■Ill Lit 
 
 iporary Civilization 
 
 A Syllabi 
 
New York 
 State College of Agriculture 
 At Cornell University 
 Ithaca, N. Y. ■ 
 
 The 
 
 Professor Dwight Sanderson 
 
 Rural Sociology 
 
 Library 
 
CB 58 C72° me " Universi,y Librar v 
 '"iEimi™" to conte 'nporary civilizatio 
 
 3 1924 014 084 978 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of this book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924014084978 
 
Columbia BUntoergttp 
 
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 Introduction 
 To Contemporary Civilization 
 
 A Syllabus 
 
 Third Edition 
 
 Jleto t?orfe 
 
 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS 
 192 I 
 

 /j*, m 
 
 Copyrighted 1921 
 By Columbia University Press 
 
 Printed from type, published 1921 
 
INTRODUCTORY NOTE 
 
 The Faculty of Columbia College determined at its meeting in 
 January, 1919, to discontinue the required courses in History and 
 Philosophy and, beginning in September, 1919, to substitute a 
 course on Contemporary Civilization which should meet five times 
 a week and be required of all Freshmen. 
 
 The purpose of the entire course is to raise for consideration the 
 insistent problems of the present. To give the student, early in his 
 college course, objective material on which to base his own farther 
 studies and his own judgments will, it is believed, aid him greatly 
 in enabling him to understand the civilization of his own day, and 
 to participate effectively in it. 
 
 The early part of the course is a preparation for the consideration 
 of the problems of the present. Nature in its physical features and 
 resources and man with his equipment of more or less modifiable 
 traits are presented as materials to be used in rebuilding the present 
 into a more desirable future. The intellectual tools, or concepts, 
 which have played an important part in attempted solutions are 
 also treated in their context: the application of exact science to the 
 control of nature, the idea of mass production for world distribution, 
 and the belief in the participation of the governed in their own 
 control. 
 
 The more immediate setting of the problems is next developed 
 through the study (1) of the historic background of contemporary 
 civilization, and (2) of the recent historical development of the great 
 national states. 
 
 Then, in turn, and in considerable detail, there are presented the 
 chief problems arising in attempts to find satisfactory solutions of 
 the difficulties incident to the major relationships which men 
 sustain. The problems of imperialism and the "backward peoples," 
 of nationalism and internationalism, of our contemporary industrial 
 life, of conservation, of political control, and of education are 
 treated, with an attempt in every case to state the alternatives at 
 issue, and to relate them to the materials through the use of which 
 change must come, to the dominant concepts of our day, and to 
 their own historical setting. 
 
The Syllabus has been prepared by certain of the instructors of 
 the course who include members of the Departments of Economics, 
 Government, History and Philosophy: W. E. Caldwell, H. J. 
 Carman, J. J. Coss, Irwin Edman, A. P. Evans, H. L. Friess, E. D. 
 Graper, A. L. Jones, B. B. Kendrick, S. P. Lamprecht, R. D. 
 Leigh, F. C. Mills, P. T. Moon, H. W. Schneider, and W. E. Weld. 
 
CONTENTS 
 Introduction to Contemporary Civilization 
 
 First Division. Civilization and Its Basis 
 
 Book I. The world of nature .... I 
 
 i. Man as a product of nature ... I 
 
 2. Man as a controller of nature . I 
 
 Book II. The world of human nature ... 2 
 
 The uniqueness of human behavior ... 2 
 
 1. Animal behavior compared with human 2 
 
 2. The types of human behavior and their social 
 significance .... .... ... 3 
 
 Individual traits which are socially significant . . 4 
 
 1 . The basic human desires 4 
 
 2. Man as social and individual .... 5 
 
 3. Wide variety in man's ability and interests . . 10 
 
 4. Language and communication among men . 1 1 
 
 5. Racial and cultural continuity 11 
 The career of reason .... 13 
 
 1. Religion and the religious experience 13 
 
 2. Art and the aesthetic experience . . 14 
 
 3. Science and scientific method 16 
 
 4. Morals and moral valuation . 18 
 
 Second Division. Survey of the Characteristics of the Present Age 
 
 Book III. Historical background of contemporary civilization, 
 
 1400-1870 23 
 
 Introduction: The fundamental conceptions of the present 
 
 age • ■ 23 
 
 1. The intellectual outlook of the Renaissance — the 
 birth of modern science, and the rise of national 
 cultural traditions in Western Europe 24 
 
 2. The commercial revolution . . 25 
 
 3. The agricultural revolution 26 
 
 4. The industrial revolution ... ... 28 
 
 5. The development of thought in the 18th century — 
 humanitarianism, rationalism, and romanticism . . 30 
 
6. The American revolution 3 2 
 
 7. The French revolution 33 
 
 8. Napoleon Bonaparte's work in preserving and 
 spreading certain ideas and achievements of the 
 French revolution 35 
 
 9. Unsuccessful attempt of Metternich and the con- 
 servatives to restore and preserve the old r6gime, 
 1815-1848 36 
 
 10. The revolutionary movements of 1848-1850 .... 38 
 
 11. European struggles for nationalism and democracy, 
 1850-1871 • • 39 
 
 12. Nationalism, democracy and the industrial revolution 
 
 in the United States from Washington to Grant . . 41 
 
 Book IV. The recent history of the great nations, 187 1 to the 
 
 present 4 1 
 
 Introduction: Important factors in the development of 
 
 civilized nations since 1 87 1 4 1 
 
 1. The United Kingdom and the British Empire since 
 1867 45 
 
 2. France since 1870 • 48 
 
 3. Italy since 1871 .... 49 
 
 4. Germany since 1871 5° 
 
 5. Austria-Hungary, 1867-1918 51 
 
 6. Russia since 1855 . . 5 1 
 
 7. The Near East .... 54 
 
 8. The Far East 55 
 
 9. Middle and western Asia . . 56 
 
 10. Africa 57 
 
 11. Australia and the islands of the South Pacific ... 58 
 
 12. American development since 187 1 58 
 
 13. The diplomatic background of the world war . . 58 
 
 14. The world war (1914-1918) 59 
 
 15. The continued struggle for markets and power . . 61 
 
 Third Division. The Insistent Problems of Today 
 
 Book V. The problems of imperialism and the "backward peoples" 62 
 
 1. The old colonial movement and the new imperialism 62 
 
 2. "Backward peoples'' and the dogma of race superiority 62 
 
 3. The problems of imperialism ... 62 
 
 Book VI. Problems of nationalism and internationalism . . . .^. 63 
 1. National self-determination versus historic, ethnic, 
 
