famous temples were at Heliopolis, Emesa, Palmyra, Hierapolis. Sun-worship there was very old, and direct from the beginning; and even in later times, sun and moon were worshipped at Hierapo- lis without the interventiorw of any image (Lucian : De Dea Syria, cap. 34, p. 904). Among the pure Semites, or Aryans, direct worship to the sun was paid from the beginning, and still later. Thus among the Assyrians, and afterwards among the Persians, whose sun-worship is one and the same. The idolatrous sun-worship of the Israelites, which since the time of Ahaz is mentioned in connection with the worship of the moon and stars, first originated from the Assyrians. The dedication of chariots and horses to the sun (2 Kings xxiii. 11) we also find among the Persians (Herod., i. 189 ; Xenoph., Cyrop., 8, 3, 6 : Quint. Uurtius, 3, 3). Besides that the Persians offered to the sun (Herod., i. 31), they also directed their adoration towards the rising sun with branches in their hands (Zend Avesta, ii. 204; Herod., iv. 15, 1; Hyde : De relig. Persarum, 350). Up to this day the Parsees worship the sun. The Manichaeans also adopted the sun.. worship from the Persians, referring it, however, to Christ (Dupuis : Orig. de cultes, v. 244, vi. 267). In later times the sun was worshipped among the Persians under the form of Mithras, which finally became the Sol Deus invictus throughout the West, especially through the Romans. 2'he Sun in the Christian Church and Art. — The Mithras-worship even exercised its influence upon the fixing of the Christian Christmas-festival in December. As the new birth of the sun-god was celebrated at the end of December, so, likewise, in Christ the new sun in the field of spiritual life was adored. Many Christian writers of older times speak of Christ as the sun of eternal salva- tion, to which the visible sun, with moon and stars, form the chorus (Crbuzek : Symholih, ii. 221, iv. 456 [1st ed.]). For the representation of the sun in Christian art, comp. Piper : Mythologie der chrisd. Kunst, i. 2, 116. j. G. MULLER. SUNDAY (Dies solis, of the Roman calendar, " day of the sun," because dedicated to the sun), the first day of the week, was adopted by the early Christians as a day of worship. The "sun" of Latin adoration they interpreted as the " Sun of righteousness." Sunday was emphatically the weekly feast of the resurrection of Christ, as the Jewish sabbath was the feast of the creation. It was called the " Lord's Day," and upon it the primitive church assembled to break bread (Acts XX. 7; 1 Cor. xvi. 2). No regulations for its observance are laid down in the New Testament, nor, indeed, is its observance even enjoined ; yet Christian feeling led to the universal adoption of the day, in imitation of apostolic precedent. In the second century its observance was univer- SUNDAY LEGISLATION. 2260 SUNDAY LEGISLATION. sal. See Barnabas, c. 15; Ignatius, Epistola ad Magnes, c. 8, 9 ; Justin Martyr, Apol. i. 67 ; Ire- nseus, AOv. Hcei: iV. 16; also Pliny, Ep. x. 97. The Lord's Day was not a continuation of the Jewish sabbath, which was also at first observed, but a substitute for it. So long as the Christians wei'e oppressed, they could not keep the day as one of rest, from labor as they desired, and as they did after the union of Church and State. The Jewish Christians ceased to observe the sab- bath after the destruction of Jerusalem. The Ebionites and Nazarenes kept up the habit even longer ; and even to this day the Eastern Church shows traces of its observance by omitting fasting on Saturday, and enjoining standing in prayer. In the Latin Church,. Saturday was a fast day, but Sunday was not ; and the primitive habit of standing in prayer upon that day was abandoned. The Lord's Day was a time of public worship, with its attendant administration of the Eucha- rist. Experience abundantly demonstrates the wisdom of such weekly rest, and the. blessedness of such a day of worship. Lit. — George Holden ; The Christian Sab- bath, Loudon, 1825 ; W. Hengstenberg : Th? Lord's Day, Eng. trans., 1853 ; J. T. Baylee : History of the Sabbath, 1857; J. A. Hessey: Sun- day, 1860, 4th ed., '1880; James Gilfillan : The Sabbath, Edinb., 1861, also published by the New- York Sabbath Committee, New York, 1865 ; Robert Cox: The Literature of the Sabbath Ques- tion, 1865, 2 vols. ; Th. Zahn : Geschichte des Sonntar/s vornehmlich in der alien Kirche, Hanover, 1878,79 pp.; Schaff: History of the Christian Church, rev. ed., vol. i. pp. 476-480, vol. ii. pp. 201-205. SUNDAY LEGISLATION. The institution of a weekly religious rest-day has existed, and its observance has been the subject of legislation, from very early times. Traces of such laws are found among the remains of Chaldeean antiquity. The Assyrians had laws for the observance of their sabbath similar to those by which the sab- bath was maintained among the Jews. Civil legislation in behalf of the observance of Sunday, as distinguished from ecclesiastical or purely reli- gious ordinances, commenced with the famous statute of Constantine (321') : " On the venerable day of the sun let all magistrates and people re- siding in the cities rest, and let all workshops be closed. la the country, however, persons engaged in agriculture may freely and lawfully continue their labor, because it often happens that another day is not so suitable for gxain-sowing or for vine-planting, lest, by neglecting the proper mo- ment for such operations, the bounty of Heaven be lost." Constantine subsequently prohibited lawsuits on Sunday, while expressly permitting such legal acts as the manumission of slaves and the visitation of prisoners. Theodosius the Great (386) prohibited the transactifln of business on Sunday, as well as the shows or spectacles which had become customary on that day among the heathen Komans ; to which succeeding emperors soon added the various other games and enter- tainments of the theatre and circus. The laws of Leo and Anthemius (469) provide that "the Lord's Day be exempt from all compulsory pro- cess ; let no summons ui-ge any man ; let no one be required to give secui-ity for the payment of a fund held by him in trust; let the sergeants of the courts be silent ; let the pleader cease his labors ; let that day be a stranger to trials ; be the crier's voice unheard ; let the litigants have breathing-time and an interval of truce ; let the rival disputants have an opportunity of meeting without fear, of comparing the arrangements made in their names, and arranging the terms of a compromise. If any officer of the courts, under pretence of public or private business, dares to despise these enactments, let his patrimony be forfeited." These Eoman laws are important as forming the basis of the English legislation on this sub- ject, and consequently of the American Sunday laws. The Lord's Day was embodied in the capitula- ries, or general statutes, of the Frank emperors ; and its observance, as prescribed by canonical authority, was enforced by severe penalties. Dur- ing the French Revolution of the last century, when the Christian calendar was abolished, and the decade substituted for the week, each tenth day was made a rest-day, and its observance en- forced by laws (17 Thermidpr, An. vi.) which required the public offices, schools, workshops, stores, etc., to be closed, and prohibited sales ex- cept of food and medicine, and public labor except in the country during seed-time and harvest. On the restoration of the Gregorian calendar-, Sunday was recognized in the Code Napoleon. A law of 1814 prohibited traffic, ordinary labor, etc., on Sundays and certain church festivals. In 1880 this law was repealed ; a provision for the suspension of certain civil and judicial functions on Sunday, and in regard to the employment on that day of young children and minor girls in factories, alone remaining. In England, Sunday laws have existed from a very early date. Ina, king of the West Saxons (about 693), forbade servile work on Sunday. Alfred (876) prohibited work, traffic, and legal proceedings. His example was followed in subse- quent reigns. Edgar (958) prohibited "heathen- ish songs and diabolical sports," and markets and county courts, and made Sunday to begin at three o'clock on Saturday afternoon, and to last " till Monday morning light." The laws of Canute (1028-35) strongiy insisted on the observance of the Lord's Day; prohibiting marketing, hunting, and the holding of the local courts, except in case of great necessity. After the Conquest, the ten- dency to greater strictness in the Sunday laws con- tinued. The statute of 28 Edward III. (1354) forbade the showing of wools at the market-town. The 12 Richard II. (1388) forbade servants and laborers to play at tennis and other games, yet ordered therh to have bows and arrows, and use the same on Sundays. The statute of 4 Edward IV. (1464) forbade cordwainers and cobblers to sell shoes on Sunday. Under Henry VI. the hold- ing of fairs and markets on Sunday was prohibit- ed. The laws of 5 and 6 Edward VI., prohibiting " lawful bodily labor " on Sundays, allowed hus- bandmen, fishermen, and others to work in har- vest, or at any other times when necessity required. This act was repealed under Queen Mary, but was formally revived under James I. Subsequently (1614) James I. issued The Book of Sports, allow- ing after divine service on Sundays certain games SUNDAY LEGISLATION. 2261 SUNDAY SCHOOLS. and recreations, but expressly refusing this liberty to "Papists and Puritans." The issuing of The Book of Sports created intense dissatisfaction, and it soon became a dead letter. Parliament, in the first year of Charles I., passed an act " for the strict observance of Sunday ; " and another law of Parliament in 1627 (3 Car. i.) enacted that no carriers, or wagon-men, or drovers should travel on Sunday. In 1633 Charles I., under the sup- posed influence of Laud, re-issued his father's Book of Sports. The statute of 29 Charles II. (1676) is the most important of the English laws on this subject, as that which, with some modifications, is still the law of the land, and which, as being in force at the time of the American Revolution, gave more or less color to the laws of the American Colonies and States. It prohibits on Sunday aU worldly labor or business except works of necessity or charity, the public sale of goods, the travelling of drovers, wagoners, etc., the service of any legal process except in case of treason, felony, or breach of peace ; but it permits the dressing of meats in families, and its sale in inns and eating-shops, and the crying of milk before nine a.m., and after four P.M. The early American colonists brought with them the observance of Sunday both as a reli- gious and as a civil institution, and enforced this observance by law. The early laws of Massa- chusetts, Connecticut, Georgia, South Carolina, and Virginia, required attendance at church. The Massachusetts law (1782) provided that such attendance was not required where there was no place of worship which the person could consci- entiously attend. But, as the separation between Church and State became better understood, the Sunday laws were modified in conformity with this principle. The legislatures and courts have carefuUy distingniished between Sunday observ- ance as a religious and as a civil institution, and enforce only the latter. The laws of the several States differ in minor details, but are alike in their main features. They forbid on Sunday com- mon labor and traffic, except in cases of neces- sity and mercy, public and noisy amusements, and whatever is likely to disturb the quiet and good order of the day. They make Sunday a non- legal day, when legal processes may not be served, nor the courts and legislatures sit. In many of the States some exception is made in favor of those who observe the seventh day of the week. In Louisiana — which before its admission was imder the Code Napoleon, and where alone, of aU the States, the common law is not in force — Sun- day is merely recognized by law as a public holi- day. In many of the States there are also laws, with special penalties, against the selling of in- toxicating drinks on Sundays and election-days. The Federal Constitution provides that Sunday shall not be reckoned in the ten days within which the President may return a bill; and the Federal laws relieve the cadets of the military and naval academies from tiieir studies on Sunday ; and in the excise statutes distilling on Sunday is prohib- ited under a fine of one thousand dollars. Thfe constitutionality of the Sunday laws has been frequently affirmed by the highest courts of the several States, upon such grounds as the fol- lowing : the right of all classes, so far as practi- cable, to rest one day in seven; the right to undisturbed worship, on the day set apart for this purpose, by the gTeat majority of the people ; the decent respect which should be paid to the reli- gious institutions of the people ; the value to the State itself of the Sunday observance, as a means of that public intelligence and morality on which free institutions are conditioned. The spirit of modern Sunday laws is protection, not coercion. The need of civil intervention, especially to secure to the working-classes the seventh-day rest, becomes more and more impera^ tive with the growth of industries and of the desire for rapid wealth. In evidence of this may be mentioned the petition, hitherto ineffectual, of working-men in Germany, for the help of legisla- tion in obtaining a weekly rest-day. The Social- labor party of Germany, at their meeting at Gotha in 1875, announced as one of their demands in the present exigencies of society the prohibi- tion of Sunday work. Lit. — J. T. Baylee: History of the Sahbath, Lond., 1857 ; Robert Cox ; Literature of Sabbath Question, Edinb., 1865; Hessey : Bampton Lec- tures, 1860 ; W. H. Rule : The Holy Sabbath an Historical Demonstration, Lond. ; Supreme Court OF Kew York (Judge Allen) in Lindenmuller vs. the People, 38 Barbom-, .548; Henry E. Young : Sunday Laws, Paper in Proceedings of Third Annual Meeting of American Bar Associa- tion; Documents S9, 41, ^6, etc., of New-York Sabbath Committee. W. w. atterburt. SUNDAY SCHOOLS. A Sunday school is an assembly of persons on the Lord's Day for the study of the Bible, moral and religious instruc- tion, and the worship of the true God. It is a method of training the young and the ignorant in the duties we owe to God and to our neighbor. As the family and the church are institutions of divine appointment, so the Sunday school has been approved by divine blessings. 1; Biblical Authority and Form. — Godly instruction of the yoimg and the ignorant has been in harmony with the divine government from the earliest history of the race. Although the word "school" does not occur in the Bible previous to the Babylonian captivity, instruction after the school methods was clearly known and practised from very early times; and not long after the captivity, no less than eleven different expressions for " school " were current in the Hebrew speech. Glimpses of the essential features of the school method appear in the early eras of biblical history. In patriarchal times the school, like the church, was in the family : the father was the teacher and the priest. Omitting a notice of the faithful reli- gious instruction of the young by Abraham, Job, Jacob, Moses, and other patriarchs, and passing over the public training of children indicated by the passover service, by the reading of the law from Gerizim and Ebal in Joshqa's time, and by the so-called schools of the prophets in the days from Samuel to Elijah, as well as the royal com- mission sent out by Jehoshaphat to re-establish religious instruction, and a similar movement in the time of Josiah, it will be sufficient here to notice simply the Bible school into which Ezra gathered the people with the childi-en, requiring the priests as teachers to explain the meaning of the law of God, not unlike the instruction in SUNDAY SCHOOLS. 2262 SUNDAY SCHOOLS. the modern Sunday school (Neh. viii. 7, 8). See Education among the Hebrews. In the New-Testament period, religious schools connected with the synagogue were found in every city and considerable village in the land. These schools were one branch of an extended system of religious instruction. Lightfoot finds four kinds of schools and teaching among the Jews : (1) The elementary school ; (2) The teach- ing of the synagogue ; (3) The higher schools, as of Hillel and Shammai ; and (4) The Sanhedrin, or great school, as well as great judicatory, of the nation. Some have questioned the prevalence of the elementary schools in the timp of Christ's childhood; but, according to the Talmud, syna- gogue schools were of earlier origin, and had become common. They used the Hebrew scrip- tures, and, later, little parchment rolls prepared for children. The Mishna says, " At five years of age let children begin the Scripture, at ten the Mishna, and at thirteen let them be subjects of the law." In this period a synagogue presup- posed a school, as with us a church implies a Sunday school. Hence the church and Sunday school, not the church and the district school, is a parallel to the Jewish system. The methods in these schools were not unlike those of the modern Sunday school. Questions were freely asked and answered, and opinions stated and discussed : any one entering them might ask or answer questions. Such a Jewish Bible school, no doubt, Jesus en- tered in the temple when twelve years old. Paul was "brought up at the feet of Gamaliel," a phrase which implies the customary posture of Jewish students at a school. The apostolic age was re- markable for the growth of these 'schools. Every town having ten men giving themselves to divine things was to have a synagogue ; and every place having twenty-five boys, or according to Mai- monides one hundred and twenty-five families, was compelled to appoint a teacher, and for forty or fifty boys two teachers. In the apostolic period teachers were a recognized body of workers quite distinct from pastors, prophets, and evangelists (see 1 Cor. xii. 28, 29 ; Eph. iv. 11 ; Heb. v. 12, etc.). The best commentators hold that the peculiar work of teachers in the primitive church was to instruct the young and ignorant in religious truth, which is precisely the object of the Sun- day school. See Synagogues. 