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 Library Bureau Cat. No. 1137 
 
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HAWAII AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 
 
 E. V. WILCOX, Special Agent in Charge 
 
 THE 
 
 GRAZING INDUSTRY 
 
 BY 
 
 E. V. WILCOX, 
 
 Special Agent_in_Charge 
 
 Cornell University Library 
 
 SB 193.H38 
 
 The grazing indus,r y cBy 1 Ly ill S < jSJ l i" 
 
 ■"1924 003 340 274 
 
 HONOLULU 
 
 Paradise of the Pacific Print 
 
 1911 
 

 f^/c^r 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 Introduction 5 
 
 Historical sketch of the public domain 6 
 
 General description of the present public lands 11 
 
 Topography. 
 Characteristics. 
 
 Grazing lands and grazing 17 
 
 Area and description 17 
 
 Range forage 21 
 
 Deterioration 22 
 
 Early opinions 23 
 
 Buffaloes 28 
 
 Wild horses 31 
 
 Prairie dogs 32 
 
 Locusts 32 
 
 Fires 33 
 
 Opinions on range forage 35 
 
 Arkansas country 37 
 
 Montana 37 
 
 The Platte country 39 
 
 Region of the Snake and Columbia Rivers 41 
 
 The Southwest 41 
 
 Utah and the Great Basin 43 
 
 Wyoming 44 
 
 Present conditions 45 
 
 The effects of overgrazing 49 
 
 Range improvement 58 
 
 Forest reserves 64 
 
 Cattle raising 67 
 
 Sheep raising 73 
 
 Other live stock 79 
 
 Relative increase and decrease in sheep and cattle raising. . 83 
 
 Range management 87 
 
 Future of the range industry , 8b 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of this book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003340274 
 
THE GRAZING INDUSTRY 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Of the -±,000,000 acres in the Territory about 1,600,000 
 acres are used for grazing. The grazing lands are thus of rela- 
 tively large importance in area. Moreover the quantity and 
 quality of live stock are advancing with the advance in prices of 
 meat and other animal products, and with the demands for bet- 
 ter quality of meat. In the early days of the live stock industry 
 animals brought such low prices as to preclude the possibility of 
 expending money economically in the improvement of ranches 
 and of the breeds of live stock. All these conditions have 
 changed. The demand is now for better quality, and more at- 
 tention must be given to the importation of fine sires. Then too 
 the increase of population makes additional demands for animal 
 products. More beef, mutton, pork and other products are need- 
 ed. The grazing lands are, therefore, assuming a greater impor- 
 tance than ever before. This brings about the necessity of using 
 grazing lands more economically, and of making them produce 
 to the fullest extent. 
 
 The utilization of the immense areas of grazing lands on the 
 mainland has taught some valuable lessons during the past cen- 
 tury. , It is believed that these lessons are of importance in the 
 best utilization of the grazing lands of the Territory. A com- 
 parison has therefore been made between the past and present 
 condition of the grazing lands of the range States. In this com- 
 parison all available literature has been searched to gain an idea 
 of the original condition of forage on the range, with special con- 
 sideration of the various factors which have had an influence 
 on the condition of range grasses, and on the preservation of the 
 range. The statements regarding the early conditions are com- 
 pared directly with what is known as to the present state of the 
 range. The writer has traveled over all of the western States in 
 investigating the range industry. The problems met by western 
 ranchmen are essentially the same as those which present them- 
 
6 
 
 selves to the ranchers of the Territory, and the application of 
 the experience of the western States can readily be made by the 
 individual rancher. 
 
 As in the western States so in this Territory the importance 
 of the forest cover of certain lands must be considered. Then 
 there are the dangers of overgrazing, the relative values of var- 
 ious grasses, the need of improving the range by the introduction 
 of new grasses and the wider use of known species, and the 
 necessity of raising more forage crops to supplement the natural 
 range and to- produce a better quality of meat. The grass cover 
 of the range must be carefully considered, for in Hawaii the 
 dangers from erosion by wind, and surface evaporation are 
 greatei than in any State on the mainland. Fortunately there 
 are no predacious wild animals in Hawaii, and sheep, therefore, 
 do not have to be herded. This fact increases the carrying ca- 
 pacity of the range lands, for sheep in open formation and 
 allowed to graze at will do not injure the range so much as when 
 they are closely herded. 
 
 The recent great improvement in the range industry of Ha- 
 waii is sufficient evidence of the progressiveness of the ranchers. 
 It is believed that the following discussion of the western ranges 
 from a historical standpoint will bring out several points of 
 interest to the ranchers of Hawaii. 
 
 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE PUBLIC DOMAIN. 
 
 The public domain, exclusive of our insular possessions, 
 originally embraced all of the United States west of Georgia, 
 North Carolina, Kentucky, West Virginia, and Pennsylvania. 
 The area of this tract was 1,855,780,427 acres. The title of 
 the Government of the United States to this land was acquired 
 through cession by States, purchase, treaty, conquest and settle- 
 ment. 
 
 The greater portion of the territory east of the Mississippi 
 and outside of the thirteen original States was claimed by these 
 States on the basis of grants from Great Britain. The States 
 thus concerned ceded this land to the general Government at 
 various dates between 1781 and 1802. The total area of State 
 cessions was 259,171,787 acres. 
 
On April 30, 1803, the Louisiana purchase was made by 
 treaty with France. This territory embraced the present States 
 of Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Nebraska, North and 
 South Dakota, Indian Territory, and parts of Kansas, Minne- 
 sota, Montana, Wyoming, and Colorado. The area thus added 
 to the public domain amounted to 565,166,080 acres and cost 
 $15,000,000. 
 
 By treaty with Spain, February 22, 1819, Florida was pur- 
 chased for $5,000,000. This purchase increased the public 
 domain by 44,639,360 acres. 
 
 On June 15, 1846, the Oregon boundary question was finally 
 settled by treaty with England. The "Oregon country" em- 
 braced all of Washington, Oregon, and Idaho, and those parts 
 of Montana and Wyoming which lie west of the continental di- 
 vide. The total area of this region was 191,795,200 acres. 
 This country was not included in the Louisiana Purchase. Our 
 claims to it as enumerated by Ross of the Oregon Boundary 
 Commission of 1824 were as follows: Discovery by Gray in 
 1792 ; exploration by Lewis and Clark in 1805 ; Astoria settle- 
 ment in 1811 ; and Florida treaty of 1819. By this treaty 
 Spain gave up all claim which she may have held regarding the 
 Northwest coast. Oregon was actually prevented from falling 
 into the hands of the English and was saved for the United 
 States by American settlers, aided and encouraged by Marcus 
 Whitman, Fremont, Senator Benton, Hall J. Kelley, Wyeth, 
 and others.* 
 
 A treaty with Mexico February 2, 1848, secured to the 
 United States California, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Colo- 
 rado, Arizona, and New Mexico. This territory embraced 
 334,443,520 acres and cost $15,000,000. By the Gadsden pur- 
 chase December 30, 1853, the Mesilla Valley in Arizona and 
 New Mexico was added to the public domain. This tract of 
 29,142,400 acres cost $10,000,000. 
 
 The State of Texas, when admitted into the Union, retained 
 control of its lands. The National domain was thus greatly 
 increased without any addition to the public domain. The 
 
 * Marcus Whitman and the Early Days of Oregon, by W. A. Mow- 
 ry, and The Louisiana Purchase, by Binger Hermann. 
 
8 
 
 United States, however, on September 9, 1850, purchased from 
 Texas 61,892,480 acres at a cost of $16,000,000. This^area 
 embraced parts of Kansas, Colorado, New Mexico, and the "pub- 
 lic land strip." 
 
 Alaska with an area of 369,529,600 acres was purchased 
 from Russia March 30, 1869, for $7,200,000. For various rea- 
 sons, however, Alaska is omitted from the present discussion of 
 the public lands. On account of the reservations of North Caro- 
 lina with regard to land claims in Tennessee the general Gov- 
 ernment relinquished all claim to public land in the latter State. 
 The actual public domain with which we have to deal in the 
 present discussion embraced therefore about 1,455,000,000 
 acres. 
 
 Congress has absolute control of the public lands and may 
 pass any needful regulations regarding their protection and 
 utilization until they are disposed of. Although the govern- 
 mental ownership of the public lands was complete, the idea of 
 making these lands comparable with the crown lands of Great 
 Britain was apparently never entertained. As soon as title was 
 obtained Congress began to dispose of the public lands to pri- 
 vate individuals and corporations. 
 
 The first plan for the disposal of the public lands was pro- 
 posed by Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury, in 
 1790. His report to the House of Representatives contained the 
 following suggestions : 
 
 "That in the formation of a plan for the disposition of the vacant 
 lands of the United States there appear to be two leading objects of 
 consideration; one, the facility of advantageous sales, according to 
 the probable course of purchases; the other, the accommodation of 
 individuals now inhabiting the western country, or who may hereafter 
 emigrate thither. The former, as an operation of finance, claims pri- 
 mary attention; the latter is important as it relates to the satisfaction 
 of the inhabitants of the western country. . . . Purchasers may be 
 contemplated in three classes; moneyed individuals and companies 
 who will buy to sell again; associations of persons who intend to make 
 settlements themselves; single persons or families 
 
 "A plan for the sale of the Western lands, while it may have due 
 regard for the last, should be calculated to obtain all the advantages 
 which may be derived from the two first classes." 
 
 Hamilton accordingly recommended that the lands be sold 
 in any quantities without limit and that convenient tracts be set 
 aside for location by settlers in quantities not to exceed 100 
 
acres to each person. Hamilton thus clearly foresaw the three 
 chief sources from which have come demands for the public 
 lands ; viz. : land speculators, settlement colonies, and home- 
 steaders. 
 
 During the first years of its existence the Government of 
 the United States needed money and the public lands were nat- 
 \irally looked to as an important source of revenue. In 1795 a 
 law was passed turning the proceeds from the sales of public 
 lands into a sinking fund for the redemption of the public debt. 
 In 1796 Congress provided for the sale of lands in Ohio in sec- 
 tions and quarter townships at $2 per acre. In 1800 a unit of 
 320 acres east of the Muskingum and 640 acres west of that 
 river was established, together with the system of disposition 
 through registers. The same act provided for the leasing of the 
 public domain in sections or half sections for a term not exceed- 
 ing seven years. Certain lands were offered for sale in tracts 
 of 160 acres. In 1820 Congress provided for the sale of 80-acre 
 lots of land at a minimum price of $1.25 per acre, with a 
 "double minimum" of $2.50. The various prices at which land 
 was sold between 1785 and 1880 were 12 1-2, 25, 50, 66 2-3, and 
 75 cents and $1.00, $1.25, and $2.50 per acre. 
 
 Between 1801 and 1841 sixteen preemption acts were 
 passed. The fundamental idea contained in these acts was to 
 give settlers preference over land speculators. This system in 
 its final form gave settlers the right to occupy public land in 
 areas of not more than 160 nor less than 40 acres, for a certain 
 period at the end of which they were required to pay $1.25 per 
 acre for the land. While according to the Preemption Act a 
 premium was set upon actual settlement, yet title to the land 
 could not be acquired except by purchase. The Preemption Act 
 is thus clearly distinguished from the Homestead Act, according 
 to which final title to the land can be obtained merely from a 
 residence of five years. The idea of holding the public lands 
 for revenue thus gave place to that of devoting them to the en- 
 couragement of settlement. The agitation for free homes for 
 settlers, however, did not assume a definite shape until' the form- 
 ulation of the platform of the Free Soil Democracy in 1852, the 
 12th plank of which read as follows : "That the public lands of 
 
10 
 
 the United States belong to the people, and should not be sold 
 to individuals nor granted to corporations, but should be held as 
 a sacred trust for the benefit of the people and should be granted 
 in limited quantities, free of cost, to landless settlers." 
 
 This proposition was kept constantly before the public until, 
 in 1862, the Homestead law was enacted. The idea of free 
 homes was thus realized. The Homestead law made possible the 
 acquisition of complete title to 160 acres of, land by a residence 
 of five years upon the selected location. A commutation clause 
 was subsequently added according to which the settler, at the 
 end of six months' residence on his claim, could at once secure 
 title by the payment of $1.25 per acre. 
 
 The Timber Culture Act, passed in 1873 and amended in 
 1874, enabled settlers to acquire title to 160 acres of land on 
 condition of growing a certain amount of timber. In 1875 an 
 act was passed permitting the sale of desert lands in California 
 in areas of 640 acres at the rate of $1.25 per acre. The "Desert 
 Land Act" was passed in 1877 and made to apply to the Da- 
 kotas, Montana, Idaho, Washington, Oregon, California, Wyo- 
 ming, Utah, Nevada, Arizona, and New Mexico. The unit of 
 sale was 640 acres and the settler was allowed three years in 
 which to get water on the land. Under this act the land cost 
 $1.25 per acre but residence was not necessary. 
 
 By utilizing the Preemption, Homestead, Timber Culture, 
 and Desert Land Acts it was possible for one person to secure 
 title to 1,120 acres of land; but the Desert Land unit was later 
 reduced to 320 acres and in 1891 the Preemption and Timber 
 Culture acts were repealed. 
 
 In addition to the agricultural acts mentioned above, vari- 
 ous other methods of disposal have been adopted from time to 
 time. In this way immense areas of the public lands have 
 passed out of the control of the Federal Government. From a 
 total of about 1,455,060,000 acres of actual public domain 
 more than 155,000,000 acres were granted to railroads to 
 assist in construction, 66,076,550 acres were given as bounties 
 for military and naval service and 190,000,000 acres were do- 
 nated to the States for the support of schools, land grant col- 
 leges, and other purposes. The total amount of public domain 
 
11 
 
 disposed of from its origin to 1883 was about 620,000,000 
 acres and since that date the disposal has ranged between 8,000,- 
 000 and 27,000,000 acres per annum. The present area of the 
 unappropriated public domain in the public land States and 
 Territories is about 400,000,000 acres, lying almost entirely 
 west of the Mississippi and Missouri and in the arid or semi- 
 arid region. The following discussion deals with the character- 
 istics and utilization of this remaining area of public lands. 
 
 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE PRESENT PUBLIC 
 
 LANDS. 
 
 Topography. The public lands which are still vacant lie al- 
 most entirely west of the 100th meridian. This area may be 
 conveniently subdivided into a number of large regions fairly 
 well defined by climate and physical features. For present 
 purposes the following regions will be recognized, viz; Great 
 Plains, Rocky Mountain Region, Great Basin, Southwest, and 
 Pacific Coast. 
 
 The Great Plains may be considered as including all terri- 
 tory between the 100th meridian and the foothills of the Rocky 
 Mountains. The western portion of North and South Dakota, 
 Nebraska, Kansas, and Oklahoma, and the eastern portion of 
 Montana, Wyoming, and Colorado lie in this region. In general 
 the Great Plains is a comparatively level tract, gradually in- 
 creasing in altitude toward the west. The northwestern part of 
 the area slopes northward while the remainder slopes south- 
 eastward. The chief agricultural industry of the Great Plains 
 is grazing. Dry farming is possible over large areas, but suc- 
 cessful farming without irrigation depends upon an average 
 rain fall. In dry years crops fail or make very poor yields. The 
 practical difficulties of obtaining water for irrigation from the 
 Missouri, Platte, Kansas, and Arkansas rivers are so great that 
 little can be expected from this source for years to come. Irri- 
 gation agriculture on the Great Plains is at present largely con- 
 fined to the valleys of small streams and areas watered by the 
 use of windmills, pumps, or artesian wells. The thorough 
 utilization of these means, however, will undoubtedly lead to 
 much greater development of the agricutural resources of this 
 
12 
 
 region. The soils are rich and the grazing excellent. The 
 grazing capacities of the range are not fully utilized at present 
 on account of lack of water at convenient intervals. The num- 
 ber of livestock can be considerably increased as soon as more 
 water is obtained by artesian wells or otherwise. 
 
 Characteristics. Except on the eastern border of the Great 
 Plains the average rainfall is less than 20 inches. At Dodge, 
 Kansas, the average precipitation for the years 1875-1898 in- 
 clusive, was 20.38 inches. Great variation, however, was no- 
 ticed during this period, ranging from 11 to 33 inches. While a 
 rainfall of 33 inches is quite adequate for farming purposes a 
 precipitation of 11 inches is insufficient. The rainfall of the 
 Great Plains is advantageously distributed inasmuch as the 
 largest monthly precipitation occurs from May to July. The 
 summer rains, however, are of an erratic character. They are 
 likely to be of too great violence and to occur at irregular in- 
 tervals with intervening periods of drouth. The central portion 
 of the Great Plains is more subject to violent rains than the 
 northern part, where the precipitation, although somewhat less, 
 is gentle and of longer duration. As summarized by W. D. 
 Johnson* the chief climatic disadvantages of the central portion 
 of this region are violent summer rains, considerable annual vari- 
 ation in amount of rainfall, high normal summer temperature, 
 relatively low humidity, prevalence of drying winds and con- 
 sequent high rate of evaporation. These deficiencies of climate 
 are, however, of much less weight in stockraising than in other 
 agricultural operations, and stock growing can be much extend- 
 ed by creating an artificial supply of drinking water for the 
 stock. 
 
 The Great Basin includes nearly the whole State of Xevada 
 and parts of California, Utah, Wyoming, and Oregon. As a 
 natural drainage area it is distinguished by the fact that no 
 water flows from it into the sea. The total area of this resrion 
 is about 217,000 square miles. The chief rivers of Xevada are 
 the Carson, Humbolt, Truckee, and Walker. Their waters are 
 lost in the soil, by evaporation or in marshy lakes. The other 
 
 Part 
 
 •*tIv e p H 6 S 7 h 8. PIainS and Th6ir UUllMtton - lT - S. G. S. 2Vst Rpt. 
 
13 
 
 important rivers of the Great Basin lie in Utah and are the 
 Jordan. Bear. Ogden, Weber, Provo.Sevier. The ground rises 
 from about sea level in the southwest corner of the Great Basin 
 to an altitude of 5,000 feet in central Xevada, and that is about 
 the general level of the region. Xorth of the Humboldt the 
 altitude is greater, while some valleys, like that of the Great 
 Salt Lake, are lower. There are certain depressions, notably 
 Death Valley, below the level of the sea. There is considerable 
 uniformity in the general appearance of the Great Basin. The 
 country is interrupted at frequent intervals by short mountain 
 ranges of volcanic origin, their average height above the general 
 level being from 1.000 to 4.000 feet. Most of the streams and 
 lakes become dry every year. 
 
 The total area under irrigation in Xevada is about 505,000 
 acres, while in that part of Utah which lies in the Great Basin 
 nearly 564.000 acres are irrigated. The drainage areas are 
 comparatively small and quite independent. There are several 
 exceedingly barren areas called deserts. The most important 
 of these are Great Salt Lake. Carson. Mojave, Colorado, Esea- 
 lente. Sevier, Amargosa, and Kalston deserts. 
 
 The annual precipitation of the Great Basin varies from 6 
 inches in some of the most arid valleys of Xevada to 30 or 40 
 inches on the bordering mountains. At Salt Lake City the an- 
 nual rainfall ranges from 10 to 28 inches. Throughout the 
 Great Basin dry farming is of limited extent and grazing must 
 constitute the chief agricultural industry of the region. The 
 further extension of irrigation in the Great Basin seems to de- 
 pend largely on the construction of suitable reservoirs. In the 
 well-watered parts of Utah, however, the Mormons have develop- 
 ed a highly perfected system of irrigation. 
 
 The term "Southwest" is here used to include Xew Mexico, 
 Arizona, and southern California. This region is characterized 
 by its semitropical climate and great aridity. The soils are 
 fertile except where alkali prevails. In the lower valleys tro- 
 pical fruits may be raised with good success, while on the higher 
 bench lands and foothills conditions are found for the cultivation 
 of the crops of temperate climates. 
 
 This region is drained by four large river, the Pecos, Kio 
 
14 
 
 Grande, Gila, and Colorado, with their numerous tributaries. 
 The northern part of Arizona has an altitude of about 6,000 
 feet. The surface is irregular and the rivers run in deep can- 
 yons. The agricultural possibilities are therefore not so great as 
 in the southern part of the territory. From an agricultural 
 standpoint the most important valley of southern Arizona is 
 that of Salt Eiver. In southern California all available water 
 from the surface and from wells is utilized in the production of 
 a great profusion of citrus and other semitropical fruits as well 
 as other crops. The productiveness of the soil is very great, and 
 land values and water rates correspondingly high. 
 
 New Mexico exhibits a gradual slope from an altitude of 
 7,000 feet on the north to 3,500 on the south. The general 
 direction of the mountains, valleys, and streams is from north 
 to south. The annual precipitation ranges in different parts of 
 the Territory from 2 to 24 inches and the mean annual temper- 
 ature from 48° to 61° F. The grazing grounds of the South- 
 west extend from the high valleys and mesas to an altitude of 
 10,000 feet. The raising of sheep has been found to be parti- 
 cularly profitable on account of the favorable climatic and 
 grazing conditions. The waters of the Eio Grande, Pecos, 
 and Canadian are utilized almost to their fullest extent for irri- 
 gation but the extensive construction of artesian wells has added 
 greatly to the irrigated area. 
 
 The Eocky Mountain Eegion may be taken as including 
 Idaho, the western part of Montana, Wyoming, and Colorado, 
 and the eastern part of Utah, Oregon, and Washington. The 
 region as a whole consists of high valleys and basins of various 
 sizes interrupted by mountain ranges. The general level is com- 
 paratively high, the valleys being from 8,000 to 7,000 feet and 
 mountains from 8,000 to 13,000 feet in altitude. The dome of 
 the region is in northwestern Wyoming from which the country 
 slopes in all directions and from which flow the sources of the 
 chief rivers of the West, viz ; Missouri, Yellowstone, Colorado, 
 and Columbia. 
 
 In general this region may be said to be abundantly watered. 
 Numerous small streams from springs or melting snow furnish 
 a perennial supply of water for irrigation. In some localities 
 
15 
 
 the supply has been fully utilized for irrigation while in -icier? 
 there are large quantities still unappropriated. The annual pre- 
 cipitation in The valley- and basins is usually under i'O inches, 
 while on the nigh mountains it is much srreater. This is particu- 
 larly true for central Colorado, easTern Utah, northern Idaho, 
 and northwetsem Montana. 
 
 The soils of the valleys and basins are deep and highly pro- 
 ductive except in alkali regions. In some valleys the rich soil 
 extends downward to a depth of 50 to 75 feet without any pro- 
 nounced change. On such soils and on The foot nil' s and lower 
 mountain slopes crops obtain moisture by capillary action and 
 seepage, and dry farming has yielded satisfactory results. 
 Within the limits of this region the following areas are under 
 irrigation: In Colorado. 1.600.000 acres : in Utah, 66.000 acres : 
 in Wyoming, 600.000 acres ; in Montana. 950.000 are- ; in 
 Idaho 600.000 acres: in Oregon, 3-0.000 acre-: and in Wash- 
 ington, 135,000 acres. 
 