 strategic, geographic and economic claims 63 
 
2. The problem of war and peace ... -64 
 
 3. Individualism, nationalism, cosmopolitanism 66 
 
 Book VII. The problems of conservation . . . . 66 
 
 1. Definition . ... 66 
 
 2. Importance .66 
 
 3. Conservation of natural resources ... 67 
 
 4. Conservation of plant and animal life 68 
 
 5. Conservation of man 69 
 
 Book VIII. Industrial problems .... 70 
 
 1. A survey of the prominent features of the modern 
 industrial system . . . . 70 
 
 2. The organization of production: problems aiising 
 from the conflicting interests of certain of the agents 
 
 of production 73 
 
 3. The organization of production: competition versus 
 combination and monopoly 88 
 
 4. Problems connected with the distribution of the 
 annual social income 89 
 
 5. The problem of control in industry 91 
 
 Book IX. Problems of political control . .... .96 
 
 1 . Conflicting estimates of political democracy 96 
 
 2. The problem of popular control . 97 
 
 3. The problem of centralization versus decentralization 102 
 
 4. The problem of securing efficient administration . . 102 
 
 5. The problem of determining the sphere of govern- 
 mental activity . .103 
 
 6. The problem of homogeneity ... 105 
 
 Book X. Educational problems . 106 
 
 1. The nature and aims of education 106 
 
 2. The agents of education in contemporary civilization 107 
 
 3. Current educational problems 108 
 
 Appendix 
 
 Parti. The world of nature ... 118 
 
 Part II. Historical map studies ... . . . 119 
 
 1. The commercial revolution . .... . . 120 
 
 2. The industrial revolution 123 
 
 3. Europe in 1815 125 
 
 4. National unification in Europe, 1850-1914. . . . 126 
 
 5. European expansion . . 129 
 
 6. Europe in the world war 131 
 
Part III. Studies on the insistent problems of today . . .' . 132 
 
 1. Race .... . . 132 
 
 2. The conservation of natural resources . . -136 
 
 3. The conservation of man 140 
 
 4. Immigration in the United States 146 
 
 5. The distribution of wealth among various classes of 
 society . . . . ... 147 
 
 6. The problem of illiteracy . 147 
 
 7. The geographical distribution of institutionalized 
 religion . . 148 
 
INTRODUCTION TO CONTEMPORARY CIVILIZATION 
 
 FIRST DIVISION 
 
 CIVILIZATION AND ITS BASIS 
 BOOK I. THE WORLD OF NATURE 
 
 We live in a geographical, physically conditioned world, with a certain 
 distribution of raw materials and of human beings who are supported by 
 them, and who are engaged in social relationships with one another. In 
 this situation problems of physical control by and for large groups of people ■, 
 arise. 
 
 1. Man as a product of nature. 
 
 Hammond's Business Atlas of Economic Geography; S. B. Harding, European 
 History Atlas; Gregory-Keller-Bishop, Physical and Commercial Geography, Parts 
 I and II; J. Russell Smith, Industrial and Commercial Geography, Chap. I; E. C. 
 Semple, Influences of Geographic Environment; J. Brunhes, Human Geography; 
 H. B. George, Relations between Geography and History. 
 ^Appendix, I (pp. 118-110). 
 
 A. The influence of land and water bodies on civilization; by their location and con- 
 tour they condition the movements of men; natural barriers and natural highways. 
 
 B. The influence of climatic variations, especially in temperature and rainfall, on 
 civilization. 
 
 C. The influence of variations in soil fertility and water supply. 
 
 D. The influence of the distribution of natural resources — power sources, fibers, 
 forests, minerals, and foodstuffs; 
 
 2. Man as a controller of nature. 
 
 A. Human control over nature gradually increased by 
 (a) Discovery and use of fire. 
 
 (6) Domestication of animals. 
 
 (c) Invention of machinery and utilization of mechanical power. 
 
 (d) Development of scientific knowledge and technique. 
 
 i. Acquisition of such knowledge difficult and uncongenial to many. 
 ii. Elaborate development of natural sciences today makes expert specializa- 
 tion necessary. 
 
 H. F. Osborn, Men of the Old Stone Age; J. H. Robinson, The New History, 
 236-252. 
 
 B. Contemporary civilization characterized by artificial control of natural physical 
 features through 
 
 (a) Trade and transportation — ocean routes, roads, canals, trackage, oil pipe- 
 lines, electrification, etc. 
 (6) Rapid communication by telegraph, telephone, and wireless, 
 (c) Storage and refrigeration, 
 (rf) Extensive manufactures. 
 
 tl] 
 
(e) Drainage and irrigation. 
 
 (/) Tillage and fertilization. 
 
 (g) Introduction of non-indigenous plants; domestication of animals. 
 
 (h) Development of substitutes and use of by-products. 
 
 (*) Scientific breeding and feeding for food values — animals and plants. 
 
 0) Control of plant and animal diseases and pests. 
 
 (k) Forestry. 
 
 C. Survey of radical changes in man's environment and mode of life due to his in- 
 creasing control over natural conditions. 
 
 (a) Spread of civilization to formerly uninhabitable portions of the earth due to 
 his control over disease and over excessive variations of temperature. 
 
 (b) Increase of commerce and industry. 
 
 (c) Breakdown of natural barriers and increasing interdependence of individuals, 
 communities, and nations. 
 
 (d) Changes in conditions and standards of living. 
 
 (e) Changes in mental outlook, due to increased facilities for communication and 
 broadening of interests. 
 
 D. Man's power to control nature often exceeds his skill in utilizing this control for 
 human benefit. 
 
 (a) Man's interests in controlling nature are varied and often conflicting. 
 
 (6) Conflicting interests cause disagreement as to how control over nature is to be 
 
 exercised and consequent wastes. — -Wastes of war, of industry and commerce, 
 
 etc. 
 (c) Physical sciences more exact and subject to less dispute than the social sciences. 
 
 BOOK II. THE WORLD OF HUMAN NATURE 
 Human Traits and Their Social Significance 
 
 Civilization is conditioned by the original or native endowment of man 
 as well as by the physical order of the universe. Human beings have certain 
 ways of behavior which are susceptible of modification by education and 
 habit. 
 
 ♦Edman, Human Traits and Their Social Significance, Introduction. 
 
 THE UNIQUENESS OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR 
 
 1. Animal behavior compared with human. * Human Traits, Chapter I. 
 James, Psychology, Vol. II, 348-360. 
 
 A, Animals and human beings both act through 
 
 (a) Instinct — specific untrained responses in the presence of certain specific situa- 
 tions. 
 
 James, Vol. II, 383-441, 'Instinct'; Thorndike, Educational Psychology, 
 Briefer Course, 1-26; Colvin and Bagley, Human Behavior, 126-139; Watson, 
 Behavior, 106-120; Watson, Psychology from the Standpoint of a Behaviorist, 
 231-268. 
 
 (b) Habit — the spontaneous recurrence of actions repeated until they have become 
 fixed responses. 
 
 Thorndike, 125-152; James, Psychology, Vol. I, Chap. 4, 'Habit'; Watson, 
 Behavior, 183-191; Watson, Psychology, 269-309. 
 
 B. Animals and human beings both acquire habits by the trial and error method 
 
 [2] 
 
Those types of action which produce satisfying results tend to be repeated, and 
 those that do not, tend to be discarded. 
 Thorndike, 50-58. 
 