2. Early Christian Catechetical Schools. — These schools were a continuation and improve- ment of the Jewish synagogue schools. Mosheim and others place their wide prevalence as early as in the first century, Neander at a later date. These catechetical classes and schools were in- tended to prepare neophytes, or new converts, for church-membership, and were also used to instruct the young and the ignorant in the knowledge of God and salvation. They were effective, aggres- sive missionary, agencies in the early Christian churches, and have aptly been termed the " Sunday schools of the first ages of Christianity." The pupils were divided into two or three (some say four) classes, according to their proficiency. They memorized passages of Scripture, learned the doc- trines of God, creation, providence, sacred history, the fall, the incarnation, resurrection, and future awards and punishments. Their books comprised parts of the Bible in verse, Jewish antiquities. sacred poems, and dialogues. The Sixth General Council at Constantinople (A.D. 680) required pi-esbyters in country towns and villages to hold schools to teach all such children as were sent to them, taking no reward nor any thing therefor, except the parents made them a voluntary pres- ent. The Second Council at Chalons likewise required bishops to set up schools giving instruc- tion in the Scriptures. In view of the missionary aim, and the graded and comprehensive instruc- tion of these schools, it might be an intei-esting problem for a modern scholar to define important features of the present system not to be found in these primitive Bible schools. See Catkohetics. 3. Sunday Schools of the Reformation Period. — Luther founded regular catechetical instruction on Sundays as early as 1529, and this custom spread wherever the Reformation gained a foothold. Charles Borromeo, Archbishop of Milan, had a system of schools 1560-84, almost identical inform with the present Sunday school. Children were gathered in two grand divisions, — boys and girls, subdivided into smaller groups or classes, with a minister for each class, aided by a layman for boys and a matron for girls. These schools wei-e introduced into all the churches of his diocese, and are continued on much the same plan now, but without the Bible. The la- bors of Spener, Francke, Zinzendorf, and the English Reformers, further prepared the way for the modern Sunday-school system. Legions of pei'sons and places claim to have had Sunday schools previous to those in Gloucester, Among the many worthy of i-ecognition, only the few fol- lowing can be noted. Sunday schools were found- ed in Scotland about 1560, by John Knox; in Bath, Eng., 1650-68, by Joseph AUeine, author of " Alleine's Alarm;" in Roxbury, Mass., 1674; Plymouth, Mass., 1680; in England, by Bishop Frampton, about 1693; in Glasgow, Scotland, about 1707; in Bethlehem, Conn., 1740, by Dr. Joseph Bellamy; in Ephrata, Penn., 1739-40, by Ludwig Hacker, a school continuing for thirty years with gratuitous instruction, children's meet- ings, and having many revivals ; at Brechin, Scot- land, 1760, by Mr. Blair; at Catterick, 1768, by Rev. Theophilus Lindsey; at Bedale, Eng., 1765, by Miss Harrison ; at Waldbach, 1767, by Ober- lin ; at High Wycombe, 1769, by Hannah Ball ; at Bright Parish, County Down, Ireland, 1770-78, by Dr. Kennedy ; in Bohemia, 1773, by Kinder- mann; at Bolton, Eng., 1775, by James Heyes; at Macclesfield, Eng., by Rev. David Simpson, 1778. 4. Modern Sunday Schools. — Sunday schools like those just noted were sporadic; there was need for a popular and general movement, bringing them into affiliation with each other, if not into an organized system. Of this great movement, Robert Raikes is justly regarded as the founder. He was a citizen of Gloucester, Eng., and proprietor of the Gloucester Journal. Business calling him into the suburbs of that city in 1780, where many youth were employed in the pin and other factories, his heart was touched by the groups of ragged, wretched, and cursing children. He en- gaged four female teachers to receive and instruct in reading and in the Catechism such children as should be sent to them on Sunday. The children were required to come with clean hands and faces, SUNDAY SCHOOLS. 2263 SUNDAY SCHOOLS. and hair combed, and with such clothing as they had. They were to stay from ten to twelve, then to go home ; to return at one, and after a lesson to be conducted to church ; after church to repeat portions of the Catechism ; to go home at five quietly, without playing in the streets. Diligent scholars received rewards of Bibles, Testaments, books, combs, shoes, and clothing: the teachers were paid a shilling a day. llaiies published a brief notice of his efforts in the Gloucester Jour- nal, Nov. 3, 1783 (copied into the London papers), and, later, another notice in the Gentleman's Maga- zine of London, which attracted wide attention. William Fox, already interested in the improve- ment of the moral condition of London youth, saw the notice, opened a correspondence with Raikes, m-ged the plan at public meetings, and with the aid of Jonas Hanway, Henry Thornton, and other philanthropists, formed the Society for Promoting Sunday Schools throughout the British Domin- ions, Sept. 7, 1785. From 1785 to 1800 the soci- ety expended about, four thousand pounds for teachers' wages. The scheme commended itself to popular esteem. Learned laymen and influential persons became its warm fiiends. Among them were Mr. (afterwards Bishop) Home, Bishop Por- teus, the Bishops of Salisbury and Llandaff, Rev. Thomas Scott, the poet Cowper, Adam Smith, the Wesleys, and Whitefield. It, however, met with determined opposition from professors of religion, who questioned its usefulness. The then Bishop of Elochester violently attacked the movement, and the Archbishop of Canterbury called the bishops together to see what could be done to stop it. In Scotland, sabbath-school teaching by laymen was declared to be an innovation, and a breach of the Fourth Commandment. Sunday schools continued to multiply, however, in face of oppo- sition, rapidly extending throughout England, Scotland, Ireland, upon the Continent, and in America. Though the Gloucester schools found- ed by Raikes died out in a few years, they were soon followed by others instituted on an improved plan. Following a meeting at Philadelphia, Deo. 19, 1790, attended by Bishop White, Dr. Rush, Matthew Carey, and other philanthropists, the First-Day or Sunday-school Society, was formed Jan. 11, 1791, to give religious instruction to poor children on Sunday. Like the British society, it employed paid teachers. It spent about four thou- sand dollars in support of schools between 1791 and 1800. As early as 1791 it urged the Legisla^ ture of Pennsylvania to establish free schools. This society still continues its usefulness, grant- ing to needy schools in Philadelphia books and other religious publications. It has expended in these donations about thirty-five thousand dollars. The schools of Raikes, and those of the British society and the First-Day Society of Philadel- phia, employed paid teachers. Their chief aim was to reach, not the children of church-members, but of the poor and of those who neglected the church. The schools they established were purely mission Sunday schools. But paid teachers made the system expensive, and necessarily limited its usefulness. Next to founding these schools, the most important step was the securing of instruc- tion by unpaid teachers. Sir Charles Reed says that Oldham, Eng., claims to have had the first Sunday-school teacher who declined to receive pay, and began the gi-atuitous instruction. John Wesley in 1787 speaks of Sunday schools at Bol- ton, Eng., "having eighty masters who received no pay but what they received from the great Master." In the famous Stockport Sunday school in 1794, ovily six of its thirty teachers were paid. In 1790 the Methodist Conference at Charleston, S.C., directed preachers to form Sunday schools for whites and blacks, with voluntai-y teachers. A Sunday school for Indian children was opened in Stockbridge, N.Y., in 1792, by a sister of Occum, the noted Indian preacher. The children working in a cotton-factory in Passaic County, N.J., were given gratuitous instruction in a Sun- day school in 1794; and Samuel Slater had a similar one for his factory-operatives in Paw- tucket, R.I., 1797. ^y. B. Gurney introduced gratuitous instruction into several Sunday schools in London, Eng., about 1796. He also used ques- tions on Scriptm-e-texts, and teachers' meetings, and, with the co-operation of Rev. Rowland Hill and others, formed the London Sunday-school Union at Surrey Chapel, July 13, 1803, to promote Sunday schools having unpaid teachers. A simi- lar meeting at the same place in 1799 had founded the Religious Tract Society of London, which early provided literature for Sunday schools. Gratui- tous instruction speedily became a popular feature in the scheme, and in a short time was generally substituted for the earlier plan of paid teachers. Though the gTowth of the system had been re- markable before, so that, within five years after the beginning by Raikes, it was estimated that 250,000 scholars were enrolled in the schools then established, yet this new feature of voluntary teachers gave it a fresh impetus by adapting it to the needs of the poorest community in city or country. In America the movement was pro- moted by the visit of Mrs. Graham and Mrs. Bethune to England, who founded schools in New York on their return in 1808, and by the visit to Philadelphia of the Rev. Robert May, a missionary from London, in 1811, who had speci- mens of reward-tickets, and urged improved methods in a letter to the Evangelical Society of Philadelphia. As a further illustration of the rapid growth of Sunday schools, the American Sunday-school Union estimated that in 1827 the number of scholars enrolled in the Sunday schools of the differ'ent countries was 1,350,000. Accord- ing to the census of 1851 the number attending Sunday schools in England and Wales was 2,407,- 642; in Scotland, 292,549. The number reported for Ireland in the returns of the Sunday-school Society, and by other authorities, was 272,112 ; making the total for 1851 in Great Britain and Ire- land, including the British Isles, 2,987,980. The total estimated number of schools for England, Wales, and Ireland, for the same year, was 27,048, and of teachers, 325,450. The number of Sunday- school scholars in America at the same period was estimated at about 3,000,000. In 1861-62 the number of Sunday schools in Ireland was 3,235, teachers 25,552, scholars 278,990; while a competent authority estimated the number under catechetical instruction in Roman-Catholic par- ishes in Ireland at 800,000. In 1862 J. Inglis estimated the Sunday schools in Scotland had 40,000 teachers and 480,000 scholars. A compe- tent Welsh authority in the same year states SUNDAY SCHOOLS. 2264 SUNDAY SCHOOLS. that 26:j^ per cent of its population were in Sun- day school, which would give a membership for Wales of about 295,000 ; and W. H. Watson of London claimed that there were nearly 300,000 teachers and 3,000,000 scholars in the Sunday schools "of our land." The report of the Inter- national Convention in 1881 gave in the United States 84,730 Sunday schools, 982,283 teachers, 6,820,835 scholars, and, including the British and American Provinces, 90,370 schools, 975,195 teach- ers, and 7,177,165 scholars. The number reported at the Kaikes centenary in 1880 for England and Wales was 422,222 teachers and 3,800,000 schol- ars, and, for the world, 1,559,823 teachers and 13,06^,523 scholars. These statistics were gath- ered by voluntary organizations, and, though not giving satisfaction as to accuracy and complete- ness, are the best issued. (See statistics at end of this article.) A government census of Sunday schools was commenced in the United States in 1880, but is not yet completed. A tentative com- pilation of its reports shows upwards of 91,000 schools in this country. Nor do numbers alone indicate the immense growth of Sunday schools. The great improve- ment in the modes of instruction, which will be treated in another paragraph ; the beautiful and costly buildings, the ample, airy rooms with glass partitions, carpeted , iloors, fountains, flowers, and cushioned seats, for the accommodation of these schools in America, as compared with the dark and dingy apartments first provided; the wide enlistment of the ablest talent in the country in teaching, and also in providing lesson-helps and literature; the suitable grading of instruction; the substantial settlement of the right principles of religious education ; the clear definition of the place of the Sunday school, not as a thing sepa- rate and apart from the church, but as all Chris- tians at work teaching or learning the Lord's message to his church ; the remarkable and con- stant influence this widespread instruction has had in lessening vice and crime, in diffusing a zeal for biblical study, in imparting greater famil- iarity to its one great text>book, the Bible, — each and all of these are forcible illustrations of the wonderful growth of this Christian institution in modern times. Foreign Societies. — It is impossible, in this brief space to notice the many Sunday-school societies and organizations which have been formed to promote this cause. A brief descrip- tion of some of the earlier and more important societies will illustrate the work conducted by all. The London Sunday-School Union — which was formed in 1803, for the improvement of teachers, the extension of Sunday schools, and to supply them with suitable literature at reduced prices — is sustained by members of different evangelical denominations, and conducted by a general com- mittee of fifty-four, divided into various sub-com- mittees. The members of the committee render their services gratuitously^. It did not in its early history employ missionaries, but aimed to accom- plish its object through the formation of local unions in Great Britain, more particularly in England, and also through affiliated schools. In- fluenced by the example of the American Sunday- school Union, it employed a missionary in the north of England for some years, but at his death. in 1837, discontinued the effort in England. For the last fifteen or twenty yeai-s it has aided in supporting missionaries on the Continent for the establishment of Sunday schools in the various countries of Europe, and has expended in this Continental Mission nearly a thousand pounds annually for the past few years. Its chief work for eighty years has been the improvement of schools, the publication and distribution of juve- nile religious literature, and the collection of Sunday-school statistics. It has on its catalogue a large number of books and publications, which it furnishes to schools connected with the society, in special cases, at from one-half to one-third i-egular prices. The amount of its grants for 1883 was £2,974 : its affiliated schools numbered 5,286, having 123,599 teachers and 1,182,199 scholars. Over 16,000 scholars from its schools united with churches in 1883. In London 88 per cent, and in the country 81 per cent, of teachers were church-members; and 88 per cent ,of the teachers were former scholars in the schools. It maintains a circulating library, a museum, a reading-room, Hebrew and Greek classes, teachers' meetings, normal classes, and competitive exam- inations for teachers and scholars. A sabbath-school society was formed in Edin- burgh in 1797, and one for the support of Gaelic schools to teach the Scriptures, in 1811. These employed paid teachers ; later, voluntary teachers were introduced. The labors of Stowe and James Gall brought important improvements in the modes of instruction. The formation of various local sabbath-school unions at Edinburgh and Glasgow, the adoption of schools in the churches, holding conventions, employing mis- sionaries, and the adoption of juvenile services, mark the progress of the work in Scotland. The Sunday-schoQl Society for Ireland was formed in 1809. Among its publications. Hints on Conduct- ing Sunday Schools had a wide sale, and was re- printed in America. The Church of England Sunday-school Institute began training classes and institutes for Sunday-school teachers in 1844; and still sustains one of the best Sunday-school magazines issued. In 1881 it had returns from 8,405 parishes,-representing 16,498 Sunday schools, 113,412 teachers, and 1,289,273 scholars. Esti- mating the same average membership for the 6,064 parishes not reporting, it computed the total number of scholars in England and Wales con- nected with the Church of England as about 2,220,000, and of teachers about 195,500. The Wesleyans of Great Britain formed a Sunday- school Union in 1874. The total number of Wes- leyan Methodist Sunday schools in Great Britain and Ireland, according to their report for 1882, is 6,489; teachers and ofiioers, 122,999; scholars, 829,666; library books, 781,176. The various Ragged School societies are efficient in promot- ing the cause in their respective fields. On the Continent, the Dutch, French, German, Swiss, and Italian Sunday-school societies are growing in importance and usefulness. In those countries the organization of schools on the American or class system of instruction was largely due to the efforts of Albert Woodruff of New York, about 1864, and, later, of the several missionaries of the London Union. American Societies. — The First-Dayor Sunday- SUNDAY SCHOOLS. 