 The chief crops of this region are wheat, barley, oats, alfalfa, 
 and other forage crops, sugar beets, and other toot crops, together 
 with the various hardy orchard and small fruits. As in other 
 parts oi the arid region, however, grazing is the most important 
 agricultural industry. The ranges of the Rocky Mountain State- 
 are subject to more severe winter weather and deeper snowfall 
 than in the Great Basin or Southwest. The native forage, 
 however, is superior in quality and quantity and the range has 
 not suffered to the same extent from evergrazing. The ranstes 
 of the SottThtvest and Great Basin famish perhaps the i:-est 
 breeding grounds for stock, while the Great P.ains and the 
 Rocky Mountain Region furnish the best grazing. 
 
 The Pacific Coast Region as used in this connection includes 
 northern California and western Oregon and Washington. This 
 is not an arid region. In fact the annual precipitation ranges 
 from 80 to 70 inches. Little attention is paid to irrigation ex- 
 cept in parts of California and in the southwestern corner of 
 Oregon. The region is devoted to diversified agriculture, horti- 
 culture, dairying, and grazing. It is quite heavily timbered 
 and the public lands have been largely disposed of. 
 
 The future improvement and utilization of the vacant public 
 
16 
 
 lands is an economic problem of national importance. The first 
 question which arises in the minds of most persons in discussing 
 this problem relates to the purpose and extent to which the pre- 
 sent public lands can be utilized. It is generally admitted that 
 they constitute a national resources of great value. The flagrant 
 abuses of the federal land laws have called attention to the ne- 
 cessity of changes in the laws regulating the disposition of the 
 public domain. A quite unusual interest in the vacant lands of 
 the arid States has thus been awakened throughout the United 
 States. 
 
 This interest manifests itself in the opposed positions assum- 
 ed by writers on the subject. On the one hand it is argued that 
 no changes should be made in the land laws, that the Government 
 should not take active part in the development of the West but 
 that these problems should be. left for private enterprise. On 
 the other hand, we have the advocates of changes in the land 
 laws, and federal aid in the agricultural development of the 
 West. The latter view took definite shape in the passage of the 
 reclamation act. 
 
 The future development of the Western country will evident- 
 ly depend greatly upon the better untilization of the public 
 lands. This work should not be undertaken, however, without 
 a thorough understanding of its natural limitations. The rain- 
 fall of the arid region is inadequate for farming purposes except 
 on limited yreas favorably located. The greater part of such 
 land is already ocupied for dry farming. While the annual 
 precipitation varies in periodic cycles of 10 or 15 years, there 
 is no evidence that it will ever become permanently greater. 
 Agriculture, therefore, depends upon irrigation. The supply of 
 water available for irrigation naturally varies with the flow of 
 the streams, but it is everywhere limited. In many localities 
 the present supply is fully utilized and any further increase 
 must depend upon the construction of reservoirs. Finally, it 
 should be remembered that only a small percentage of the public 
 lands can ever be reclaimed for agricultural purposes. There 
 are some areas of almost absolute desert with no available water. 
 The main mountain ranges are covered with forests or are mere 
 masses of rock interrupted with mountain meadows. The latter 
 
are a* a rule ? o high that monthly frosts occur and agriculture 
 is impossible. A^ide from the large areas which can not be 
 utilized for any agricultural purposes whatever, there is only a 
 small proportion of the remainder which is available for any 
 purpose except grazing. When we read that there are 60,000.- 
 ».'00 acres of vacant public land in Xevada it dc-es not mean that 
 this area could be divided into 600,00(1 farms of 100 acres 
 each. On the contrary, probably not more than 2 per cent can be 
 reclaimed for far ming . At present, less than 1 per cent of the 
 total area of Xevada is improved land. The amount of im- 
 proved land in Xew Mexico is .42 per cent, in Wyoming, 1.3 in 
 Idaho 2.6 per cent, and in Colorado, 3.4 per cent of the total 
 area. 
 
 These well known facts are mentioned not for the purpose of 
 discouraging the settlement and development of the West but in 
 order to place the problem upon a firm foundation and to count- 
 eract exaggerated statements which have been made regarding 
 the possibilities of agricultural development in the arid region. 
 As irrigation communities increase in size and compactness, 
 land \ alues will rise. More elaborate irrigation enterprises 
 will then be demanded and will be justified from a conservative 
 financial standpoint. The development of these and all the re- 
 lated industries of the West, however, will take place more 
 rapidly and will be of a more permanent nature when all the 
 natural limitations are clearly recognized. With these ideas in 
 mind we have in the following chapter attempted to di-eus* the 
 possibilities of grazing in the public land States. 
 
 GRAZING LAND AND GRAZING. 
 
 Area and description. Of the various classes of public lands 
 the grazing lands are by far the most extensive. There are 
 about 400,000.000 acres of the public domain of which almost 
 the only possible economic use is for grazing purposes. These 
 lands extend westward from the one-hundredth meridian to the 
 Pacific on the southwest, while in the northwest they are inter- 
 rupted by large areas with a considerable annual rainfall. The 
 boundaries of the grazing lands are difficult to define, partly on 
 account of the variation in rainfall from year to year and partly 
 
18 
 
 on account of the possibilities of more extensive development in 
 irrigation enterprises. 
 
 Even from the most optimistic viewpoint it is impossible to 
 believe that any considerable proportion of the grazing lands can 
 be irrigated with the present water supply and under the pres- 
 ent climatic conditions. Grazing must therefore remain the 
 chief agricultural industry of the arid west. The economic 
 importance of the grazing lands is sufficiently apparent from 
 the following statistics taken from the census of 1900 concern- 
 ing the numbers of live stock which subsist in the arid and sem- 
 iarid States, viz. : 10,000,000 beef cattle, 7,900,000 dairy cows, 
 3,542,000 horses, 629,000 mules and 33,389,000 sheep. 
 
 One important characteristic of the western ranges is that 
 they furnish forage throughout the year. The grass, unlike 
 that of pastures in humid climates, does not lose its nutrituve 
 properties when it dries up in the fall. On the contrary, it then 
 forms naturally cured hay of great value. This fact is so con- 
 spicuous that it was especially noted by nearly all the western 
 explorers. Thus many of these explorers expressed surprise at 
 the observed fact that exhausted horses turned loose to shift for 
 themselves during winter were found in the spring in a fat con- 
 dition. The highly nutritious character of range grasses has 
 been so well understood by western cattlemen and sheepmen that 
 until recently no attempt was made to provide any forage other 
 than that which naturally grows on the range. 
 
 The grazing lands in various parts of the western States 
 differ greatly in altitude, rainfall, soil, vegetation, etc. The 
 most striking differences are observed in quantity and quality 
 of vegetation. The term Prairie, Plains, and Desert were ap- 
 plied by the early explorers and settlers to three distinct classes 
 of grazing lands and these terms have persisted in use with 
 essentially their original meaning until the present time. The 
 Prairies extended from the Mississippi westward for a distance 
 of about two hundred miles ; they were for the most part covered 
 with tall, rank grasses. The Plains extended from the western 
 borders of the Prairies to the foothills of the Kocky Mountains. 
 They were and still are characterized by a covering of short, 
 fine grass. The term Desert was applied to certain especially 
 
19 
 
 dry and barren areas in Arizona, Nevada, Wyoming, and 
 elsewhere. Strictly speaking, however, we have only about 
 70,000,000 acres of desert areas in the United States. Even in 
 the most barren localities some grass and other plants are pro- 
 duced in the spring but quickly shrivel with the advent of the 
 dry season. If this sparse vegetation is then destroyed by graz- 
 ing, the soil may be left quite bare for the remainder of the 
 season. 
 
 In general the grasses on the public range are shorter east of 
 the Rockies than they are west of these mountains. This con- 
 dition was observed by early travelers and is still substantially 
 true, but the statement is subject to numerous exceptions. For 
 example, in the eastern part of Montana there are extensive level 
 plains on which the native grasses reach a height of 8 to 15 
 inches and form a fairly close sod. A few words with regard 
 to the general conditions of the grazing lands may not be out 
 of place here. They may occur in immense areas of compara- 
 tively level country, as for example the Great Plains. In the 
 mountainous regions grazing is found on the rolling foothills, in 
 large mountain basins, on high plateaus, and in the natural 
 parks which are abundantly scattered throughout the forest 
 lands. The size of the continuous areas of grazing lands thus 
 varies from thousands of square miles to a few acres. The 
 altitude of lands actually grazed at present varies from a few 
 hundred feet to ten thousand feet or more. Grazing lands can 
 not be considered as arable, for several reasons. That portion 
 of them which is located at great altitudes in the mountains is 
 subject to frosts during the whole summer season and can not 
 therefore be used for the production of cultivated crops. Another 
 portion in the mountains and foothills is of so rough and broken 
 character that it is inaccessible to vehicles and machinery which 
 might be used for harvesting crops. The extensive grazing lands 
 of the Great Plains, Great Basin, and other large areas between 
 mountain ranges west of the Continental Divide receive so little 
 rainfall during average years that the raising of cultivated crops 
 is a dangerous venture from a financial standpoint and results 
 in failure except during occasional years of unusual rainfall. 
 To be sure dry farming forms an industry of considerable im- 
 
20 
 
 portance in certain arid regions, but the lands which are sus- 
 ceptible of treatment in 'this manner are usually located at the 
 foot of mountain slopes in situations where it is impossible to 
 get irrigation water but where considerable quantities of water 
 are reecived by the soil through a process of seepage. 
 
 The water supply of the grazing lands varies greatly in 
 different parts of the arid country. In some regions, as for 
 instance Montana and the northwestern part of Wyoming, the 
 distance between accessible streams may not be more than a few 
 miles on any part of the range. In other localities no running- 
 water is to be found during the driest season, and stock have to 
 depend on water in stagnant pools. There are areas of valuable 
 grazing ground so poorly provided with water that grazing is 
 possibly only in the winter season, when the stock are able to 
 eat snow. Some of these tracts exhibit small streams in early 
 spring after the melting of the snow, but as soon as this supply 
 of water is exhausted the range must be abandoned. The distance 
 to which stock can safety wander away from water during the 
 grazing hours varies according to the kind of animal and the na- 
 ture of the vegetation. Horses and cattle learn the location of the 
 water supply on the range and travel long distances from this 
 water in search of grazing. They can then travel back to the 
 water once a day or every other day as necessity requires. With 
 sheep, however, the case is somewhat different. These animals 
 can not travel more than a few miles each day and on range 
 which does not furnish succulent forage it is dangerous to drive 
 them too far from a water supply. In certain parts of the south- 
 west where exceedingly succulent forage plants are found on the 
 range quite remarkable possibilities have been discovered in this 
 regard. Sheep may be maintained on such ranges for periods 
 of fifty to sixty days without water. 
 
 It thus appears that nearly all of the grazing country can 
 be utilized by one or more species of domesticated animals at 
 some season of the year. The great variation in the amount 
 and character of the forage on different parts of the range has 
 brought about the well established custom among stock raisers 
 of dividing the range according to the conditions of the season 
 and utilizing part in winter and another part in summer. Xat- 
 
21 
 
 urally the winter range is located at lower altitudes that that 
 which is utilized in summer. In winter the exceedingly dry 
 and relatively barren tracts which are also as a rule comparative- 
 ly free from snow may be successfully used for the maintenance 
 of cattle, sheep, and horses in good condition throughout the 
 cold season. In summer the higher tracts of grazing land are 
 more abundantly supplied with water and furnish large quanti- 
 ties of comparatively green and succulent forage and, on ac- 
 count of the deep snows which occasionally prevail on such 
 tracts in winter, it is impossible to use these grazing grounds at 
 any other season than summer or early fall. This alternation 
 forced upon stockmen by the exigencies of climate and natural 
 conditions is a very fortunate circumstance, in so far as it pre- 
 vents the continual use of any one tract of the range and thus 
 allows a sufficient period each year for vegetation to recover 
 from the effects of grazing during the remainder of the year. 
 
 Range forage. The forage plants which serve for the mainte- 
 nance of domesticated animals on western ranges are of great 
 variety. The grasses are naturally first in importance, but in 
 addition to the grasses a great number of herbaceous plants, 
 commonly called weeds by sheepmen and cattlemen, and shrubby 
 plants, called "browse" furnish important forage material. The 
 grasses which grow on the western plains include a large number 
 of species and no attempt to enumerate them can be made in this 
 connection. The names which are most frequently used by stock 
 raisers are bunch grass, buffalo grass, grama grass, etc. Buffalo 
 grass, however, is used by different stockmen to refer to different 
 species of grass and a number of varieties of grama grass are 
 known. Both of these grasses are short and of a fine texture 
 as compared with the ordinary bunch grass. The term bunch 
 grass has been applied to a great variety of grasses belonging to 
 different genera and species. Their chief characteristic, as the 
 name implies, is the habit of growing in tufts or bunches. No 
 continuous jod is therefore formed and the ground is never com- 
 pletely covered. The forage value of these grasses depends 
 somewhat upon the soil and amount of moisture where they 
 grow. They are of great value for winter ranges on account 
 of the fact that the bunches are usually of sufficient height and 
 
22 
 
 rigidity to stand above the snow where they are readily access- 
 ible to domesticated animals. In the southwest, for example, 
 in Arizona, the chief range grasses are black and blue grama, 
 sacaton, and bunch grasses. In Montana, which is noted for the 
 variety and abundance of its range grasses, the species of great- 
 est economic importance are grama grass, bunch grasses belong- 
 ing to Poa and other genera (there being ten or more important 
 species of Poa in the State), June grass, bluejoint, fescue, Dan- 
 thonia, wild rye grass, etc. Among forage other than grasses 
 mention should be made of the following in Arizona : Plantain, 
 creosote bush, saltbushes of the genus Atriplex, greasewood, 
 cacti, and various legumes including mesquite, screw bean, 
 lupines, species of Astragalus, etc. In the Great Basin the 
 following plants are important for grazing: Several species of 
 sagebrush, saltbushes, scrub oak, native species of clover, sedges, 
 rushes, lupines, and other native species of legumes. These few 
 notes may serve to give an idea of the great variety of plants 
 which serve as forage for animals upon the open range. 
 
 Deterioration. At the present time the condition of the 
 range is deteriorating in many localities. More and more com- 
 plaints are heard each year of the destruction of grasses and the 
 barrenness of the range. In many localities this has become 
 so serious that doubts have been entertained as to the possibility 
 of every restoring the range to anything like its original pro- 
 ductive capacity. In order to understand better what appre- 
 hensions may be felt in this direction and also what can be done 
 to improve the range it seems desirable to examine the accounts 
 of early explorers and settlers as to the conditions which thev 
 observed on the range and also as to the causes of deterioration 
 or improvement which they observed. In examining these earlv 
 records it should be remembered that the productiveness of the 
 arid range country and the possibilities of animal industry 
 under those conditions are usually but little appreciated by the 
 average traveler or explorer. The general opinion as to the 
 economic value of this country as expressed by various writers 
 is often, therefore, quite incompatible with the observations in- 
 cidentally made as to the conditions of the country alone the 
 route. The value of evidence obtained from earlv accountswith 
 
regard to the productiveness of the range and the conditions of 
 the grasses can scarcely be overestimated, since these accounts 
 were largely in the nature of diaries and the notes were written 
 down each day as the various observations were made. As a 
 rule the context of these accounts also indicates conclusively 
 that the remarks concerning the range were quite incidental 
 and represent a perfectly true picture of the country as seen by 
 the different observers. The general opinions expressed regard- 
 ing the western country as a whole may often have been and 
 probably were in many instances influenced to a considerable 
 extent by preconceived opinions of the explorers or by com- 
 parison with other literature sometime after the completion of 
 the journey. All short notes by the way, however, made on 
 the day of the various observations must be considered as true 
 accounts. Moreover, with regard to the value of the testimony 
 as to the early condition of the western range country, these 
 written accounts are usually more reliable than statements 
 made from memory twenty-five or thirty years after the occur- 
 rence of the events which are chronicled. It thus happens that 
 statements made at the present time by old settlers concerning 
 the condition of the country in the 60' s and 70"? may be much 
 exaggerated or undxuy influenced by the changed conditions of 
 the range. 
 
 Early opinions. As a rule the opinions of statesmen and 
 their interest in one way and another in the western country 
 were adverse to that region and these statements repeatedly 
 made in congessional speeches and in newspaper articles and 
 tracts prejudiced many explorers and settlers who subsequently 
 went west to investigation the actual conditions for themselves. 
 A few illustrative statements from the thousands which could be 
 quoted are here reproduced. In a letter of instruction to Gal- 
 tatin and Hush, American representatives on the Oregon Bound- 
 ary Commission, J. Q. Adams declared that in that region 
 "there is no object to any party worth contending for." In 
 1824 Senator Dickerson in a speech stated, As to the Oregon 
 Territory, it can never be of any pecuniary advantage to the 
 United States.'" In 1504 the Federal Government first under- 
 took in a serious way the exploration of the country west of 
 
24 
 
 the Mississippi, and from this first famous expedition of Lewis 
 and Clark until the 60's and 70's a large number of expeditions, 
 chiefly under the direction of the War Department, were made 
 into that country for the purpose of learning more definitely 
 its natural conditions and the possibilities of its development. 
 In 1819 and 1820 an extensive expedition was carried out un- 
 der the command of S. H. Long, and as a result of his explor- 
 ations general recommendations were made regarding the na- 
 ture of the country and its economic importance. Long is per- 
 haps chiefly responsible for disseminating the belief in the use- 
 lessness of the western country. The idea of the "Great Amer- 
 ican Desert" was first definitely formulated by him and the ter- 
 ritory covered by it was made to include practically the whole 
 United States west of the western boundary of Iowa. Two 
 paragraphs from his report are sufficiently interesting to quote 
 in this connection:* 
 
 "In regard to this extensive section of country, we do not 
 hesitate in giving the opinion that it is almost wholly unfit for 
 cultivation, and of course uninhabitable by a people depending 
 upon agriculture for their subsistence. Although tracts of fer- 
 tile land, considerably extensive, are occasionally to be met with, 
 yet the scarcity of wood and water, almost uniformly prevalent, 
 will prove an unsurmountable obstacle in the way of settling the 
 country. This objection rests not only against the immediate 
 section under consideration, but applies with equal propriety to 
 a much larger portion of the country. Agreeably to the best in- 
 telligence that can be had concerning the country both north- 
 ward and southward of the section, and especially to the infer- 
 ences deducible from the account given by Lewis and Clark, of 
 the country situated between the Missouri and the Rocky Mount- 
 ains, above the river Platte, the vast region commencing near 
 the sources of the Sabine, Trinity, Brazos, and Colorado, and 
 extending northwardly to the forty-ninth degree of north lat- 
 itude, by which the United States territory is limited in that 
 direction, is throughout of a similar character. The whole of 
 this region seems peculiarly adapted as a range for buffaloes, 
 
 * Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains, 1819, 1820, compiled bv 
 E. James, Vol. II., p. 361. 
 
wild goats, and other wild game, incalculable multitudes of 
 which find ample pasturage and subsistence upon it. 
 
 "This region, however, viewed as a frontier, may prove 
 of infinite importance to the United States, inasmuch as it is 
 calculated to serve as a barrier to prevent too great an extension 
 of our population westward, and secure us against the machin- 
 ations or incursions of an enemy, that might otherwise be dis- 
 posed to annoy us in that quarter." 
 
 This idea of the Great American Desert immediately found 
 numbers of adherents and was reechoed in the literature relat- 
 ing to the western country for years after the publication of 
 Long's report. The boundaries of the supposed desert were 
 gradually restricted as more detailed explorations of various 
 parts of the country were made until they became confined to 
 the Great Gasin. Later, even this region ceased to be called a 
 desert and the term was then used largely as descriptive of cer- 
 tain especially barren areas in Arizona, Wyoming, Nevada, and 
 other regions. Xot all the explorers, however, were unfavorably 
 impressed with the conditions prevailing on the range, even at 
 the beginning of the nineteenth century. Thus, Fremont 1 fre- 
 quently speaks of the immense value of the Western regions, 
 especially for grazing purposes. Brackenridge 2 considered the 
 first 200 miles westward from the Mississippi good for settle- 
 ment, while in his opinion the next 300 miles "can scarcely be 
 said to admit of settlement." A large proportion of the rest of 
 the country east of the Rockies appeared to him to be fertile 
 agricultural soil. "In these vast plains throughout which are 
 scattered so many lovely spots capable of supporting thousand 
 of such nations as the Arikaras or the wandering Sioux a few 
 wretches are constantly roaming about seeking to destroy each 
 other ;" and on p. 235 Brackenridge says "The natives will prob- 
 ably remain in quiet and undisturbed possession for at least a 
 century, for until our country becomes in some degree sur- 
 charged with population there is scarcely any probability of 
 settlers venturing into those regions." On p. 236 of Bracken- 
 
 1 The Exploring Expedition to the Rocky Mountains, Oregon, and 
 California, 1842-1844. 
 
 2 Voyage up the Missouri in 1811, p. 227. 
 
26 
 
 ridge's account we find the following statement, "This country 
 can never become agricultural, but it is in many respects highly 
 favorable to the multiplication of flocks and herds." As a 
 whole, however, the Louisiana Purchase was considered of great 
 importance and "the intrinsic value of Lousiana, notwithstand- 
 ing the vast extent which may be considered almost barren, is be- 
 yond calculation." 1 
 
 John Bradbury, who explored the Missouri at the same 
 time, was even more favorably impressed with the advantages 
 of that country. 2 Speaking of the vast prairies, Bradbury says 
 "It will be one of the most beautiful countries in the world . 
 . . . In almost every part where I saw it in a state of nature 
 it was covered with the finest verdure imaginable." Again in 
 the same report 3 he says "The political and commercial advan- 
 tages that will arise to the United States from the acquisition of 
 Louisiana are incalculable, besides the vast revenue that will 
 arise from the sale of lands." In speaking of the Upper Mis- 
 souri Bradbury says "When the great extent of this plain and 
 its fertility in grazing are considered we cannot but admit that 
 the number of animals it is capable of containing must be im- 
 mense," 
 
 Marcy 4 states that "Grass everywhere on Red River and its 
 tributaries is of a very superior quality, consisting of several 
 varieties of grama and mezquite." Again be says 5 "The whole 
 surface of the country from Red River to Rio Grande is covered 
 with a dense coating of the most nutritious grass which remains 
 green for nine months of the year, and enables cattle to subsist 
 the entire winter without any other forage." 
 