 C. Animals and human beings can acquire ways of behaving by subjection to rewards 
 and punishments. 
 
 D. Human beings are unique (Marvin, The Living Past, 10-27) in that 
 (a) They have structural advantages — brain, hands, posture, etc. 
 
 (6) They have a prolonged period of infancy (Fiske, 'The Meaning of Infancy,' 
 Riverside Series; Butler, 'The Meaning of Infancy and Education,' Educa- 
 tional Review, January, 1897) which makes possible a wider 
 i. Realignment of instinctive acts, 
 
 Graham Wallas, The Great Society, 32-56. 
 ii. Acquisition of great numbers of habits artificially and purposefully induced. 
 Colvin and Bagley, 149-188. 
 
 (c) They are conscious of their own being and possess ideas to which they react 
 as well as to things. This involves appreciating likeness and differences and 
 action resulting in the achievement of purposes. 
 
 John Dewey, How We Think, 1-13. 
 
 (d) They possess a complicated language and writing through which their acquired 
 knowledge can be preserved. 
 
 Watson, Behavior, 318-334; Wallas, Our Social Heritage, 15-25. 
 
 (e) They alone make and understand the use of tools. Bergson, Creative Evolu- 
 tion, 138-139; Mill, Realities of Modern Science, 1-13. 
 
 2. The types of human behavior and their social significance. *Human 
 Traits, Chapters II and III. 
 
 A. Instinctive behavior. Strong primitive tendencies to act without consideration of 
 the result in the light of its wider relations. Very powerful and persistent ten- 
 dencies to act which may be associated with elements socially beneficial or the 
 reverse. The necessity for the control of instinct. Control versus caprice. Control 
 versus repression. Control as modification of unlearned forms of behavior. Thwarted 
 instinctive behavior usually produces irritation and opposition to the restricting 
 force. 
 
 Holt, Freudian Wish, Chap. Ill; Sigmund Freud, A General Introduction to Psy- 
 choanalysis. 
 
 B. Habitual behavior. Responses which are the usual or customary ways of acting in 
 familiar situations. Types of habit formation; conditions of learning; specificity 
 and transfer of habits. The "learning habit." Habit at once a great time and 
 effort saver, a stabilizer and a type of action which resists modification or change. 
 Individuals become habituated to institutions and other forms of social life and 
 find change disturbing and difficult. 
 
 James, Vol. I, Chap. 4; Dewey and Tufts, Ethics, 51-54. 68-72; Sumner, 
 Folkways, 75-118; Watson, Behavior, 183-191; Watson, Psychology, 385-391. 
 
 C. Emotion. An accompaniment of all forms of behavior. The physiological basis of 
 emotions. Their effect in impeding or in facilitating actions. Their relation to 
 habit formation. James, Vol. II, 442-485; Watson, Psychology, 194-230. 
 
 D. Reflective behavior. Acts, single or consecutive, which are undertaken consciously 
 and with the agent's appreciation of the advantages and disadvantages associated 
 with them. Reflection as disciplined imagination. Such behavior may bring with it 
 redirection of instinctive acts, a criticism or discontinuance of old habits and an 
 incentive to the formation of new ones. Widespread manifestation of reflective 
 
 l3l 
 
behavior important in democracies where decisions are not imposed by a central 
 
 authority. 
 
 John Dewey, How We Think, 14-19; Dewey and Tufts, Ethics, 72-76; John 
 
 Dewey, Democracy and Education, 163-178; Colvin and Bagley, 298-329. 
 
 E. Reflection removed from immediate application. 
 
 Man is interested in the theoretical consideration of problems. Observations are 
 made and generalizations reached. Verification is sought and hypotheses accepted 
 or rejected on experimental and deductive evidence. The sciences result, which 
 satisfy man by their adequacy, system and beauty, and give to him the possibility 
 of control over nature and himself. Theology and philosophy rest on mental ac- 
 tivity similar to that of theoretical science. 
 
 John Dewey, How We Think, 145-156; Dewey, Reconstruction in Philosophy, 
 Chaps. I and V. 
 
 F. Expression of feelings and ideas in beautiful form. 
 
 Man can combine elements of various kinds in such fashion as to create products 
 giving a satisfaction, emotional or intellectual, which may have no reference to 
 practical utility. This creative artistic activity enriches and emancipates the life 
 of man. 
 Santayana, Reason in Art, 3-17, 216-230; James, Vol. II, 639-640. 
 
 INDIVIDUAL TRAITS WHICH ARE SOCIALLY SIGNIFICANT 
 
 1. The basic human desires. *Human Traits, Chapter IV. 
 
 A. Man demands food, shelter, and the gratification of physical desires. 
 (a) Nutrition. 
 
 (i) Clothing and shelter. 
 
 (c) Sex gratification, etc. 
 
 McDougall, Social Psychology (8th ed.), 385-424. 
 
 (d) Social and economic implications. 
 
 i. A spur to activity in the face of obstacles. 
 ii. A stabilizer, since the satisfaction of economic wants requires sustained and 
 
 co-operative activity, 
 iii. A cause of differentiation and conflict between individuals and between 
 groups. 
 (») Different standards of living. 
 (ii) Provides means for securing social distinction. 
 iv. Gratification of appetites often tends to excess with consequent personal 
 and social evils of which drunkenness, the drug habit, and prostitution are 
 notable instances requiring social regulation. 
 Appendix, III, 3 (p. 144). 
 McDougall, 385-424; Watson, Psychology, 359-368. 
 
 B. Activity — a characteristic of all living things. 
 
 John Dewey, How We Think, 30-34; Thorndike, 50-58. 
 (a) Activity, primarily physical. 
 
 i. Man's 'innate tendency to fool.' 
 ii. Persistence of the desire to play. 
 
 iii. Displays itself in the wide variety of instinctive responses, 
 iv. Importance of variety. Desirability and undesirability of sameness and 
 change. 
 
 Thorndike, Educational Psychology, Vol. I, 130-132. 
 v. Social consequences. 
 
 [4] 
 
(t) Activity may be displayed for its own sake — play, recreation, either 
 
 undirected or organized. 
 (ii) Activity as a means to an end — the direction of human energy to the 
 
 accomplishment of desired ends. 
 (iii) Dislike of monotonous occupation — importance of feeling of boredom. 
 Significance for industry. 
 
 (b) Activity, primarily mental. 
 
 i. Imagination — undirected and controlled, 
 ii. Curiosity — casual to scientific. 
 
 John Dewey, How We Think, 30-34. 
 iii. Social consequences. 
 
 (*') Foundation of disinterested speculation and investigation. 
 (»t) Basis of art and science. 
 C. Quiescence — fatigue. 
 