2265 SUNDAY SCHOOLS. school Society of Philadelphia, formed in 1791, has been noticed. As early as 1808 the Evangeli- cal Society was formed for promoting sabbath- evening schools in Philadelphia with voluntary teachers. The New- York Female Sunday-school Union and the New- York Male Sunday-school Union were formed in 1818, at the suggestion of Eleazar Lord, who had observed the .working of the Sunday-school system in Philadelphia. The Sunday and Adult School Union in Philadelphia was formed in 1817, to unite all the Sunday and adult associations in that city and vicinity. In 1821 it employed a missionary, who organized upward of sixty schools. It also issued a large number of Scripture tickets, cards, tracts, and small reward-books. After seven years of marked efficiency and usefulness, it, with other similar unions, was merged in a national society, — the American Sunday-school Union, in 1824. The Adult Union was at that time the largest society of the kind in the country, having auxiliaries in all the States, with over 700 schools and 50,000 scholars. The object of the American Sunday- school Union, as stated at its formation, "is to concentrate the efforts of sabbath-school societies in different sections of our country, to strengthen the hands of friends of pious instruction on the Lord's Day, to disseminate \iseful information, to circulate moral and religious publications in every part of the land, and to endeavor to plant a Sunday school wherever there is a population." Twenty-one years later, when its charter was obtained, it states the object : " to establish and maintain Sunday schools, and to publish and cir- culate moral and religious publications." It is an undenominational society, conducted by represent- ative laymen from different evangelical denomina^ tions ; employs missionaries, lay and ministerial; and clergymen likewise co-operate in its work as editors, secretaries, and literary contributors. The first year it reported 321 auxiliaries, 1,150 afiiliated schools, 11,295 teachers, 82,697 scholars; and it estimated the number of Sunday-school scholars in the world at over 1,000,000. Among the more important measures which have been inaugurated or promoted by this Union are the employment of missionaries to form Sunday schools; a world's concert of prayer (monthly) for Sunday schools, in 1825 ; a system of selected uniform lessons in 1826 ; the Mississippi Valley scheme for planting Sunday schools throughout that region in 1830 ; a teachers' magazine (monthly) in 1824, and a teacher's journal (weekly) in 1831; proposing a national Sunday-school convention in 1832 ; introducing a free circulating library for Sunday schools ; a system of graded question-books ; issu- ing cheap illustrated Sunday-school periodicals for children ; providing suitable records and manuals for conducting and improving Sunday schools. Its missionary work is sustained by benevolent contributions; and the extent of it may be indicated by the report for the year ending March 1, 1883, showing 2,252 schools or- ganized, with 10,876 teachers and 82,749 scholars. About 5,000 other schools were aided, with a membership of 162,000 : 19,029 Bibles and Tes- taments were distributed, and 35,308 families visited for religious conference. Including $11,- 000 worth of publications given, it expended in the year's benevolent operations $99,049.51. Dur- ing the fifty-nine years of its existence it reports over 74,000 Sunday schools organized, with 466,- 000 teachers, and upwards of 3,100,000 scholars in these schools ; and has expended in missionary work $2,825,000, of which over $600,000 were fiven in books and papers to needy schools. It as circulated by sale and donation, publications to the value of about $7,500,000. The Massachusetts Sunday-school Union was formed in 1825 of delegates from different denom- inations, but disbanded, and the Massachusetts Sabbath-school Society instituted in 1832, — a Congregational organization, which was consoli- dated with the Congregational Board of Puijlica^ tion in 1868. It employs secretaries and agents, and issues publications to promote Sunday schools among CongTegational churches. The Sunday- school Union of the Methodist-Episcopal Church was formed in 1827, and re-organized in 1844, and has been very efiicient in publishing and distributing literature through the preachers at- tached to its denomination. It does not employ Sunday-school missionaries. The Presbyterian and Baptist boards of publication have Sunday- school departments ; they employ colportors, who promote the extension of Sunday schools in con- nection with their churches, and distribute denom- inational literature. The (Dutch) Keformed Sunday-school Union soon after 1850 was merged in that of its publishing society. The Protestant Episcopal Sunday-school Tjnion, and the Evan- gelical Knowledge Society, provide a denomina- tional juvenile literature for schools in that chmch. The Foreign Sunday-school Association of New York, formerly auxiliary to the American Sunday-School Union, was incorporated in 1878, and labors to promote Sunday schools in foreign lands, chiefly on the continent of Europe. Conventions. — Early in this century local Sun- day-school conventions were held, especially from 1820 to 1830, in many of the Eastern and Middle States. In 1832, at the suggestion of the Ameri- can Sunday-school Union, a national convention was held in New York, comprising two hundred and twenty delegates from fourteen States and Territories out of the twenty-four States and four Territories then comprising the United States. A second delegated national convention was held in Philadelphia in 1833, at which full reports and papers were presented as arranged for by the pre- vious convention in New York. The chief work accomplished by these early national meetings was to discover and agree on the principles of a system of religious education. That of 1833 also adopted the recommendation of the Ameri- can Sunday-school Union, that a systematic and simultaneous canvass of the entire country be made, to obtain scholars, and enlist parents in this work, on the 4th of July following. It also approved of a Uniform Series of lessons already introduced. A third national convention was held in Philadelphia in 1859, " marking a revival of interest in Bible study, and in religious train- ing of the young." A world's convention was held in London, Eng., in 1862, at which papers ably discussing the methods and progi'ess of the cause were presented. The fourth national con- vention in America was held at Newark, N.J., in 1869, attended by five hundred and twenty-six delegates representing twenty-eight States and SUNDAY SCHOOLS. 2266 SUNDAY SCHOOLS. seven countries ; the fifth, at Indianapolis in 1872, marked by the adoption of the present Interna- tional Series of Uniform Lessons, and the appoint- ment of a general statistical secretary ; the first international (sixth national) convention, at Balti- more in 1875; the second international convention, at Atlanta in 1878; and the third international convention, at Toronto in 1881. Besides these, there have been State and local conventions in every part of the United States and Canada, ■which have given added impetus to the move- ment, and disseminated useful knowledge in regai-d to the methods of conducting, and teaching in Sunday schools, and imparted more of unity to the cause. Upon the local conventions, whioh were very prevalent from 1860 to 1870, the "insti- tute " has been widely ingrafted, — a modification of the convention, aiming to give instruction spe- cially to teachers, rather than simply to create enthusiasm. The wide influence of conventions on the cause may be inferred from the statement that over five thousand were held in the United States in the year 188-3. The "institute,'' exhib- iting advanced methods of teaching and conduct- ing Sunday schools, has also been popular since 1865. This form of meeting had likewise been adopted in England for many years previous to that date. Out of these institutes and conven- tions have come the " summer assemblies," among the most noted of which is that of Chautauqua, conducted by the Rev. D'. H. Vincent, D.D., which has normal courses of study, lectures on teaching, a " literary and scientific circle " of about thirty- seven thousand members, and classes in Hebrew, Greek, and other languages. Organization. — The modern Sunday school com- monly has three departments, corresponding to three grades of instruction, — the primary or in- fant, the intermediate, and the advanced. In the intermediate grade the scholars are arranged in classes of from six to ten, with a teacher for each class: in the advanced grade the classes are some- what larger. In the infant department, until recent years, it was usual to have only one or two teachers for the entire department, even when it consisted of from one hundred to two hundred pupils. The class system is being more widely introduced into the infant or primaiy grade of the best schools in America. The entire school is in the charge of a superintendent, with an assistant, a secretary, treasurer, and a librarian : the latter gives out the books from the circulating libraiy in connection with the school, charging them to the teacher or scholar, and recording their return at each session. There are church and mission schools. Sunday schools are not in- tended to be a substitution. for, but a supplement to, family and pulpit instruction. Schools in con- nection with a church are sustained and directed by the church. Mission schools are often estab- lished by Christians of different denominations in neglected portions of the country and of large cities. Sunday schools in the United States hold one session each sabbath ; formerly many of them held two sessions. A few schools in the cities still hold two sessions, and this custom yet pre- vails widely in England. Modes of Instruction and Literature. — The schools founded by Raikes were chiefly for the lower classes in the community, who were igno- rant, and hence were taught the elementary branches of reading and writing, with oral instruc- tion in the Catechism. Reading, and memoriz- ing texts in the Bible, followed. Cramming the memory with large portions of Scripture and the Catechism seems to have been a hobby in Scot- land, England, and Amei'ica, for some time. Rev. J. Inglis states that children committed and re- peated seven hundred texts every week, until limited to two hundred per week; and R. G. Pardee asserts, that, in the opinion of New- York physicians, it developed a brain-disease in chil- dren. James Gall, by his End and Essence of Sabbath-school Teaching and his Nature's Normal School, aimed to introduce a more sensible lesson system in Scotland, which was also used in some schools in America as early as 1820. Stowe's training system, giving prominence to pictorial methods of instruction, also aided in reforming this excessive use of the memory. The reform in America was completed by the introduction of the Uniform Limited Lessons, prepared in 1825, and adopted by the American Sunday-school Union and its three hundred or four hundred auxiliaries in 1826. This scheme contemplated a five-year^' course of study for the whole Bible, — one and the same lesson for all, of from seven to fifteen verses, questions and comments in at least three grades, and reviews. It was national in its pur- pose. In 1829 Mr. Gall urged his lesson system upon teachers in England ; and in 1830 regular lessons were furnished, with notes for the use of teachers. Following the wide use of the Uniform Series of Lessons of 1826 to 1832 and the Union Question-Books, in many American schools teach- ers " appealed to the imagination, and resorted to stories and anecdotes." In 1840 the London Sunday-school Union issued a List of Lessons for general adoption, adding lesson notes in 1842, which it claims to have continued uninterruptedly till the present time, now using the International Series. Mimpriss's Graduated Simultaneous In- struction for Sunday Schools, founded on the gos- pel history, and issued in 1844, was an attempt to have one lesson for the whole school ; but it had only a limited use. In America, for a number of years previous to 1872, each school prepared its own scheme of lessons (if it used any), often un- satisfactory, insomuch that this method has been not inaptly termed the " Babel series " of lessons. Schemes of lessons for Sunday schools, with notes, were issued in the Sunday-school Teacher of Chicago, in 1865; and in 1867 B. F. Jacobs suggested uniform lessons anew. The desire for such a series increased, until in 1871 a meeting of Sunday-school publishers was held in New York, at the suggestion of the executive commit- tee of the National Sunday-school Convention, whioh agi^eed upon a tentative scheme of uniform lessons for 1872. At the Indianapolis conven- tion in that year, a lesson committee was ap- pointed to arrange a course of lessons for seven years, covering the whole Bible, and which was recommended for the use of Sundajr schools throughout the country. This committee was re-appointed and enlarged in 1878, and empow- ered by the convention to select another seven- years' course of Bible-lessons for use throughout the world. In 1875 the lessons were reported to be in use in America, Great Britain, most of the SUNDAY SCHOOLS. 2267 SUPERSTITION. unteies of Europe, in Syria, Hindostan, India, d China, m Mexico, Australia, and the Sand- ch Islands ; and in 1878 it was added, " United ble study has gained many new friends. Two :ge denominational publishing-houses which en (1875) stood aloof from us, are now with arty accord standing with us." Comments on ese lessons have multiplied like the leaves of B forest, publishers issuing notes, questions, d lesson-leaves, and even secular papers give jular weekly comments upon the Sunday-school ison. The most learned pastors, professors in lieges and seminaries, have contributed the re- Its of their ripest study and scholarship in expo- ion of these lessons ; and Christian publishers I with each other in securing the ablest scholar- ip, and producing the cheapest helps thereon, fferent series of Sunday-school lessons are in e in most of the schools connected with the lurch of England, and with the Protestant- )iscopal Church of the United States. When the modern Sunday-school movement gan, a century ago, juvenile religious literature 1 not exist. The Pilgrim's, Progress, Watts's vine and Moral Songs, a few catechisms and simi- books, comprised the religious works specially jpared for children at that day. The earliest techism in the English language was issued in iO ; one by Cranmer, in 1549 ; and a Short Cate- sm in Latin and Englisk,ia 1553; the Westminster techism, in 1647 ; and Watts's First and Second techisms, in 1729-30. Luther also issued his ;echisms in 1529. The early books of instruc- n in Sunday schools in England and Ireland re chiefly spelling-books and reading-books hav- ', portions of Scripture. Later, texts of Scrip- e on small cards, called "red and blue tickets," re given out as rewards to scholars, and also all books. Sometimes, as a reward, the teacher superintendent would loan books to a scholar read. Gradually a juvenile religious literatm-e s developed by the desire of Sunday scholars reading, and the circulating library in con- ition with each school was introduced, owing J'ely to the earlier work and issues of the lerican Sunday-school Union. It is impossible state the number of books, lesson-helps, and iodicals, now issued. Dr. John S. Hart in 1870 mated the number of publishing-houses and gious societies engaged in issuing Sunday- ool library books at not less than thirty-six, h a capital of $5,000,000 ; the whole number iurrent Sunday-school library books at 7,000, ! that the rate of issue for several years had eeded one a day, reaching 434 in 1868. The aber of books, periodicals, and lesson-helps for iday schools, has vastly increased in the last a,de by the introduction of the International on system and other improvements, and is so msive that it would be hopeless to attempt to ler statistics respecting them. Among the rep- ntative journals specially devoted to Sunday )ols, the foremost is The Sunday-school Times, America, edited by H. Clay Trumbull, D.D.; Sunday-school Chronicle, issued by the Lon- Union ; and the English Sunday-school Times, ch are weekly journals. The Sunday-school 'nal (Methodist), the Baptist Teacher, the West- iter Teacher, the Sunday-school World (Union), Church Sunday-school Magazine of London, the Wesleyan Sunday-school Magazine, and the Sabbalh-^chool Magazine of Glasgow, Scotland, are a few of the many helpful teachers' periodicals now issued. SUNDAY-SCHOOL STATISTICS OP THE "WORLD.i Based upon reports presented to the Raikes Centenary, London. ±,ng., 1880, and estimates for territory not represented, revised fprtlie united States and British-American Provinces, for Third Jiilernational Convention, Toronto, ISSi, further corrected for imi'^ S'offS, Germany, Holland, Smtzerland, etc., to Janu- CorNTKIES. Sunday Schools. Scholars, Teachers. Total Hember- ship. North America — United States . . 88,724 7,116,340 966,536 8,082,876 Cajiada . . . . 5,400 340,170 41,712 381,882 Ne-wfoundlaud . 240 16,160 1,200 17,360 Other portions . Europe — 600 26,000 2,500 27,500 England andWales, 3,800,000 422,222 4,222,222 Scotland .... 494,633 47,972 842,605 Ireland . . . - 320,920 30,175 351,095 Norway .... - 65,000 5,600 70,600 Sweden . . , 160,000 16,000 166,000 Denmark . . , - 46,000 4,000 49,000 Germany . . . 2,851 260,000 13,000 263,000 Holland .... 1,291 141,M0 3,800 146,440 Belgium .... 50 1,840 192 2,032 France .... 1,100 46,000 4,500 49,500 Switzerland . . 1,691 91,371 6,522 97,893 Italy 200 12,660 860 13,410 Spain 100 8,000 400 8,400 Portugal .... 30 2,000 100 2,100 Not enumerated above .... Asia — 15,000 1,000 16,000 Persia 68 3,000 272 3,272 Other poi-tious . - 36,000 1,500 36,500 Africa - 168,746 8,356 167,100 South America . . - 160,000 3,000 153,000 Oceania — Australia . . . 1,300 100,000 12,000 112,000 Tasmania . . . - 11,800 1,200 13,000 New Zealand . . 300 30,000 3,000 38,000 Hawaiian Islands, - 15,000 1,300 16,300 Other portions . Total .... V- 25,000 1,600 26,500 13,469,079 1,599,408 15,068,487 EDWIN W. BICE (Editor of the American Sunday-school Union). SUPEREROGATION. The doctrine of works of supererogation (opera supererogatorid) is based on the distinction between prcecepta and consilia evangelica. The former it is the duty of every man to obey, but the fulfilment of the latter estab- lishes a merit. The doctrine has never been an article of faith in the Koman-Catholic Church : the Council of Trent is silent upon the matter. But in the practice of the church it has played a most disastrous part as the true foundation of the doctrine of indulgences, which art. see. SUPERSTITION. The derivation of the Latin term superstitio is doubtful. Cicero can hardly be right when he says (De nat. deor., ii. 28), Qui iotos dies precabantur et immolabant, ut sui sihi liberi superstites essent, superstitiosos esse appellatos. Lac- tantius is also wrong when he says (Inst, div., iv. 28) those are called superstitious who revere the ^ This table does not include Sunday and parish schools of the Roman -Catholic or the Greek Church, nor is it in all cases complete for Protestant Sunday schools. The statistics for the United States were compiled by E. Paysou Porter, statis- tical secretary; International Convention ; for England and ^ Wales, by F. J. Hartley, statistical secretary, London Sunday- school Union ; for Holland, by Edwin W. Rice, from Zondag- schoot-Atmanak and reports of Free Reformed Church, 1881 ; for Germany and German Switzerland, by W. Brockelmann ; and, for other countries, by prominent Sunday-school authori- ties and missionaries. / SUPERSTITION. 