 Thomas ISTuttall 6 states that in his opinion "Ages must elapse 
 before this kind of land will be worth purchasing at any price." 
 
 Parker 7 expresses a very favorable opinion of the country 
 along the Platte River "For about twenty five miles since we 
 
 i Loc. cit, p. 239. 
 
 2 Travels in the Interior of America, 1809-1811, p. 272. 
 
 3 Travels in the Interior of America, 1809-1811, p. 227. 
 
 i The Exploration of the Red River of Louisiana, 1852, p. 30 
 s The Exploration of the Red River of Louisiana, 1852, p. 123. 
 e A Journal of Travels into the Arkansas Territory in 1819, p. 113. 
 t Journal of an Exploring Tour Beyond the Rocky Mountains, 1 835 
 p. 50. 
 
27 
 
 crossed the Elkhorn and between this river and the Platte, 
 which are about ten miles apart, there is not a single hill. It is 
 a rich bottom land covered with a luxuriant coat of grass. No 
 
 eovmtry could be more inviting to the farmer The 
 
 time will come and probably is not far distant when this country 
 
 will be covered with a dense population Then this 
 
 amazing extent of most fertile land will not continue to be the 
 wandering ground of a few thousand Indians with only a few 
 acres vnder cultivation, nor will millions of tons of grass grow 
 up to rot upon the ground or be burned up with the fire en- 
 kindled to sweep over the prairie and disencumber it of its 
 spontaneous burden." 
 
 Brockett 1 in speaking of the so-called Great American Desert, 
 says "There are many millions of acres of grazing lands where 
 all the flocks and herds of the continent could find good past- 
 urage." 
 
 Hazen 2 states his belief that "From the one-hundredth mer- 
 idian to the Sierra Nevada Mountains, a distance of twelve 
 hundred miles, there is not more than one acre to the hundred 
 that has any value for agricultural purposes or that will sell for 
 the next hundred years." 
 
 These opinions, which could be multiplied almost indefinite- 
 ly, are those of travelers and explorers who actually saw more or 
 less of the country of which they were speaking. The opinions 
 of members of congress and newspaper writers expressed during 
 the period in which an accurate knowledge of the western 
 country was being most eagerly sought are still more at variance, 
 more exaggerated in one direction or the other, and while in- 
 teresting from a historical standpoint, are of little value in 
 gaining a knowledge of the actual conditions which prevailed 
 in the western country. As previously stated, it is considered of 
 much importance to secure definite ideas concerning the grazing 
 possibilities and the condition of the grass upon the range in 
 the early days of western settlement, and particularly to obtain 
 evidence relating to the influence of various agencies in modi- 
 fying range conditions. It is believed that a study of these 
 
 1 Our Western Empire, 1882, p. 27. 
 
 2 North American Review, 1878. 
 
28 
 
 conditions, so far as they can be obtained from an examination 
 of early writings, will serve as a firm basis for generalizations 
 as to the possibilities in the present and future utilization and 
 improvement of the range and grazing industries. 
 
 Immediately following upon the expedition of Lewis and 
 Clark a suddenly increasing number of persons was attracted 
 into the far western country. The objects of the expedition^ 
 thus planned and executed were manifold. Some were seeking 
 homes others precious metals, while a large number were en- 
 gaged in hunting, trapping, or more adventure. The numerous 
 books, government reports, and articles in periodical literature 
 written for the purpose of describing the western country and 
 its possibities naturally contain statements regarding the con- 
 ditions of the grass in all parts of the western country. The 
 necessity of obtaining forage for horses, mules, and oxen which 
 were used on these expeditions compelled accurate observations 
 with regard to the height, quality, and abundance of various 
 grasses in different parts of the region covered by each explora- 
 tion. It thereby becomes possible to obtain a fairly complete 
 series of statements regarding the quantity and quality of grass 
 in any particular locality, extending back over a period of from 
 forty to one hundred years or more. For present purposes, how- 
 ever, only a comparatively small proportion of these statements 
 can be advantageously utilized. Special attention has been 
 given, in looking over these various accounts, to statements re- 
 garding the effect of grazing upon the range, in early days, and 
 also the effect of fires, drought, etc. 
 
 Buffaloes. At the present time the most important cause of 
 deterioration in the range is overgrazing, and doubts have been 
 expressed by many agricultural writers and stockmen as to 
 the possibility of the range recovering from effects of over»raz- 
 ing. It is interesting in this connection to examine brieflv the 
 effects of the grazing of the innumerable herds of buffalo, which 
 predominated over all other animals upon the range at the time 
 of the earliest settlement of the western country. That these 
 animals must have been an important factor in this problem is 
 apparent from a mere consideration of their immense num- 
 
29 
 
 bers. C. J. Jones 1 gives the following statistics, on the basis of 
 his estimates, of the number of buffalo on the range, in 1865, 
 15,000,000; in 1S71, 12,400,000; and in 1875, 1,000,000. 
 The number of these animals in the days of their greatest abund- 
 ance was therefore considerably in excess of the present num- 
 ber of cattle which occupy the same range. Since it may be 
 assumed that the buffalo require as much for sustenance as 
 domesticated cattle, it is but natural to suppose that large quanti- 
 ties of grass would be eaten by them. While the buffalo ate 
 nearly all kinds of grass and some shrubbery, it seemed to pre- 
 fer the buffalo grass over the greater part of its natural range. 
 In speaking of this grass, Bell 2 states that "Its close, thickly 
 matted fibers keep the ground very dry by preventing the rain 
 from penetrating into it. I have noticed times and again after 
 a sudden thunder shower how rapidly the rain flowed off into 
 the gullies, filling up the streams and helping to cause those 
 sudden floods which so often harassed us on our march. Doubt- 
 less no grass could bear so well the heavy tramp of thousands 
 of buffalo .... but .... as settlers advance 
 deeper rooted grasses take its place .... opening up the 
 soil and retaining the moisture in the ground." 
 
 Gilpin 3 estimates that the number of buffalo, wild horses, 
 and elk together amounted to not less than 100,000,000 in the 
 year 1873. With regard to the number of buffalo which actually 
 traveled in one continuous herd there are hundreds of statements 
 in the reports of travels, and these statements naturally vary ac- 
 cording to the time of year and the tract of country covered by 
 the traveler. The number of buffalo in moderately large herds 
 is usually estimated at from 10,000 to 100,000. Greely, how- 
 ever, 4 gives the following account of an immense herd which he 
 observed. "I know a million is a great number, but I am con- 
 fident that we saw that number yesterday. Certainly all we 
 saw could not have stood on ten square miles of ground. . 
 The soil is rich and well matted with their favorite grass, yet it 
 
 i H. Inman, Buffalo Jones' Forty Years of Adventure, p. 255. 
 
 2 New Tracks in America, 1869, Vol. I., p. 42. 
 
 3 Mission of the North American People, 1873, p. 72. 
 
 4 An Overland Journey from New York to San Francisco, 1859, 
 p. 87. 
 
30 
 
 is all (except a very little on the creek bottoms near to timber) 
 eaten down like an overtaxed sheep pasture in a dry August. 
 
 Perhaps the largest estimate which has ever been made of a 
 single continuous herd of buffalo related to a herd seen by R. I. 
 Dodge in 1871. The data and figures given by Dodge were ex- 
 amined by Hornaday. 1 After making allowance for all factors 
 which could be concerned in the case, Hornaday makes large re- 
 ductions from the possible figures "which would leave 4,000,000 
 as our estimate of the actual number of buffaloes in this great 
 herd, which I believe is more likely to be below the truth than 
 above it." 
 
 When Lewis and Clark reached the Great Falls of the Mis- 
 sourri, in 1805 they found 2 that the soil was very much cut up 
 by buffaloes. "The grass, which is naturally short at this time, 
 is still more so from the recent passage of the buffalo." Long, 3 
 when speaking of the country at the forks of the Platte, says 
 that there was a "verdant plain" upon which thousands of buffalo 
 were grazing. On the south side of the South Platte "The Plains 
 are more closely depastured, the grass is fine and short." J. A. 
 Allen, 4 referring to the annual northern and southern move- 
 ments of these animals, says, "The route which these animals 
 follow in their migrations occupies a width of several miles and 
 becomes so marked that, besides the verdure destroyed, one would 
 believe that the fields had been coverd with manure." Parker 5 
 says that where buffaloes had recently grazed it was exceedingly 
 difficult to find enough grass for the horses. Raynolds 6 speaks of 
 the destruction of grass by buffaloes on Powder River. "At a 
 few low points we found a coarse grass that the buffaloes had re- 
 jected, but our mules ate it with avidity." At another point "The 
 grass on the river surpassed our expectations in quality, thus in- 
 
 1 The Extermination of the American Bisons, Smithsonian Rpt 
 1887, Part 2, p. 391. 
 
 2 Lewis and Clark's Journal, Reprint of 1814 Edition, 1902 Vol I 
 p. 362. 
 
 3 Loc. cit, Vol. I, pp. 469, 470. 
 
 4 The American Bisons, pp. 129, 130. 
 
 5 Loc. cit, p. 61. 
 
 6 Yellowstone River Explorations, 1859, 1860: Fortieth Congress 
 First Session, Sen. Doc. 77, p. 36. 
 
31 
 
 dicating that the buffalo had been in the valley but a short 
 time." 1 
 
 The accounts indicate what would naturally be expected, viz., 
 that where buffaloes congregated in immense herds the grass was 
 totally destroyed for the time and the ground was much cut up 
 or packed down, according as dry or wet weather prevailed. The 
 result of such accumulations of large herds, however, was the 
 apparent total destruction of the grass. Even in the days of the 
 great cattle kings of the west the herds of cattle were compara- 
 tively small, numbering only a few thousands. It is therefore 
 apparent that injury to the range on account of overcrowding 
 and overgrazing from cattle was then and is now a quite unim- 
 portant factor in the destruction of the range as compared with 
 the enormous herds of buffalo. It should be remembered, how- 
 ever, that despite the fact of apparent total destruction wrought 
 by the buffalo along the line of their migrations and during their 
 close association at breeding seasons, the range recovered so that 
 the evidence of their destructive grazing was entirely lost within 
 a few years. This fact indicates also the possibility of range 
 improvement at present. The buffaloes, after passing through a 
 range and destroying the grass, did not return by that route or 
 visit the range again until the grass had recovered from the 
 effects of overgrazing, and since climatic and soil conditions on 
 western ranges have not changed to an appreciable degree since 
 the earliest historical times, it may be reasonably assumed that 
 even ranges which have been most abused by overgrazing have 
 excellent prospects of recovering their former productiveness if 
 allowed a seasonable resting period. 
 
 Wild horses. The early western travelers speak of large 
 herds of wild horses which roamed about on the plains, especially 
 in the Southwest and along the Arkansas. Gregg, 2 in writing 
 of the mustang, says "he is familiarly known by common re- 
 port all over the great prairies." Jones 3 in 1875 estimated the 
 number of wild horses in Texas, Colorado, Kansas, and Nebras- 
 
 1 Yellowstone River Explorations, 1859, 1860: Fortieth Congress, 
 First Session, Sen. Doc. 77, p. 37. 
 
 2 Commerce of the Prairies, 1844, Vol. II., p. 207. 
 
 3 H. Inman, Buffalo Jones' Forty Years of Adventure, p. 16&. 
 
ka at 50,000. They were at that time considered as practically 
 exterminated except in the Southwest. Kern 1 in 1S45 had oc- 
 casion to observe the effect of grazing of wild horses at Lake 
 Fork on Humboldt Kiver. He had great diffifnculty in securing 
 forage for his animals, "the grass and shrubhery leaving been 
 destroyed by the wild horses." The mustangs have always caus- 
 ed great destruction to the range and are still a. source of annoy- 
 ance to stock raisers of the West and Southwest. In fact the 
 wild horse nuisance is a very important factor in the range 
 problem 3 - 
 
 Prairic dogs. These animals are generally distributed 
 throughout the Great Plains and occur in colonies (dog towns) of 
 varying size. The largest colony is in Texas and covers an area 
 of 100 by 250 miles, or 25,000 square miles. The average num- 
 ber of prairie dogs per acre is about 25, and it has been estimated 
 that 32 prairie dogs will eat as much as 1 sheep and 256 as much 
 as 1 cow. In the region of the dog towns the destruction of 
 grass is estimated at 50 to 75 per cent of the range capacity. 2 
 J. R. Bartlett 3 found the grass very short and poor in prairie 
 dog towns in Texas (1850). J. G. Smith 4 states that in Texas 
 the destruction of grass by prairie clogs and jack rabbits is of 
 great extent and importance. I Unusual efforts are being put 
 forth to destroy these animals especially in Kansas and Xe- 
 braska and their numbers are being somewhat reduced. Their 
 effect upon the range grasses, however, is still apparent even to 
 a casual observer. 
 
 Locusts. In the time of Spanish settlement and in the early 
 days of American agricultural settlement west of the Mississippi, 
 the range grasses and other vegetation were destroyed in greater 
 or less areas during the prevalence of locust plagues. Riley' 5 
 states that "wild prairie grass is relished when young and tender, 
 but usually little injured when nature . Yet eases are on record 
 by travelers in the Northwest even during the last centurv, of 
 the wild grass being so effectually mowed down bv these lo- 
 
 i J. H. Simpson, Explorations Across the Great Basin of Utah, p. 486 
 
 2 C. H. Merriam, Yearbook U. S. D. A., 1901, p. 
 
 3 Personal Narrative, etc., Vol. I., p. 69. 
 -i Division of Agrostology Bui. 16, p. 14. 
 ."> Bureau of Plant Industry Bui. 38, p. 44. 
 oTJ. S. Entomological Comm., 1878, p. 252. 
 
custs as to render it difficult to find feed for horses." Venegas 1 
 refers to a locust plague during the years 1722 and 1723 on the 
 Colorado River. All grass and herbage was destroyed and many 
 domestic animals and Indians starved to death as a result. Lewis 
 and Clark 2 nn 1S05 found the grass about 3 inches high near 
 the Great Falls of the Missouri and badly eaten by locusts. 
 Long 3 observed a migratory swarm of locusts on the summit of 
 Pike's Peak, the air being literally filled with them. Fremont 4 
 found that the grasshoppers had destroyed all the grass on the 
 Laramie Plains in 1842. The occurrence of locust plagus was 
 irregular but quite frequent in the days of the western pioneers, 
 and their injury to grass on the plains and even in the mountain 
 meadows was of great importance. Fortunately, locusts have 
 become greatly reduced in numbers during recent years, and 
 their effect upon range conditions correspondingly diminished. 
 
 Fires. Before the western country became settled by white 
 people, the prairies and great plains were subject to annual fires 
 of great extent and violence. These fires were set by Indians, 
 and later by hunters and trappers, for the purpose of driving 
 game to certain restricted localities where they might be more 
 easily surrounded. Still later the idea prevailed that the forage 
 was improved for the coming year by burning the dead grass 
 in the fall. 
 
 Cabeza de Vaca, 5 in 1535, remarks concerning the Arkansas 
 country that "they (Indians) take the pasturage from cattle 
 (baffaloes) by burning, that necessity may drive them to seek 
 it in such places as it is wished they should go." Bartlett 6 
 states that in Taxes the grass was burned off in October. E. F. 
 Beale 7 observed that emigrants frequently set fire to the prairies 
 through carelessness. Bell 8 speaks of annual autumn prairie 
 fires which also killed shrubs and trees. The treelessness of the 
 
 1 History of California, 1758, Vol. II., p. 37. 
 
 2 Loc. cit, Vol. I., p. 353. 
 
 3 Loc. cit., Vol. II., p. 31. 
 
 4 Loc. cit, p. 72. 
 
 5 Narrative of Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca, translated by B. Smith, 
 p. 64. 
 
 6 Loc. cit, Vol. I., p. 83. 
 
 7 Central Route to the Pacific, etc., 1853, p. 23. 
 
 8 Loc. cit, Vol. I., p. 41. 
 
34 
 
 plains is ascribed by Bell and otber authors to these fires. Bon- 
 neville 1 states that along the Platte River the grass was so short 
 that the hunters could not set fire to it. A similar statement is 
 made by William Gilpin. 2 ISTo annual fires ever sweep over the 
 Great Plains ; these are confined to the prairie region." B. I. 
 Dodge 3 calls attention to the fact that "the Indians burn por- 
 tions cf the prairie every fall." 
 
 It may therefore be safely asserted that the grass was burned 
 annually, or nearly so, wherever it was tall enough to carry a 
 fire rapidly. These fires in the days of early western settlement 
 extended over immense areas and developed an intensity of heat 
 which varied according to the height and abundance of the grass, 
 winds, etc. The appearance and condition of the ranges were 
 thereby greatly modified but there is not a complete agreement 
 among the authorities as to the effect of the fires upon the pro- 
 ductivity of the ranges. Maximilian zu Wied 4 passed by the 
 mouth of Little Sioux River on May 6, 1832, and observed that 
 "uberall fand sich ein frischer Graswuchs allein auch nicht eine 
 einzige Bluthe, welches durch das Anzunden der Prairie verrur- 
 sacht wird." The tolerance of fire by grasses and the simult- 
 aneous destruction of other plants have been noted by other ob- 
 servers. While traveling from St. Louis to Council Bluffs in 
 1820 Long 5 observed that "the plains had been perfectly denuded 
 by the burning of the last season and the annual growth of grass 
 and weeds had as yet risen but about a foot from the ground." 
 This was during the first part of June, however, and was a good 
 height for the grass. Cyrus Thomas 6 considered that fires had 
 at least one beneficial effect, "Wherever a fire has swept up the 
 mountain side destroying the pine tree . . . there springs 
 up in a marvelously short space of time a tall green grass." 
 Griffiths, 7 however, while studying the grazing conditions in the 
 Great Basin came to the conclusion that "burning is as destruc- 
 
 i Irving's Adventures of Capt. Bonneville, Pawnee Edition. Vol I 
 p. 45. 
 
 2 Mission of the North American People, 1873, p. 72. 
 
 3 The Plains of the Great West, 1877, p. 29. 
 
 4 Reise in das innere Nord-Amerika, 1832-1834, Vol. I., p. 303. 
 
 5 Loc. cit, Vol. I., p. 416. 
 
 6 Agricultural Resources of the Territories, 1871, p. 269. 
 ^ Bureau Plant Industry Bui. 15, p. 31. 
 
35 
 
 tive to the grass of the ranges as to the trees of the forest." 
 Different grasses were differently affected. The fescues were all 
 killed while the ^Nevada blue grass recovered nicely. On the 
 Dakota prairies fires seemed to have a worse effect than over- 
 grazing. L. H. Pammel* is still more emphatic on the bad 
 effects of fire. "A forest burnt over is absolutely sterile for a 
 term of years as far as forage plants are concerned. The fire not 
 only destroys whatever turf there is but it prevents reseeding." 
 
 The extent and frequency of range fires have gradually de- 
 creased as the country has become more thickly settled, but these 
 fires are still an important factor in the range problem. Some 
 are of accidental origin-sparks from trains, neglected camp fires, 
 lightning etc. Some are purposely set with the belief that the 
 range will be thereby improved, or in order to destroy brush 
 and timber and thus extend the area of grass. In other locali- 
 ties fires are maliciously set in the perpetuation of some feud 
 or controversy concerning the range. 
 
 In our opinion no good arguments have been advanced in 
 favor of burning the range. In some localities it requires from 
 3 to 5 years for the range to recover from the effects of a single 
 fire. In other places we have observed a good growth of grass 
 during the season following a burn. The grass is always injured 
 to some extent, however, and no benefits can be claimed from 
 burning. The amount of damage naturally varies according to 
 the intensity of heat developed by' the flames, the time of year, 
 kind of grass, character of the turf and dryness of the season. 
 In the range country all dead grass is highly nutritious and 
 valuable for winter grazing. All grass fires, therefore, cause a 
 direct loss to the grazing industry. Moreover, cattle and horses 
 sometimes "drift" upon extensive burned areas in winter storms 
 and die of starvation, and sheep are occasionally burned to 
 death by being caught in range fires. 
 
 Opinions on range forage. Thus far we have discussed sev- 
 eral agencies which have affected the production of the range 
 grasses in the past, viz: — Buffaloes, wild horses, prairie dogs, 
 locusts, and fires. The buffalo has been eliminated as a factor 
 in the range problem. The other agencies, however, are still 
 
 * Division of Agrostology, U. S. D. A., Bui. 9, p. 14. 
 
36 
 
 operative, although greatly reduced in importance. We have 
 now to consider the factor of grazing by sheep and cattle and to 
 study the grazing industry in relation to the question of range 
 preservation and improvement. 
 
 We shall first present data obtained from historical sources 
 concerning the actual conditions of the range grasses in various 
 parts of the country in former years. The changes which have 
 taken place on the range may then be determined by comparison 
 with present conditions, and the causes of improvement or de- 
 terioration may be conveniently studied. 
 
 With regard to general grazing conditions in the "v\ est the 
 following data should be considered as additional to the state- 
 ments of Long, Fremont, Parker, Bradbury, et al, quoted above. 
 W. H. Emory 1 says "these plains west of the 100th meridian 
 are wholly unsusceptible of sustaining an agricultural popula- 
 tion, until you reach sufficiently far south to encounter the rains 
 from the tropic ;" and on page 49 of the same volume he speaks 
 of grazing as one of the chief sources upon which the western 
 population must depend. T. J. Farnham 2 considered the first 
 200 miles west of the Mississippi as agricultural, while the 
 country for 200 miles east of the Rocky Mountains was called 
 the Great American Desert. The belt between these two regions 
 was denominated "Great Prairie Wilderness." Gregg, 3 as a 
 result of his numerous trips across the plains between 1830 and 
 1843, came to the following conclusion: "The Neosho River 
 seems to form the western boundary of the truly rich and beauti- 
 ful country of the border ... all the' country that lies be- 
 yond is of a far more barren character." Long 4 states that be- 
 tween the Mississippi and Missouri the country was generally 
 covered with a luxuriant growth of grass, while the region be- 
 tween the 9,6th meridian and the Rockies and between the Mis- 
 souri and Red rivers exhibited no vegetation upon the uplands 
 except withered grass 2 or 3 inches high. Along the Kansas 
 River the high, coarse grasses greatly impeded the progress of 
 the horses. 
 