 (a) Quiescence — the desirability of periods of lessened activity. 
 (6) Fatigue — a lessened functional efficiency — physiological and mental features. 
 Thorndike, 283-330; Goldmark, Fatigue and Efficiency, 9-42; F. S. Lee, 
 The Human Machine and Industrial Efficiency, 25-38; Watson, Psychology, 
 348-359- 
 
 (c) Social consequences. 
 
 i. The demand for rest, 
 ii. The limits of human productivity, 
 iii. Importance for industry. 
 
 Goldmark, Fatigue and Efficiency, 558-564. 
 
 2. Man is social and individual. Man finds satisfaction in being with others 
 and is responsive to their praise and blame. But at the same time man tends 
 to demand privacy and individuality in action, thought, and possession. 
 
 A. Gregarious character — a sense of comfort in the presence of one's fellows and of 
 uneasiness if too much separated from them, physically or intellectually. 
 "The Herd Instinct." *Human Traits, Chapter V. 
 
 Trotter, Instincts of the Herd in Peace and War, 113-120; Wallas, Our Social Heri- 
 tage, 55-76. 
 
 (a) Shared by man and many sub-human forms. 
 Kropotkin, Mutual Aid, 1-90; McDougall, 84-88. 
 
 (b) Exhibited in a great variety of ways. 
 
 i. Pleasure of community life (Cooley, Human Nature and the Social Order, 
 23-31). Unsatisfactory isolation of rural life — horror of solitary confine- 
 ment. 
 ii. Pleasure of holding current opinions — painful character of complete isola- 
 tion in belief. 
 
 (c) Social significance. 
 
 McDougall, Social Psychology, 296-301. 
 i. Of great importance for social solidarity. 
 
 Ellwood, Introduction to Social Psychology, 79-124. 
 ii. Influential in maintaining established beliefs and social habits (customs), 
 and in accounting for comparative absence of individual variation and 
 innovation. 
 
 Ross, Social Control, 89-105. 
 iii. Partly responsible for urbanization. 
 B. Sympathy — A specialization of the gregarious character of man. Men tend to 
 share their emotions with their fellows, and to experience sympathetically the 
 emotions of others. 
 
 [5] 
 
(a) In its simplest form "the experiencing of any feeling or emotion when or be- 
 cause we observe in other persons or creatures the expression of that feeling or 
 emotion." 
 
 (b) A specialization of the gregarious instinct, directed primarily to those of one's 
 own kind, physical, social and intellectual. 
 
 (c) Sensibility to the emotions or feelings of others varies in different individuals 
 but is common in some degree to all. Insensibility, normal sensibility, excess 
 sensibility — hysteria and sentimentalism. 
 
 (d) Social consequences. 
 
 i. The presence or absence of genuine sympathy with the emotions of others 
 a factor which determines our attitudes toward and relations to other people. 
 
 ii. Plays a large part in civic and philanthropic interest. 
 iii. A basis of friendship, 
 iv. Makes possible communication of emotions through representation in art. 
 
 C. Man responds to the praise and blame of his fellows and modifies his activity in 
 
 accordance with them. 
 
 Thorndike, 29-33; McDougall, 200; Dewey and Tufts, 51-72. 
 
 (a) Closely related to man's gregarious character. 
 
 (6) Social approval and disapproval become themselves satisfiers and dissatisfiers. 
 They thus come into competition with other goods. As a result, to acquire or 
 avoid them men will modify their activities and sacrifice other satisfactions. 
 
 (c) The desire for social approval may cause men to conceal the discrepancy be- 
 tween the recognized codes and their actual practices — difference between 
 actual and professed codes, business, professional, and private. Insistent social 
 pressure tends to bring the codes together. 
 
 (d) The force which the social estimate can exert depends on 
 
 i. Degree of integration of individuals within the group, 
 ii. Unanimity of social opinion, 
 iii. Varying susceptibiUty or suggestibility of the individual. 
 
 (e) Social estimate operates to preserve and transmit standards of conduct. 
 Santayana, Reason in Society, 184-189; Hobhouse, Morals in Evolution, 
 Part II, 261-264. 
 
 i. The customary becomes the sanctioned. 
 ii. Individual variation may be the object of social censure varying in intensity 
 
 from death to non-respectability, 
 iii. Approval and disapproval become fixed to acts which are regarded as 
 important for social preservation, and may remain as habitual censures or 
 approvals when the acts have lost their social relevance. 
 Robinson, The New History, 18-25. 
 iv. Special approval in advanced societies may be given to individual variations 
 that show promise of social utility, and analysis and criticism may become 
 approved social habits. 
 Trotter, 45-46. 
 (/) Importance of relating social estimates to conduct which is socially important. 
 J. S. Mill, Utilitarianism, Chap. IV. 
 i. Social estimate the determiner and support of laws, 
 ii. In field of extra-legal control social estimate chief agency, 
 iii. Increasing emphasis on humanitarianism calculated to promote socially 
 
 beneficial conduct, 
 iv. Education a field of primary importance in molding habits of conduct by 
 controlling action through early application of social estimates of desired or 
 undesired ends. — Aristotle; Mill; Dewey, Democracy and Education, 14-22, 
 26-39. 
 
 [6] 
 
D. Traits which operate in close social relations. *Human Traits, Chapter VI. 
 
 (a) Man is competitive and at the same time submissive. 
 Thorndike, 33-37. 
 
 i. The "Fighting Instinct." 
 McDougall, 59-66, 279-295. 
 (0 Persistent but susceptible of direction. 
 (»'»') Aroused both by persons and by impersonal situations. 
 (iii) Social consequences. 
 
 a. Lends additional energy to all enterprises which involve com- 
 petition or the overcoming of obvious obstacles. 
 
 b. If rightly directed it may lead to the elimination of evils. 
 
 c. Usually entails evils especially when uncontrolled — material 
 injuries, alienation of individuals and groups, diversion of energy 
 from the end in view to the fight itself. 
 
 ii. The "Submissive Instinct." 
 
 E. A. Ross, Social Control, Chap. 21, "Personality"; Trotter, 115-118. 
 (i) Definition. Tendency to feel satisfaction in surrender to or following 
 
 of a person or cause, more dominating than the individual. 
 (ii) Probable significance for religious experience. 
 (iii) Social consequences. 
 
 a. Uneasiness of men when they have no allegiance. 
 
 b. Sense of heightened personality when participating in a great enter- 
 prise or organization; nationalism, etc. 
 
 c. Possibility of misuse by leaders for personal ends. 
 
 d. Possibility of use by leaders for projects of large social benefit. 
 
 (b) Man displays qualities of leadership. Carlyle, Heroes and Hero Worship. 
 
 i. Frequently associated with a competitive nature. 
 
 ii. Presence of the submissive tendencies of great importance in making leader- 
 ship possible, 
 iii. Of wide social importance. 
 
 (»') Gives to individuals great power. 
 
 (ii) Furnishes support for innovations, good or bad, and also for the main- 
 tenance of customary social forms. 
 
 (c) Man pities and protects weak and suffering things. 
 
 i. Related to parental instinct; more powerful in women than in men. 
 
 McDougall, 269-270; J. S. Mill, Utilitarianism, Chap. V, second half. 
 ii. Social consequences. 
 