2268 suso. memory the dead leave behind (superstitem), or ■who, having outlived their parents ( parentibus su- perstites), worship them in their homes as penates. The Greek term daaiSaifiuv is used both for true as vyell as errant religious devotion. It occurs only in the latter sense in the New Testament (Acts xvii. 22, xx-f. 19). [It may well be doubted whether this statement is correct. Paul would not offend and repel the Athenians by calling them "too superstitious;" but he rather compliments them for being " over-religious " in their groping after the " unknown God."] Superstition is always a false and erring faith. It is a misunderstanding of the bearing of su- pernatural forces upon the visible world, and of visible forces upon the supernatural world, and contradicts reason and revelation. Superstition always involves a supernatural element. It has often happened that men have combined great knowledge with superstition, which is also as much incident to unbelief as to an unreasoning belief. Voltaire, a man of much learning and of unbelief, was more than once deterred from following his inclinations by the fear which bad omens inspired. Robespierre, Napoleon, Jose- phine, and the Emperor Alexander, all alike con- sulted Marie Lenormand, [a French necromancer, who died June 25, 1843]. Our cultivated classes, who pride themselves upon their knowledge, have patronized spiritualistic seances more frequently than the masses have. Superstition has assumed as many forms as there have been false conceptions of the Deity, and its relation to the world. It has three phases when regarded as modifying the conception of the Deity. (1) It mixes up imperfect notions with true ones of God and his activity. From this point of view all non-Christian religions are superstitions. Fetichism is crass superstition. The dualistic systems of Asia are more intellec- tual, but no less supei'stitions. (2) Superstition has also represented fate as a force above or at the side of God. This idea is found almost every- where in heathenism, as a monotheistic element in the midst of polytheism. (3) Superstition has also placed at the side of God supernatural beings, good and bad, who are regarded as more or less dependent upon him. Ghosts, elves, dragons, witches, etc., belong to this class. Another class of superstitions is derived from man's faith that he possesses a certain magical power of influencing the Deity, fate, and the world of spirits. This is called magic, sorcery, witchcraft, etc. The belief in pilgrimages, the wonderful cures of Lourdes, the efficacy of the blood of St. Januarius, belong here. Days and signs are regarded as having a relation to fate. Friday is superstitiously held to be an unlucky day. The breaking of a glass, the falling of the bridal ring, the appearance of a comet, etc., are looked upon as unlucky omens. Sorcery is one of the products of the belief in fate. Superstition is, the product of an unregulated fancy, a deficiency of religious strength. It is immoral, and for that reason transforms Christian theism into polytheism, dualism, or spiritualism. It is the most dangerous despot of the human mind; asserting, as it does, full authority to over- ride the laws of sound thought. It has led to great cruelties and enormities. We need onlv recall the trials of so-called witches. Superstition,' however, is better than unbelief, although harder to cure. We agree with Jean Paul when he says, " I would rather be in the densest atmosphere of superstition than under the air-pump of unbelief. In the former case, one breathes with difficulty : in the latter, one is suffocated." EUD. HOFMANlf. SUPRALAPSARIANISM, a theory held by the strictest Calvinists, according to which God not only foresaw and permitted, but actually decreed, the fall of man, and overruled it for his redemp- tion ; it being supposed that nothing could hap- pen independently of the divine will. It is logi- cally the most consistent type of Calvinism, but borders on fatalism and pantheism, and hence was excluded from the Reformed Confessions, all of which deny emphatically that God is the author of sin. See Infralapsarianism and .Sublap- SARIANISM. SUPRANATURALISNI. See Rationalism, Religion, and Revelation. SURIUS, Laurentius, b. at Lubeck in 1522; d. at Cologne, May 23, 1578. He was educated in the Protestant faith, and studied at Frankfort- on-the-Oder and Cologne; but in the latter place he became acquainted with Canisius, embraced Romanism, and entered the Carthusian order in 1542. He was a prolific writer. In opposition to Sleidan's celebrated work on the Reformation, he wrote, a Commentarius brevis, etc., 1566 ; but the performance is rather weak : he accuses the Re- formers of having borrowed their doctrines from Mohammed. His best work is his Vilce Sanctorum ab Aloysio Lipomanno olim conscriptm, Cologne, 1570-76, 7 vols. fol. [often reprinted ; e.g., Mar- tius, vol. vi., 1877. "He was the first who used a sound criticism in narrating the lives of the saints." — Darling.] neddbckbe. SURPLICE (Latin, superpelliceum, "overgar- ment ") is a loose white linen garment, a modifi- cation of the alb, dating back to the end of the twelfth century. It is worn by clergymen of the Church of England during celebration of service, as also by clergymen of the Danish, Nor- wegian, and Swedish churches, but by them only during celebration of the Lord's Supper. SUSANNAH. See Apocrypha. SUSO, Heinrich, b. at Constance, March 21, 1300; d. at Ulm, Jan. 25, 1365. He was edu- cated in a Dominican monastery in his native city, studied theology at Cologne, and became an enthusiastic disciple of Eckart ; but, having more imagination and sentiment than true speculative talent, he gave his mysticism quite a different form, and became the representative of the poeti- cal mysticism of the middle ages. The idea never satisfied him until it assumed the form of personality, and became clothed with all loveli- ness and perfection. Thus arose before his eyes from the Solomonic writings the Eternal Wisdom, sometimes identified with Christ, and sometimes with the Virgin. In order to become the true servant of his ideal, he retired to the Dominican monastery where he was educated, devoted him- self to a life of severe asceticism, and wrote his book, Von der eioigen Weisheit, 1838. In 1340 he began to preach, stopped for several years in the monastery of Winterthur, and, later on, in a monastery in Ulm ; formed connections with Tauler, Heinrich from Nbrdlingen, the Friends SUTTEE. 2269 SWEDEN. of God ; founded brotherhoods, for which he wrote rules ; and called many individual converts back from the world. His collected works, which give no consistent system, most of the materials hav- ing been derived from other mystics, consist of three parts, — on the eternal wisdom, on the eter- nal truth, and a narrative of his own inner his- tory. They appeared at Augsburg in 1482 ; last ed. by Diepenbrock, Ratisbon, 1829 (2d ed., 1838). The book. Von den neun Felsen, often ascribed to Suso, is by Rulman Merswin. c. Schmidt. SUTTEE. See Brahmanism. SUTTON, Christopher, b. in Hampshire, Eng., 1565; entered Hart Hall, Oxford, 1582; soon trans- ferred to Lincoln, of which he proceeded M.A., 1589 ; held several livings, and was prebendary of Westminster, 1605, and of Lincoln, 1618; d. 1629. He was pious, eloquent, and admired. He wrote Disce mori {Learn to die), Lond., 1600, fre- quently reprinted (modern edition, with memoir, 1839, Oxford, 1850) ; Disce vivere (Learn to live), Lond., 1608 (modern edition, 1853) ; Godly med- itations upon the most holy sacrament of the Lord's supper, 1622, 13th ed., 1677 (modern edition, with preface by John Henry Newman, Oxford, 1844, again 1866). See sketch in Wood : Athen. Oxon., Bliss edition, vol. ii. pp. 456 sq. SWAIN, Joseph, a hymn-writer of marked talent ; was b. at Birmingham, 1761 ; and d. in London, April 14, 1796. He was originally ap- prenticed to an engraver. Removing to London, he was baptized by Dr. Rippon, 1783, and from June, 1791, was a successful Baptist minister. His Walworth Hymns, 1792, while abrupt and un- equal, are strong, fervid, spontaneous, and marked by frequent bursts of a really poetic imagination. They have been most extensively used by extreme Calvinists, but some of them may be found in almost every collection. F. M. bird. SWEDEN. Christianity was first preached in Sweden by Ansgar. No doubt the Swedes, like the Danes and the Norwegians, had long before that time become acquainted with Christia,nity on their commercial and piratical expeditions, but only in a vague and indefinite way. Ansgar made two voyages to the country, in 830 and 857. On his first visit he made Hergeir, one of the most distinguished men in the country, a zealous Christian; and by his aid a congregation was formed, and a chapel was built, at Birka. In 834 Gautbert was consecrated Bishop of Sweden, and went thither with his nephew Nithard. But even Hergeir's authority was not sufficient to keep the irritated heathens within bounds. They broke into Gautbert's house, and murdered Nithard. The chapel was destroyed, the bishop fled, and, when Hergeir soon after died, the cause of Chris- tianity seemed lost in Sweden. On his second visit Ansgar came with letters of recommendar tion from the emperor, with great pomp and costly presents ; and, having won the favor of the king, -he succeeded, at a great assembly of all the freemen of the people, in obtaining toleration for the Christian religion. Ansfried, a Christian Dane, was settled at Birka, the chapel rebuilt, and the congregation formed anew. In Sweden, however, as in Denmark, the real introduction and actual establishment of Christianity was efCected from England. It was the Anglo-Saxon Sieg- company, who, in the reign of Olaf Skotkonung (d. 1024), began the work of converting the Swe- dish people. It was completed during the reign of Eric the Saint (1150-60), when the first monas- teries — Alwastra, Nydala, and Wanihem — were founded. Originally Sweden belonged to the archiepiscopal see of Hamburg-Bremen; but in 1163 it obtained its own metropolitan (settled at Upsala), with the suffragan sees of Skara, Linkd- ping, Strengnas, Westeriis, Wexio, and Abo. In Sweden the Roman-Catholic Church struck deeper roots than in either of the other two Scan- dinavian countries, perhaps because the Swedes are a more imaginative and impulsive people, with ready enthusiasm for any thing grand and mag- nificent. Nevertheless, after the great political revolution in 1523, the Reformation worked its way among the people, without meeting any con- siderable opposition. Gustavus Vasa found the church in a miserable condition, and addressed himself to Pope Adrian VI. withcomplaints, and proposals of reform ; but he received no answer. He then undertook to reform the church himself ; and in the two brothers Olaus and Laurentius Petri, and their friend Lars Anderson, he found the fit instruments by which to work. The Swe- dish translation of the Bible appeared in 1526. At an assembly at Oerebro in 1529, all the reforms which had been introduced by the government on the advice of Luther were sanctioned by the Swedish clergy. Laurentius Petri was conse- crated the first evangelical bishop of Sweden. Under Eric XIV. (1560-68) the country was opened as an asylum for all persecuted Protes- tants. Very soon, however, controversies broke out between the Lutherans and the Reformed; and the Roman Catholics were not slow in avail- ing themselves of the opportunities of the situa- tion. Johan III. (1568-92) actually leaned towards Romanism. He restored the monasteries, and re-introduced images, prayers for the dead, and other Roman ceremonies. The Jesuit Antonio Possevino arrived in Sweden under the guise of an imperial ambassador, but in reality as a papal legate; and the king is said to have secretly but formally embraced Romanism. After his death the assembly of Upsala (1593) took the necessary precautions for the preservation of the Evangelical Church; but how long a Roman-Catholic party continued lingering in Sweden may be seen from the fact that Queen Christina, the daughter of Gustavus Adolphus, became a convert to Roman- ism, 1656. The protracted though never violent contest with Romanism had a double influence on the Swedish Church : on the one side it retained more of the hierarchical organization of the Church of Rome than either the Danish or the Norwegian Church, and on the other it also became more exclusive and intolerant. By the introduction of the Reformation the clergy did not lose their po- litical power : they continued to form the fourth estate of the diet of the realm until the revision of the constitution in 1865-66. And how this power was used may be inferred from the fact, that, down to 1860, the conversion from Luthei-- anism to any other denomination was punished with exile, and confiscation of property., Full re- liaious liberty, that is abolition of all connection S^dnrWlish anrSanrsrmonTs in his between civil. -ights and religious faith, wa.- not SWBDBNBORG. 2270 SWBDBNBORG. introduced until 1877. The consequences are, that, of the 4,578,901 inhabitants of Sweden (in 1879), only an insignificant percentage belongs to other denominations, while the internal state of the Lutheran Church in Sweden by no means can be pronounced healthy. In the present century wide- spread religious movements (the Readers, the fol- lowers of Eric Jansen, etc.) have occurred among the lower classes ; showing not the least trace of sectarianism, but giving ample evidence that the spiritual wants of the masses are not duly admin- istered to. They wanted no other theology than that developed by Lutheran orthodoxy, but they wanted more practical religion than that offered by the Swedish Church ; and it can hardly be doubted that the emigration, which of late has assumed such dimensions as to frighten the government, is caused as much by the barrenness of the Swedish church as by the poverty of the Swedish soil. It is also a significant fact, that during the last ten years the number of theological students has de- creased so much, that it has not always been pos- sible to provide every parish with a pastor. See Anjon : Svenska Kyrkereform. Hislorice, Upsala, 1840, and its continuation ; also the arts. Ansgar, Anderson, Petki, and the literature there given. Also A. Nicholson : Apostolical Succession in the Church of Sioeden, London, 1880; J. Weidling : Schwedische Geschichte im Zeilalter der Reforma- tion, Gotha, 1882 ; C. M. Butler : The Reformation in Sweden, New York, 1883. SWEDENBORG, Emanuel, was b. in Stock- holm, Sweden, on the 29th of January, 1688, and d. in London on the twenty-ninth day of March, 1772. His father's name was Jesper Swedberg; his mother's, Sarah Behm. He was well born. He descended from families of successful and opulent miners, and combined in his nature the energy, insight into the qualities of material sub- stances, and the practical good sense, which such an employment, followed from generation to generation, would tend to produce. But little is known of his mother. His father was a clergyman, who gradually rose to be chap- lain of the court, professor in the university of Upsal, and dean of its cathedral. Bishop of Skai-a, and superintendent of the Swedish churches in America, London, and Portugal. In 1719 the family of Bishop Swedberg was ennobled by Queen Ulrica Eleonora with the name of Sweden- borg, which entitled the family to seats in the diet, — a privilege which Swedenborg in due time enjoyed. Bishop Swedberg was simple in his habits, direct in his action, and courageous to attack evil and error wherever he found it, — in king or subject. He was a zealous reformer, a prolific writer, and constantly on the alert to cor- rect abuses, and provide improved methods of instruction. He was a sturdy, devout, wise, prac- tical man. Such was the parentage which had its influence in determining the mental and spir- itual qualities of Swedenborg. He was well educated. But little is known of his early life. The following account, written by himself, gives us a glimpse of the qualities and natural bent of his mind. " From my fourth to my tenth year," he says, " I was constantly occu- pied in thought upon God, salvation, and the spiritual experiences of men; and sometimes I revealed things at which my father and mother wondered, saying that angels must be speaking through me. From my sixth to my twelfth year I used to delight in conversing with clergymen about faith ; saying that the life of faith is love, and that the love which imparts life is love to the neighbor, also that God gives faith to every one, but only those receive it who practise that love." Nurtured by such a love, and penetrated by the influences of a pure home and a cultivated society, by which his native endowment became imbued with pure and true principles of life, he spent his early years. These influences and prin- ciples formed the groundwork and best part of his education. In 1709, at the age of twenty-one years, he graduated from the university of Upsal with the degree of doctor of philosophy. In the following year he set out on his travels, at that time an essential part of a young inan's education. His mind had now taken a strong bent towards math- ematics and the natural sciences, specially in their application to practical use. He sought access to every man in his power from whom he hoped to gain any knowledge upon his favorite studies. He declares that he has an "immod- erate desii'e " for his studies, especially for astron- omy and mathematics. But this was not an aimless desire, looking only to the gratification of his thirst foj' knowledge. He always, even in these early years, regarded knowledge as a means to a practical end. This was a dominant quality of his mind. He even turned his lodgings to use in gaining practical knowledge ; living with a watchmaker for a time, afterwards with a cabi- net-maker, and then with a mathematical-instru- ment maker, that he might learn from them arts which would be useful to him and to his country. But he did not let his thirst for knowledge absorb his whole thought and affection. When he found that his intense devotion to study prevented him from being as "sociable as is desirable and use- ful to him, and as his spirits were somewhat exhausted, he took refuge for a short time in poetry, that he might be somewhat refreshed by it, but with the intention of returning to his mathematics again, in which he intends to make more discoveries than any one else in his age." He now spent five years abroad ; passing his time in London, Holland, Paris, and Germany. Ilis mind was open to every phase of human life. He examined the customs, habits, and character of the people, and the influence of their institu- tions and industries upon them. He returned home with his mind enlarged and enriched with knowledge gained by observation, experience, and intercourse with learned men, and teeming with new inventions and plans for giving them a prac- tical test. In 1716, a year after his return from his travels, he was appointed by Charles XII., king of Swe- den, assessor extraordinary in the College of Mines. This office gave him " a seat and a voice in the college, whenever he was present, and especially whenever any business was brought forward per- taining to mechanics ; " though he was particularly directed in the royal commission " to attend PoU- heimer, the councillor of commerce, and to be of assistance to him in his engineering works and in carrying out his designs." This appointment brought him for a time into personal relations BWiUUiUNBORG. TZ'l\ SWEDBNBORG. with the king, who was fond of mathematics, and to whom Swedenborg rendered great service by constructing machines by means of which two galleys, five large boats, and a sloop were con- veyed overland a distance of fourteen miles. Swedenborg now devoted himself entirely to the duties of his office. These duties did not re- quu-e oversight of the practical workings of the mines so much as inquiry into the nature, of the elements the miners dealt with. He began to study the nature of heat and the constitution of matter. In the pursuit of this purpose he made several visits abroad, examined the mines and the methods of working them in other countries, and gained knowledge from every source to which he could get access that would throw light upon the subjects he was investigating, and be of any prac- tical value to his country. He continued m this office for more than thirty years, to the satisfaction of his countrymen and the interests of science. During this time he had wi-itten and published a great number of works, comprising all branches of science. A catalogue of his writings shows that he had written seventy-seven distinct trea- tises, some of them of a directly practical nature, others upon the profoundest subjects of scientific research, in the investigation of which he showed the most