 Vol 1 f epOI 4 t 7 0n the United States and Mexico Boundary Survey, 1857, 
 
 2 Travels in the Great Western Prairies, 1843 n 22 
 
 3 Loc. cit, Vol. I., p. 58. ' 
 i Loc. cit., Vol. II., pp. 341 and 352. 
 
37 
 
 Arkansas country. Cabeza de Vaca 1 says that the Indians 
 guided him over 150 miles of desert country along the Arkansas, 
 and states that the country had then (1535) suffered from a 
 drought for 2 years. Long 2 speaks of "a broad expanse of 
 waving prairie" along the Arkansas. Along the Canadian Fork 
 "herds of bisons, wild horses, elk, and deer are seen grazing 
 in these extensive and fertile pastures." IsTuttall, 3 while on the 
 Mississippi near the mouth of the Arkansas found that a scour- 
 in rush (Equisetum hyemale) was the most important winter 
 fodder for cattle and horses in that country. Pasturage in the 
 Arkansas Valley was abundant at all seasons of the year. On 
 James Fork was a ''prairie full of luxuriant grass about knee 
 high." 
 
 Pike 1 found the grass along some parts of the Arkansas like 
 that of salt meadows. Pasturage was poor. Grass was short 
 on Smoky Hill Fork but tall on Republican River. 
 
 Montana. Among the references to the condition of the 
 range grasses in Montana in former years we select a few which 
 can be most easily compared with present conditions. F. W. 
 Anderson 5 states that in southern and western Montana "the 
 high plains or benches for the most part produce a very thin 
 growth of grass," while in northern and eastern Montana "roll- 
 ing plains thickly covered with grass" were observed. Hayden 
 found the vegetation around Fort Ellis very abundant. Peter 
 Koch T speaks of the "desolate sagebrush covered plain" at the 
 mouth of the Musselshell. The country was heavily grazed 
 during this period, however, as shown by the following quota- 
 tion: "In March, 1870, I traveled from Musselshell to Fort 
 Browning on Milk River and for a distance of 40 miles I do not 
 think we were ever out of easy rifle shot of buffalo." Mullan 8 
 found good grazing along Dearborn and Sun Rivers, "From the 
 
 1 Loc. cit. 
 
 2 Loc. cit., Vol. II., pp. 143 and 355. 
 
 3 Loc. cit, pp. 58, 78, and 147. 
 
 4 Expedition Through Louisiana Territory, 1806, 1807, Appendix to 
 Part III., p. 31. 
 
 5 Report Commissioner for Agriculture, 1888, pp. 313, 314. 
 
 6 Survey of Montana, etc., 1871, p. 44. 
 
 7 Contrib. Hist. Soc. Montana, Vol. II., pp. 293 and 302. 
 
 8 Report on the Construction of a Military Road from Fort Walla- 
 Waua to Fort Benton, 1858-1862, p. 43. 
 
38 
 
 Columbia to the Missouri River finer grasses have never any- 
 where been seen. Wild hay can be and is cut from thousand of 
 acres. The grass is mostly a wild bunch grass growing from 12 
 to 18 inches high and covering the entire country. Horses and 
 horned stock by thousands and sheep by hundreds all bespeak 
 the wealth that is locked up in the native grasses." John Mul- 
 lins 1 speaks of excellent grass" at Fort Benton, in the Judith 
 Basin and in the Musselshell Valley. Along the divide between 
 the Yellowstone and Missouri "as we travelled eastward the soil 
 became better and the grass was more plenty." F. L. Scribner, 2 
 speaking of Central Montana, says "Poa tenui folia may well be 
 considered the grass of the country. Wo species withstands the 
 long summer drought so well and it constitutes the chief forage 
 upon the dry bench lands ... In the drier soils the culms 
 are low, less than a foot" etc. At present this bunch grass is 
 partly replaced by grama grass, throughout the region of which 
 Scribner speaks. F. A. Spragg 3 remarks concerning this same 
 area "the difference, then, between the overstocked range of 
 today and the luxuriant growth of former times is to be found 
 simply in the relative abundance of the blue grama." Stevens 4 
 states that between the Missouri and Mouse rivers the grass 
 was scanty on the ridges but good for grazing, while in the bot- 
 toms the grass was rank but of inferior quality. The Missouri 
 and Milk River valleys were "well grassed." Excellent grass 
 was found far up Milk River and in the Teton Valley. On Milk 
 River 50 miles above Bear Paw Mountains the range was rather 
 barren. The grazing was "exceedingly good" on Sun River and 
 the Flathead Indian Reservaction was well grassed. Bitter 
 Root Valley was "covered with an excellent growth of grass." 
 Stevens states that between the Missouri and Milk rivers there 
 was "an exceedingly fine grazing country." Around Highwood 
 and Judith mountains there was "an extraordinarily fine grazing 
 country." About the forks of the Missouri there were "rich' ex- 
 tensive and beautiful meadows and prairies." The "broad and 
 
 i Fort Benton to Mouth of Yellowstone by Land, 1860, pp 162-170 
 •i Agricultural Grasses of Montana, 1883 66 7 8 
 3 Montana Sta. Bui. 26, p. 9. 
 
 ™ 4 fi a^n° ratt i 0nS f n °, r .^ CifiC R - R " St Paul t0 Pu S et Sound, 1853-1855, 
 pp. 69-110, and pp. 217-220. 
 
:19 
 
 fertile Deer Lodge Prairie" is also mentioned. In the Bitter 
 Root Mountains there was "almost everywhere a fine growth of 
 grass." On the eastern slopes of these mountains prairies were 
 to be seen "covered with luxuriant grass." Fine pastures were 
 found even on the highest parts of the range. 
 
 R. E. Strahorn 1 in discussing the range conditions says, 
 "The height of bunch grass is usually 12 to 18 inches. I have 
 seen miles and miles of bench lands along the mountain slopes 
 which were one vast sea of bunch grass fully 30 inches high and 
 thick enough to mow." On page 23 of the same volume R. ~N. 
 Siitherlin reports excellent grazing conditions around Virginia 
 City. In an edition of the Rocky Mountain Husbandman for 
 May 7, 1903, Mr. Sutherlin sums up his observations on the 
 range grasses of Montana for a period of thirty seven years. He 
 emphatically denies that the range is being ruined by overgraz- 
 ing. "Looking out over our State we can discern no material 
 change in the conditions with reference to vegetation through all 
 these years." Thomas 2 states that the Judith Basin was "cov- 
 ered with good grass," but that the regions bordering the Judith 
 Valley were "barren and assumed the appearance of bad lands." 
 'Montana is the best grazing section of the Rocky Mountain 
 region, jSTot only are the open plains and prairies covered with 
 rich and nutritious grasses, but also the smooth hills and naked 
 mountain slopes, and the same rich carpet continues even beyond 
 these far up into the timber." 
 
 The Platte country. The number of early references to the 
 condition of the range along the Platte is almost beyond comp^i- 
 tation. The Overland Trail passed through this country and 
 all of the emigrants to Sante Fe, Oregon, and California trav- 
 eled through some of the Platte region. In fact the Great Plains 
 of most tourists and travelers lay on the bench lands along the 
 Platte. We select from this mass of literature a few statements 
 illustrating the range conditions during the past century as noted 
 at different times by different observers. 
 
 i The Resources of Montana Territory, etc., 1879, p. 23. 
 2 Loc. cit, pp. 267-269. 
 
40 
 
 D. Barnes 1 gained the impression that "a large portion of 
 the prairies are good for nothing and never can be cultivated." 
 "For 300 miles east of the Rocky Mountains no tree or shrub 
 and but little grass appears." "Twenty five miles east of the 
 North Platte commences the desert in earnest." Bonneville, 2 
 writing of the Platte River country says, "In these regions there 
 is a fresh, sweet growth of grass in the spring, but it is scanty 
 and short and parches up in the course of the summer." S. Bow- 
 les 3 says that from the North Platte to Green Paver the country 
 is a desert with almost no vegetation. A. Delano 4 speaks of the 
 "grass covered sand hills which bounded the valley of the 
 Platte." H. Dodge 5 found the lower Platte Valley green and 
 fertile. Near Grand Island the grass was thin and short. At 
 the forks of the Platte he found the "grass short, thick, and dry, 
 the grazing being good." Near the mouth of Cache de la Poudre 
 "there is first a low flat, from half to a mile and a half wide 
 where the grass is good . . . Above this is another bench 
 of about the same width. The grass upon this, which is called 
 buffalo grass, is short, thick, and dry. Above this is still another 
 bench where the sand hills commence . ■ . The only vege- 
 tation upon them is a pieces of wild sage." Hayden 6 observed 
 "scanty but very nutritious grasses" in the Nebraska sand hills. 
 Throughout western Nebraska 'thick, low, sweet, nutritious 
 grasses cover the entire suface." Long 7 found the country bar- 
 ren between Loup Pork and the Platte. Beyond the bottom 
 lands of the Platte as a whole "the surface is an undulating plain 
 presenting the aspect of hopeless and irreclaimable sterility." 
 McClure 8 gives the following description : "from Omaha to the 
 North Platte the country is beautiful prairie . . . but . . . 
 about Pt. Kearney and thence westward there is but one con- 
 tinued plain, parched . . . altogether inhospitable, bleak 
 
 i From the Atlantic to the Pacific, Overland, 1866, pp. 26, 27, and 49 
 
 2 Loc. cit, Vol. I., pp. 45, 46. 
 
 3 Our New West, 1869, p. 38. 
 
 4 Life on the Plains, 1854, p. 47. 
 
 5 Journal of Expedition to Rocky Mountains in 1833, 24th Cong. 
 1st Session, House Doc. No. 181, pp. 7-20. 
 
 6 Survey of the Territories, 1870, pp. 108-111. 
 
 7 Loc. cit, Vol. L, 451, 459 and 469. 
 
 s Three Thousand Miles Through the Rocky Mountains, 1869, p. 53. 
 
41 
 
 and desolate." Parkman 1 found that in the Platte country "the 
 vast plains waved with tall, rank grass that swept our horses' 
 bellies;" nevertheless he refers to the region as a "gloomy, bar- 
 ren prairie." Eaynolds, 2 while camped on Deer Creek, a trib- 
 utary of the Platte, found that "exhausted animals turned out 
 to winter on the plains, came out in the spring in the best con- 
 dition." 
 
 Region of the Snake and Columbia River. Bonneville 3 states 
 that the valley of the Snake was usually well grassed. Fran- 
 chere 4 reported good grazing along the Willamette Eiver and the 
 great part of the Columbia. Above the Dalles there was "noth- 
 ing but bare hills" with little grass. Hayden 5 looked upon the 
 country about Port Hall as "a real oasis," while the region 
 around Henry Lake was a beautiful grassy valley. McClure 6 
 refers to southern Idaho as a "dreary, sterile waste." Stephens 
 found that between the Snake and Walla Walla Rivers the 
 "grass was uniformly good" as also from the Walla Walla to the 
 Palouse region. 
 
 The Southwest. There is perhaps no part of the United 
 States concerning which so much has been written as the South- 
 west. The following statements extracted from this mass of 
 literature may serve to convey an idea of the early grazing con- 
 ditions of this country. Bartlette 7 reported the soil poor and the 
 grass scanty along the Concho and between the Concho and 
 Pecos. "A miserable barren region" extended for 65 miles 
 along Pecos. There were patches of good grass near Guadalupe. 
 From Tndianola to San Antonio there was abundant grass, but 
 from the headwaters of the Concho "begins that great 'desert 
 region which extend a thousand miles and is wholly unfit for 
 agriculture." In Vol. II, p. 4 of the same report T. H. Webb, 
 speaking of the Gila and Colorado country and thence to San 
 Diego, says: "Much is said by travelers respecting the desert 
 
 1 The Oregon Trail, Eighth Ed., pp. 59 and 65 
 
 2 Loc. cit, p. 75. 
 
 3 Loc. cit., Vol. II., p. 41. 
 
 4 Voyage to the Northwest Coast of America, 1811-1814, pp. Ill 
 and 265. 
 
 5 Survey of Montana, etc., 1871, pp. 27 and 30. 
 
 6 Loc. cit., p. 202. 
 
 7 Lcc. cit., Vol. I., pp. 86, 100, and 139. 
 
42 
 
 of Sahara; but in barrenness of verdure, destitution of water,, 
 tremendous storms of sand, etc., etc., it is doubtful if any tract 
 of land can surpass the Jornada which we crossed. Indeed much 
 of this country, that by those residing at a distance is imagined 
 to be a perfect paradise, is a sterile waste utterly worthless 
 for any purpose than to constitute a barrier or natural line of 
 demarcation between two neighboring nations." In 1853, E. 
 F. Beale found good grazing in many parts of New Mexico. 
 Emory 1 reported concerning the Gadsden Purchase that the level 
 areas were "usually covered with a luxuriant growth of nutri- 
 tious grasses." "There are also to be found here, in the remains 
 of spacious corrals and in the numerous wild cattle and horses 
 which are still seen in this country, the evidence of its immense 
 capacity as a grazing country . . . Wherever water is suffi- 
 cient this whole region presents marvelous advantages for the 
 raising of stock." Some parts of the Gila country were barren 
 while other parts furnished good grazing.- Gregg 3 states that 
 from New Mexico "during the most flourishing times (previous 
 to 1835) as many as 500,000 sheep were exported in one year.'' 
 Ives 4 reported no grazing in the vicinity of Fort Yuma. The 
 first grass camp found in ascending the river was near Explor- 
 er's Pass. The Mojave Valley was observed to be well grassed 
 in the spring. Marcy 5 found "a heavy growth of the very best 
 grass" along the Little Wichita. Mesquite grass was abundant 
 along the Big Wichita. The valley of Otter Creek and the 
 Wichita Mountains were abundantly covered with grass. J. F. 
 Meline 6 found that in New Mexico "the high mesas or table- 
 lands, -indefinite in extent, furnish illimitable pasturage of the 
 best description." Pike, 7 referring to New Mexico, says that 
 aside from the valleys "all the rest of the country presents to 
 the eye a barren waste of poor land, scarcely to be improved by 
 culture." "Even the herbage appears to be poisoned by the 
 mineral qualities of the soil." Texas, however, was considered 
 
 i Loc. cit, Vol. I., pp. 93, 94. 
 
 2 From Fort Leavenwortth to San Diego, 1846, 1847 p 105 
 
 3 Loc. cit, Vol. I., p. 189. 
 
 4 Report Upon the Colorado River of the West, 1857 1858 pp 42-66 
 •-> Loo. cit, pp. 6, 23, 79, and 80. 
 
 o Two Thousand Miles on Horseback, 1867, p. 165. 
 7 Loc. citt, Appendix to Part III., pp. 5 and 31. 
 
43 
 
 "one of the richest, most prolific, hest watered countries in North 
 America." Sitgreaves 1 states that along the Zuni River "only 
 two kinds of grass were found at long intervals and in small 
 quantities; a tall coarse variety growing in large tufts, and a 
 smaller kind having a perceptible incrustation of salt upon the 
 leaves." Venegas 2 says that there were fine pastures westward 
 from the Colorado River in 1730. The region along the border 
 of Mexico and Lower California, however, is said to be the 
 "most disagreeable, barren, and wretched country in the world." 
 R. H. Forbes 3 contends that the ranges of the Southwest, ac- 
 cording to the statements of stockmen, were in excellent condi- 
 tion in 1870 and have been greatly injured by overgrazing since 
 that time. Bell 4 remarks concerning the Colorado Basin that 
 "Complete barrenness is the rule, fertility the rare exception; 
 scarcely any vegetation." 
 
 Utah and the Great Basin. Father Escalente 5 found a "flat 
 meadow land" near Utah Lake, and reported that "throughout 
 the whole there is good and abundant pasturage." Simpson 6 
 found excellent grass in Pleasant, Antelope, and Spring Valleys, 
 while Butte Valley bore nothing but sagebrush and Reese River 
 Valley was "divested of vegetation." According to Wheeler, 7 
 in western Utah and southeastern Nevada "the rich, succulent 
 bunch-grass has been found most valuable for stock raising and 
 the areas suitable have been already largely if not entirely 
 utilized for this purpose." Of 175,000 square miles surveyed, 
 4.77 per cent was considered agricultural, 49.37 per cent graz- 
 ing, 26.94 per cent timber, 16.95 per cent arid, 1.01 per cent 
 water and swamp, and 0.96 per cent chaparral. "In 1871 but 
 little of the arable or grazing land had come into the market 
 in Nevada . . . It is not difficult to see that before many 
 decades every useful acre will be appropriated . . . when 
 there will still remain, in the hands of the general government 
 
 i Zuni and Colorado Rivers, 1853, p. 22. 
 
 2 Loc. cit, Vol. I., p. 27. 
 
 3 Forester, Vol. VII., p. 217. 
 
 4 Loc. cit., Vol. I., p. xlii. 
 
 5Journeyings from Santa Fe to Utah Lake, 1776-1777. 
 
 6 Explorations in the Great Basin of the Territory of Utah, 1858-1859, 
 pp. 54, 79. 
 
 7 Geographical Surveys West of the 100 Meridian, 1869, pp. 17-37. 
 
44 
 
 sterile wastes of tens of millions of acres." The term "Great 
 American Desert" is used by Wheeler to signify the Great 
 Basin. Bell 1 found that in the Great Basin "sage brush and 
 greasewood alone spring from the parched earth, except where 
 some stream . . . supports a few acres of grass." 
 
 Wyoming. During the early days of western mining and 
 agricultural settlement a constant stream of travel passed 
 through southern Wyoming. This is the least attractive part 
 of the State and consequently many unfavorable comments have 
 been made concerning it by the early travelers. Barnes 2 says 
 that "25 miles east of the North Platte commences the desert in 
 earnest. From the Platte west to Fort Bridger, 200 miles, is 
 one almost uninterrupted panorama of barren hills . 
 and bleak desolation. . . . Except at Pine Grove, a little 
 oasis, I did not see a half acre of good, bad, or indifferent graz- 
 ing all this distance." Fremont 3 in 1842 found scarcely any 
 grass or vegetation near Bitter Creek and in the neighboring 
 country. The Indians, however, told him they usually had little 
 difficulty in finding grass for their horses here. Hayden 4 states 
 that from Fort Bridger a desert extends eastward for 200 miles. 
 The Laramie Plains were "covered with a thick carpet of grass." 
 Splendid grass was observed westward from Laramie. Accord- 
 ing to W. A. Jones, 5 from Fort Bridger to Popo Agie Kiver "the 
 grazing land everywhere around is very fine." From the Popo 
 Agie to Owl Creek Mountains there was little grass. From that 
 point tc the head of Gooseberry Creek there was good grazing. 
 On the North Fork of Stinking Water there was "very little 
 grass except a very tall coarse kind." "The western extremity 
 of Wyoming . . . from the southern to the northern 
 boundary . . . is as a rule semibarren . . . and sup- 
 ports a seamy growth of extremely nutritious grasses." In the 
 Green Eiver Basin "bunch grass grows sparsely anions the 
 sagebrush." The Laramie Plains were "thinly covered with 
 grass while the valleys of the streams afford excellent pasturage." 
 
 i Loc. cit., Vol. I., p. lix. 
 
 2 Loc. cit, p. 49. 
 
 3 Loc. cit., p. 70. 
 
 4 Survey of the Territories, 1870, pp. 35, 47, and 123 
 
 5 Reconnaissance of Northwestern Wyoming, 1873 pp 10-5' 1 
 
43 
 
 The Wind River Mountain slopes were covered with grass, while 
 the Big Horn Basin was "generally barren except the narrow 
 belts along streams." Raynolds 1 found the Powder River valley 
 to be a barren country. Bonneville 2 also refers to southern 
 Wyoming as generally barren. P. St. Cooke, 3 referring to the 
 country between South Pass and Ft. Bridger, says "The mules 
 for once were ordered to be tied at the wagons ; they gnawed and 
 destroyed four wagon tongues, a number of wagon covers, ate 
 their ropes, and getting loose ate the sage fuel collected at the 
 tents ; some of these (tents) they also attacked . . . The 
 earth has a no more lifeless, treeless, grassless desert ; it contains 
 scarcely a wolf to glut itself on the hundreds of dead and frozen 
 animals," etc. 
 
 Present conditions. To one who is familiar with the present 
 range conditions of the arid west as a whole, or any particular 
 section of it, these statements must indicate a striking similarity 
 in the appearance of the range in former times and at present. 
 The relatively barren areas of the Great Basin, Southern Wyom- 
 ing, and the extreme Southwest of the country as well as those 
 of the southern part of Idaho were present in about the same 
 extent and same condition at the time of the visits of various 
 explorers as at present. So far as the numerous statements 
 which have been consulted indicate, the general conditions and 
 appearance of the range country have changed but little since 
 the time when they were first explored by white men. As just 
 indicated the barren areas mentioned by the early explorers are 
 likewise the barren areas of the present, and the comparatively 
 fertile regions of tall and abundant grasses are still distinguish- 
 ed by these characteristics. We may take Arizona and ISTew 
 Mexico as representing the Southwest. These territories have, 
 in the opinion of some investigators, deteriorated most with 
 regard to grazing conditions and the possibility of animal in- 
 dustry. Circular letters sent to a number of representative 
 stockmen in Arizona elicited replies which indicate a striking 
 
 i Loc. cit., p. 8. 
 
 2 Loc. cit, Vol. I., p. 61. 
 
 3 Utah Expedition 1857, U. S. House Representatives 35th Cong., 
 1st Session, Ex. Doc. 71, pp. 98, 99. 
 
46 
 
 deterioration in range conditions. 1 The feed on the range in 
 Arizona has evidently undergone certain changes in character 
 during the past 20 years, as evidenced by the statements of 
 stockmen and the investigations of Griffiths and others; never- 
 theless the total number of stock has not diminished in recent 
 years to an extent which would indicate an alarming destruction 
 of the range throughout the whole territory. Between 1895 and 
 1900 the number of horses in the territory increased from 56,- 
 000 to 125,000 and the number of sheep from 746,000 to 924,- 
 000. The number of cattle, however, diminished greatly and 
 the majority of complaints with regard to the present conditions 
 of the range in Arizona come from cattle raisers. The latest 
 reports of the governor of the territory indicate a marked de- 
 crease in the number of cattle for the last 10 years and this is 
 ascribed to a shortage of water and range feed. The sheep in- 
 dustry, however, is perhaps in a better condition than ever be- 
 fore and few complaints, which would indicate any striking 
 deterioration in the range grasses are made by sheepmen. M. 
 A. Otero 2 states that in New Mexico "the range is not being 
 destroyed. The actual area used for grazing purposes supports 
 the same number of head of stock now as in past days. The 
 difference arises in that instead of belonging to a few companies, 
 the stock is the property of a hundred owners." The live-stock 
 business, including the raising of cattle, is said never to have 
 been in better condition than at present, and range grasses are 
 reported as abundant. It is evident, however, from the investi- 
 gations of Griffiths 3 that the range in many parts of Arizona is 
 becoming less and less productive, on account of overstocking 
 and the consequent prevention of reseeding, which leads in turn 
 to excessive erosion of the soil. These factors have brought 
 about exceedingly discouraging conditions in some parts of the 
 territory. 
 