 (i) Importance in maintaining close family relations. 
 (ii) Probable significance for acts of helpfulness to others. Close relation 
 to strong impulse to avenge sufferings of others and of altruism and 
 development of moral indignation. 
 
 (d) Men display fear under a wide variety of stimuli and in various ways and 
 degrees. 
 
 i. Definition. A marked physiological disturbance characterized by pallor, 
 violent heart beat, erection of the hair, violent trembling, etc., and accom- 
 panied by intense emotional disturbance, 
 ii. Provoked principally by loud noises, strange signs and sounds of any con- 
 spicuous kind, and by signs of possible danger, 
 iii. Causes for physical fear largely removed under the normal conditions of 
 
 civilized society, 
 iv. Fear remains a powerful instinct though no longer so useful as it was in 
 preserving the species under the precarious conditions of more primitive 
 life. 
 
 [7] 
 
v. Social consequences. 
 
 (i) Tends to inhibit action and even where it promotes it, as in the case 
 of flight, to disorganize it and put it beyond the individual's control. 
 In intense forms brings about paralysis. 
 (*'») Fear displays itself in many ways in political and social life. 
 
 a. In fear of one's economic and social future: fear of unemployment, 
 of descending in one's social status, of social ostracism. 
 
 b. Inhibits freedom of action or opinion. 
 
 c. Fear partly responsible for distrust of new and untried political 
 and social ideas. 
 
 (iii) The reduction of fear, and worry, a form of fear, one of the conse- 
 quences to be desired in social reform. 
 («) Man's experiences are qualified by love and hate. 
 
 i. Most human relations, especially those involving individuals, are qualified 
 
 by an emotional attitude (varying in degree) of love and hate, 
 ii. Love. 
 
 Santayana, Reason in Society, 3-34. 
 (j) Varies in intensity from immediate sympathy or fellow feeling with 
 others to deep personal affection, of which friendship, and love between 
 the sexes are the most striking examples. 
 (ii) May be aroused by persons because of attractions ranging from physi- 
 cal beauty to personal and intellectual qualities. Also, with as great 
 intensity, among fewer individuals, by causes, groups, institutions and 
 ideas. 
 (»'*») Social consequences. 
 
 a. Fundamental in initiating and sustaining interest in altruistic 
 enterprises, a large element in philanthropy, in both broad and 
 narrow sense, and public spirit or civic interest and devotion. 
 
 b. Profoundly influential in initiating and modifying our estimates of 
 and our interest in persons and situations. An important factor in 
 human oneness — the sense of "charity toward human weakness." 
 
 iii. Hate. 
 
 (») An extreme form of disaffection for persons, institutions or ideas, 
 which obstruct our activities, desires or ideals. May begin in initial 
 antipathy or repulsion (opposite of immediate sympathy) . 
 (*») Hate closely connected with fear. Like fear it is provoked in situations 
 where the unfamiliar is present. Hate is strong between groups which 
 have little communication and mutual understanding, and conse- 
 quently much fear. 
 (.iii) Social consequences. 
 
 a. An important factor in promoting anger and pugnacity and fos- 
 tering antagonism and wars between nations and groups. 
 6. Like love influential in modifying our estimates of and interests in 
 persons and situations. Plays a large part in cruelty, vindictiveness 
 and ruthlessness in action. 
 
 Men demand privacy and cherish individuality. *Human Traits, Chapter VII. 
 (a) Man at certain times and under certain conditions finds companionship un- 
 satisfactory and prefers solitude. 
 (6) Man finds satisfaction in having objects which are his own. 
 
 i. "Acquisitive instinct" — the tendency to get and hold objects. 
 Thorndike, 17-19; McDougall, 88-89. 
 (j) Displayed in animals as well as in men. 
 (»'»') Value of objects often an unimportant consideration. 
 
 [8] 
 
(«»») May be applied to persons as well as to material goods, 
 ii. Possession gives a pleasurable sense of individual importance. 
 
 (»') Attempts to deprive man of his possessions resisted with an energy 
 
 often out of proportion to value of objects. 
 (m) Basis of large wealth accumulations and private possessions. 
 (»'»'»•) Possessive instinct an apparent obstacle to all thoroughly communistic 
 forms of social and political organization. 
 
 (c) Man may regard his opinions and beliefs, and freedom to express them, as im- 
 portant individual possessions. 
 
 Mill, Essay on Liberty, Chap. III. 
 i. The same passionate defense may be manifested as in the case of other 
 
 possessions, 
 ii. Critical when opinions are at variance with those of group, because 
 
 (») Individual exposed to censure, particularly if opinions have to do with 
 
 new social organization and custom. 
 (ii) Such opinions are the sources of social changes and may be of social 
 benefit. 
 
 Mill, Liberty, Chap. II. 
 iii. Social attitude in different ages toward the same individuals who display 
 individual opinions varies from suppression to canonization. 
 
 (d) Man may consciously set himself over against his group and develop a sense of 
 "personal selfhood." *Human Traits, Chap. VIII. 
 
 McDougall, Chaps. VII, VIII; Watson, Psychology, 392-420. 
 i. The discovery of the bodily self — the individual and the world, 
 ii. The discovery of the social self — the individual setting himself off as a 
 personality apart from others in action, relief, possession. The social self 
 as an organization of instincts and habits. The possession of a number of 
 varying personalities. The ideal self. The permanent self; the possession 
 of character and will. Wallas, Our Social Heritage, 26-54. 
 iii. Enhancement of the "self," through various means. 
 
 (*) Instincts that make for the preservation of the self — eating, self- 
 defence, etc. 
 (ii) Social instincts, friendliness, amativeness, competitiveness, etc. 
 {iii) Through profession and occupation, distinction and power. 
 (iv) Through possessions and social status, 
 iv. Self-enhancement not incompatible with altruism and social mindedness. 
 The fulfillment of the self may be by social service as well as by purely 
 selfish actions. Altruism may be just as much a fulfillment of the indi- 
 vidual's self as egoism, 
 v. Self-satisfaction and dissatisfaction — Dependent on the ideal of "self" the 
 individual has set up, and the extent to which he feels himself to have 
 attained it. Largely dependent on social estimates of praise and blame, 
 vi. The consciousness of selfhood and the contrast with others increase with 
 the expression of opinion or of personal power, especially in the face of 
 opposition, 
 vii. The contrast may be friendly, with a recognition of all other "selves" as 
 
 equally entitled to existence, 
 viii. The contrast may be one of opposition. 
 
 (»') When the individual is subject to social censure or repression, in which 
 case he may intensify his opinions and use violent means to preserve 
 his "selfhood." 
 (ii) When the individual seeks to impose his opinion or power, or concept of 
 the "self," on others, in which case he may seek power to coerce, and 
 those opposed may use power to crush. 
 