penetrating insight, and anticipated many of the important discoveries of modern times. Says a recent writer, " Among all the men who rose to eminence in any of the departments of natural science during his time, it would be difficult to name one whose labors in the different departments of applied science it would be more interesting or more profitable to dwell upon." After giving the titles of his scientific and literary works, he adds, " The ability to treat such a vari- ety of topics, and most of them, I may add, upon the authority of perfectly competent testimony, as no other man of his time could have treated them, is due to qualities of mind and character which have not received from his biographers the attention they merit. There was no kind of knowl- edge which could be made useful to his fellow- creatures that he thought it beneath him to master, or which he neglected an opportunity of mastering." * Having attained the highest rank among the scientists and philosophers of his time, and being in favor with the king and royal family and his countrymen, he laid aside his philosophical and scientific studies, and turned his attention wholly to questions of a spiritual and religious nature. The end he was seeking led directly to this result, though he reached it in a manner most unexpected to himself. He had been for some years in search of the soul, and had written four large octavo volumes, the first two of which were called the Economy of the Animal Kingdom, and the others, the Animal Kingdom, in which he describes his methods and their results. Before the last work came from the press, he had an experience which changed the direction and character of his studies for the rest of his life. After giving an account of his studies and works up to the present time, he says, " But all that I have thus far related I consider of little importance ; for it is far tran- scended by the circumstance that I have been called to a holy office by the Lord himself, who most mercifully appeared before me, his servant, in the year 1743, when he opened my sight into the spiritual world, and enabled me to converse with spirits and angels; in which state I have continued up to the present day. From that time I began to print and publish the various arcana that were seen by me, or revealed to me, concern- ing heaven and hell, the state of man after death, the true worship of God, the spiritual sense of the Word, and many other important matters conducive to salvation and wisdom." From this time until his death, a period of nearly thirty years, he devoted himself entirely to the new work committed to him. He resigned his office as assessor, discontinued his scientific studies, and turned his attention to those subjects which were necessary to the performance of his work. He learned Hebrew, and read the Word attentively and critically in its original lang-nages, and showed the same systematic diligence, and sincere devotion to truth, that he had exhibited in his scientific works. Though claiming special illumination and direction by the Lord, his writ- ings conclusively show.that his illumination was gradual, and subject to immutable spiritual laws. His theological works, devoted to an exposition of the spiritual meaning of, the Word, to the doctrines of spiritual truth derived from the Word so interpreted, and to what he claims to have seen and heard during his intromission into the spiritual world, comprise about thirty octavo volumes, and give the most ample means for test- ing the truth of his claims. To this test they must finally come. They cannot be established or destroyed by assertion or personal authoi-ity. They must stand or fall by the only infallible test, — their accordance with the immutable laws of the divine order. Whatever may be the result of this weighing in the balances of divine truth, with regard to his seership and his claim to be divinely commis- sioned to reveal new truth to men, the unpreju- diced mind can hardly fail to conclude that Swedenborg was in 'many respects the most re- markable man of his own or of any age. He had a peculiar genius, which amounted almost to intuition, for penetrating into the secret causes of natural phenomena, while at the same time he was faithful to facts and experience, which he followed as constant guides. He was an un- selfish and devout lover of the truth. Regarding it as the order of the divine wisdom, he valued it above all other possessions, and followed wherever it led. He was eminently practical, and valued truth for its use far more than for its beauty and possession. While a member of the Diet, and engaged in writing his religious works, he pre- pared some of the best papers that were pi-esented on finance, the currency, and other questions con- cerning the conduct of civil affairs. He saw the evils of intemperance, and proposed measures to prevent them. He was a welcome guest in the highest social circles; and, though absorbed in the great work which he believed had been com- mitted to his hands, he did not forget the children and those who served, with whom he was a gi-eat favorite. He was a sincere and devout Christian. Though living in a sceptical age, there is no evi- dence that he ever doubted the existence of a Supreme Being, and his direct control of human affairs: even his scientific works contain many SWIFT. 2272 SWITZERLAND. devout acknowledgments of his dependence upon hiiu for every faculty and every blessing of life. His nature was large, round, full, and complete. It is a significant fact, that at the present time, more than a oentui-y since his decease, his life and works, both scientific and religious, are receiving more attention than ever before. A brief state- ment of his theology can be found in the article on the New-Jerusalem Chukch. Lit. — J. J. Garth Wilkinson : Emanuel Swe- denborg, a Biography, London, 1849 ; William White : Stoedenborg, his Life and Writings, 1856, Philadelphia, 1866 ; R. L. Tafel : Documents concerning the Life and Character of Emanuel Swe- denborg, London ; Benjamin AVorcester : The Life and Mliasion of Emanuel Swedenborg, Boston, 1883 . CHAUNCEY GILES (New Church Minister) . SWIFT, Elisha Pope, D.D., b. at Williams- town, Mass., April 12, 1792 ; d. at Allegheny, Peun., 1865; grandson of Hon. Heman Swift, Revolutionary colonel, by fifth remove descended from John Eliot, "Apostle to the Indians; " con- verted at twenty ; graduated from Williams Col- lege with honor in 1813; studied theology at Princeton; licensed by New-Brunswick presbytery in 1816 ; ordained as foreign missionary, Sept. 3, 1817; preached and lectured for missions; no for- eign field opening, settled as pastor at Dover, Octo- ber, 1818, then at Pittsburgh, in Second Church, in 1819; during this pastorate served gratuitously in 1827-28 as professor in Western Theological Seminary; resigned in 1881 to become corre- sponding secretary of the Western Foreign Mis- sionary Society. From 1835 till his death he was pastor of First Church in Allegheny City. Dr. Swift was in character consecrated, impres- sively devotional, humble, transparently sincere, careless of man's applause, and sedulous to please God ; in mind, powerful, comprehensive, original ; in preaching, massive and effective, a " Webster " in the pulpit; in public spirit, eminent ; forward in educational zeal as a friend and a founder of the Western University and of the Western Theo- logical Seminary ; as a presbyter, always a leader. But foreign missions stirred him most deeply, and therein he accomplished his most remarkable work. He had the foresight to see the necessity of distinctive church-organization in giving the gospel to the world, the courage to plead for it in the face of opposition and misunderstanding, the organizing power to give it actual existence, and the mingled gentleness and force to secure the adoption and success of the principle with the least possible friction. The Western Missionary Society of 1831, an undertaking, under the circumstances, of moral sublimity, became, " as was intended at its very outset " [Dr. Swift], " the Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Church." Dr. Swift was the originator of the first, and is deservedly considered the father of the second. His compre- hension of missionary principles has never been surpassed ; and his writings are standards still for fervor, intelligence, insight, and the glowing con- fidence of faith. STLVESTEE F. SCOVEL. SWITHIN, St. (SWITHUN, SWITHUM), Bishop and patron of Winchester ; d. July 2, 862. He was of noble birth, educated in the Old Monas- tery, Winchester, where, after his ordination (830), he was made provost, or dean. Egbert, king of the West Saxons, committed his son and success- or, Ethelwolf, to his care, and availed himself of his counsels. Ethelwolf, on his accession, made him his minister, especially in ecclesiastical affairs, and in 852 procured his election to the see of Westminster. St. Swithin's Day is July 15 ; be- cause on that day, in 964, his relics were moved from the churchyard where he had been buried at his own request, so that his grave might be trodden on by passers by, to the Cathedral of Winchester. There is a saying, demonstrably erroneous, " If it rain on St. Swithin's Day, there wiU be rain, more or less, for forty succeeding days." See Butler: Lives of the Saints, July 15. SWITZERLAND. L Introduction of Chris, tianity, and Outline of Ecclesiastical Affairs to the Beginning of the Sixteenth Century. — In the middle of the third centuiy Christianity was established in Geneva by Bishops Parakodus and Dionysius of Vienne. From Geneva the new reli- gion spread to Wallis, and then to other parts of the land, the way for it, very likely, prepared by Roman Christian soldiers ; but its history is en- veloped in great darkness. By the sixth century this wave of Christianity, coming from France, had exhausted itself. Six bishoprics had, however, been established, — Geneva, Sitten, Lausanne, Chur, and Constance. Then came Columban and the monks of St. Gall, and evangelization was given a fresh start. • Christianity at length was everywhere embraced. It was, as elsewhere. Orien- tal in type. Monasticism was its highest devel- opment. Monasteries kept on multiplying; yet they were, with the exception of St. Gall, so far from being centres of learning, that, in the four- teenth century, no member of the one in Ziirioh knew how to write. But in 1460 the first Swiss university (Basel) was founded, and at once a change for the better set in. A printing-press was set up, first at Beromiinster (1470), and then at Basel and Geneva ; and an abbot of Einsiedeln, Albert of Bonstetten, wrote a history of the Bm-- gundian War, and described the Confederacy. The number of parishes and the might of the bishops had increased, likewise, yery greatly, since the eighth century. In 1228 the see of Lausanne embraced 301 parishes, and yielded the bishop 60,000 ducats annually. The see of Constance, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, em- braced 350 cloisters, 1,760 parishes, and 17,000 priests. The six Swiss bishops were princes of the Holy Roman Empire : the abbots of St. Gal- len, Einsiedlen, Pfaffers, Dissentis, and Muri were princes. The church was rich and splendid : but it was luxurious and lax, and not entirely able to carry out its plans ; on the contrary, everywhere was opposition to its politics and its doctrines. In the fight between Gregory VII. and Henry IV. Western Switzerland sided with the emperor. The clergy were forced to pay their taxes, like other people. Whole districts purchased their independence of the church. No attention was paid to interdicts, episcopal or papal. The Basel- ers in 1323 threw into the Rhine the Papal legate who would publish the ban among them. The sermons of Heinrich and Arnold of Brescia, full of intimation of religious changes, were listened to attentively. The ZUrichers in 1274, and again in 1331, set before their priests the alternative, either to lay down their ecclesiastical functions, or to leave the city. SWITZERLAND. 2273 SWITZERLAND. the end of the fifteenth century there were ising symptoms of the imminency of relief the intolerable burden of ecclesiastical crimi- j. Nevertheless, the church everywhere ex- id its wonted power over the majority of the e. The Waldenses had shown themselves 3 cantons of Bern and Freiburg in 1399, but quickly been suppressed. The councils of tance (1414-18) and Basel (1431-43) had shaken the pillars of the Papacy, not broken . The Swiss cities of Bern and Zurich re- i long indulgences in recognition of their fcy to the Pope. No serious attempts were by the clergy to stem the tide of wicked- The pulpit was dumb. But the light of ising sun of the new and better day was while gilding the snow-clad peaks of Swit- id. ! J. J. HOTTINGER : Helvetische Kirchenge- te, Zurich, 1708 ; Gelpke : KircJiengeschichte nhweiz, Bern, 1856 ; Dubois : Histoire des ori- el de I'etdblissement du Christianisme en Suisse, hatel, 1859 ; [G. F. Ochsenbein : Der In- '.on-prozess wirier die Waldenser zu Freiburg- . im J., IJfSO, Bern, 1881]. guder. The Period of the Reformation from 1519 >66. — In Switzerland as in Germany, the ■mation was carried through in consequence s capacity of its leaders, the readiness of the e, and the favorable political situation. The for his own ends, had loosened the Swiss ideracy; and this state of things wrought st the Papacy. The birthday of the Refor- m for Switzerland is April 13, 1525, when in h, under the guidance of Zwingli, who had 1519 preached Reformed doctrine, the first med Eucharist was celebrated. The next the canton of Ziirich was read out of the ideracy for its heresy. But this act of arro- stirred only the deeper the Swiss desire for y, and love for independence ; and the effort ise the religious question into a political borted. The Reformation before 1529 had d the day in all the German cantons. i this happy result had come about in no ashion. The Anabaptists had given no end juble. The seven Catholic cantons — Uri, jrz, Unterwalden, Zug, Luzern, Freiburg, and lurn — were arrayed against the Protestant; a May, 1529, Jacob Kaiser was for the Re- d faith burnt at the stake in Schwyz. [See TAHELIN : Die ersten Mdrtyrer d. evangel, ens in der Schioeiz, Heidelberg, 1883, 31 pp.] event made an immense sensation, and war d imminent, it was for a time averted ; but «1 it broke out, and on Oct. 12 Zwingli fell, 1 head of the Reformed combatants, in the ; at Cappel. An humiliating treaty of peace oncluded Nov. 16, 1531 ; and the future of eformed cantons was black enough. On !3, 1531, CEcolampadius died. The Reformed IS fell into mutual recriminations ; the Ana- its renewed their disturbances ; the latent ithy for the old religion dared express itself : he Reformation did not fail. BuUinger red as the worthy successor of Zwingli, and lius of CEcolampadius. In French Switzer- Farel labored for the cause; and on Aug. 27, Geneva abolished the Papal power. In 1536 red John Calvin, whose energy made Geneva the metropolis of the Reformed Church : by his side were Viret and Beza. The first authorita- tive symbol of the Reformed Church of Switzer- land was the Second Helvetic Confession (1536), the work of Bullinger ; and with its promulgation closes the period of the Swiss Reformation. See arts. Calvin, Farel, Reformation (pp. 2007, 2008), Zwingli, etc. Lit. — H. Bullinger (d. 1575) : Reformaiions- geschichte (to 1532), Frauenfeld, 1838-40, 3 vols. ; J. J. HoTTiNGER : Helvetische Kirchengeschichte, Ziirich, 1708-29, 4 vols. ; Ruchat : Histoire de la reformation de la Suisse, Geneva, 1727, 6 vols., new ed. by Vuilliemin, 1835-38, 7 vols. ; FiJssLiN ■ Beiirdge, Ziirich, 1741-53, 5 vols. ; Simler : Samm- lung alter und neuer Urkunden, ZUrich, 1760-67, 2 vols. ; Hottinger : Gesch. d. Schweiz. Kirchen- trennung, Ziirich, 1825-27, 2 vols. ; [A. L. Hermin- JARD : Correspondance des reformateurs dans les pays de langue franfaise, Geneva and Paris, 1866 sqq., 6th vol., 1883 ; Merle d'Aubigne : Hist, of the Reformation in the Time of Calvin, Eng. trans., N.Y., 1863-79, 8 vol§. ; Archivfur d. schioeizerische Reformationsgeschichte, ed. by Scherer-Bocoard, Fiala, and P. Bannwart, Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1869-75, 3 vols. ; T. Strickler : Actensammlung zur schtveizerischen Reformationsgeschichte in den Jahren ISSl-SS, im Anschlusse an die gleichzeitigen eidgenSssischen Abschiede, Ziirich, 1878-83, 5 vols.; Emil Egi,i:- Actensammlung zur Geschichte der Zilrcher Reformation in d. Jahren 1519-33, Ziirich, 1879 ; Berner Beitrage zur Geschichte der schwei- zerischen Reformationskirchen, von mehreren Heraus- gebern, Bern, 1883. See also J. C. Mokikoeek : Bilder aus d. kirchlichen Leben der Schweiz, Leip- zig, 1864, and Geschichte der evangelischen Flucht- linge in der Schweiz, 1876.] III. The Period from 1566 to the Present. — The conflict between Protestants and Roman Catholics, which in Germany lasted until 1648 (the Peace of Westphalia), in Switzerland ter- minated only in 1712 (the second battle of Vil- mergen). The Catholic re-action in the second half of the sixteenth century found its leader in Carlo Borromeo, archbishop of Milan, who intro- duced into Switzerland the Capuchins and Jesuits, founded the Swiss college in Milan, established a nunciate in Switzerland, and in 1583 entered into a plan to overthrow the Reformation there alto- gether. At length the two Confessions met in a decisive battle at Vilmergen, the result of which was a permanent peace. The great men on the Protestant side who in this period carried on the Reformation, were such as Bullinger, Peter Martyr Vermigli, Heidegger, the two Hottingers, the Buxtorfs, Wolfgang Mus- cnlus, Diodati, Spanheim, and Turretin. The Helvetic Consensus Formula of 1675, with its Cal- vinistic doctrine of predestination, and its Bux- torfian doctrine of the inspiration of vowel-points, is the symbolical performance of this period ; but after 1729 it ceased to have any authority. The nineteenth century brought an awakening of religious activity. Fresh troubles, however, broke out. In 1839 the call of David Friedrich Strauss to the university of Zurich led to a revo- lution. In 1845 the Vaud canton experienced a similar fate because the radicals arose against the call of Jesuits to teach theology in Luzern. It was really, however, a protest of the ungodly SWITZERLAND. 