 The present forage conditions of the northern border of the 
 Great Basin are well described by Griffiths. 4 Three forage 
 zones may be recognized in this region, viz. : Low lands, such as 
 
 i U. S .Dept. Agr., Bureau of Plant Industry Bui. 4 pp 4-14 
 
 2 Rpt. Governor New Mexico for 1902 p 15 
 
 3 U. s. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Plant Industry Bui. 4 
 
 4 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Plant Industry Bui 15 
 
47 
 
 liver bottoms and low basin-shaped depressions; high plateaus; 
 and the foothills and slopes at elevations intermediate between 
 these 2 zones. The low lands are not generally used for grazing 
 purposes but serve to furnish native hay. The mesas furnish a 
 considerable variety of perennial grasses, such as blue grass, 
 sheep fescue, wheat grass, etc., together with sage brush and 
 other shrubs. The intermediate zone is of a rougher character 
 and yeilds little except sage brush and shrubs of various sorts. 
 The grazing conditions in Nevada and the possibilities of sheep 
 raising have recently been discussed by Kennedy and Doten.* 
 The range grasses on the Sierra Nevada Mountains were found 
 to be not greatly injured by overstocking. The forage plants 
 were as a rule of a hardy nature and so abundant as to furnish 
 plentiful grazing. It is suggested by these authors that the 
 range could be improved by resting or by seeding with native 
 grasses, but no particularly alarming destruction of grass was 
 observed. 
 
 The present condition of the Great Plains is essentially the 
 same as that described by early travelers. The prevailing grass- 
 es are still the buffalo and grama, of low habit. The sod formed 
 by these grasses is comparatively close and the amount of forage 
 produced is very great. The greatest difficulty in utilizing the 
 immense grazing facilities of the Great Plains is the lack of 
 water at sufficiently short intervals, and this difficulty is being 
 overcome by the use of artesian wells and wind mills or gasoline 
 engines attached to ordinary pumps. The immense numbers of 
 buffalo in early days and later of cattle have not been sufficient 
 to produce any marked change in the character or amount of 
 Tange forage upon this area. 
 
 As representative of the Pocky Mountain States we may 
 select Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, and Colorado. The develop- 
 ment of the cattle and sheep industry in the northern parts of 
 this region is comparatively recent, for the reason that this 
 country was long supposed to be too far north for successful 
 cattle or sheep raising under range conditions. The eastern 
 two-thirds of Montana is largely devoted to grazing and has 
 "been since the earliest settlement of the State. There are im- 
 
 * Nevada Sta. Bui. 51. 
 
48 
 
 mense areas along the eastern boundary of the State which still 
 produce grasses from 10 to 16 inches in height and of sufficient 
 thickness to furnish a fairly good crop of native hay, without 
 the necessity of irrigation. This region, according to the testi- 
 mony of early stock raisers, has remained without any decided 
 change, in so far as forage conditions are concerned. The Judith 
 Basin and the region around Sun and Dearborn Kivers have 
 evidently always been excellent grazing ground since the earliest 
 available reports. Opinions differ somewhat as to the actual 
 height and abundance of the grass in various parts of this region, 
 but the most reliable data and statements by living stockmen 
 fail to indicate any pronounced change in the character of the 
 range. A few stockmen assert that the grass in Judith Basin 
 in the early 70's grew to a height of 2 or 3 feet and that the 
 change to the present condition of short close-grown grasses, 
 chiefly grama grass, took place after the introduction of sheep 
 into this region. These statements, however, are incompatible 
 with the statements of travelers who found uniformly excellent 
 grazing throughout that part of Montana, but report that the 
 grasses, even in Judith Basin, were short and that the ground 
 appeared at first sight to be comparatively barren except along 
 the river bottoms. As stated above, Thomas in 1871 reported 
 Montana as being the best grazing State in the Union and, all 
 things considered, this is perhaps still true at the present time. 
 It is interesting to note, from a careful reading of the travels 
 of Lewis and Clark, that almost without exception the regions 
 where they reported short grass (grama grass) are still covered 
 with these grasses, and that the same statement may be made for 
 the locations on which they found taller and coarser grasses. 
 
 With regard to Wyoming the grazing conditions are almost 
 the same at present as they were in 1870. The Big Horn 
 Basin was then reported as comparatively barren and furnishing 
 only short, dry grass, except along the streams. This is strictly 
 true at the present day, and has been essentially the same since 
 the memory of the oldest living stockmen in that region. The 
 southern part of Wyoming, especially the Ked Desert, gives 
 today the same impression of barrenness as it did to the early 
 travellers. The productiveness of this region, however, is well 
 
49 
 
 understood by sheepmen, who lease the land for grazing pur- 
 poses and who find that the productivity of the Red Desert is 
 greater now than it was twenty years ago, despite the fact that 
 it serves as a range for not less than 500,000 sheep in winter. 
 
 Davy,* investigated the range conditions of Northwestern 
 California, with special reference to the possible changes which 
 the range had undergone as a result of overgrazing. While 
 definite data concerning the former condition of vegetation in 
 that region were not obtained, it is considered by this author as 
 certain that the quantity of valuable forage grasses has diminish- 
 ed considerably within the past fifty years as a result of over- 
 grazing. Satements were obtained from stockmen which indi- 
 cate that certain valuable perennial species of grasses have been 
 practically killed out and replaced by species which were con- 
 sidered less valuable. The carrying capacity of these ranges, 
 however, is still comparatively high. 
 
 The effects of overgrazing. While it is evident that the arid 
 stock ranges are able to withstand the effects of excessive graz- 
 ing for a considerable period and to recover quite completely, if 
 allowed a suitable period of rest, it is nevertheless equally ap- 
 parent that overstocking persisted in continuously for long 
 periods brings about a condition of extreme barrenness upon 
 range lands, and especially in the southwestern portion of the 
 country whore aridity and erosion are more pronounced. Var- 
 ious effects of overgrazing have been noted by different observers 
 from time to time, and these observed effects have received 
 more or less plausible explanations. The findings of different 
 observers, however, with regard to the actual effects of over- 
 grazing, and the arguments employed in proving the cause of 
 these conditions are more or less contradictory and incompatible. 
 On the one hand we frequently note the statement that the 
 trampling of soil by the hoofs of sheep or other animals leads 
 to an increase in the amount and rapidity of superficial run-off 
 of water and consequent erosion. Other observers, however, 
 argue that in order to prevent excessive superficial run-off and 
 erosion it is necessary to loosen the soil to a greater or less ex- 
 tent. It is apparent that these two statements are directly 
 
 * TJ. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Plant Industry Bui. 12. 
 
50 
 
 opposed and both cannot be true under the same conditions 
 Indeed the effect of trampling by the hoofs of animals varies 
 greatly according to the nature of the soil and the amount of 
 moisture. In loose, sandy soil the sod may be easxly broken by 
 the trampling of animals, even in a dry season, while similar 
 trampling on hard clay soil ordinarily serves to pack the sou 
 down into a still firmer condition, and thus increases the rapid- 
 ity of superficial run-off after rains. It is thus perfectly ap- 
 parent that the effect of the trampling of animals upon the 
 range is not uniform. In some instances it may be beneficial 
 and in others extremely injurious. On steep slopes, especially m 
 sandv soil, large portions of sod may be torn loose and the erosion 
 of the sand greatly increased. The roots of seedling trees may 
 also be injured or exposed by the same agencies. The worst 
 effects of the trampling, of animals are observed where the 
 animals are herded too closely and allowed to form trails upon 
 steep slopes, which subsequently serve as water ways for carry- 
 ing off the excess of water after heavy storms. The bad effects 
 of trampling are also observed when sheep camps are maintained 
 in the same place for too long a period upon the summer range. 
 The grass is then entirely destroyed in the region of the camp, 
 and even the roots are injured by the excessive trampling. 
 
 The action of the hoofs of animals upon the grass and sod is 
 thus seen to depend greatly upon the management of the stock. 
 If sheep or other animals are held in one place for a long 
 period the effect of trampling becomes pronounced. The ground 
 may be completely divested of vegetation, and even the grass 
 roots may be killed. Under a rational system of management, 
 however, thf se effects are not manifested. Excessive trampling 
 by cattle and horses may pack the superficial layer of soil so 
 firmly as to render it comparatively impervious to water. Ero- 
 sion and superficial run-off of water are closely interrelated. 
 Whatever increases the rapidity of superficial run-off will natur- 
 ally tend to increase erosion. On firmly packed soil, however, 
 covered with close short grass a very rapid run-off may be asso- 
 ciated with an almost complete absence of erosion. The water ap- 
 pears to run over the fine grass without carrying away any of 
 the soil. Tall coarse grasses prevent the rapid run-off of water. 
 
51 
 
 and as a result the water enters the soil and therefore does not 
 cause erosion. The protection afforded by a good cover of grass 
 on the ground is especially conspicuous on steep mountain slopes. 
 During a torrential storm the grass is bent over and almost en- 
 tirely prevents the erosion of soil, while barren soil is eroded 
 with gieat rapidity. The importance of protecting steep slopes 
 against overgrazing cannot be urged too strongly upon the atten- 
 tion of stock raisers. During a trip through northwestern Wyo- 
 ming abundant opportunity was had for observing the relation 
 between excessive grazing and erosion on steep slopes. During 
 the year 1900 the grass between Sunlight Creek and Crandall 
 Creek along Clark's Fork of the Yellowstone had been closely 
 grazed by sheep. During the season of 1901 after the occur- 
 rence of a number of heavy rain storms Clark's Fork was very 
 muddy as the result of a large amount of fine soil particles car- 
 ried down from the mountain slopes. In some localities large 
 flat areas near the canyon of Clark's Fork were covered with silt 
 to a depth of from one-half to two feet as a result of these 
 storms Above the point where sheep had been allowed to graze 
 during the previous season the river and tributary streams were 
 found to be perfectly clear immediately after the heavy rains 
 which had caused the muddy condition of the river farther 
 down. The grass in the region which had not been grazed was 
 much taller and had resisted the rapid run-off of the water to 
 such an extent that the river was not unusually swollen and no 
 fine soil had been carried into it. 
 
 In K"ew Mexico, E. O. Wooten has observed that on ranges 
 which have been overgrazed with cattle and horses the soil is apt 
 to become cut up with deep ditches which develop from the trails 
 caused by these animals. The appearance of the country is thus 
 considerably changed and the aridity is apparently increased as 
 a result of the facility afforded by these ditches for a more rapid 
 run-off of water. According to the same author the effect of 
 overgrazing by sheep is not manifested in increased erosion or 
 the production of arroyos to any great extent. If the high 
 mountain meadows are closely grazed the soil is exposed to the 
 action of the violent thunder storms which occur from time to 
 time and erosion is thereby greatly increased in the meadows 
 
themselves and upon the lower-lying slopes as a result of the 
 more rapid, run-off of water. 
 
 The destruction of grasses and the replacement of certain 
 species of grass by other species or by weeds are phenomena 
 which are manifested to different degrees, dependent upon the 
 kind of animals, the nature of the soil, and the dryness of the 
 season. Great differences of opinion are observed in studying 
 the published results of investigations thus far made on this 
 subject. In some localities it is claimed that excessive or even 
 moderate continuous grazing by sheep or cattle has a tendency 
 to destroy native grasses of the range and to permit their re- 
 placement by less desirable species or by weeds. In some in- 
 stances it is claimed that the perennial grasses are rapidly de- 
 stroyed and replaced by annuals, while in other localities the 
 annuals are said to be destroyed first by grazing, and to be grad- 
 ually leplaced with grama and buffalo grasses; the latter two 
 grasses appear, according to the testimony of early explorers and 
 modern investigators as well as according to the observation of 
 stockmen and from the present condition of the range, to be 
 perhaps more capable than any other species of grass of with- 
 standing arid conditions, excessive grazing, and trampling. It 
 is difficult to understand how perennial grasses can be destroyed 
 more easily than annuals. Annual grasses must reseed them- 
 selves each year in order to maintain an existence upon the 
 range, while the perennials may live for a number of years, even 
 if prevented from reseeding. Observations, however, made by 
 Davy in California and by Wooton in New Mexico indicate that 
 this process takes place under certain conditions. *It is claimed 
 by stockmen in Sherwood Valley, Cal., that in 1853, Dantlionia 
 californica, a valuable perennial grass, was the most abundant 
 species upon the range; it is now said to be almost extinct. 
 Similarly, several other species of perennial grasses in Califor- 
 nia have gradually succumbed to sheep grazing. Small barley 
 grass, soft chess, and squirrel-tail have been introduced into Cal- 
 ifornia since 1865 and have replaced native species of grass. It 
 appears from an examination of the ranges of northwestern Cal- 
 
 « *- U ' lv 1 ?? pt -^ gr - Burea " °f Plant Industry Bui. 12, pp. 19-35; New 
 Mexico Station Press Bui. 78. 
 
ifornia, that the dominant species of grass have changed several 
 times during the past twenty years. It is commonly believed, 
 although the reasons for this belief are not very evident, that 
 the original species of grass were more nutritious than the intro- 
 duced species. In Xew Mexico the native perennial grasses of 
 certain localities have been replaced to some extent by annual 
 grasses, which are claimed to be of inferior feeding value and 
 also to be distasteful to stock. Georgeson also observed this 
 process on an overgrazed prairie area in Kansas 1 ; the native 
 grasses were apparently dying as a result of overgrazing, and 
 were being replaced by undesirable grasses and weeds. In south- 
 western Oregon Griffiths 2 observed several injurious effects of 
 sheep grazing. Sheep fescue was completely killed by overgraz- 
 ing, even large bunches of this grass being absolutely destroyed. 
 This result was partly due to too close cropping, with the result- 
 ant exposure of the bunches of roots to the direct rays of the 
 sun and the diminished power of these bunches for holding 
 moisture, as well as to the pulverizing action of the hoofs of the 
 sheep, which are kept almost constantly in motion in fighting 
 flies and in moving about during the resting period in the mid- 
 dle of the day; the surface of the soil was thus reduced to a 
 fine powder and the superficial roots of grasses were much cut 
 to pieces. 
 
 One readily observes, in studying the habits of animals upon 
 the range, that a more or less pronounced choice is exercised in 
 the selection of forage plants. The plants preferred by cattle 
 and horses are not necessarily those which are most liked by 
 sheep, but a preference is manifested by all of these animals, 
 and this results in the close grazing of the preferred plants 
 while the less desirable grasses and certain weeds may be al- 
 lowed to grow. This process, however, is not so simple as might 
 be supposed from such a statement. Xo great regularity is ap- 
 parent in the choice exercised by different domestic animals and 
 when a desirable species becomes comparatively scarce, less de- 
 sirable and more abundant species are grazed, with the result 
 that the range when stocked to its full capacity is grazed almost 
 
 i Kansas Sta. Bui. 48, p. 43. 
 
 2 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Plant Industry Bui. 15, p. 29 
 
54 
 
 uniformly with regard to nearly all its forage plants. It is only 
 while the forage is abundant and the range not too heavily 
 stocked that animals wander about to a great extent m search 
 of certain preferred species of forage plants. Eanges occupied 
 with annual grasses are easily injured by excessive grazing, on 
 account of the habit of shallow rooting which is almost universal 
 in these species, and on account of the fact, already mentioned, 
 that they must reseed each year in order to maintain their place 
 on the range. There are other species of so-called weeds which 
 are eaten at some seasons of the year, especially by sheep, and 
 since few of these plants withstand excessive grazing so success- 
 fully as grass, there is as a rule no pronounced tendency toward 
 the replacement of grass by weeds, except on ranges which are 
 manifestly overstocked and where weeds which are quite ined- 
 ible to stock secure a foothold. 
 
 C. H. Bayless, an Arizona stock grower, as a result of fifteen 
 years' experience in that territory 1 maintains that the grama 
 grasses have gradually diminished in quantity during the past 
 two years and that certain annual grasses which have partly re- 
 placed them are of little value. It is believed by this stockman 
 that the carrying power of the Arizona ranges has been greatly 
 diminished and that this is due entirely to overstocking. 
 
 R. 1ST. Sutherlin 2 , in speaking of the ability of bunch grass 
 to endure heavy pasturage, makes the following observation: 
 "In 1865 the hills around Virginia City were grazed off per- 
 fectly bare for a distance of six or seven miles in every direction 
 and many asserted that in a few years it would be a barren 
 waste. Today those hillsides support as luxuriant a growth of 
 feed as they did previous to the habitation of the country by 
 whites." Tourney 3 states that on the eastern slope of the Rocky 
 Mountains grama and buffalo grasses formerly prevailed, but 
 that these grasses are now replaced by less valuable species. 
 This statement, however, is directly contradicted by many oth- 
 ers. It is apparent, even to a casual observer, that throughout 
 the larger portion of the Great Plains the reverse condition is 
 true, viz., that grama and buffalo grasses have almost entirely 
 
 i XJ. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Plant Industry Bui. 4 p 13 
 
 2 Loc. cit., p. 23. 
 
 3 Arizona Sta. Bui. 2. 
 
00 
 
 displaced all other species. This process was almost completed 
 at the time oi the earliest western explorations and has contin- 
 ued in force until the present day. T. A. Williams 1 maintains 
 as a result of his investigations on the range conditions in the 
 northern portions of the Great Plains, that "out on the open 
 ranges of the plains, however, there are few localities in which 
 the pasturage is anything like as good as in former years. 
 Leading stockmen from nearly all parts of the plains region 
 estimate that the stock-carrying capacity of the pasture laud has 
 been reduced on the average from 40 to 50 per cent in the last 
 ten or fifteen years." This statement, however, does not repre- 
 sent the conditions which prevail throughout the Great Plains 
 as a whole, since the scarcity of water has rendered it impossible 
 to utilize all the grazing ground of this region. The recent de- 
 velopment of the use of wind mills and gasoline pumps as well 
 as the location of artesian wells, has made accessible large areas 
 of this region which were previously but little grazed. The 
 grass is reported to be in excellent condition on these ranges. 
 
 With regard to the comparative effects of overgrazing by 
 cattle and sheep, these questions will be discussed in connection 
 with the description of the industries of cattle and sheep raising. 
 Injuries to the range grasses from overgrazing are usually at- 
 tributed by cattlemen to sheep and by sheepmen to cattle. The 
 unqualified statements which are so frequently made on this 
 subject have, therefore, to be interpreted in the light of special 
 prejudices which may be entertained by the observer. H. M. 
 Taylor 2 asserts that sheep "travel but a few miles a day, and 
 leave the country over which they pass as bare of grass as the 
 house floor. . . . Utah is full of sheep and hundreds of thou- 
 sands are started every spring to the eastward .... spreading 
 out over the range in all directions like a swarm of Egyptian 
 locusts." "M.j observation for several years of the nomadic 
 sheep raiser causes him to be placed in the category of a nui- 
 sance." The same author came to the conclusion that in 1885 
 the ranges were overstocked and every acre throughout the arid 
 belt was already occupied. The general depression in the cattle 
 
 1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Division of Agrostology Bui. 12, p. 51. 
 
 2 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Animal Industry Rpt. 1887-8, pp. 122, 
 330. 
 
56 
 
 business which took place at that time is attributed partly to the 
 alleged overstocking and destruction of the range. Wheeler 1 
 contends that "The sheep have made savage work with the 
 rounded hills .... by treading out the natural grasses." In 
 a letter to the Secretary of the Interior, February 14, 1883, C. 
 M. Howard 2 makes the following statement with regard to con- 
 ditions in Utah : "In the course of three or four seasons where 
 sheep have been herded they literally kill out every green thing. 
 . . . Five years ago the valleys and foothills for twenty miles 
 hereabouts were covered with a heavy growth of bunch and 
 grama grasses. Today there is scarcely a shrub left — nothing 
 but straggling bunches of sage brush." This stockman relates 
 that in 1876 there were thousands of acres near Beaver City 
 covered with grass waist high, and that this same area is now 
 quite barren. 
 
 Upon careful investigation of the grass problem, however, 
 in any given locality it soon becomes apparent that the effects 
 observed as the result of the overgrazing of one season may be 
 only of a temporary nature, and that while the range may ap- 
 pear to be left in a barren condition after the stock is removed, 
 these same conditions may nevertheless have prevailed essential- 
 ly unchanged ever since an accurate knowledge of the western 
 grazing lands was obtained. The failure to recognize the great 
 natural powers of recuperation of the arid range country has 
 led to many unjustifiable assertions regarding the destruction of 
 the range grasses. Thus Roth 3 calls attention to this point in 
 the following words : "It is a common error to mistake a short- 
 cropped range for a poor or injured one. Some of the older 
 ranges, like the Red Desert of Wyoming, were on this account 
 supposed to be all killed out more than fifteen years ago, and yet 
 these very same ranges support as many sheep as ever and sup- 
 port them fully as well. Similarly, parts of the Cascades have 
 been used, and used hard, for many years, but in spite of being 
 closely cut and in spite of the fact that the tall bunch grass has 
 long disappeared, the bands do as well as ever." 
 
 1 Geographical Surveys West of the 100th Meridian 1889 
 
 2 U. S. House Representatives 50th Cong., 1st Session, Ex. Dec. 232, 
 p. 3. 
 
 3 U. S. Dept. Agr Yearbook 1901, p. 346. 
 
57 
 
 Xelson* also describes the forage conditions of the Red Des- 
 ert of Wyoming. According to this description there is at pres- 
 ent excellent forage in this region, and horses, cattle, and sheep 
 do well upon it, During the winter more than 500,000 sheep are 
 grazed upon the Red Desert. It has been found that the qual- 
 ity and quantity of forage on this area is not only quite satis- 
 factory but that it is actually improving. An area which twen- 
 ty years ago would support only one sheep is now capable of 
 subsisting three to five sheep. The railroad land in this region 
 is leased by sheepmen, who gladly pay the usual leasing price 
 in return for the forage which they obtain. As already indi- 
 cated, however, there are few regions which appear more unat- 
 tractive than the Red Desert or which would be more likely to 
 be chosen by a superficial observer to illustrate the effects of 
 overgrazing. 
 
 Xo attempt has thus far been made in this discussion to 
 define what is meant by overgrazing. The most satisfactory 
 meaning to ascribe to this term is that of an extent of grazing 
 which, when persisted in for long periods, will gradually lead 
 to the deterioration of the range conditions. A moderate amount 
 of grazing may be taken as meaning an amount of grazing which 
 can be persisted in indefinitely upon a given range without 
 causing any such deterioration in the grass. The effects of mod- 
 erate grazing upon ranges or in forest reserves is apparently no 
 more injurious than the removal of a crop of grass annually by 
 means of a mowing machine. The question of whether the 
 range grasses are being exterminated or being displaced by less 
 desirable species and weeds can only be determined after care- 
 ful observations extending over a period of years. 
 