 [9] 
 
Ix. The consciousness of self varies in its expression and intensity, and at dif- 
 ferent times may display different types or combinations of types. A few 
 of the more important forms of the consciousness of self are : 
 (») It may seek for display and recognition — boldness, a desire for social 
 
 conspicuousness. 
 (it) It may be averse to display and shrink from observation — self-sufficient 
 
 modesty. 
 (Hi) It may be positive but acceptant of modification — personal humility. 
 (»») It may be insistent on its position — dogmatic in opinion and selfish or 
 
 individualistic in action. The "superman," the "ego and its own." 
 (v) It may be filled with enthusiasm and desire for leadership. 
 (»*) It may be negative — humility ranging from religious submission to 
 
 obsequiousness. 
 (vii) It may, from the social point of view, be abnormal and eccentric — 
 
 the madman, the criminal and the genius. 
 (viii) It may be active or contemplative — the thinker and the man of action. 
 x. Attack or threat against the self may call out the most powerful emotions — 
 fear and hatred — as praise and support of the self may arouse love and 
 affection, 
 xi. In defense of the self, in either its narrower or broader sense, heroism and 
 courage may be displayed, 
 (e) Groups may display the same consciousness of individuality and selfhood as 
 individuals do, and may exhibit the same reactions, ranging from local pride to 
 belligerent imperialism. 
 (/) Individuals and groups may emphasize the tendency to repress the development 
 of individuality, or may regard such development as desirable. In the latter 
 case they will develop social habits which will promote it, and at the same 
 time provide for its well-rounded accomplishment. 
 
 Dewey and Tufts, 392-395. 428-430; Russell, Proposed Roads to Freedom, 187- 
 212. 
 (g) Ideally the contrast between the "self" and society is unjustifiable, as the most 
 complete self-realization is possible only in a congenial social order. Further- 
 more, self or individuality can appear only in social relationships; and society 
 in any case is only the aggregate of selves, 
 (ft) On the part of the individual, cultivation of the self is natural; it is socially 
 justifiable when "self-realization" does not interfere with the self-realization of 
 others. 
 (») The "cult of the self" may degenerate into eccentricity of dress, manner or 
 
 interest. 
 0') A too rigid suppression of individuality results in mere formalism and auto- 
 matism in social life, and prevents originality and spontaneity which are the 
 sources of social progress. 
 
 3. Men show wide variety in their ability and interests. *Human Traits, 
 Chapter IX. 
 Galton, Hereditary Genius, 1-49, 307-361; Thorndike, Individuality. 
 
 A. Physical and intellectual differences, 
 (a) Between races. 
 
 Appendix, III, 1 (p. 132). 
 (6) Between individuals of the same race. 
 
 i. Sex. Lee, Human Machine and Industrial Efficiency, 53-60; Watson, 
 
 Psychology, 381-385. 
 ii. Age. 
 
 [10] 
 
(c) In the same individual at different ages. 
 
 (d) Effect of native endowment and of environment on individual differences. 
 
 B. Range of occupations and professions. 
 
 C. Social and economic implications. 
 
 (a) Eugenics interested in the elimination of low ability and breeding for high ability. 
 
 Kellicot, The Social Direction of Human Evolution. 
 (6) Necessity of adjusting kind and method of education to different abilities and 
 
 interests with a view to the most complete development for all. 
 
 (c) Industry offers opportunity for exercising different abilities if adequate atten- 
 tion is paid to placement. 
 
 (d) Complete participation in democratic government may be limited if less than 
 a certain minimum of native ability is present. 
 
 (e) Native ability even when present may not be developed. Importance of 
 education. 
 
 4. Man communicates with his fellows by language. *Human Traits, 
 
 Chapter X. 
 
 Marvin, The Living Past, 23-27; Watson, Psychology, 310-322. 
 
 A . Language permits transmission of information in precise and public terms, 
 (a) Between contemporaries. 
 
 (6) From past to present and future. 
 
 (c) Such transmission subject to difficulties and refinements. 
 
 i. Basic language difference, 
 ii. Rise of technical terminology. 
 
 (d) Difficulties of language. 
 Jones, Logic, 45-62. 
 
 i. Historical variations in the meaning of terms, 
 ii. Psychological accumulations of terms. 
 
 iii. Vague and differing definitions of the same subject-matter, 
 iv. Wide differences between written and spoken language. 
 
 B. Social consequences. 
 
 (a) Language makes possible discussion, the molding of opinion and association for 
 the accomplishment of approved projects. 
 
 (b) Language becomes an important factor in group integration — the cultivation 
 of obsolescent languages. Nationalism and linguistic affiliations. Differences 
 in language a barrier to internationalism. Vague definitions a barrier to mutual 
 understanding between individuals and groups. 
 
 (<;) Language used and misused as an instrument of manipulation in control of 
 
 public opinion. 
 (<f) Reification or rise of artificial entities from terms. 
 
 Wallas, Human Nature in Politics, 73—97. 
 
 5. Man provides for racial and cultural continuity by the processes of 
 reproduction and the transmission of the racial heritage. *Human 
 Traits, Chapter XI. 
 
 A. Reproduction. 
 
 (a) Based on sex instinct. 
 
 (6) Subjected to rational consideration, the sense of the desirability of offspring is 
 enhanced. 
 i. For community or state by 
 
 (*) Need of large population in frontier communities for agriculture and 
 herding. 
 
 [II] 
 
(ii) Need in developed communities for industry and war. 
 ii. For individual by 
 
 (*) Desire to perpetuate family, property or fame. 
 (ii) Domesticity and the pleasures and responsibilities of parenthood. 
 (iii) Recognition of family as focus for ideal interests. Santayana, Reason 
 in Society, 3-59. 
 (c) Social and economic implications, 
 i. Fear of excessive population. 
 (»') Malthus' doctrine. 
 
 Russell, 86-92. 
 (ii) Place of intensive industry and agriculture in offsetting increase of 
 
 population. 
 (iii) Restriction to improve conditions: cf. African natives and disease, 
 ii. Variations in birth rate and infant mortality. 
 A. Newsholme, The Declining Birth Rate. 
 (i) In different countries. 
 (ii) In different classes. 
 B. Cultural Continuity. 
 
 Man's past accomplishments are the possession of the present and the material 
 on which human enterprise works to build the future. 
 Wallas, Our Social Heritage, 15-25. 
 Attitudes toward the heritage of the past vary. 
 Robinson, The New History, 236-266. 
 
 (a) Uncritical veneration. 
 
 i. Old things are good and new ones bad just because they are old or new. 
 ii. The imperfections of the present only are seen, and only the glories of the 
 
 past; e. g., the "garden of Eden," the "golden age." 
 iii. Change is foolish, almost sacrilegious, since no real benefits are to be ex- 
 pected, and because we are living in a divine order, 
 iv. Education, customs, social organization are to continue the past without 
 
 modification, 
 v. Continuance in established ways implies discipline, self-control, persever- 
 ance. It produces an effective, integrated, not a whimsical, scattered life. 
 