2274 SYLLABUS. against the progress of evangelical truth. In November, 1845, the Vaudese clergy left the Es- tablished Church, and formed the Free Church of the Vaud canton. (See Vaud, Free Church OP.) In the Roman-Catholic cantons, Ultramon- tanism grew apace until it received a severe blow from the Vaudese revolution. [In 1847-48 the Sonderhund, or union of the Roman-Catholic cantons of Switzerland, vigorously opposed the re- organization of the Diet in the interests of prog- ress ; but it was worsted, and the old regulation which forbade the establishment of Reformed congregations in Roman-Catholic cantons, and vice versa, was abrogated. Thus the defeat at Cappel was avenged.] Lit. — The Swiss Histories by Meyer v. Kno- NATJ, Vuilliemin, MtJLLER in the continuation by MouNARD ; L. Snell : Documentirte pragma- tisclie Erziildung d. neueren kirchlichen Verander- imffen in d. katholischen Schweiz bis 1830, Sursee, 183-3 ; Gelzer : Die Straussisclien ZerwUrfnisse in Zuriclt, Gotha, 1843. HERZOG. IV. The Present Religious Condition of Swit- zerland. — According to the census of Dec. 1, 1880 (reprinted in Appletons' Annual Cyclopcedia for 1882), the population of Switzerland was 2,846,102, of which 1,667,109 were Protestants (Reformed Church), 1,160,782 Roman Catholics, 10,838 of minor Christian sects, and 7,373 were Jews. Three cantons^ (Ziii'ich, Vaud, Sohaff- hausen) and a half canton (Appenzell Rhodes ext.) are Protestant ; six cantons (Zug, Luzern, Schwyz, Uri, Tecino, Valais) and three half-cantons (Ap- penzell Rhodes int., Unterwalden-Obwalden, Un- terwalden-Nidwalden) are Roman-Catholic ; and ten cantons (Neuchatel, Bern, Glarus, Thurgau, Orisons, Aargau, Geneva, St. Gallen, Freiburg, Solothurn) and two half-cantons (Bale-ville, Bale- camp) are mixed. The Protestants belong almost entirely to the IsTational Reformed Church of their canton. There are, however. Free Churches in Geneva, Vaud, and Neuchatel. The Lutheran Church has only a single congregation, at Geneva. Uri is the only canton in which there is no Prot- estant congregation. In German Switzerland are the three Protestant theological faculties of Basel, Bern, and Zurich; in French Switzerland, three National and three Free, — in Lausanne, Geneva, and Neuchatel respectively. The Roman-Catholic Church in Switzerland is divided into five dioceses, — Basel-Solothurn, Coii'e, St. Gallen, Lausanne-Freiburg, and Sion. The Roman-Catholic clergy are very numerous. Roman-Catholic parishes exist in every canton. The opponents to ultramontanism, as shown in the infallibility dogma, have since 1871 formed the "Christian Catholic" Church, which has one bishop, whose diocese embraces all Switzerland, and a theological faculty at Bern. They were excommunicated by the Pope. Their first laishop, Dr. Herzog (formerly a priest at Olten) was con- secrated by the Old-Catholic bishop of Germany (Dr. Reinkens) in 1876. Their number in 1877 amounted to about 73,000. See Old-Catholics. The details of church-life are regulated for each canton by local authority ; but the federal con- stitution of April 19, 1874, lays down certain 1 The remainder of this section is from the art. Suisse, by B. Vaucher, in Lichtenberger : Encyclopddie dea sciences religieuses, xi. 747-749. general principles, to which all the car required to conform. Absolute libertj science is secured to all. Parents and g have the sole right of regulating the reli struction of children less than sixteen y No one is requii-ed to pay taxes raisec support of a church to which he does no Free exercise of. religion is guaranteei within the limits compatible with order rality. The cantons are authorized to ta ures necessary to maintain peace betv different confessions, or to repress any ec cal infringement upon the rights of citizi disputes relative to the creation of religi gregations, and to schisms in existing c tions, are decided by the federal authorit new bishopric shall be established wit approbation of the Confederation. Th( and the affiliated orders, whether exercisi siastical or educational functions, are al forbidden to enter any canton, on the gro such orders threaten the peace of the sta founding of new convents and religious i forbidden. Lit. — Franscini : Neue Slatistik der 1846, 2 vols ; G. Finsler : Kirchliche Sta reformirten Schweiz, Zurich, 1875-77, 2 i schichte der theologisch- kirchlichen Eniwic der deutsch. reformirten Schweiz seit den i Jahren, 1881, 2d ed., same year ; B. Riggi Taschenbuch fiir die schweizerischen re Geistlichen, 1876 sqq. ; C. Gareis u. P» Staat und Kirche in d. Schweiz, Ziirich, 2 vols. ; Guder : Report on the Religious ( of Switzerland in the Proceedings of the General Conference of the Evangelical Allu in Basle, 1879, London, 1880. SYLLABUS, the Papal, is an index, logue, of eighty heresies condemned 1 Pius IX., Dec. 8, 1864, on the basis of se cyclical letters issued by the same pontif his long reign. Its full title is, A Syllt taining the Principal Errors of our Times, i noted in the Consistorial Allocutions, in the cals, and in other Apostolical Letters of c Holy Lord, Pope Pius IX. The number of was probably suggested by the work of Ep: against the eighty heresies of the first tl turies, which are mostly of a Gnostic cl The Papal document is purely negative, directly it teaches and enjoins the very of what it condemns as error. It is divi ten sections. The first condemns panthei uralism, and absolute rationalism; the moderate rationalism ; the third, indiffi and latitudinarianism ; the fourth, sooialii munism, secret societies, Bible societies, a " pests of this description ; " the fifth, en cerning the Church and her rights; th errors concerning civil society; the sev( rors of natural and Christian ethics; th( errors concerning Christian marriage; tl errors concerning the temporal power of t the tenth, errors of modern liberalism, the errors condemned are the principles and religious liberty, and the separation oi and State. The Syllabus indirectly ass infallibility of the Pope, the exclusive Romanism to recognition by the civil govt the unlawfulness of all non-Catholic r SYLLABUS. 2275 SYLVBSTRIANS. nplete independence of the Papal hierar- 6 power of the Roman Church to coerce Eorce, and its supreme control over public on, science, and literature. 11 be seen that the Syllabus condemns many which are likewise rejected by all good ants. At the same time it condemns, also, a,nt truths. It re-asserts all the extravagant of the mediaeval Papacy, and is a declara- war against modern civilization and prog- It is a glaring anachronism, t authority attaches to this document? al Newman, in his defence of the Syllabus ; Gladstone's attack, virtually denied its tic force, saying (Letter to the Duke of Nor- . 108), " We can no more accept the Sylla- defide, as a dogmatic document, than any adex or table of contents." But the Sylla- more than a mere index, and contains as iefinitions and judgments as titles. More- 18 Papal infallibility decree of 1870 makes cathedra or official utterances of the Pope tters of faith and discipline infallible. It ickwards as well as forwards : otherwise it be null and void (Si falsus in uno, falsus Ibus). The Syllabus is certainly an official ent, addressed to all the bishops of the ic world, and sent to them with a Papal cal. And herein lies its importance and ■. As a personal manifesto of the Pope, it be comparatively harmless and unheeded J of the Roman communion; but clothed nfaUible authority, and followed by the i of the Vatican Council, it provoked and ited the so-called Kuliwkampf in Germany, phlet war in England about its bearing on nd political allegiance, and led to serious ts between Church and State in Italy, Aus- :ussia, France, Belgium, and Brazil. Where 1 and State are united, there must be col- when both claim sovereignty, and the one infallible authority in addition. Even in uited States, where the government has g to do with the Church, the influence of llabus is felt in the legislation on marriage I public education, both of which have a • as well as a religious aspect. The State and exercises the right and duty of edu- the people for intelligent and useful citi- p ; while the Syllabus condemns all public ion which is not controlled by the teaching Roman Church, and stimulates the efforts priesthood to Romanize or to break up the schools, or, where neither can be done from )f power, to neutralize them by parochial 5 in which the doctrines and principles of and the Vatican are inculcated upon the generation. Time must show what will ultimate issue of this irrepressible con- — The text of the Syllabus in Acta et z Concilii Vaticani, Friburg, 1871 (Latin), ScHAFP: Creeds of Christendom, vol. ii. 5-233 (Latin and English). — Discussions. EK : La liberte religieuse et le Syllabus, Gene- ; W. E. Gladstone : Vatican Decrees in '.aring on Civil Allegiance, London and New 1875; Cardinal Manning: The Vatican 5 in their Bearing on Civil Allegiance (against 3ne), •London and New York, 1875 ; John Henry Newman (now cardinal) : Letter to the Duke of Norfolk on Occasion of Mr. Gladstone's Recent Expostulation, Lond. and New York, 1875 ; Gladstone : Vaticanism, an Answer to Reproofs and Replies, Lond. and N.Y., 1875, and his review of Speeches of Pope Pius IX., Lond. and N.Y., 1875. The three tracts of Gladstone were also published together in one volume under the title, Rome and the Newest Fashions in Religion, London, 1875, and in New York by the Hdrpers, together with the text of the Syllabus and a history of the Vatican Council. philip schaff. SYLVESTER is the name of three Popes. — Sylvester I. (314-335), of whom it is said that he baptized Constantme the Great, and received the famous donation from him, is a saint of the Roman-Catholic Church, and commemorated on Dec. 31. — Sylvester II. (999-1003), whose true name was Gerbert, descended from humble par- ents in Auvergne, but distinguished himself by his immense learning and brilliant accomplish- ments, and attracted general attention by his liberal views of the relation between the synods, the bishops, and the Pope. Otto II. chose him as tutor for his son, and made him abbot of Bobbio. Afterwards he taught in the school of Rheims, and was, on account of his knowledge of chemistry and physics, believed by simple people to have sold his soul to the Devil. He defended the deci-ees of the synod of Rheims (991), against Pope John XV., but was afterwards rec- onciled with the Pope, and made archbishop of Ravenna. When he ascended the Papal throne, he completely changed his views of the Papal power, and treated all cases occurring with su- preme authority. His literary remains, of which his letters are of special interest, have been edited by Masson, Duchesne, and others, last by Pertz. His life was written by Hock, Vienna, 1837; and Max BiJDiNGER, Cassel, 1851. — Sylvester III. was for three months the Antipope of Benedict IX. and Gregory VI., and was deposed by the synod of Sutri (1046). keudecker. SYLVESTER, Joshua, b. 1563; d. at Middle- burg in Holland, Sept. 28, 1618 ; was a member of the Company of Merchant Adventurers, and eminent as a linguist. His poems, mostly on sacred subjects, and translated from the French, occupy in the edition of 1620 some twelve hun- dred folio pages, and won him the epithet of " silver-tongued." Chief among them is Du Bar- tas, his Divine Weekes and Workes. According to Campbell, this " was among the most popular of our early translations," and has " beauties strangely intermixed with bathos and flatness." Charles Dunster, rector of Petworth, Sussex, pub- lished in 1800 Considerations on Milton's Early Reading, and the Prima Stamina of his Paradise Lost, maintaining that it was much indebted to Sylvester. f. m. bird. SYLVESTRIANS; a monastic order founded by Sylvester Gozzoloni (b. at Osimo in the States of the Church, 1170 ; in 1231 he founded a monas- tery on Monte Fano, and adopted the Bene- dictine rules, with some modifications, for the inmates). The order was confirmed by Innocent IV. in 1247. In 1662 it was united with that of Vallombrosa, but was again separated from it in 1681, and confirmed anew by Alexander VIII. in 1690. NEUDECKER. SYMBOL. 2276 SYNAGOGUES. SYMBOL (mn^okov, symbolum, literally, that which is thrown together) is properly a mark, badge, watchword, or test. It was first used in a theological sense by Cyprian, in his Epistle Ad Magnum (Ep. 76 or 69), in the year 250, but since the fourth century very generally. Originally it had reference to the Apostles' Creed as the bap- tismal confession, as a military watchword, dis- tinguishing Christians from all non-Christians, since they were- regarded as soldiers of Christ. Luther and Melanohthon first applied the word to Protestant creeds. Symbolical books are the symbols themselves. For a discussion of the nature of creeds and their distribution, see art. Ceeed. SYMBOLICS ti-eats of the origin, history, and contents of the various creeds of Christendom. It is comparative dogmatics. It was formerly known under the name of "Polemics," and " Controversial Theologj'," but is now treated in a more historical and ireuical spirit. In this modern form it may be said to have begun with Marheineke, who in 1810 published his Symholik. He was followed by Winer, with a comparative presentation of different authorized creeds (1824). Since his day much study has been given to the origin of different creeds, particularly to those of prime importance, e.g., the Apostles', the Nicene, the Athanasian ; and much light has been thrown upon the subject. The teachings of the Roman- Catholic Mohler, in his SymhoUk (1833), upon the contrasts between Roman Catholicism and Protes- tantism, wei'e met by Bam-, Nitzsch, and other Protestants. Among the most eminent scholars in this department may be mentioned Swainson, Lumby, Caspari, and SchafE. See the Litera- ture in the Creeds (N.Y., 1878, 3 vols.) by the last-named. Recent works in this department of study are G. F. Oehler : Lehrbuch d. SymhoUk, Tubingen, 1876 ; K. H. G. v. Sciieele: Theologisk Symbolik, Upsala, 1876 sqq., German translation, Gotha, 1880-81, 3 vols. ; B. AVendt : Symbolik der romisch-katholischen Kirche, (Jotha, 1880. SYMBOLUM APOSTOLIGUM. See Apos- tles' Creed. SYMMACHIANS was the name of a sect which lived in Rome, and taught that the human body was created, not by God, but by the Devil, and was consequently to be misused in every way possible. The origin of the sect is doulHful, — whether founded by that Symmachus who trans- lated the Old Testament into Greek, or by some other Symmachus. In the time of Augustine it was rapidly disappearing. See Contra Cresconi- um, i. 31 ; see also Philastkids : De Haresibiis, ed. Fabricius, Hamburg, 1721. neudeckee. SYMMACHUS, Pope, 498-514. After the death of Anastatius II., a double election took place ; the popular party in Rome electing the deacon Symmachus, the imperial the archpresbyter Lau- rentius. Theodoric, the king of the Ostrogoths, was called in as umpire, and decided in favor of Symmachus ; but it was several years before Laurentius finally yielded. At the synods of Rome (in 502, 503, and 504), Symmachus intro- duced various measures, limiting the participation of the laity in the Papal election and in the admin- istration of the property of the Papal see ; so, on the whole, his government tended towards the con- solidation of the Papal power. NEUDECKEE. SYMPHORIANUS, a Gallic martyr from the reign of Aurelian ; d. probably in 180. He was a native of Autun (Augtistodunum), and is de- scribed as a youth of distinguished appearance and excellent education. Having refused to do homage to the statue of Berefeynthia (Cybele), he was carried before the prefect Heraclius ; and as he continued repeating, "I am a Christian," and absolutely refused to make any concessions to the demands of the reigning Paganism, he was decapitated. He is commemorated on Aug. 22. See Acta Sanctorum, Aug. 22, and Ruinart : Acta prim. m.artyrum. GASS. SYMPHOROSA, a Christian widow, whose hus- band, a tribune, had suffered martyrdom. She was summoned before the Emperor Hadrian, and commanded to sacrifice, and partake in.the Pagan solemnities at the consecration of the new imperial palace at Tibur. As she refused, she and her seven sons were cruelly tortured and killed. They are commemorated on July 18. See Ada Sanc- torum, July 18, and Ruinart : Acta primorum marlyrum, who accepts the story as true, though it does not harmonize with what is else known of Hadrian. GASS. SYNAGOGUE, the Great, according to Jewish tradition, denotes the council first appointed, after the return of the Jews from the Babylonian cap- tivity, to re-organize the religious life, institutions, and literature of the people. Ezra, if he was not the originator of that council, certainly was its president. [Comp., against this view, Graetz, in Frankel's Monatssckrift, Leipzig, 1857, etc., pp. 31 sq., 61 sq.] This council consisted of a hun- dred and twenty men, who were not contemporar neous, but who are to be regarded as transmitters of tradition from Moses and Joshua down to the time of Simon the Just (q.v.), who, according to Pirke Aboth (i. 1), was the last surviving member. As to the work of the Great Synagogue, see the arts. Canon and Bible-Text (of the Old Tes- tament), and Scribes. The existence of the Great Synagogue [was first questioned by Richard Simon : Hist. Cril. du Vieux Test., lib. i. cap. ■ viii.]; then by Jacob Alting, who was followed by Rau : Diatribe de Synag. Magna [Traj. ad Rhen., 1726], pp. 42 sq. ; Aurivillius: De Synag. vulgo dicta Magna [ed. J. D. Michaelis, Gbttin- gen, 1790], De Wette, and others, who rejected it as one of the inventions of tradition, because it is not mentioned by Josephus, Philo, or the Seder Olam, and because the earliest record of it is in the tract of the Mishna entitled Pirke Aboth, which belongs to the second century of our era. On the other hand, scholars like Eichhorn {Ein- leitung, i. § 5), Bertholdt (Einleitmuj, i. pp. 66 sq.), Ewald (Gesch. Israel's, ii. 192), jost {GescldcUe der Israeliten, iii. pp. 43 sq.), Zunz (Oottesdienstl. Vortrage, p. 33), maiiitain that there is much his- torical truth underlying the tradition of a body of men, who, between the time when prophecy was about to die out and the Greek period, were leaders among the Jewish people, transmitted tra- dition, and made such provision for the spiritual welfare of the people, that the law of God again permeated their life. But the name " Great Syna- gogue " was probably first adopted some centuries later. Whether there were really a hundred and twenty men or not is difficult to say. We must not, however, identify the Gi-eat Synagogue with SYNAGOGUES OP THE JEWS. 2277 SYNAGOGUES OP THE JEWS, the Great Sanhedrin (q.v.), or take it as its original form, as does Schickard {De jure reg. Hehr., i. part 2), Witsius {Misc. diss, de synedr., § 28), J. Braun {Sel. Sacr., Amst., 1700, p. 595), Sachs, Herzfeld, Heidenheim. Lit. — Hartmann : Enge Verbindung d. Allen Teslamenls, pp. 120-166 ; Heidenheim, in Studien n. Kriliken, 1853, pp. 93 sq. ; [Graetz, in Fhank- el's Monalsschrift, 1857, pp. 31-37, 61-70) ; De- RENBOURG ; Histoire de la Palestine, pp. 29-40 ; FiJRST : Gesch. des Kanons, p. 22, note ; A. Kue- NEN : Over de mannen der groote Synagoge, Amster- dam, 1876 (reviewed by HoIIenberg, in Schurer's Theolog. Literaturzeilung, 1877, col. 100 sq.) ; Taylor: Sayings of the Jewish Fathers, Camb., 1877, pp. 124 sq. ; Drummond : The Jewish Mes- siah, London, 1877, pp. 162 sq.]