 In forming a critical judgment of the value of testimony 
 regarding range conditions in any locality attention should be 
 given to the effort, or lack of effort, on the part of the observer 
 to examine parts of the range which exhibits average conditions 
 and to avoid basing his opinion upon conditions which prevail 
 along highways and sheep or cattle trails. It is apparent, even 
 to a casual observer, that the grass on the usual camping grounds 
 along the main thoroughfares in the range country is ordinarily 
 
 * U. S. Dept. Agr., Division of Agrostology Bui. 13, pp. 22-24. 
 
58 
 
 much more closely grazed than that which is found farther from 
 the main line of travel or away from the usual camping places. 
 Horses which are picketed or turned loose upon the usual camp- 
 ing grounds destroy the grass very effectively within a short 
 time. Thus J. H. Dickerson 1 relates that after they had been 
 in camp on good grass only a week the grass had been eaten for 
 a distance of one and a half miles in all directions. Blackin- 
 ship 2 , in referring to the observed evil effects of overgrazing, 
 states that this is particularly manifest along "the main lines 
 of travel pursued by the different bands of sheep and in the 
 vicinity of shipping points and shearing corrals." Such condi- 
 tions would naturally be expected, but they cannot be considered 
 as indicating in any way the average conditions upon the range. 
 The same author refers to the great power of resistance against 
 excessive grazing possessed by such grasses as bluejoint, grama, 
 and buffalo grass. These grasses have, as already indicated, 
 maintained themselves in essentially the same conditions for 
 long periods in various parts of the range country, and especial- 
 ly the grama grass appears to attain as great a height upon the 
 mountain ranges as in former years before the numbers of sheep 
 and cattle were of great significance. 
 
 Range improvement. Various schemes have been proposed 
 for the improvement of the western ranges and the more impor- 
 tant of them may be properly discussed in this connection. In 
 order that grasses may reseed themselves successfully it is de- 
 sirable that the superficial layer of the soil be not packed down 
 so tightly that the seed can not find lodgment. Under certain 
 conditions the loosening of the soil is brought about by the 
 trampling of the sheep, cattle, and horses. Where this does not 
 take place it may be desirable under certain conditions, and 
 perhaps only on a small scale, to run over the range with a light 
 disk harrow. This is especially desirable where deliberate at- 
 tempts are made to improve the range by sowing grass seed. The 
 seed should preferably be sown previous to harrowing and at a 
 time of year when some rainfall may reasonably be expected. 
 The grasses which should be selected for improving the range by 
 
 i Utah Expedition, 1857, p. 100. 
 2 Montana Station Rpt. 1902. 
 
59 
 
 artificial seeding are, according to the experiments thus far 
 made, the native species. The native grasses appear to be best 
 acclimated to the aridity and other climatic conditions of the 
 range and therefore thrive better than any introduced or culti- 
 vated species. Certain grasess especially adapted to semiarid 
 conditions thrive fairly well if favorable conditions exist during 
 the first year. The awnless brome grass is perhaps the most 
 noted of these species, but the experiments made with this grass 
 in Montana under natural range conditions have not shown that 
 it is capable of maintaining itself in a satisfactory condition. 
 Where some moisture becomes available through seepage the 
 brome grass starts early in the spring and furnishes green for- 
 age, which is especially desirable for ewes. The most satisfac- 
 tory results, however, are to be expected from the collection and 
 sowing of the seed of the most valuable native species, such as 
 grama grass, buffalo grass, bluejoint, etc. These species have 
 maintained themselves, under more or less adverse conditions, 
 since the earliest knowledge of the western ranges, and may be 
 reasonably expected to give good results in the future. They 
 are, moreover, exceedingly nutritious and are well liked by all 
 kinds of stock. It may be doubted whether, under present con- 
 ditions, the sowing of any seed upon the open range will become 
 a general practice. The expense is too great to justify the oper- 
 ation on the part of any stockman so long as he has no assur- 
 ance that the benefits of his work will not accrue equally to other 
 stock raisers who may lay claim to the range. Under a leasing 
 system or upon grazing ground owned by stock raisers such im- 
 provement would appear to be more fully justified from a finan- 
 cial standpoint. Evidently the natural method of grass repro- 
 duction is to be preferred, on account of its effectiveness and 
 also from financial considerations. So long as sufficient care is 
 exercised to prevent all of the grass from being eaten during 
 any one season, a portion of it forms seed and will serve to 
 reseed the range and prevent any marked deterioration in the 
 quantity of forage. The native grasses upon the ranges are 
 capable of being sustained by a minimum amount of moisture, 
 and after being thoroughly dried up, root and stem, during the 
 dry season, they are capable of starting up quickly under the 
 influence of showers. 
 
CO 
 
 If these required conditions for the reproduction of native 
 grasses are not observed a failure to reseed occurs, with the con- 
 sequent gradual diminution in the amount of forage upon the 
 range. When this process has taken place to a pronounced de- 
 gree it becomes necessary to give such areas a rest, either for one 
 or more years or for a portion of each year. Alternate grazing 
 and resting of the range corresponds exactly with the conditions 
 which prevailed before the advent of the western settlers. The 
 buffalo traveled about from one part of the range to another, 
 and large herds carried out general seasonal migrations north- 
 ward in the spring and southward with the approach of winter. 
 This brought about the alternate grazing and resting of various 
 parts of the range quite as effectually as can be produced by the 
 artificial management of stock. While the grass was apparently 
 quite destroyed by the grazing of buffalo, the rest which was 
 afforded for the remainder of the season after the migration of 
 the buffalo was sufficient to enable the range to recover. Stock- 
 men as a rule divide the areas at their disposal into summer and 
 winter range, and it has been found that this system is not only 
 convenient, in so far as the management of stock is concerned, 
 but also has the great advantage of preserving the range with a 
 minimum amount of injury to the grass. The grass is thus al- 
 lowed to produce seed during the season when it is not grazed, 
 and the native species are preserved in as nearly as possible 
 their original relative importance. Kesting the range for a 
 greater period than one season may prove very inconvenient for 
 many stockmen with limited range at their disposal. Where, 
 however, it is observed that the condition of the range grasses is 
 gradually deteriorating, it is necessary to allow some period of 
 rest, or to reduce the number of stock. An abundance of expe- 
 rience along this line has demonstrated that a short rest is suffi- 
 cient to produce a great increase in the amount of forage and to 
 greatly improve the general conditions of the range. It has 
 been shown by experiments on a small and large scale that the 
 recuperative powers are marvelously great. This constitutes the 
 chief basis of hope for the range cattleman and sheepman, and 
 he may reasonably expect that the range will recover from the 
 effects of abuse, such as overstocking, after a short period of 
 rest. 
 
Gl 
 
 The control of grazing land which is leased or owned by 
 individual stockmen is a simple matter. The areas in question 
 are fenced in order to prevent the encroachment of outside stock 
 and the number of stock allowed to graze upon the inclosures 
 may be regulated according to the observed conditions of the 
 grass. Fencing is thus an effective and not excessively expen- 
 sive method of solving the grazing problem. This remedy, how- 
 ever, is evidently not applicable upon the public range. In this 
 connection it may be desirable to refer briefly to the results of 
 certain experiments and observations which have been made 
 regarding the improvement of the range. Bentley 1 concluded 
 as a result of his observations that the range can be greatly im- 
 proved by light harrowing, resting, and sowing seeds of native 
 grasses. It was estimated that the carrying capacity of certain 
 range areas had been increased to the extent of 100 per cent 
 within a period of three years by the application of these meth- 
 ods. As is well known, the range land of Texas is owned by 
 the State and is largely fenced. In the earlier days of the cat- 
 tle business in that State, according to the observations of stock- 
 men, the grass grew to considerably greater height than at pres- 
 ent. It has been estimated that thirty years ago in some parts 
 of Texas 300 cattle could be kept on each square mile. This 
 number, however, was too high for permanent stocking and the 
 grass was greatly reduced in quantity as a result of overgrazing. 
 Hon. J. M. Carey, in referring to the means for improving the 
 range in Wyoming 2 , says "As soon as the cattle are removed the 
 ranges again grow up to the native grasses." Georgeson 3 car- 
 ried out an experiment on a prairie pasture which had been over- 
 grazed and upon which weeds were growing up. Native grasses 
 seemed to be on the decline. The surface of the soil was disked 
 and a mixture of cultivated perennial grasses was sown. The 
 cultivated grasses appeared to predominate until June, when the 
 prairie grasses began to gain the ascendency and by September 
 the latter had displaced the cultivated grasses and weeds. 
 
 s 
 
 lU. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Plant Industry Bui. 13, p. 34; U. S. 
 DeDt Agr.. Farmers' Bui. 72. 
 
 2 V -S. Dept. Agr., Division of Agrostology Bui. 12, p. 10. 
 
 3 Kansas Sta. Bui. 48, p. 43. 
 
62 
 
 jSTelson 1 recommends alternate resting and pasturing of the 
 range, combined with the use of a disk harrow and reseeding 
 with native grasses. J. G. Smith 2 calls attention to the fact 
 that in Texas some stockmen seem to believe that the country 
 was never grazed until sheep and cattle were introduced ; it was 
 therefore difficult to persuade them that the observed results of 
 overgrazing in certain localities were not a new phenomenon 
 but that similar conditions had prevailed from time to time as 
 a result of the grazing of buffalo and wild horses. "The inter- 
 mittent grazing and resting of the land resulting from the rov- 
 ing habits of' the buffalo and mustangs was an ideal method of 
 pasturing and improving the natural pasturage." Attention is 
 also called by this author to the fact that after the destruction 
 of the buffalo a short period intervened during which the cattle 
 and sheep business was being developed and during which the 
 number of domestic animals was quite insufficient to eat as much 
 grass as had previously been consumed by buffalo. The native 
 grasses therefore attained a height and thickness of growth 
 which was considerably greater than the average, until they 
 were grazed off during the days of the cattle kings in the 80's. 
 
 When we consider the immense areas of grazing lands upon 
 which it is proposed to put in operation practical schemes for 
 the improvement of the grazing conditions it is apparent that 
 these schemes must suit the requirements of stock raisers under 
 present conditions, or that before they can be put in operation 
 certain changes must be made in the land laws. It would be of 
 little avail to discuss in detail the present mooted question con- 
 cerning the leasing of public grazing lands. ISFo agreement has 
 been reached on this point, either between legislators or between 
 stockmen, who are most intimately concerned in the passage of 
 such a law. It is argued on the one hand that in order to in- 
 duce any stockman to make improvements upon the range it i? 
 necessary to give him control of the range for a considerable 
 period of time ; otherwise, it is argued, no one could be expected 
 to lay out money for improvement so long as others may share 
 equally in the benefits. The opponents of the leasing system 
 
 i Wyoming Sta. Press Bui. 7. 
 
 2 U. S. Dept. Agr., Division of Agrostology Bui. 16. 
 
63 
 
 maintain, on the other hand, that any system of leasing will 
 operate directly in favor of large cattle and sheep companies 
 and against the interests of homesteaders. The only point upon 
 which there seems to he unanimity of opinion is that any law 
 for leasing the public range which will give an advantage to 
 large stock companies and discourage the settlement and im- 
 provement of the land by homesteaders would militate against 
 the best development of the western country. The advocates of 
 a leasing system hope to be able to devise a plan by which the 
 land may be leased without entailing the undesirable results 
 which have just been mentioned. It is of interest to know that 
 the general proposition of leasing the range has been the sub- 
 ject of a detailed discussion at the meetings of the National Live 
 Stock Association, and that these discussions have shown that 
 the stockmen themselves are about evenly divided on this propo- 
 sition. In 1900 and again in 1901 the Association, after a pro- 
 longed discussion, voted not to recommend the passage of a leas- 
 ing law. This question is at present kept before members of 
 Congress by resolutions adopted in favor of such legislation or 
 opposed to it. On this account the matter has assumed a legis- 
 lative rather than a scientific aspect. It is perfectly obviouj 
 that certain evils, such as driving large herds of cattle and sheep 
 from one part of the country to another in search of range, 
 could be entirely avoided by a leasing system which would ap- 
 portion the range among various stockmen and give each man 
 control of his portion. 
 
 Until changes are made in the land laws, however, the rem- 
 edies which are applied for the improvement of the range must 
 be of a. practical nature. It must be recognized that the ranges 
 of the arid west cannot be made to perform miracles, such as the 
 production of grass two or three feet in height, without the ap- 
 plication of water, which in turn is a manifest impossibility 
 over a large proportion of the range. The production of grass 
 upon the range is limited by the amount of annual rainfall and, 
 as already indicated, probably does not greatly differ at present 
 from the earliest known conditions. So long as a half ton of 
 grama grass, or other equally nutritious grass, is produced on 
 each acre of grazing ground the average conditions may be said 
 
04 
 
 to prevail and no reasonable complaint can be made. It is ab- 
 surd to suppose, as has apparently been done by certain periodi- 
 cal and newspaper writers on this subject, that such simple rem- 
 edies as disking and reseeding the range, combined with a reas- 
 onable amount of rest would lead to the production of larger 
 quantities of forage than have ever been observed by stockmen. 
 The soil of nearly all the western ranges is very fertile but the 
 amount of grass produced is determined by the moisture pres- 
 ent. It is therefore unreasonable to suppose that any great 
 changes in the productive capacity of the range can take place 
 so long as the present climatic conditions prevail. The practi- 
 cal remedies which have been suggested can not be expected to 
 do more than maintain the productiveness of the range in a good 
 average condition and without any permanent deterioration. 
 
 Forest reserves. Considerable interest has always been felt 
 by certain statesmen and patriotic citizens in the preservation 
 and economic utilization of our forsts. This has led to the es- 
 tablishment of forest reserves in order to secure to the Federal 
 Government control of the administration of the forests. The 
 areas of timberland set aside as forest reserves have increased 
 rapidly during the past few years, until at present the total area 
 thus reserved has reached 195,000,000 acres. The immense 
 value of these reserves, from the standpoint of the future pro- 
 duction of timber, can not be overestimated, and the proposition 
 which has been enthusiastically championed by many forest 
 experts that all areas suitable for forest reserves should be set 
 aside for this purpose must be considered as a judicious move in 
 the right direction. For the purpose of this discussion, how- 
 ever, no attempt can be made to describe the forest reserves in 
 detail. The value of forests as agents in the protection and reg- 
 ulation of the water supply in the arid regions has been ade- 
 quately and frequently discussed in government documents, pe- 
 riodicals, and newspapers. Their agency in regulating the flow 
 of water from the higher portions of the mountains can scarcely 
 be doubted by any one. In this connection, however, we wish 
 to call attention simply to the value of the forest reserves as 
 grazing areas. It may be considered as a safe estimate that 
 about 25 per cent of forest reserves, as at present established, is 
 
65 
 
 grazing land. A certain proportion of the remaining 75 per 
 cent is occupied by brush or small and scattering trees, and the 
 grass which grows in such areas is also of some value for graz- 
 ing purposes. Even in the most heavily timbered areas certain 
 species of grass predominate which may be eaten by stock under 
 certain circumstances, but are not usually well liked. 
 
 The establishment of forest reserves and their subsequent 
 subjection to governmental control have led to differences of 
 opinion concerning the proper policy of forest management. On 
 the one hand the extreme rule has been laid down by certain 
 writers that forest reserves should be given up entirely to the 
 production of timber and that no grazing or agricultural indus- 
 tries should be allowed within their limits. The other extreme 
 position maintained, especially by stockmen, is that all reserves 
 should be opened up to grazing by all kinds of stock without any 
 restriction whatever. As a result of the conflicting opinions 
 held with regard to the utilization of forest reserves a commis- 
 sion was appointed in 1897 by the National Academy of Sciences 
 to inspect the forest reserves, study the conditions of forest re- 
 production and grazing industry, and report upon a practical 
 and reasonable policy for managing these reserves. The com- 
 mission recommended the following policy for this purpose : "A 
 study of the forest reserves in their relations to the general de- 
 velopment and welfare of the country shows that the segrega- 
 tions of these great bodies of reserved lands can not be with- 
 drawn from all occupation and use and that they must be made 
 to perform their part. . . . Land more valuable for its mineral 
 deposits or for the production of agricultural crops should be 
 taken from the reservations and sold to miners and farmers." 
 This commission, however, stated emphatically that the forest 
 reserves must be considered as belonging to the whole country 
 and should not be destroyed by a few miners, lumbermen, and 
 stock raisers. 
 
 The present management of forest reserves is in the hands 
 of the Department of Agriculture, in which Department a For- 
 est Service has been organized as a continuation and extension 
 of the Bureau of Forestry. The grazing of animals in forest 
 reserves is made subject to the issuance of permits. Small 
 
66 
 
 charges are made for these permits; the land is not leased m 
 the ordinary sense, but is merely occupied temporarily dxirmg 
 the summer season, under special permits from the Department 
 of Agriculture. The number of animals, time of entrance and 
 exit, the districts to be grazed, and the rules to be observed in 
 the management of animals while in the reserves are deter- 
 mined by the Federal Government. The various forest reserves 
 are examined from time to time for the purpose of determining 
 the existing forest conditions and any bad effects which may 
 have been produced by overgrazing in former years. The num- 
 ber of animals to be admitted to each reserve is determined in 
 accordance with the reports made upon these examinations. The 
 number of animals allowed in reserves naturally varies from 
 year to year in accordance with the conditions already men- 
 tioned. In 1909, for example, 7,700,000 sheep and 2,400,000 
 cattle and horses were grazing upon the land of the government 
 forest reserves. The time of entering the reserves varies in dif- 
 ferent parts of the country, from April to July, and the time of 
 exit, from September to November. 
 
 The chief reason for discriminating against sheep grazing 
 in so many of the reserves is to be found in the observed care- 
 lessness of herders in bedding their sheep for too long a period 
 upon the same ground, and thus destroying the grass roots and 
 greatly injuring seedling trees. Sheep herders have also been 
 accused of setting fires for the purpose of clearing up larger 
 tracts of grazing ground, and these accusations, although often 
 unfounded and maliciously circulated, have served the purpose 
 of keeping sheep out of certain reserves. It is not true that 
 cattle and horses cause no damage in forest reserves, nor is it 
 true that sheep are necessarily and invariably injurious. The 
 amount of damage caused by cattle, horses, or sheep depends 
 almost entirely upon the number per acre and on the method of 
 managing them. The injury to seedlings and older trees from 
 the browsing habits of animals evidently depends on the amount 
 of other forage to be eaten, and consequently upon the extent of 
 overstocking. In most localities the present system of control 
 of grazing privileges in forest reserves has led to the improve- 
 ment of the forage conditions in these reserves, to such an extent 
 
67 
 
 that the native meadows are covered with an abundance of grass. 
 These conditions can evidently be maintained so long as the 
 number and management of the animals in the reserves is under 
 proper control and the great amount of excellent grazing which 
 is to be found in the forest reserves of the arid west will thus 
 continue to be an important factor in the continuance of the 
 prosperity of stock raisers, many of whom depend almost entire- 
 ly upon the grazing areas in forest reserves for the maintenance 
 of their stock during the summer season. 
 
 Cattle raising. The Spaniards introduced cattle and sheep 
 into their earliest settlements in ISTew Mexico, Arizona, Califor- 
 nia, and Texas. The long-horned Spanish cattle, more famil- 
 iarly known as Texas cattle, the Spanish Merino and a breed 
 of long-wooled sheep thus introduced by the Spaniards served 
 as a basis for the cattle and sheep business on the range country 
 for a long period of years. The early American settlers soon 
 discovered the possibilities of cattle and sheep raising upon the 
 ranges of the northern part of the arid west and introduced 
 sheep and cattle as rapidly as circumstances would permit. At 
 first the most serious obstacle to cattle raising was found in the 
 depredations committed by Indians and carnivorous animals. 
 As soon as the Indian troubles were settled by the establish- 
 ment of reservations and the more or less successful confine- 
 ment of the Indians to these tracts the cattle business progressed 
 with great rapidity. The enormous profits which were made 
 out of the range cattle business soon became known, not only 
 throughout this country but in Europe, and cattle companies 
 were formed, with the result that great sums of money were in- 
 vested by German, English, and Scotch speculators. The man- 
 agement of cattle under range conditions without any attempt 
 at winter feeding, especially on the large scale which prevailed 
 in the early days of the cattle business, made it possible to carry 
 on this industry at an exceedingly small expense. As soon as 
 the ranges in certain localities began to be crowded by competi- 
 tion between different cattlemen and by the development of the 
 sheep interests, the profits of the cattle business began to be 
 somewhat reduced. This reduction in profits naturally served 
 as a discouragement to the extension of the business and the 
 
68 
 
 turn in the tide of affairs was hastened by the occurrence of 
 severe winters and a series of unusually dry years. Thus in 
 California unfavorable conditions in 1834 led to the slaughter 
 of the majority of the mission cattle by the friars. The number 
 of cattle reported from California in 1850 was 262,000, in 
 1862, 2,000,000, while in 1870 it was only 631,000. This great 
 falling off in the number of cattle took place as a direct result of 
 the disastrous droughts of 1862 to 1864. These dry years had 
 the effect of breaking up the range cattle business and driving 
 settlers into other lines of industry, such as sheep raising, dairy- 
 ing, and farming. Within a few years after I860 the number 
 of sheep in California increased sixfold. In other States sim- 
 ilar changes took place, which will be discussed later. 
 
 The Texas cattle may be considered the original cattle of the 
 western range business. They multiplied to such an extent 
 within the confines of Texas that the markets furnished by ~New 
 Orleans and the neighboring cities were quite inadequate to 
 consume the annual surplus. There was therefore little market 
 for Texas cattle for a period of nearly twenty-five years previous 
 to the civil war. The prices of these cattle went down as low 
 as $1.00 per head. After the civil war the prospects of dispos- 
 ing of Texas cattle upon northern markets were very bright 
 and a number of cattle raisers immediately ventured upon the 
 new industry of driving Texas cattle northward. This business 
 began in 1866, during which year about 260,000 head of cattle 
 were driven out of Texas. The industry met with the violent 
 opposition of the cattle raisers of Kansas and Missouri, on ac- 
 count of the fear of Texas fever, which was carried northward 
 in the herds of Texas cattle. Xotwithstanding this opposition, 
 however, the cattle drovers of Texas carried on a fairly success- 
 ful business for a number of years. Abilene, Kas., was estab- 
 lished as a shipping point in 1867. The number of cattle an- 
 nually driven into the northern States from Texas varied dur- 
 ing the following years from 35,000 to more than 600,000. 
 