 (b) Uncritical disparagement. 
 
 i. Old things are bad and new things good, just because they are old or new. 
 ii. Only the imperfections of the past and present are seen, and only the 
 
 glories of the future. "The outworn past." 
 iii. Change is to be encouraged: anything is worth trying if it will take men 
 
 away from the past, 
 iv. Education, customs, social organization are to be different from the past, 
 v. The past keeps men in slavery to habits. Habits are dangerous since they 
 restrict judgment and action. 
 
 (c) Critical examination of the past. 
 
 Utilization of the heritage wherever it can assist in clarifying the issues of the 
 present, and help in the realization of critically accepted purpose, 
 i. Presupposes an analysis of present problems and the acceptance of a course 
 
 of action to be pursued, 
 ii. Means neither veneration nor disparagement, but impartial study of 
 
 (»') The successes and failures of men in the past with a view to guiding 
 
 present action. 
 (ii) The institutions, customs, etc., of the past with a view to determining 
 their relevance and utility in the present, 
 iii. Carries with it appreciation of the achievements of the past, and an ac- 
 knowledgment of its limitations. 
 
 [12] 
 
iv. Desires improvement and welcomes changes which, after critical examina- 
 tion, are considered likely to produce benefits, 
 v. Education becomes a training in the careful consideration of ends to be 
 attained, and in a study of the heritage of the past with a view to throwing 
 light on the present. 
 
 THE CAREER OF REASON 
 
 The four sections which follow describe human traits as they display them- 
 selves in the more highly organized and intellectual activities of men. 
 
 1. Religion and the religious experience. *Human Traits, Chapter XII. 
 
 A. Religious experience. 
 
 (a) A normal element of human experience which may be studied objectively. 
 
 (b) Recurrent characteristics of religious experience. 
 
 i. In religious experience man feels life to be made complete; its deficiencies 
 are supplied, its imperfections removed. 
 
 James, Varieties of Religious Experience, 271-284; Pratt, Psychology of 
 Religious Belief, Appendix A, 262-279. 
 (») By finding immediate completeness in the experience, even though the 
 physical surroundings remain unchanged. 
 James, Varieties, 393—420. 
 (ii) By finding himself part of a world scheme in which ultimate perfection 
 is secured. 
 
 James, Varieties, 379-429; James, Pragmatism, 273-301. 
 (iii) Place of immortality in this sense of life's completeness, 
 ii. Experiences which frequently find religious expression. 
 
 (»') Need and impotence — expressed in various forms of petition. 
 
 Santayana, Reason in Religion, 28-40. 
 (ii) Fear and awe — expressed in petition and veneration. 
 {iii) Regret and remorse over failure — expressed in various forms of re- 
 pentance and penitence. 
 (iv) Joy, success, and enthusiasm — expressed in various forms of thanks- 
 giving. 
 
 B. Theology — a world view formulated in accord with a reasoned interpretation of the 
 religious experience or doctrines accepted as revealed. 
 
 (a) The various descriptions of the objects of veneration, 
 i. The objects of veneration are regarded as 
 (») Self-sufficient — in contrast to man. 
 
 (ii) Possessed of a compelling power, evoking in man an insistent desire for 
 harmonious adjustment to them, 
 ii. Primitive emphasis on power of the objects of veneration. 
 
 (»") Fear, and the desire to minimize the precariousness of existence. 
 
 James, Pragmatism, 103—108. 
 (ii) Divine favor sought by supplication and propitiation. 
 (iii) Gratitude expressed in praise and adoration, 
 iii. Developed emphasis on divine goodness. 
 * (*) Divine favor sought by aspiration. 
 
 (ii) Divine goodness recognized as the most important attribute. 
 (iii) Interpretation of the objects of veneration as the objectification of 
 human ideals. 
 Santayana, Reason in Religion, 3-14. 
 
 [13] 
 
(6) Relation between religious experience, theology, and science. 
 
 i. Theology as a world view formulated in accord with a reasoned interpreta- 
 tion of the religious experience or of doctrines accepted as revealed. 
 (i) Introduces stability and order into religious activity. 
 (it) Provides a basis for education and instruction of the young and the 
 
 outsider. 
 (iii) Incorporates extra-religious matter into its system (natural sciences, 
 history, etc.). 
 
 a. Primitive science and theology — animism. 
 
 b. Conflict of teleological theology with modern mechanistic science. 
 Opposition to evolution. 
 
 ii. Disputes with science not relevant to the religious experience. Objects of 
 veneration not subject-matter for the physical sciences. 
 
 C. The social expression of the religious experience. 
 
 (a) Religious traditions expressed in ritual and ceremony. 
 
 i. Purposive character of such ceremonies, and their intimate connection with 
 
 the entire social life, 
 ii. Incorporation in them of influence from other, non-religious social activities. 
 
 (b) Rise of sacred literatures. 
 
 (c) Rise of institutions for the perpetuation of religious traditions and the social 
 expression of the religious life. 
 
 i. The churches and their religious functions, 
 ii. The acquired functions of the churches, 
 (t) Political. 
 (ii) Educational. 
 (iii) Charitable. 
 (iv) Proselytism and the missionary spirit. 
 
 (d) Social consequences of institutionalized religion. 
 
 i. Associations of religions with groups a factor in their integration. 
 
 *Appendix, III, 7 (p. 148). 
 ii. Religious sanction given to modes of .belief, codes of conduct, and to insti- 
 tutions, thus at once strengthening them and making change difficult. 
 (i) Zeal for social enterprise. 
 (ii) Intolerance and inquisition, 
 iii. Religious quietism and consolation sometimes associated with indifference 
 to the present order. 
 James, Varieties, 127-165. 
 
 The "other worldly" emphasis and its influence on acuteness in discriminat- 
 ing present values, 
 iv. Religious emphasis on man's social duty and participation in social better- 
 ment, 
 v. The doctrine of "good works" in Christian and other religions, 
 vi. Tendency of religious institutions to reorganize with reference to social 
 programs. 
 
 2. Art and the aesthetic experience. The factors involved in art as an activity 
 and in aesthetic appreciation are so complicated, and, in some details, so 
 controversial, that no brief account can presume to be final or exhaustive. 
 The following, however, is a presentation of generally recognized significant 
 factors, with special reference to the context of art in contemporary civili- 
 zation. *Human Traits, Chapter XIII. 
 
 A . Art as the practical or imaginative realization of ideals. 
 