. leyrer. SYNAGOGUES OF THE JEWS. I. Name, Origin, and Development of the Syna- gogue. — Synagogue (Greek, synagoge') is the name of those religious assemblies, which, during the post-exile period, existed first side by side with the sacrificial service in the temple, and which, after its existence, were substituted for it. Metonymically, synagogues denote also "places of assembly." After Israel had lost, not only its national independence, but also its iiational sanc- tuary, the Jews were anxious to preserve the unity in faith, doctrine, and life. To achieve this, regular assemblies were inaugurated on certain days, in the different places of Palestine where Jews lived, and where men of learning expound- ed the law. Thus, in all places where a certain number of Jews lived, synagogues were called into existence, which afterwards became the only bearer and banner of their nationality. Accord- ing to Jewish law, wherever ten Jews lived, a house of assembly was to be erected. At the time of Jesus, not only each city in Palestine, but also the cities of the diaspora, had each at least one synagogue. Of the many synagogues which were at Jerusalem, the temple synagogue was the most famous. IL Internal Arrangement, Worship, etc., OP the Synagogue. 1. The Building. — Tak- ing the temple as the prototype, and following the traditional explanation of words in Prov. i. 21 and Ez. ix. 9 ("to set up"), taken to mean that the voice of prayer is to be raised on heights, the Jewish canons decreed that synagogues are to be built upon the most elevated ground in the neighborhood, and that no house is to be allowed to overtop them. Failing of a commanding site, a tall pole rose from the roof to render it conspicu- ous. The building was commonly erected at the cost of the district : sometimes it was built by a rich Jew, or even, as in Luke vii. 5, by a friendly proselyte. The river-side outside the city was also deemed a suitable spot for building the syna- gogue; because, being removed from the noise of the city, the people could worship God without distraction, and at the same time have the use of pure water for immersions and other religious exercises. Often synagogues were erected near the tombs of famous rabbins or holy men. The congregation was divided — men on one side, women on the other — by a low partition, five or six feet high, running between them (Philo: De Vita ContempL, ii. 476). In modern synagogues the separation is made more complete by placing the women in low side-galleries, screened off by lattice-work (Leo Mutin: Be cerem. Jud., 10, 4). When the building was finished, it was set apart, as the temple had been, by a special prayer of dedication. From that time it had a consecrated character. No one was to pass through it as a short cut. Even if it ceased to be used, the build- ing was not to be applied to any base purpose, might not be turned, e.g., into a bath, a laundry, or a tannery. A scraper stood outside the door, that men might rid themselves, before they en- tered, of any thing that would be defiling. 2. Furniture. — In oldest times the people proba- bly stood in the synagogue (l^eh. vii. 5, 7), or sat upon the floor. But there were also armchairs, or seats of honor, for the elders of the synagogue, the doctors of the law, etc. (Matt, xxiii. 2, 6 ; Mark xii. 39 ; Luke xi. 43 ; Jas. ii. 2, 3). They were placed in front of the ark containing the law, or at the Jerusalem end ; and there distin- guished persons sat with their faces to the people, while the congi-egation stood facing both these honorable ones and the ark. Besides the rostrum or platform, capable of containing several persons (Neh. viii. 4, ix. 4), there was a reading-desk, on which the sacred scrolls were laid. These scrolls were wrapped in linen or silk wrappers, often adorned with letters or other ornaments of gold and silver, and were kept in the wooden chest, or ark, or sanctuary. In some synagogues there was also a second chest for the rolls of the prophets, and where damaged rolls were preserved. There were, moreover, a perpetual light, and lamps brought by the people, which were lighted at the beginning of the sabbath, i.e., on Friday evening. To the furniture also belonged alms-boxes at or near the door, also notice-boards, on which were written the names of offenders who had been put out of the synagogue. 3. Times of Worship. — Besides on sabbaths and festivals, the people also met on Monday and Thursday, which were the two market-days in the week. 4. Liturgy, or Order of Service. — (1) The pray- ers which took the place of the daily sacrifices were offered up also at those hours when the daily sacrifices were made. As on sabbaths and festivals additional sacrifices were offered besides the usual, so, likewise, additional prayers were added to the regular ones. The main part of the daily service was the Shema and the eighteen benedictions. The prayer was followed on the sabbath and festivals by (2) the reading of the section of the law, which was originally divided in a hundred and fifty-four sections, or parashi- yoth. After the section of the law (3), a section from the prophets, or Hapldarali, was read ; then came (4) the homily, exposition, or derasha. The seivice closed (5) with the benediction, to which the congregation responded by saying "Amen." III. Officers of the Synagogue. — The synagogues were governed by the elders (Luke vii. 3), who were presided over by the ruler of the synagogue (Matt. ix. 18; Mark v. 35; John vii. 48; Luke viii. 41 ; Acts xiii. 15), and constituted the local Sanhedrin. To give unity and harmony to the worship, one was delegated to go up before the ark to conduct divine service. He was called shaliach zibur, i.e., the legate of the congregation. There was also the chazzan, or sexton of the syna^ SYNCBLLUS. 2278 SYNCRETISM. gogue, who had the care of the furniture, to open the doors, to clean the synagogue, to light the lamps, etc. Other officers were the almoners, corre- sponding to the seven deacons (Acts vi. 1 sq.) ; and they had to be " men of honesty, wisdom, jus- tice, and have the confidence of the people." We must also mention the Ten Batlanim [or "Men of Leisure"], who were independent of business, because they had private means, or were stipendi- ai-ies of the congregation. They had to be pres- ent at all services, so that there might be no delay in beginning the service at the proper hours. Lit. —^ ViTRiNGA : De Synagoga Vetere, Frane- ker, 1696 ; Hartmann : Die enge Verbindung des Alien Testaments (ISai), 1)^.225-878 ; ZuNz: Die gottesdientlichen Vorlrage der Juden (1832), pp. 1-12, 329-360 ; Herzi-eld : Geschichte des Voltes Israel, iii. 129-137, 183-226; Jost: Geschichte des Judenthums, i. 168 sq.; [Keil, Handbuch der bibl. Archaologie, i. 152-154, 422 sq. ; De Wette : Lehrbuch der liebr.-jiid. Archaologie (4th ed., 1864), pp. 369-374; Hauskath: Zeitgeschichte,i. 71-75; Haneberg : Die religiosen Alterthilmer der Bibel (1869), pp. 349-355, 582-587 ; Brown: Antiquities of the Jews, i. 590 sq. ; Allen : Modern Judaism, ch. xix. ; ScHiJRER : Handb. der Neutestamentlichen Zeitgeschichte (1875), pp. 464 sq. See also Pri- DEAUX : An Historical Connection of the Old and New Testaments, London, 1716, 3 vols, (best edi- tion by Wheeler, last edition, 1876, 2 vols.), i. pp. 324-327; Pick: arts. "Shema" and "She- moneh Esreh," in McClintock and Strong's Cyclopcedia, s.v.]. LEYRER. SYNCELLUS (one who shares his cell with another) denotes, generally, the visitant of one of the higher ecclesiastical officers. The Patriarch of Constantinople had several syncelli, of whom the first (protosyncellus') at one time even ranked before the metropolitans. Syncelli were also known in the West. SYNCRETISM is a word of Greek origin, though of rare occurrence in ancient literature, referring to a saying about the Cretians, — that they were very much disposed to wage war against each other, but immediately made peace, and joined hands, when attacked by foreigners. It was brought into currency again by Erasmus (see his letter of April 22, 1519, to Melanchthon), and became quite commonly used by the Reformers, denoting, not exactly a compromise between dif- ferent tenets, but a union on the basis of such tenets as were common to both parties. (See ZwiNGLi: 0pp., ed. Schuler and Schulthess, vii. p. 390, and Butzer's letter to Zwingli of Feb. 6, 1531.) At first it was indifferently used, both in a good and in a bad sense ; but in the course of the sixteenth century the Roman Catholics, who wished to suppress Protestantism, but not to com- promise with it, and who feared more than any thing an agreement between the Lutherans and the Reformed, succeeded in giving to the appella- tion, "a syncretist," the meaning of a religion- monger; and that sense the word afterwards retained. During the seventeenth century its compass became somewhat circumscribed. First, all attempts at union between Roman Catholics and Protestants, then all attempts at union be- tween Lutherans and Reformed, were excluded ; and finally the word came to designate simply a principle within the pale of Lutheran theology, — the principle of moderation, expansion, develop- ment, in opposition to the principle of a stiff and stationary' orthodoxy Throughout the whole period of the Reforma- tion two opposite tendencies are discei'nible : one starting from the axiom that all truth is one, and consequently condemning toleration of different opinions as laxity; and the other moving along upon, the conviction that all true religion is love, and consequently striving after reconciliation and harmony. In the middle of the seventeenth cen- tury those two tendencies clashed against each other ; and the result was a sharp and bitter literary contest, known as the " Syncretistic Controversy." The situation is very vividly characterized by the decrees of the synod of Charenton (1631) and the criticism which those decrees called forth. Some French-Reformed congregations asked the synod whether Lutherans living among thein could be baptized, married, admitted to the Lord's Supper, etc., in their churches, without first ab- juring their specifically Lutheran tenets; and the synod answered in the affirmative. Then the Roman Catholics raised a huge cry, stigmatizing such indifference to religious divergences as mere atheism. (See Francis Veron : Methodes de trailer des controverses de religion, 1638.) The controversy proper, however, began a little later, and was carried on in another field. It broke out at the Colloquy of Thorn (1645), and raged till the death of Calixtus (1656). Renewed by the Colloquies of Cassel and Berlin (1661), it went on till the secular governments commanded silence (in 1669); and once more it finally burst forth during the last years of Calovius' life (1675-86). Considering the reciprocal hatred between the Lutherans and the Reformed among his subjects as a national calamity. King Ladislaus IV. of Poland arranged a religious disputation between the two parties at Thorn in 1645. As delegates from the evangelical churches of Germany were also invited, intrigues immediately began. The Saxon theologians, I'epresentatives of the strictest orthodoxy, were eager to prevent any theologian of the Helmstadt school, whose tendency was syncretistic, from being sent as a delegate to the colloquy ; and they succeeded. So, though Calixtus, the head of the school, was elected for Dantzig, they managed to have the election can- celled. He was present, however, at Thorn ; and he was seen to converse freely with the Reformed theologians, even to walk along with them in the streets, and to visit them in their "lodgings. Such a scandal could not, of course, be tolerated. The colloquy over, and no result arrived at, the Saxon theologians issued a memoir (Dec. 29, 1646), in which they accused the Helmstadt theologians of undermining the Lutheran Church by their nov- elties. Calixtus answered (Feb. 26, 1647), char- acterizing the accusation as an infamous calumny. The Saxon theologians now seized upon every, even the most insignificant, deviation of Calixtus from the traditional Lutheran system, and made the most possible out of it, shrewdly calculating, that, if they could prove him to be unsound, the inference would be irresistible that his modera- tion towards the Reformed was pernicious. They sent a hail-storm of attacks down upon him, — little tracts, and heavy quartos of sixteen hundred pages, Latin and German (Hulsemann : Dialysis SYNCRETISM. 2279 SYNERGISM. £ celebrating the feast, — " the place which the Lord shall choose" (xvi. 15). Zechariah (xiv. 16) insists upon its celebration, and Nehemiah (viii. 17) says the feast had not been celebrated since the days of Joshua as it was in his day. This notice cannot exclude, however, all celebration of the festival during the interval (1 Kings viii. 2 ; 2 Chron. vii. 8-10). The booths were erected in the streets, outside the walls of Jerusalem, and on the roofs. Joy and mirth prevailed in them. The main features of the public celebration were the sacrifices by day and the ilhimination at night. Four hundred and twenty-four priests were in attendance, to .serve those who brought sacrifices. Once every (lay the entire congTegation encon)passed the altar of burnt offerings, waving palm-branches. On the seventh day this was repeated seven times, in memory of Jericho. The branches mentioned in Lev. xxiii. 40 were tied into a bunch, and called lulabli. During the sacrifices the great Hallel (Ps. cxiii.-exviii.) was sung, and at the twenty-fourth verse of Ps. oxviii. every one shook his palm-branch a number of times. After the sacrifices the priestly blessing was- conferred. "Wine, and water from^ the brook of Siloam, were used for the drinlt-cffering, both morning and evening. One of the priests carried a cup of the water through the water-gate of the temple, when another priest took it, with the words, " With joy shall ye draw water out of the wells of salvation " (Isa. xii. 3). The priests and people took up the shout ; and the priest, going to the altar, mixed it with wine, and poured it out into a duct which led to the Kidron. The origin of this custom is unknown ; but it is very generally agreed that our Lord had reference to it when he said, "If any man thirst, let him come unto me, and drink" (John vii. 37). The words of John viii. 12 (" I am the light of the world ") seem to contain an allusion to the great illumination which took place on the evenings of the feast of tabernacles ; four golden lamps, or candelabra, in the court of the women, being illuminated. Upon the lighting of these lights, there followed dancing and proces- sions. The eighth day of the feast, a sabbath (Lev. xxiii. 39), had a special name, yom azereth, and marked the dismantling of the booths. The sev- enth day marked the culmination of the feast, and was undoubtedly " the great day of the feast," referred to in John vii. 37. W. pressel. TA'BOR (mount). This interesting and 're- markable mount in Palestine, at the boundai-y between Issachar and Zebulon (Josh. xix. 22 ; Judg. iv. 6, 12, 14), rises abruptly from the north- eastern arm of the plain of Esdraelon, and stands entirely insulated, except on the west, where a narrow ridge connects it with the hills of Nazareth. It presents to the eye, as seen from a distance, a beautiful appearance ; being so symmetrical in its proportions, and rounded off like a hemisphere, yet varying somewhat as viewed from different directions, being more conical when seen from the east or west. It is now called Jebel et-Tur. The body of the mountain consists of the peculiar limestone of the country. Mount Tabor lies about six or eight miles almost due east from Nazareth. The ascent is usually made on the west side, and it requires three-quarters of an hour, or an hour, to reach the top. The path is circuitous, and at times steep. The trees and bushes are generally so thick as to intercept the prospect ; but now and then the traveller, as he ascends, comes to an open spot which reveals to him a magnificent view of the plain. All round the top are the foundations of a thick wall built of large stones. The chief remains are upon the ledge of rocks on the south of the little basin, and especially towards its eastern end. The walls and traces of a fortress are seen here. Whilst now a little chapel stands here, where the priests from Nazareth perform divine service, in olden times the mountains had cities and a large population. Thus a city of Tabor is mentioned in the lists of 1 Chrou, vi. as a city of the Merarite Levites in the tribe of Zebulun (77). Mount Tabor makes a prominent figure ill ancient history. Here Barak assembled his forces against Sisera (Judg. iv. 6-15). The brothers of Gideon were murdered here by Zebah and Zalmunna (viii. 18, 19). In the year B.C. 218 Antiochus the Great got possession of Tabor by stratagem, and strengthened its fortifications. In the monastic ages Tabor, in consequence, partly, of a belief that it was the scene of the Saviour's transfiguration, was crowded with hermits (but there is no foundation for this tradition) ; partly because, according to Matt. xvii. 1, Mark ix. 2, Luke ix. 28, the transfiguration must have taken place on some high mountain near Cfesarea- Philippi; and partly because a fortified and inhab- ited place could hardly have been a proper place for such a scene. The crusaders again fortified the mount, at whose base the main street runs from Egypt to Damascus. In their time Mount Tabor was an archiepiscopal see belonging to the Patri- arch of Jerusalem. Tancred built there a mon- astery, and the Cluniacensians a monastery. But all was lost in the battle of Hattin, July 5, 1187. TABORITES. 