 It was soon found that, while the southern portion of the 
 range country might be considered as the best breeding ground, 
 animals raised in southern States could very profitably be driven 
 north and fattened upon northern ranges. In experiments made 
 
69 
 
 along this line it was shown that the animals could be brought 
 to a greater weight on the northern ranges than they would ever 
 attain if kept in the South, and that the cost of production was 
 lowered. The cattle business of the northern ranges consisted, 
 therefore, at first to a considerable extent in buying young Texas 
 steers and driving them north to finish them upon the range. 
 
 While Texas cattle were evidently well acclimatized to the 
 range and able to maintain themselves under unfavorable con- 
 ditions with marked success, it was soon found that improved 
 breeds were also capable of doing this quite successfully and of 
 attaining a greater weight and more desirable form. It has 
 therefore come about that these improved breeds have almost 
 entirely replaced Texas cattle throughout the northern range 
 country. The breeds which are preferred for this purpose are 
 Shorthorns, Herefords, Angus, etc., and grades of these pure 
 breeds. As is well known to all cattle raisers these animals 
 develop the so-called beef form to a greater perfection than the 
 Texas cattle, and consequently bring a higher price upon the 
 market. It has also been shown that they can transform alfalfa 
 and grain into beef more profitably than can the Texas cattle. 
 
 In the early days of cattle raising and in some parts of the 
 country at present no winter feeding is done. Cattle are left to 
 their own resources and are forced to find their own grazing up- 
 on the range. They naturally move about over greater or less 
 extensive territory, and are found on one part of the range in 
 summer and in other locations in winter. Cattle thus left to 
 themselves upon the range soon learn the position of watering 
 places and the most desirable grazing grounds for the different 
 seasons. The cost of maintaining cattle under such conditions 
 was not greater than $1.50 to $2.50 per head per annum. Under 
 these primitive conditions of cattle raising some cattle companies 
 made no attempt to inspect their animals except twice a year at 
 the general roundups. The advent of the small farmer and the 
 consequent withdrawal of the desirable farming land along 
 streams from the area of grazing grounds rendered the dangers 
 of wintering without feed continually greater and greater. The 
 cattle ranges were also reduced by the development of the sheep 
 business, until finally the apparently crowded conditions and 
 
70 
 
 the great losses during the winters of 1881-2 and 1885-6 demon- 
 strated emphatically the desirability of providing winter feed 
 for range animals. 
 
 The number of animals owned by single companies and the 
 amount of territory controlled by these companies were formerly 
 far greater than are known at the present day. For instance, 
 the Prairie Cattle Company's property, during its most pros- 
 perous days, amounted to 5,076,480 acres. In 1885 there were 
 220 cattle raisers in Texas who owned from 1,000 to 60,000 
 cattle. The control of such enormous areas of land as were 
 required for maintaining the large herds was made possible 
 through the old Mexican land grants in New Mexico, Colorado, 
 and other parts of the Southwest, which varied in size from 
 10,000 to 1,000,000 acres. 
 
 The present method of managing cattle upon the range may 
 be briefly described as follows: Each cattle raiser or company 
 possesses an area of farming land upon which alfalfa and other 
 forage crops and grain are raised for winter feeding. In con- 
 nection with the ranch house are sheds and large corrals, and at 
 convenient points upon the range branding corrals are construct- 
 ed. Cattle are left for the most part to their own resources in 
 securing forage, but as a rule are inspected by cowboys about 
 once per month, and if they are found to be upon poor grass 
 they are driven to more desirable locations. The cattle are 
 counted on such tours of inspection, so that it may be known 
 whether they are maintaining themselves in good condition and 
 whether any cases of poisoning or other accidents have occurred. 
 The territory over which range cattle travel varies in different 
 parts of the country. The cattle which are maintained in central 
 and northern Montana graze over the international boundary 
 during summer and travel back or are brought back in time for 
 the fall roundup. 
 
 Two general roundups are held during each year. The 
 spring roundup takes place between April and June in different 
 parts of the country. This roundup is for the purpose of count- 
 ing the stock and branding the calves. Each calf is given the 
 brand which is borne by its mother, and if any motherless 
 calves are found they are branded as mavericks, with a special 
 
71 
 
 mark belonging to the particular cattle raisers' association, and 
 are subsequently sold to pay the expenses of the roundup and 
 branding. It has been found necessary to establish cattle raisers' 
 associations, in order to perform more effectively the various 
 operations which are required by the range business. For ex- 
 ample, where cattle may travel over a distance of 200 miles, it 
 would evidently be altogether too expensive for an owner of a 
 few cattle to travel over such immense areas for the purpose of 
 locating his cattle. The brands of each owner are published 
 and are well known, and each owner furnishes a number of cow- 
 boys for the general roundup, proportionate to the number of 
 cattle which he owns. The calves belonging to the cows with 
 their various brands are properly branded and the number re- 
 ported to the owner who is charged a reasonable sum per head 
 for this operation. The spring roundup and the branding of 
 calves occupies considerable time on account of the fact that the 
 cows must be carefully cut out of the herd, together with their 
 calves, in order properly to establish ownership of the calves. 
 The calves are usually held for branding by being roped and 
 thrown upon the ground. The fall roundup, which usually 
 takes place in September and October, is for the purpose of 
 selecting animals suitable for beef. This roundup is also per- 
 formed under the auspices of the cattle raisers' association for 
 the given locality, and the animals selected for shipment are 
 credited to their owners according to the brands which they 
 bear. 
 
 P In summer, range cattle seldom graze more than 5 to 10 
 miles from water. In winter they may travel rather longer 
 distances for water. Cattle as a rule drink at noon and lie down 
 near the watering place or rest in a standing position for a 
 period of 2 or 3 hours before moving back to the grazing ground. 
 In winter cattle are less capable of caring for themselves during 
 severe snow storms than are sheep or horses. Cattle seldom 
 learn how to paw the snow off of the ground and they are there- 
 fore forced during blizzards to "drift" in the direction of the 
 storm. After the storm ceases they usually make their way 
 
 back slowly. 
 
 Within recent years more and more attention has been given 
 
72 
 
 to the selection of valuable bulls. As a rule the use of yearling 
 bulls is not recommended, since their offspring is smaller and 
 less vigorous than that of older bulls. It is usually recom- 
 mended by cattle raisers that heifers should preferable have 
 their first calf at three years of age . The proper proportion of 
 bulls to cows varies in the opinion of different cattle raisers from 
 1 to 20, to 1 to 50. As already indicated the cost of running 
 cattle upon the range without hay for winter feeding is from 
 $1.50 to $2.50 per year, while the expense is considerably in- 
 creased by feeding in winter, the cost under such circumstances 
 varying from $4 to $10 per head. The annual increase of cat- 
 tle under range conditions may be considered as being from 75 
 to 80 per cent. A certain percentage of cows are barren or 
 abort, and a few calves are always lost by disease, accidents, 
 snow storms, wild animals, etc. 
 
 The profits from the range cattle business, when properly 
 managed, have always been and are still sufficiently great to 
 tempt investment on the part of any one who understands the 
 business sufficiently to avoid clangers. While, as will presently 
 be shown, the range cattle business has yielded to sheep ranch 
 ing, dairying, and farming and has several times been subject 
 to great depression on account of unfavorable financial condi- 
 tions, it is still an exceedingly prosperous business, especially 
 in view of the present high prices of cattle. It is practically 
 impossible at the present time to find large tracts of unoccupied 
 range to which no other cattle or sheepman lays claim by right 
 of previous grazing. At present new comers can best begin the 
 business of cattle ranging by association with established com- 
 panies and the gradual formation of a herd and selection of a 
 portion of the company's range, or adjoining range, upon which 
 to graze the animals. 
 
 It is desirable that the total number of beef animals in the 
 United States be considerably increased, and this can be brought 
 about to the greatest degree through the extension of irrigated 
 agriculture m connection with cattle raising. The number of 
 cattle which could be maintained under the old range conditions 
 without raising winter feed was quite small in comparison with 
 that which can ultimately be produced by the use of all avail- 
 
73 
 
 able land for the production of forage crops, and the utilization 
 of the adjoining range for maintaining stock in summer. Good 
 descriptive accounts of the range industry in the days of the 
 cattle kings are found in Prairie Experience in Handling Cat- 
 tle and Sheep, 1S85, by W. Shepherd; Cattle Raising on 'he 
 Plains of North America, 1885, by Baron von Richthofen; 
 Historic Sketches of the Cattle Trade of the West and Southwejc. 
 IS 74, by J. G. McCoy; and Report in regard to the Range p.nd 
 Ranch Business of the United States, 1885, by Joseph Mmmo. 
 Sheep raising. Almost ideal conditions for raising sheen 
 prevail over a large proportion of the western range country, and 
 this fact has led to the gradual extension of sheep raising a.-, 
 an industry from the days of the early western settlers until 
 the present time. As already indicated, the first sheep intro- 
 duced into the southwestern part of the country were the 
 Spanish Merino and the coarse wooled Mexican sheep. The 
 Merino largely prevail at the present day on the ranges of Ari- 
 zona and New Mexico, while the coarse wooled sheep which 
 were first introduced into California and later crossed with 
 Chinese rams have been replaced with other breeds obtained 
 from Ohio, Missouri, and elsewhere. 
 
 As a rule the range which is at the disposal of each sheep- 
 man is so divided that a portion is used in summer and the re- 
 mainder in winter. This arrangement has been found desir- 
 able, or in some instances necessary, for various reasons. Ai 
 alternation of grazing and resting is made possible by this div- 
 ision into summer and winter range, and this -has been found 
 desirable in preventing the cumulative evil effects of overgraz- 
 ing. The division into summer and winter range is also desir- 
 able from the standpoint of the sheep. Many ranges are avail- 
 able in winter on account of the presence of snow upon the 
 ground, but could not be used in summer for the reason that 
 there is no water supply. The summer range ordinarily lies at 
 a greater altitude in the foothills or constitutes the mountain 
 meadows of forest reserves and other timbered mountain areas. 
 In such locations a sufficient water supply is found even during 
 the driest seasons. 
 
 Sheep are driven to the summer range at different times in 
 
74 
 
 different parts of the western country. In Arizona this may- 
 take place as early as April, while in Montana it is seldom done 
 before July. The sheep are removed from the summer range 
 and driven to winter range as soon as there is danger of the oc- 
 currence of fall snow storms in the mountains. Since these 
 storms appear at different seasons according to the latitude and 
 altitude, the period varies from September to November. 
 
 It is customary to have the lambing season fall at a period in 
 the spring when green grass may be reasonably expected for 
 grazing, and after danger of spring snow storms has passed. The 
 lambing season in Montana occupies the month of May, and this 
 is ordinarily safe, although in some years, as for example in 
 1903, great losses in lambs occurred from May snow storms. 
 During the lambing season an extra number of herders are put: 
 in charge of each ewe band, so as to remove the ewes and their 
 lambs are placed in this wagon and hauled to the lambing sheds. 
 After about 10 days the small lambing bands are brought to- 
 gether into herds of 2,500 to 3,000, and the lambs are then ready 
 for docking, marking, and castrating. These operations are 
 performed with great rapidity by expert operators who have 
 charge of this work. The percentage of lambs saved varies 
 considerably with different years and different sheepman. The 
 variation may be from 50 to 100 per cent. As a rule, however, 
 extreme losses are due to unfortunate conditions or inexper- 
 ience. About 80 per cent of lambs may be considered as the 
 ordinary degree of success under range conditions. 
 
 The time of. shearing also differs according to climatic and 
 other conditions. It is much earlier in the southern States, 
 where sheep are sheared twice annually, and is latest in Mon- 
 tana, where sheep are sheared during June and July. Shear- 
 ing in the western States is done by professional shearers who 
 work in Australia and South America during our winter season, 
 and begin shearing in Texas and New Mexico early in the 
 spring after which they gradually proceed northward until the 
 shearing season closes in Montana. An average of from 90 to 
 120 sheep is considered a fair days work for a shearer. As 
 high as 250 sheep, however, have been sheared in a single day 
 by one man. During recent years the establishment of" plants 
 
75 
 
 for machine shearing has progressed rapidly and the objections 
 which were first raised by shearers and sheep raisers have bean 
 largely overcome. Sheep are not sheared any faster by machine 
 than by hand, but the work is done more smoothly, with less 
 injury to the sheep and a slightly heavier fleece is obtained. 
 Some sheep raisers who have had wide experience with both 
 methods of shearing claim that they obtain 1 lb. of wool per 
 sheep more by machine shearing than by hand work. 
 
 The problem of securing a good water supply for sheep ou 
 the range is as important as it is in the case of cattle. In the 
 northwestern States sheep require water frequently, at least 
 once per day, while in parts of New Mexico and Arizona where 
 sheep graze upon succulent plants in the hot dry summer months, 
 they may be maintained for from 50 to 60 days without watev. 
 Wherever sheep require water daily it is obviously necessary to 
 have watering places distributed at short intervals. Wherever 
 the water cannot be easily obtained by the sheep without tramp- 
 ling the mud and polluting the spring or stream, it is highly 
 desirable that the water be piped into troughs from which the 
 sheep may obtain it more conveniently. 
 
 Wherever salt is not found in the natural alkali which pre- 
 vails over large areas of the western range this substance 
 should be supplied in large chunks to which sheep may have 
 constant access. The poisonous effects which have been attri- 
 buted to alkali in some parts of the country may well be due to 
 eating large quantities of common alkalies, such as carbonate of 
 soda, epsom salts, etc. 
 
 The breeds of sheep which were formerly preferred were 
 such as would produce the best wool or mutton type. For this 
 purpose pure breeds, either fine or coarse wooled according to 
 the product which the raiser wished to secure, were selected. 
 During recent years, with the rapid development of the sheep 
 industry, it has been found desirable to secure a general purpose 
 sheep which combines so far as possible the power of producing 
 a good fleece and a desirable mutton form. In order to bring 
 about the proper grade for this purpose it has been found de- 
 sirable to cross a good race of Merino, such as Kambouillet or 
 Delaine, with a coarse-wooled sheep and to maintain bands of 
 
76 
 
 coarse-wooled and fine-wooled bucks in order to check a tendency 
 in the direction of too great fineness or coarseness of wool. A 
 general purpose sheep such as just described has been found 
 in crosses between Merinos and Cotswolds or Lincolns and is 
 considered to be the most successful and profitable animal to 
 raise. 
 
 The bucks are maintained in separate bands of different 
 sizes, depending upon the number of sheep owned by different 
 sheep raisers, and are kept in the care of a herder upon the 
 range. They are turned with the ewes during the month of 
 December in Montana and Wyoming and at other dates in other 
 parts of the country, according to the desired lambing period. 
 
 As with cattle ranging, so with sheep grazing, in the early 
 days little attention was paid to the construction of sheds or 
 corrals. Recently, however, it has been found to be good eco- 
 nomy to build extensive lambing sheds in which the ewes and 
 their lambs may be protected during inclement weather, and the 
 construction of feeding corrals and shearing sheds has become 
 necessary with the great development of the sheep business. The 
 lambing and shearing sheds are usually of large size so as to 
 accomodate the large number of sheep which are owned by each 
 sheep raiser. It has therefore become necessary for the enter- 
 prising sheep raiser to invest considerable money in the con- 
 struction of a plant for carrying on his business. 
 
 As already indicated little or no heed was given to the sub- 
 ject of winter feeding until within comparatively recent years. 
 It was soon found that winter range could be selected where the 
 snow fall was so exceedingly light and where the sheep could 
 maintain themselves during the whole winter without artificial 
 feeding, with but very slight loss. Years of drought, heavy 
 snow falls, severe winters, and overgrazing of the range, how- 
 ever, made it apparent to the more progressive sheep raiser that 
 winter feeding must be done if the sheep business were to be 
 carried on without unnecessary risk. Wherever, as for example 
 in Montana, alfalfa can be produced, harvested, and stacked 
 for a cost of from 75 cents to $1.25 per ton it is evidently a 
 good business proposition to produce this forage for feeding 
 sheep in order to avoid losses in winter and to increase greatly 
 
77 
 
 the gains in weight. Hay used for winter feeding is of various 
 sorts, according to the location of the sheep ranch. In some 
 localities alfalfa, clover, timothy, brome grass and other culti- 
 vated forage crops are raised for winter feeding, while in other 
 localities less energy is expended upon this side of the business, 
 and native forage such as bluejoint, bunch grasses, or lupines 
 and other native leguminous plants are cut for hay. Sheep 
 which are not intended for market but merely for stock pur- 
 poses do not require forcing during the winter but are fed 
 merely enough to keep them in good condition. In favorable 
 years it is not necessary to feed more than from 2 to 4 weeks 
 during the winter, even on the northern Montana ranges. The 
 amount of hay required, therefore, is very small and a sufficient 
 quantity can be raised on a comparatively small area. 
 
 The feeding habits of sheep differ greatly under different 
 conditions. Sheep eat a great variety of plants, including all 
 of the native and cultivated grasses, various leguminous plants, 
 sedges, lupines, false lupines, wild licorice, geraniums, sage 
 brush, saltbushes, etc. On some winter ranges, as for example 
 in the Bed Desert of Wyoming, sage brush is a very important 
 forage plant and is really eaten by the sheep. In addition to 
 grass and weeds sheep feed upon leaves and small twigs of 
 various trees, including willow, poplar, oak, pine, juniper, etc. 
 The latter, two trees, however, are only eaten under stress of 
 hunger. 
 
 With regard to the effects of sheep grazing upon the range, 
 it may be said that this matter depends largely" upon the method 
 of management of the sheep. As a general proposition it may 
 be asserted that the less the sheep are interfered with the less 
 injury they do to the range. When the sheep are allowed to 
 graze in open formation the individuals of the band are better 
 able to secure forage and the range is not trampled to the same 
 extent as as when the bands are harassed by dogs so as to keep 
 them in a compact formation. Under the latter conditions the 
 grass is trampled down and destroyed, the roots injured, and the 
 ground cut up. The grazing of sheep under a rational manage- 
 ment is not necessarily destructive to the range, but it is unfor- 
 tunately true that great damage can be done to grass and to seed- 
 
78 
 
 ling trees by overcrowding the range with sheep, by keeping 
 them too long in one location, and by driving them in large bands 
 huddled closely together. Thus in California in 1863 James 
 E. Perkins* found that "The native grasses of California are 
 with rare exceptions annuals, propagated each year from the 
 seeds scattered the preceding year. Where the lands have been 
 so persistently overstocked the herbage has necessarily become 
 thinner and thinner as the seeds have been gradually destroyed. 
 This process of depasturage, though not confined to any one 
 species of herbage, is most strikingly exhibited in the great oat 
 ranges, where, less than ten years ago, the traveler would ride 
 for days through wild oats tall enough to tie across his saddle, 
 now dwindled down to a stunted growth of six to ten inches, 
 with wide reaches of utterly barren land, marking the extinc- 
 tion of the native growth." 
 
 In the problem of sheep grazing the tramp sheepman plays a 
 very important part and is everywhere recognized as one of the 
 chief causes of injury to the range. The tramp sheepman in- 
 troduces a factor of overcrowding which cannot be regulated by 
 the local sheepman for the reason that the time of coming and 
 the number of tramp sheep cannot be foretold for any particular 
 season. The advent of tramp sheep to a range which has pre- 
 viously been preserved through the efforts of local stock raisers 
 always leads to excessive grazing and to bitter feelings and mani- 
 festations of violence between contending parties. Wherever 
 the tramp sheep nuisance does not exist the solution of the sheep 
 grazing problem • would seem to lie in a proper division of the 
 grazing area into summer and winter range so as to allow all 
 parts of the range a sufficient period during each year for re- 
 covering from the effects of grazing. 
 
 The cost of managing sheep under range conditions varies 
 within quite wide limits. Where no winter feeding is done and 
 where the buildings are of the cheaper sort it is possible to 
 manage sheep at a cost of 25 cents per head per year. The cost 
 is considerably increased where more extensive plants are main- 
 tained and where the animals are fed in winter. Under the 
 latter circumstances it has been found that the cost of managing 
 
 * Sheep Husbandry in California, 1863, pp. 9, 13. 
 
79 
 
 sheep varies from 75 cents to $1.25 per head per year. Since the 
 average clip of wool throughout the United States is 6 lb. per 
 sheep, and somewhat higher in the western States, and since 
 the sheep raiser may reasonably expect about 80 per cent of 
 lambs, it is apparent that large profits may be expected from 
 sheep grazing under average conditions. Some sheepmen make 
 a profit of as much as $1.50 per head for the total number of 
 sheep which they own. The large profits to be realized from 
 this business are apparent when one considers the wholesale 
 manner in which sheep are raised upon the range. A large 
 proportion of sheep raisers of the range States own from 10,000 
 to 75,000 sheep, which are mainained in bands of from 2,000 
 to 3,000 under the constant care of 1 or 2 herders, according 
 to the grazing conditions. While great losses may occur from 
 time to time from heavy snow storms, poisonous plants, and 
 other causes, these dangers may be largely avoided by the ex- 
 ercise of proper precautions, and when such precautions are 
 taken the profits of sheep ranching are perhaps as great as in 
 any other legitimate bussiness.* 
 
 Other livestock. As with cattle and sheep, so with horses, the 
 first to be introduced into the Southwest came through the 
 agency of the Spaniards and were gradually distributed among 
 the settlements and missions in this part of the country. The 
 horses which were first used in Southwest were of a small 
 breed, commonly known as the mustang, many of which escaped 
 from the settlements and served as the basis for the formation 
 of extensive herds of wild horses which have ranged over a 
 large portion of the arid plains until the present time. The 
 wild horses in southern California, New Mexico, and Arizona 
 proved to be a veritable nuisance, since they occurred in such 
 numbers as to destroy the grass and thus interfered with the 
 raisin^ of more valuable horses and other stock. In fact, in 
 certain parts of the country no attempt was made in the early 
 days to raise higher grade horses, since a sufficient number of 
 horses fairly suitable for saddle purposes could be obtained by 
 
 * For general accounts of the range sheep industry consult Special 
 ReDort on the History and Present Condition of the Sheep Industry of 
 The United States, Bureau of Animal Industry, 1892; Bureau of Animal 
 Industry Reports for 1900, p. 91; 1902, p. 79. 
 