2291 TAI-PING. The Saracens, under Saladin, destroyed the for- tresses ; and in 1283 Brocardes only found the re- mains of palaces, convents, and churches there. Lit. — Hasselquist: Reise, pp. 179 sq.; Light- foot : IIorcB Hebr. ad Marc, 9, 2 ; Reland : Pa- laslina, pp. 331 sq., 366, 599, 737 sq. ; Seetzen : Reisen, ii. 187 sq.; Burkhardt: Reisen in Syrien, ii. 579 sq. ; Von Schubert : Reise, iii. 175 sq. ; Russegger: Reise, iii. 129 sq., 213; Robinson: Biblical researches in Palestine, ii. 353 sq. ; Bit- ter: Erdkunde, xv. 1, 391 sq. ; Wilson: The Lands of the Bible, ii. 90, 114 ; Van de Velde : Memoir, p. 351 ; Roberts : La terre sainte, livr. ix. vign. 25; Kitto: Palest. (London, 1841), pp. XXXV. sq. ; [Hackett : Illustr. of Script., p. 304 ; Thomson : Land and Book, ii. 136 ; Porter : Handb., p. 401; Badeker: Palest., -p. 364; Ridga- WAT : The Lord's Land, p. 371 ; Schaff : Through Bible Lands, pp. 330-336]. RUETSCHI TABORITES. See Utraquists. TAD'MOR, mentioned only in 2 Chron. viii. 4, is undoubtedly the name of that ancient city which to the Greeks, Romans, and to modern Europe, is known by the name of Palmyra. In the . Chronicles the city is mentioned as having been built by Solomon after his conquest of Ha- math-zobah, and is named in conjunction with "all the store cities which he built in Hamath." It was probably built with the view of securing an interest in, and command over, the great caravan traffic from the East, similar to that which he had established in respect to the trade between Syria and Egypt. We do not again read of Tadmor in Scripture, nor is it likely that the Hebrews retained possession of it long after the death of Solomon. No other source acquaints us with the subsequent history of the place, till it re-appears in the account of Pliny {Hist. Nat., v. 24) as a considerable town, which, along with its territory, formed an independent state between the Roman and Parthian Empires. In the second century it seems to have been beautified by the Emperor Hadrian, as may be inferred from a statement of Stephanus of Byzantium, as to the name of the city having been changed to Hadrianopolis (" city of Hadrian "). Under Septimius Severus it be- came a Roman colony, and received the jus liali- cum; but it had a government of its own, and was ruled by its own laws. The most interesting period in the history of Tadmor is the time of Odenalhus and Zenobia. The Emperor Valerian being captured by the Persians, Odenathus, one of the citizens of Palmyra, revenged the wrongs of the fallen emperor,- and vindicated the majesty of Rome. He marched against the Persians, took the province of Mesopotamia, and defied Sapor beneath the waUs of Ctesiphon (A.D. 260). The services thus rendered to Rome were so great, that Odenathus w^s associated in the sovereignty with GaUienus (A.D. 264). He enjoyed his dignity but a short time, being murdered only three years afterwards. Zenobia, his widow, succeeded Ode- nathus as Queen of the East, and ruled the coun- try during a period of five years. In A.D. 271 the Emperor Aurelian turned his arms against her ; and having defeated her in a pitched battle near Antioch, and in another at Emesa, he drove her back upon her desert home. He then marched his veterans across the parched plains, and invest- ed Palmyra. Zenobia attempted, to escape, but I was captured, and brought back to the presence of the conqueror. She was taken to Rome, and there she was led along in front of the triumphant Aurelian. Palmyra, which was taken in A.D. 272, never recovered its former opulence. Twenty years later, under the reign of Diocletian, the walls of the city were rebuilt. It eventually became the seat of a bishop, but never recovered any importance. When the successors of Moham- med extended their conquests beyond the con- fines of Arabia, Palmyra became subject to the caliphs. From this period Palmyra seems to have gradually fallen into decay. Not once is it mentioned in the history of the crusades. In 1173 it was visited by Benjamin of Tudela, who found there a large Jewish population, besides Mohammedans- and Christians. It was again visited in 1751 by Wood and Dawkins. In our century many travellers have visited the place, and their descriptions are very valuable. A com- plete list of all travels till the year 1854 is given by Ritter, Erdkunde von Kleinasien, vol. viii. 2d division, 3d section, pp. 1432 sq. Lit. — Wood : The Ruins of Palmyra, London, 1753 ; Irby and Mangles : Travels in Egypt, etc., London, 1826 ; Addison : Damascus and Palmyra; Porter : Handbook for Syria and Palestine ; Cas- SAS, in his Voyage Pittoresque de la Syrie, tab. 24- 137; [Myers: Remains of Lost Empires ; Sketches of the Ruins of Palmyra, Ninereh, Babylon, and Persepolis, New York, 1875] ; the arts. " Palmyra," in Fault's Real-Encyklopadie, and in Ersch u. Gruber's. e. OSIAHDEE, Jun. TAI-PING {great peace), a Chinese religious sect established by Hung-Siu-Tsuen, b. in a little village thirty miles from Canton, 1813; d. at Nanking, July 19, 1862. While on a visit to Canton to attend the official examinations, he re- ceived from I. J. Roberts, an American mission- ai-y, a package of tracts in Chinese. Five years afterwards he fell sick, and had visions, in which an old man with a golden beard commanded him to destroy the demons (i.e., the idol-gods) of his eoimtrymen. He then fii'st read the tracts ; and associating the man in his visions with Christ, and catching tip several Christian ideas, he aban- doned the Chinese religion, and started forth val- iantly to preach his new faith. He retired to the mountains, and gathered by 1840 many converts, whom he styled " God-worshippers." He carried out his supposed commission, and destroyed some Buddhist idols. This brought him in conflict with the government, so' that he again retired to the mountains. In 1850 he started upon a new enterprise. The time was ripe for rebellion ; and he shrewdly proclaimed himself as sent by Heaven to drive out the Tartars, and set up a native Chi- nese dynasty. His standard was pushed victori- ously forward. Nanking was captured in 1852. The Tai-ping dynasty was founded, with himself as the first emperor, under the title Teen-Wang (" the heavenly king ") . The rebels would proba- bly have been able to carry out their plans, had they not been defeated by the English and French troops, acting in concert with the Chinese. When Nanking was taken, Siu-Tsuen burned himself and wives in his palace. Siu-Tsuen's religious views were a mixture of Christian and Chinese elements. He considered Christ the oldest of the sons of God, and himself TAIT. 2292 TALMUD. one of the younger. In his manifestoes he grouped God the Father, Jesus Christ, himself and his son, whom he styled the "Junior Lord," as the co-eqiial rulers of the universe. He adopted baptism, but rejected the Lord's Supper, allowed polygamy (he had himself a hundred and eighteen wives), punished adultery and opium-smoking with death. Cf. Holtzmaxx uxd Zoepffel : Lexikon fur Theologie, s.v. ; Encycl. Brit., 9th ed., vol. v. p. 652 ; McClintock and Stkoxg, vol. ii. p. 250. TAIT, Archibald Campbell, Archbishop of Can- terbury ; the son of Crauf urd Tait, Esq., a Scotch lawyer; was b. in Edinburgh, Dec. 22, 1811; d. at Croydon, Dec. o, 1882. After passing through the high school and academy of Edinburgh, he went in 1827 to Glasgow University, and in 1830 entered Balliol College, Oxford, graduating B.A. with first-class honors, and becoming fellow and tutor. He took a proiidnent part in opposing Tractarianism, and was one of the four tutors who entered a protest against Trad No. 90, written to show that a Roman Catholic might sign the Thirty-nine Articles. In 1842 he was appointed Dr. Arnold's successor at Rugby, administering the office with success. While at Rugby he mar- ried a daughter of Archdeacon Spooner. Mrs. Tait died Dec. 1, 1878. In 1850 Mr. Tait ac- cepted the deanery of Carlisle, and became well known as a hard-working parish clergyman. In 1856 he was appointed Bishop of London, as suc- cessor of Dr. Blomfield ; the immediate occasion of the appointment being, as it is supposed, the Queen's sympathy for him in the loss of five daughters by scarlet-fever. Bishop Tait initiated the scheme for raising a million pounds to meet the deficiency of church accommodation in Lon- don. In 1868 he was raised to the see of Canter- bury, he having before refused the archbishopric of York. Dr. Tait presided over the Pan-Angli- can synod at Lambeth, July, 1878. His only son died in 1878. Archbishop 'Tait was a representa- tive of Low-Church views, and managed with great courtesy and excellent judgment the con- flicting relations of the ritualists, and ecclesiastical law of England. He was a man of sound piety and practical common sense rather than of pre- endnent literary attainments. His relations to dissenting ecclesiastical bodies were friendly, as is witnessed by his letter to the Evangelical Alli- ance held in New York, 1873. Among his pub- lished writings are two volumes of Sermons, 1861 ; The Dangers and Safeguards of Modern Tlteolorjy, 1861 ; The Word of God and ike Ground of Fa'iih, 1863, 1864, 2 parts ; Some Thoughts on the Duties of the Church of England (a clerical charge), 1870; The Church of the Future (a clerical charge), 1880, etc. See Memorials of Catharine and Craufurd Tait, by Rev. "\V. Benham, London and New York, 18^80 ; A. C. Bickley : A Sketch of the Public Life of the Late Archbishop of Canterbury [A. C. Tait], London, 1883 ; Laud and Tait, by a ohui'ch- man, London, 1883. TALLIS, Thomas, b. about 1529 ; d. Nov. 2.5, 1585. He was organist of the Chapel Royal, under Queen Elizabeth, and has been styled the " father of English cathedral music." He published, with his pupil William Byrd, a collection of music for churches, which is still in use. TALMUD, written also THALMUD (from lamad, "to learn "),is the designation given by the Jews to their body of law not comprised in the Pentateuch. It was long forbidden to reduce it to writing ; and hence it bears the name of the oral law, to dis- tinguish it from the written law contained in the five books of Moses, of which it professes to be the guardian (hedge) and explanation. Accord- ing to the rabbis, tiie oral law was necessary from the beginning for the understanding of the writ- ten law, and was actually given to Moses by God. This latter point they attempt to prove by appeal- ing to Exod. xxiv. 12, where the Lord declares to Moses, " I will give thee tables of stone, and a law, and commandments which I have written ; that thou mayest teach them." Of these words we have in the Talmud (Berakhoth, fol. 5 a) this cu- rious exposition : " The tables are the ten com- mandments. The law is the written law. Tlie commandments is the Mishna. Which I have writ- ten means the prophets and Hagiographa. Ta teach them, means the Gemara. It teaches us that they were all given to Moses from Sinai." In this quotation, mention is made of the two parts- of which the Talmud is composed, — the Mishna and the Gemara. The former is the text, and the latter the commentary. The name Talmud is often restricted, especially by Jewish writers, to the Gemara. The compiler of the Mishna (from shanali, "to repeat," also "to learn ") was Rabbi Jehudah, surnamed Hak-kadosh, the Holy, and Hannasi, the Prince. He is often called simply rabbi by way of eminence. According to Jest, he died A.D. 219 or 220; according to others, shortly before the close of the second century. He undertook to sift and reduce to order the oral law. Such an attempt had been made before him, but he completed the work. He wrote noth- ing down, but arranged every thing in his mind. He twice subjected his compilation to a revision and correction. The doctors introduced as speak- ing in the Mishna are called Tanaim, from the Aramaic form of the root of Mishna. The Ta- naim profess to be the repeaters of tradition. The teachers of the oral law were first called scribes (Sopherim), next elders (Zelenim), next the wise (Chakhamim) ; after the destruction of Jerusalem, A.D. 70, Tanaim: after the compilation of the Mishna till the completion of the Gemara, Ajuo- raim, lit., speakers, interpreters. Comp. Jest's Gcschichte des Judenthums, ii. pp. 219 sq. The Mishna is divided into six books or orders (seddrim), entitled (1) Zeraim, seeds ; (2) Moed, festivals ; (3) Ndshim, women ; (4) Nezikim, dam- ages ; (5) Kodasliim, sacred things ; (6) Tolwroth, purifications. Under these six orders there are sixty-three treatises, which are again subdivided into chapters. After the completion of the official Mishna by Rabbi Jehudah, additional laws were collected by his successors : but they were not incorporated in the proper Mishna, but kept distinct from it ; and this is indicated by the designation given to these exti-a-Mishnaic laws, Baraitas, from the word bar or bara, which means without. There are also additions to the Mish- na, called Toseftas, collected during the third cen- tury. It was not till the year 550 A.D. that the Mishna was committed to writing (comp. Graetz: Gcschichte der Juden, iv. p. 494). The scribes, by setting up their 0)-al law, violated the strict in- junction not to add to the law of Moses (Deut. iv. 2). Traditional precepts additional to the TALMUD. 2293 TALMUD. written law were at an early date current in Israel. Isaiah complains of these human ordinances (Isa. xxix. 13) ; and our Lord charged the Pharisees with making the word of God of none effect by their traditions. The oral law, instead of secur- ing the observance of the written law, superseded it. Very significantly is it said in the Book Sohar, " The grave of Moses is the Mishna, and there- fore no man knoweth of his sepulchre unto this day." The Sadducees rejected the divine author- ity of the oral law ; and so do the Karaites, who arose in the eighth century, and who, though few in number, still exist as a distinct sect. The Mishna was not sufficient to satisfy the Jewish doctors. On its basis they formed the Gemara, a word meaning complement, or doctrine ; for it can bear both these significations. The Gemara exhibits the opinions and discussions of the wise men on the Mishna. There are two Gemaras, called the Jerusalemitic and the Babylonian, both expounding the same Mishnaic text. It was at Tiberias, near the close of the fourth century, that the redaction of what is commonly called the Jerusalemitic Talmud was finished. Hence its proper title should be, not the Talmud of Jerusalem, but the Palestinian or Western Tal- mud. Its compilation is often attributed to Rabbi Jochanan of Tiberias, who, however, only began the work, being the first of the Amoraim, or doc- tors of the Gemara. The Babylonian Talmud had for its chief com- piler Kabbi Ashe, head, till 427 A.D., of the school of Sura in Babylon ; but its completion was reserved for Rabbi Abina, who died in 498, and who is regarded as the last of the Gemaric doc- tors. The mass of ti-aditions ascribed falsely to Moses went on increasing from age to age by the addition of the sayings of later doctors; and thus, like a snowball, the longer it rolled, the greater the bulk of the conglomeration. It should be stated that only a portion of the treatises of the Mishna have their commentary in the Gemara. The Babylonian Talmud is much more highly esteemed by the Jews than the Jerusalemitic, and is about four times as large as the latter. It contains two thousand nine hundred and forty-seven leaves, or double that number of folio pages. Its paging in the various editions is kept uniform, to facilitate ref- erence. The ilishna is written, for the most part, in Hebrew in its later form, with a mixture of foreign words (Aramaic, Greek, and Latin). It is composed with extreme conciseness ; the aim in expression being to use the fewest words pos- sible, so as not to overburden the memory, when it was unlawful to write down the oral law. The language of the Gemara is a corrupt Chaldee or Aramaic. The Talmud is without vowel-points, and abounds in abbreviations. Delitzsch speci- fies brachylogy as characteristic of its style. Deuts'ch affirms, that, " in the whole realm of learning, there is scarcely a single branch of study to be compared for its difficulty to the Talmud." Lightfoot, in the preface to his Hone Hehraicce et Talmudicce, thus depicts the unattractiveness of the Talmudic writings : " The almost uncon- querable difficulty of the style, the frightful rough- ness of the language, and the amazing emptmess and sophistry of the matters handled, do torture, vex, and tire him that reads them. . . In no writers is greater or equal trifling." But he adds, " And yet in none is greater or so great benefit." And he maintains that Christians "may render them most iisefully serviceable to their studies, and most eminently tending to the intei-pretation of the New Testament." The Talmud treats of a vast variety of sub- jects. There are separate works on its civil and criminal law, its religious philosophy, its ethics, its psychology, its education, mathematics, medi- cine, magic, geography, zoology, botany, etc. Dr. Pick, in his article on the Talmud, referred to below, gives the titles of monographs on all these subjects. The Talmud is described by Disraeli, in his Genius of Judaism, as containing a " prodigious mass of contradictory opinions, an infinite number of casuistical cases, a logic of scholastic theology, some recondite wisdom and much rambling dotage, many puerile tales and Oriental fancies, ethics and sophisms, reasonings and unreasonings, subtle solutions, and maxims and riddles. Nothing in human life seems to have happened which these doctors have not per- plexed or provided against." It is not necessary to take much trouble to find in the Talmud places illustrating these charges. Wageuseil {Telea It/nea, p. 587) refers to tlie very first words of the Mishna to show the contradic- tory opinions which are brought together in the Talmud. It begins with the question regarding the time of evening prayer. The answer of the Mishna and Gemara to this simple question will be found in Pressel's article on the Talmud, in the first edition of Herzog's Real-EncyLiopadie. Those who have the patience to read it will admit til at it fully establishes the point for which Wagenseil made the reference. Two distinct cur- rents of teaching may be traced in the Talmud. These are denominated respectively Halakha and Haggadha. Halakha from lialakh, (" to go ") means the way which one ought to go, rule, authoritative precept. Haggadha is literally what is said, de- clared. It is hoiiiiletical teaching, intended to edify, console, or even to entertain, and combines instruction with parable and legend. The Tal- mud commends the stiidy of the oral law above that of the written word of God. " Attend, my son, to the words of the scribes rather than to the law of Moses" (Tract. Gittin., fol. 75 a). " He who goes from the Halakha to the written word has no more peace " (Tract. Chaffir/ah, fol. 10 a). A man is directed to divide his time into three parts, and to devote one-third of it to the written law, one-third to the Mishna, and one- third to the Gemara. And the man who trans- gresses the words of the scribes is pronounced worthy of death (Tract. Eruhin, 21 b). Such views of the Talmud are now discarded by the more enlightened Jews. But there has been of late a persistent attempt made by Jews, who own its human origin, to glorify the Talmud at the expense of the New Testament. Deutsch's cele- brated article, which appeared in The Quarterly Revieio, Londoir, October, 1867, is the best known essay of this kind in the English language. But it is only one of a considerable number of writ- ings having the same aim. Deutsch makes Chris- tianity to have appropriated the teaching of the Jewish doctors of the Mishnaic period, and " to have carried those golden germs, hidden in the TALMUD. 2294 TALMUD. schools and among the silent community of the learned, into the market of humanity." He would have us to regard even Paul's doctrine concerning faith as genuine Pharisaism ! " The faith of the heart — the dogma prominently dwelt upon by Paul — was a thing that stood much higher with the Pharisees than the outward law. It was a thing, they said, not to be commanded by any ordinance, yet was greater than all. 'Every thing,' is one of their adages, 'is in the hands of Heaven, save the fear of Heaven.'" How any one who had read Paul's writings could make faith in his system of doctrine identical with the simple fear of God may well excite astonishment. The adage which Deutsch quotes, and which is a rabbinical commonplace, is dia- metrically opposed to the great principle of sal- vation by grace, which Paul so strongly insisted on (comp. Eph. ii. 1-10), and contradicts the Old Testament, which expressly teaches that it is in the power of God to infuse his fear into the heart of man. " I will put my fear in their hearts," is a promise which the Lord has actually made. (Jer. xxxii. 40, comp. xxxi. 33 ; Ps. Ixxxvi. 11 ; Deut. XXX. 6). It is matter of debate whether or not the Tal- nmd sanctions the doctrine of original sin. Graetz and Deutsch deny that it does. But Jost (Gesch.