80 
 
 catching and breaking wild horses. The Indians became expert 
 at this business and replenished their exhausted herds in this 
 way. With the advent of settlers many horses of better breed 
 escaped upon the plains in various localities or were stampeded 
 by the Indians, and these admixtures served to some extent in 
 modifying the character of the wild or semiwild horses of the 
 plains. Various names, such as cayuse, bronco, mustang, and 
 Indian pony, have been applied at different times and in differ- 
 ent localities to what is essentially one race of horses. The 
 term cayuse was originally applied to the horses which were 
 possessed by the Cayuse Indians of eastern Oregon. The western 
 bronco was too small for draft purposes, but before the intro- 
 duction of railroads freight was transported largely by ox teams 
 and no special need was felt for the breeding of draft horses 
 in the western States. The horse business suffered severe de- 
 pressions at several times, and these business depressions to- 
 gether with the low value of the common bronco led to the in- 
 troduction of improved breeds in order to increase the value of 
 the range horses. At present the desirability of using improved 
 stallions, such as Percheron, English Draft or Clydesdale, for 
 the production of draft horses, and thoroughbreds, hackneys, 
 etc., for breeding road and saddle horses, is very keenly felt. 
 The general reputation of range horses for the possession of a 
 vicious character almost excluded these animals from the mar- 
 ket, or at least prevented owners from obtaining a price which 
 would justify raising that class of horse. They are, however, 
 possessed of great endurance and for that reason have been used 
 quite extensively for saddle purposes and have been bought 
 in large numbers for the English army. The demand created 
 by the British for these horses during the South Africa war 
 increased the prices of range horses in some localities form $15 
 to $40 per head, and greatly stimulated the range horse indus- 
 try. The future of this industry, however, must naturally lie 
 in the direction of an improvement of the disposition and form 
 of the range horse, while his great strength and endurance are 
 retained. 
 
 The presence importance of the horse industry in the arid 
 
81 
 
 States is indicated by the fact that about 3,542,000 horses are 
 reported from these States by the census of 1900. 
 
 The teeth of the horse are admirably adapted to grazing and 
 they are capable of grazing more closely than cattle. Serious 
 injury to the range from grazing by horses, however, rarely 
 takes place under normal conditions where the grazing area is 
 not overcrowded. Horses are better capable of maintaining 
 themselves in severe snow storms in winter than any other stock. 
 They readily gain access to the grass by pawing away the snow, 
 and for this reason the herds of range horses are sometimes 
 followed by cattle during severe storms. 
 
 While the mule is everywhere recognized as a desirable 
 draft animal, possessing a number of advantages over the 
 horse, the raising of these animals has thus far been confined 
 largely to the corn, cotton, and sugar producing areas. In the 
 arid States mules have served chiefly as pack animals and for 
 mining operations. In the mines the mule exhibits certain ad- 
 vantages over the horse. When startled he does not throw the 
 head upwards like the horse, and is therefore not injured by 
 bruising the head against the ceiling of mining tunnels. As a 
 pack animal the mule is capable of carrying larger burdens than 
 the horse and is less likely to become exhausted when traveling 
 across comparatively barren areas. The mule enjoys compara- 
 tive immunity from disease, lives to a great age, and can endure 
 greater hardship than the horse. The experience of breeders 
 has shown that the mule can maintain itself in good condition 
 on less and poorer feed than is required for the horse. In the 
 southern States mules are classified into sugar mules, which are 
 the larger animals, and cotton mules, which are somewhat 
 smaller in size. In the arid States these distinctions are not 
 usually recognized. 
 
 The mare to be used in the breeding of mules must be sound, 
 of good constitution and form, and should preferably be of a 
 black, brown, bay, or chestnut color, although in some localities 
 a gray color is not objectionable in mules. The colts are weaned 
 at about 4 month of age, and are then fed upon soft grain and 
 hay or grass for a considerable period. The number of mules in 
 the arid States, according to the latest census, is 629,000. 
 
82 
 
 The breeds of jacks commonly used for the production of 
 mules are Andalusian, Catalonian, Maltese, Italian, Majorca, 
 and native. Each of these breeds possesses good points which 
 cause it to be preferred by different breeders, but in recent years 
 the native jack has demonstrated certain points of superiority 
 over all other breeds. The native is a mixture of the various 
 pure breeds which have been introduced into this country. 
 
 In the mountainous regions of the western States the burro 
 has been known since the earliest Spanish occupation of the 
 country, and has been used from that time until the present 
 as a pack animal. The burro is apparently a small race of 
 jacks of Spanish origin. White is a very frequent color in these 
 animals, and another characteristic sometimes developed to a 
 striking degree, is the width of the base of the neck. The burro, 
 although a very small animal and of slow gait, is capable of 
 carrying unusually heavy burdens along rough mountain trails 
 where the horse would be less suitable. The number of asses 
 and burros in the arid States, according to the census of 1900, 
 is about 52,000. 
 
 The goat industry has rapidly increased throughout the 
 United States during the past few years, in consequence of the 
 discovery of the great possibilities of goat raising on moun- 
 tainous and comparatively barren areas which might otherwise 
 be of no economic value. The number of goats in the arid 
 States, according to the latest census, is about 1,172,000. A 
 considerable proportion of these are Angora, and of course the 
 pure Angora or grade is of much greater value than the com- 
 mon goat. Goats have been found to be excellent animals for 
 clearing up brush lands and destroying briars and weeds. In 
 some locations they appear to prefer the leaves and small twigs 
 of bushes and other rough forage to grass. While this charac- 
 teristic of goats is of great value where one wishes to clear up 
 brush lands, it at the same time renders these animals objec- 
 tionable in forest reserves, except when kept under careful 
 supervision. Aside from their more pronounced tendency to 
 eat brush, goats have essentially the same feeding habits as sheep, 
 and when raised on a large scale are managed in practically the 
 same manner as sheep. Goats are probably less susceptible to 
 
83 
 
 disease than sheep, but great losses have been recently exper- 
 ienced from attempting to graze goats on lands infested with 
 lung and stomach worms, and also from the attack of a new 
 disease known as takosis and investigated by Dr. J. E. Mohler.* 
 The requirements of goats with regard to water and salt are 
 essentially the same as those of sheep. Goats travel more 
 rapidly and over greater distances while grazing than do sheep. 
 For this reason, and also for the reason that the younger are rath- 
 er delicate during the first few weeks, it is necessary at first to 
 keep the kids in corrals or sheds during the day time. They 
 are unable to travel as far as the does and are very sensitive 
 to cold or rains. 
 
 The relative increase and decrease in sheep and cattle rais- 
 ing. Except in the Southwest the range cattle business was 
 developed before sheep ranching. At the present time the 
 sheep industry of the range country is steadily increasing, 
 while the range cattle industry is at a stand still or on the de- 
 cline. The following table, compiled partly from data collected 
 by Gr. F. Thompson, will serve to illustrate the ups and downs 
 of the cattle and and sheep business from 1880 until 1900. 
 
 TABLE SHOWING VARIATION IN NUMBER OF SHEEP AND 
 CATTLE FROM 1880 TO 1900. 
 
 New Mexico: 
 
 Cattle 
 
 Sheep 
 Arizona: 
 
 Cattle 
 
 Sheep 
 Nevada: 
 
 Cattle 
 
 Sheep 
 Montana: 
 
 Cattle 
 
 Sheep 
 Wyoming: 
 
 Cattle 
 
 Sheep 
 
 Colorado: 
 
 Cattle 
 
 Sheep .... 
 
 Total: 
 
 Cattle 
 Sheep 
 
 1880 
 
 334,981 
 3,938,831 
 
 126,601 
 406,524 
 
 203,504 
 230,695 
 
 416,971 
 250,000 
 
 517,483 
 450,225 
 
 762,722 
 1,091,443 
 
 2,362,272 
 6,367,718 
 
 1890 
 
 1,341,856 
 3,123,663 
 
 725,004 
 800,000 
 
 317,498 
 504.710 
 
 932,697 
 1,555,116 
 
 1,096,101 
 1,119,110 
 
 1,017,465 
 1,819,569 
 
 5,430,521 
 8,922,168 
 
 1895 
 
 793,506 
 2,738,030 
 
 636,512 
 746,546 
 
 259,078 
 544,077 
 
 1,153,557 
 3,061,502 
 
 751,849 
 1,393,693 
 
 926,560 
 1,319,049 
 
 4,521,062 
 9,802,897 
 
 1900 
 
 472,219 
 4)899,487 
 
 366,951 
 924,761 
 
 218,198 
 887,039 
 
 611,838 
 6,170,483 
 
 424,153 
 5,099,613 
 
 850,163 
 2,044,814 
 
 2,943,522 
 20,016,197 
 
 *Bur. Animal Industry, Bui. 45. 
 
84 
 
 The Staces and territories included in this table were select- 
 ed from various parts of the range country, two of them being 
 in the Southwest, one in the Great Basin, and three in the 
 Rocky Mountain region. An examination of the data obtained 
 from a study of these conditions in other States showed exactly 
 the same tendencies. Selection was made for the purpose of 
 exhibiting the conditions in different parts of the country, at 
 the same time avoiding a too large and complicated table. It 
 will be seen at once by an examination of this table that the 
 number of sheep in each State and territory increased with 
 considerable regularity from 1880 until 1900. The same ten- 
 dency was shown before 1880, but the data previous to this date 
 are not complete for range sheep and cattle . The number of 
 cattle, on the other hand, increased quite rapidly up to 1885 
 or 1890, since which time it has fallen off to a greater or less 
 degree in every State and Territory of the arid region. In 
 some instances the rapid increase in the number of sheep and 
 simultaneous decrease in the number of cattle is exceedingly 
 marked ; for instance, in Wyoming there are at present about 
 one third as many cattle as in 1890, while the number of sheep 
 has increased five times. When the total number of sheep for 
 the seven States and territories included in the table are com- 
 pared with the total number of cattle, it is seen that the ratio 
 of cattle to sheep was 1 to 3 in 1880, 5 to 8 in 1890, i to 9 in 
 1895, and o to 20 in 1900. 
 
 The present high prices of beef have stimulated to a con- 
 siderable extent the production of range cattle and the numbers 
 of such animals in several of the western States, especially in 
 the Rocky Mountain region, have increased considerably since 
 1900. Taken as a whole, however, statistics show conclusively 
 that the range cattle business is gradually yielding to the en- 
 croachment of sheep ranching. The causes of this tendency 
 are naturally varied and it would be presumptious in a short 
 discussion to attempt to do more than merely hint at them. 
 While the sheep business suffered great depressions during the 
 period when wool was cheap, it appeared to recover completely 
 and rapidly within a short period after better prices were ob- 
 
85 
 
 tained for wool and the numbers of sheep have gone beyond any 
 which had previously been reached. 
 
 The relative profits to be made from the sheep and cattle 
 industries naturally constitute an important factor in deter- 
 mining their relative degree of extension. There are other 
 factors, however, which have been operative from time to time 
 in determining this matter. It has been found by experience 
 that the open range is, in many localities at least, better adapted 
 to the sheep business than to the raising of cattle. Sheep have 
 to be maintained in bands under the care of herders, and they 
 can therefore be moved from place to place as occasion re- 
 quires, in order to secure better grazing. The sheepman is 
 therefore in a position to secure the best grass upon the range, 
 and thereby make it difficult for the cattleman to keep his cat- 
 tle in good condition. It should also be remembered that sheep 
 can readily be maintained in the mountain pastures in summer 
 where cattle will not stay on account of the attacks of flies. 
 As a rule, moreover, the grazing of sheep and cattle on the 
 same range is practically impossible on account of the fact that 
 cattle manifest a dislike for grass which has been grazed by 
 sheep and which retains the odor of these animals. In open 
 competition for the range, therefore, it appears that the sheep- 
 man has a distinct advantage over the cattleman, and this fact 
 is being forced home upon the cattleman from year to year. 
 Many men who have been engaged in the cattle business for a 
 long period of years have found themselves gradually surround- 
 ed by sheep, and have finally been forced to sell their cattle 
 to engage in the sheep business out of selfprotection. Instances of 
 this kind are to be met with almost anywhere throughout the 
 range country and in conversing with cattlemen one often hears 
 the remark that this tendency will continue in force until a 
 considerable proportion of what was once cattle range will be 
 devoted to sheep grazing. As an example of the rapid change in 
 this direction we may mention the Big Horn Basin, which years 
 ago was occupied almost exclusively by cattle, and which has now 
 been given over almost entirely to sheep. 
 
 The controversy between the sheepman and cattleman must 
 also be considered in discussing this question. In fact there 
 
86 
 
 have been and still are serious controversies with manifesta- 
 tions of violence between sheepmen and cattlemen, and also 
 between homesteaders and cattlemen. These controversies have 
 been largely the result of attempts to monopolize the public 
 range. Long before the emigration of the American settler 
 into the western States the Indians had learned to misrepresent 
 the conditions which prevailed in different parts of the western 
 country. If a traveler indicated a desire to visit a fertile por- 
 tion of the country, he was told that the region was a barren 
 desert incapable of supporting human or animal life. If, on 
 other hand, the traveler intended to visit some region which the 
 Indian knew to be of a desert nature, he was given glowing 
 tales of the fertility of the region and was urged to proceed on 
 his journey. Thus, even in 1535, Cabeza de Vaca 1 was advised 
 by the Indians not to go into the interior of. the Arkansas 
 country, they falsely declaring that it was desert and barren. 
 Marcy 2 had the same experience along the Red River in 1852. 
 "They (the Indians) told us that the entire country was a per- 
 fectly desolate waste .... Their statements have proved 
 false in every particular . . . . as we have thus far 
 found an abundance of the most nutritious grasses." The 
 motives which actuated the Indians in making such false reports 
 are also apparent in the statements which are often made by 
 large cattlemen to prospective settlers. Von Bichthofen 3 says 
 that the cattle kings tried to perpetuate the idea that the plains 
 were a desert in order to keep out settlers. Smalley 4 makes the 
 following reference to this subject: "Self interest naturally 
 leads the present occupants of the territory to discourage the 
 bringing in of more cattle. They wish to preserve ample room 
 for the increase of their herds." 
 
 The means which were used for discouraging settlers from 
 locating varied according to the disposition of the cattlemen 
 who were already occupying the free range. In some instances 
 violence was threatened or used at once; in other instances a 
 
 i Loc. cit, p. 97. 
 2 Loc. cit, p. 31. 
 
 8 Cattle Raising on the Plains of North America, 1885, p. 10. 
 4 Report on the Range and Ranch Cattle Business of the United 
 States, 1885, p. 84. 
 
87 
 
 more diplomatic means of discouragement was employed. As an 
 example of the notices which were frequently posted in con- 
 spicuous places to warn settlers or other stock-raisers from locat- 
 ing upon range already ocupied we may reproduce a notice 
 which was posted for the purpose of keeping settlers and stock- 
 men from the Musselshell range in Montana, which occupied 
 an area of nearly 4,000,000 acres. After defining the boundaries 
 of the range, the notice contains the following statement : "We, 
 the undersigned, stock growers of the above described range,' 
 hereby give notice that we consider said range already over- 
 stocked; therefore we positively decline allowing any outside 
 parties, or any parties locating herds upon this range, the use 
 of our corrals, nor will they be permitted to join us in any round- 
 up on said range from and after this date." Curious inconsis- 
 tencies on this point are sometimes observed in the literature 
 of the range cattle business. For example, H. M. Taylor* states 
 that "with rare exceptions, the talk of herd owners 'bulldozing' 
 or driving out would be settlers and farmers is pure fiction 
 . . There is really no antagonism between the grazing 
 and the farming industries of the West because there cannot be, 
 according to the nature of the country, any conflict." On page 
 315 of the same article, however, we observe the following state- 
 ment : "ISTo man seeking a homestead would have the courage 
 to attempt to secure a home within the limits of any of the 
 princely possession enjoyed by the large lease-holders. The law 
 might give him the right, but the proscription and persecution 
 that might be practiced by the strong arm in possession would 
 nullify the privileges extended by the law — would defeat every 
 effort and drive the small owner from the range." Threats, 
 accompanied or not with violence, are made at the present day, 
 as is evidenced by the numerous newspaper acounts concerning 
 conflicts over the range. These conflicts naturally exercise some 
 influence in determining the relative importance of cattle rais- 
 ing, sheep raising, and farming in various parts of the range 
 country. 
 
 Range management. The method of managing the public 
 
 * U. S. Dept. Agr. Bureau of Animal Industry Rpt. 1885, p. 294. 
 
88 
 
 range proposed by Wooldridge* is encumbered with numerous, 
 serious objections. Mr. Wooldridge recommends that annual 
 grazing licenses be issued to local cooperative cattle and sheep 
 associations which should thus have control of the management 
 of the range. In all of the arid public land, States, cattle asso- 
 ciations have been formed for the better management of the 
 business of cattle raising and the prevention of stock thefts and 
 other nuisances. It is difficult to understand, however, in what 
 status the public domain would be found when controlled by a 
 cooperative association under a "license." From a legal stand- 
 point, the control of land under a license based neither on sale 
 nor lease would be to say the least very anomalous and almost 
 undefinable. The most serious objection to this plan, however, 
 is that the control of the land would thereby be removed from 
 the Federal Government with no assurance whatever that the 
 grazing land would be managed in accordance with the best in- 
 terests of the community. As already shown by the example 
 of the Musselshell cattlemen, such associations are exceedingly 
 prone to appropriate the land for themselves and to try by all 
 means, legitimate and otherwise, to prevent the free use of the 
 range by other individuals who may be located conveniently 
 near. The tendency to form cliques to the exclusion of new 
 comers and small owners is and has been one of the most con- 
 spicuous features of all such movements. It is, therefore, be- 
 lieved that the only safe way of controlling the utilization of 
 the public range is by a system of legal leasing according to 
 which the land still remains under the immediate supervision of 
 the Federal Government. By this method, all persons would 
 have an equal opportunity to lease land whether they had large 
 or small numbers of cattle or sheep as the case might be. The 
 Federal Government would also be in a position to refuse a re- 
 newal of the lease to all parties who violate the provisions of such 
 lease or who unnecessarily damage the grazing lands. 
 
 Among the many devices which have been employed for 
 controlling the range and preventing new comers from securing 
 a location, special mention should be made of fencing and pur- 
 chase of scrip. The scrip may be and frequently is puchased ?o 
 
 * Out West for November 1903, p. 560. 
 
89 
 
 as to cover narrow strips of land along either border of streams. 
 The purchaser of the scrip thus without any extra cost obtains 
 control of immense tracts of country lying between streams. 
 Th ls grazing land between the streams is of no use to other 
 stockmen, unless they can obtain access to water, and this is 
 usually prevented by the purchasers of scrip as just indicated. In 
 other instances where large basins containing excellent grazing 
 lands are connected with basins lying farther down the stream by 
 a narrow canon, scrip is bought in the canon ; it is thus possible 
 for the stockman at a slight cost to gain control of large grazing 
 areas, since other men cannot enter the basin without passing 
 over land of the scrip purchaser, and such trespassing he is 
 of course very careful to prevent. The present system according 
 to which the public land and railroad land is arranged in al- 
 ternate sections permits evident abuse on the part of stockmen 
 who lease the railroad land. By leasing railroad sections and 
 fencing them, it is possible to surround sections of public land 
 and prevent any one else from gaining access to them. The 
 public land is thus secured without any cost. 
 
 Future of the range industry. Attention has already been 
 called to the fact that the utilization of the public range was 
 at first confined largely to the establishment and maintenance 
 of immense herds of cattle and sheep. In some parts of the 
 range country control of the grazing land was made possible 
 through Mexican land grants and through leasing railroad and 
 State lands so as to surround government lands. The present 
 tendency, however, is decidedly in the direction of smaller sub- 
 divisions of the range, thus increasing the number of persons in- 
 terested in stock raising and also the number of animals. Occa- 
 sionally it is asserted that the present tendency is in the opposite 
 direction, viz., toward the further consolidation of range in- 
 terests and holdings and the establishment of even larger cattle 
 and sheep companies than now exist. We believe, however, That 
 this is ft mistaken notion. Tn connection with arguments to the 
 effect that large companies are gradually displacing small owners 
 it is sometimes asserted that this alleged tendency toward large 
 holdings is of recent origin. Joseph ISTimmo* states that "The 
 
 * Loc. cit, p. 39. 
 
90 
 
 public sentiaient of this country is and always has been strongly 
 opposed to the disposition of the public lands in large quantities, 
 either to one person or to corporations. The genius of our insti- 
 tutions is in favor of comparatively small holdings, and the re- 
 sult of practical experience under this policy since the first set- 
 tlement by colonists upon our shores has caused it to become a 
 cherished feature of our method of disposing of the public 
 lands." As a matter of history, the exact reverse of this propo- 
 sition is true. Alexander Hamilton, who proposed the first 
 plan for the disposition of public lands, recommended that the 
 public lands be sold in any quantities, to individuals or cor- 
 porations, and that special attention be given to arranging the 
 plan so that the sale of lands in large tracts would be rendered 
 easy. It was suggested by Hamilton that the wishes of capita- 
 lists should be considered before those of actual settlers, on ac- 
 count of the need of funds at that time. The history of the 
 various plans for the disposal of the public lands shows plainly 
 the gradual evolution of the idea of disposing of these lands in 
 small quantities to actual settlers. This idea, however, did not 
 take firm root until comparatively recent times. 
 
 The irrigable land is rapidly being taken up for settlement, 
 and the area available for grazing is therefore decreasing from 
 year to year. Since each homesteader may, and usually does 
 raise a ntimber of cattle or sheep which graze on the land ad- 
 jacent to his homestead, it is apparent that the open public 
 range is being rapidly curtailed and does not compare in extent 
 with the areas available for grazing in the days of the cattle 
 kings. 
 
 The greater proportion, however, can probably never be ir- 
 rigated, and its only utilization where dry farming is impossible 
 must be for grazing of stock. The future of the range industry 
 therefore appears to lie in the direction of the extension of irri- 
 gation and consequent increase in the quantity of forage crops 
 raised, and a corresponding increase in the number of live stock 
 in the range States. It is a selfevident proposition that the 
 more cultivated crops are raised for feeding, the larger the num- 
 ber of animals which can be supported on the range, since they 
 will not depend so completely upon the range for maintenance. 
 
91 
 
 The unlimited ranging of either cattle or sheep is incompatible 
 with the best interests of the homesteader and farmer and is 
 therefore opposed to the development of the western country. 
 Holdings must therefore in the future become smaller in ex- 
 tent. As soon as these facts are recognized it will become ap- 
 parent to all concerned that the best interests of the cattleman 
 and sheepman are not opposed to those of the farmer. The 
 range industry will be brought into greater and greater de- 
 pendence upon the production of forage crops by the farmer, 
 and the greatest possible utilization can thus be brought about, 
 both of irrigable land and also of the non-irrigable range 
 country. 
 
Photomount 
 
 Pamphlet 
 
 Binder 
 
 GaylordBros.Inc. 
 
 Makers 
 Syracuse, N. Y. 
 
 PAT. JAN 21, 1908 
 
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