 [Hi 
 
(a) Art versus nature. 
 
 i. Nature partly congruous and partly incongruous with human ideals. 
 
 ii. Natural conditions may be modified through deliberately controlled activi- 
 ties of men. 
 
 iii. All the processes of civilization are arts of control designed to bring condi- 
 tions into conformity with human standards. 
 
 iv. Industrial arts are modes of the mechanical control of natural resources 
 through directed human energies. 
 Santayana, Reason in Art, Chap. I. 
 (6) The Fine Arts. 
 
 i. Instinctive energies not exhausted in instrumental activity, i. e„ in industry. 
 
 ii. Satisfaction found in certain types of activity for their own sakes, activities 
 ranging from mere unorganized diversion (play) to the highly complex 
 enterprises of the fine arts. 
 Santayana, Reason in Art, Chap. II, III. 
 
 iii. Industrial activity, government, all instrumental activities, may, under 
 favorable conditions, themselves present satisfactions analogous to those 
 found in the fine arts. 
 
 iv. Fine arts, modes of embodying in objects of the imagination values not 
 directly attainable through modification of natural conditions or in social 
 activities, e. g., Utopia, 
 v. Creative activity most explicit in the fine arts because in them the condi- 
 tions are most propitious and the materials least refractory. 
 
 vi. The creative and imaginative activities displayed in the fine arts also 
 operative in scientific investigation. "The scientific use of the imagination." 
 
 vii. Creative activity apparent to a greater or less degree in the practical arts; 
 may be increased. Limitations placed upon the possibility of creative 
 activity by the routine and purely instrumental character of specialized 
 industrial activities, 
 viii. The products of art become immediate satisfactions on a par with other 
 natural goods. 
 
 B. The aesthetic experience. 
 
 Factors involved in Esthetic appreciation. 
 
 (a) Color. 
 
 i. Elements. 
 
 (i) Hues: as yellow, blue-green. 
 (ii) Notan or value, as dark red, light red. 
 
 (iii) Intensity (or brightness to grayness) as intense blue, dull blue. 
 (iv) These are the "dimensions" of color. Variations of any of these pro- 
 duce characteristic differences in emotional effect, like sharp and soft 
 sounds, 
 ii. Color Harmony. 
 
 Balance of values and hues, and matching of intensities. Certain blend- 
 ing of these satisfying, others annoying; different harmonies associated 
 with different emotional effects. 
 
 (b) Texture. 
 
 Differences in smoothness and roughness of touch, aesthetic values of silks, 
 satins, velvets, furs, etc. 
 
 (c) Sound. 
 
 i. Elements. 
 (») Pitch. 
 (ii) Duration. 
 (iii) Intensity. 
 
 [I5l 
 
(»») Tones with characteristic specific values and emotional effects, 
 ii. Melody and Harmony. 
 
 Tones deployed in a certain succession are pleasant, and combinations of 
 tones in harmonies or chords have specific values. 
 
 (d) Form. 
 
 i. Appreciation heightened by rhythm and pattern in music, the plastic arts, 
 
 poetry, and also in the more complex forms, such as the drama, 
 ii. Criteria of form differ in different ages and peoples and among different 
 individuals. 
 
 (e) Emotional satisfaction. Objects of art have emotional significance with 
 respect to: 
 
 i. Sense stimulation, color, texture, sound, 
 ii. Form: patterns, structures, rhythms have characteristic emotional effects. 
 
 Santayana, Sense of Beauty, 82-106. 
 iii. Content: Objects of art are vehicles for the expression of emotions and 
 ideas in their emotional setting. Drama and poetry and painting as vicari- 
 ous emotional and intellectual experience. 
 (/) Intellectual satisfaction: discrimination of form, technique, verisimilitude etc. 
 Satisfactions of the connoisseur, a refinement on the simpler and less sophisti- 
 cated forms of appreciation. 
 
 C. Social significance. 
 
 (a) Art as an activity in some degree experienced or sought by the majority of 
 individuals. Consequent importance of providing sufficient training and 
 leisure for the employment of native capacities. The social disutility of balked 
 dispositions. 
 
 Russell, 164-212. 
 
 (b) Possibility of utilizing the creative impulse in industry. The conflict between 
 routine activity and the creative impulse. 
 
 Marot, The Creative Impulse in Industry. 
 
 (c) While marked aesthetic capacity may be lacking in many people, aesthetic 
 appreciation is widely diffused, and comparatively easily stimulated and 
 trained. The neglect of aesthetic interests in formal education. 
 
 (d) Objects of art are themselves immediate satisfactions, and the provision of these 
 satisfactions may become highly industrialized. The economic basis of art, 
 private and public endowment. Dangers of commercialism in lowering of 
 standards. 
 
 («) Objects of art the powerful vehicles for moral and social propaganda. Litera- 
 ture and art vivid means of arousing emotional responses to ideas. 
 Tolstoi, What Is Art? 
 (/) Art as an educator of the emotions. 
 
 i. In artistic activity native impulses are operative in a rationalized or subli- 
 mated form, 
 ii. In aesthetic appreciation fine sense discriminations are made, and emotional 
 values discerned more carefully and appreciatively. Emotional experiences 
 of others are participated in vicariously. 
 (g) "Art for art's sake" versus "the social responsibility of art." The first carried to 
 extremes results in decadence, the second in formalism and didacticism. 
 
 3. Science and scientific method. *Human Traits, Chapter XIV. 
 
 A. Definition: Science is a body of systematized, tested, and verifiable knowledge, 
 
 expressing in general terms the relations of exactly defined phenomena. 
 
 Pearson, The Grammar of Science, 1-45; Thomson, Introduction to Science, 7-34. 
 
 [16] 
 
Pure and applied science. 
 
 Thomson, 35-50. 
 
 (a) Pure or theoretical science. 
 
 i. In its most specific form is concerned with the discovery of facts and rela- 
 tionships, and is not interested in applying such discoveries in practice, 
 ii. A means of intellectual satisfaction. 
 
 (»') It is a field for the mastery of the multiplicity of facts and their reduc- 
 tion to unity; for the discovery of far-reaching general laws in the dis- 
 connected experience we acquire through our senses. 
 (»») It gives man power and security by furnishing him understanding of the 
 order and predictability of events, and freeing him from subjection to 
 a belief in a universe which is capricious, incalculable, magical, 
 iii. The abstracted scientific interest may become so absorbed in working out 
 small details that it becomes over-specialized, pedantic, and removed from 
 the broader course of human events. 
 (6) Practical or applied science. 
 
 i. Rests on the exact formulations of pure science and by their use is able to 
 exercise control over phenomena by artificially setting up relations of which 
 science has learned the consequences, 
 ii. The application of the exact knowledge gained by science may, if properly 
 directed, increase the sum of human welfare, and at the same time bring 
 to the worker in the field of applied science satisfaction through accomplish- 
 ment in the face of obstacles bafHing to any but the trained mind. 
 iii. Applied science, if disdainful of the disinterested type of investigation, 
 limits its own resources. It may be so absorbed in solving the immediate 
 problem as to fail to appreciate the relevance of remote considerations. 
 
 , The analysis of scientific procedure. 
 Thomson, 57-80; Judd, Coming of Evolution, 55-67, 82-94. 
 (a) Such procedure applicable to any field of investigation. 
 (6) Presents merely an elaborated "common sense" solution of difficulties. 
 Jones, Logic, 1-5. 
 
 (c) Scientific procedure differs from "common sense" investigation in that it is 
 (John Dewey, How We Think, 145-156). 
 
 i. More insistent on including the whole range of relevant data and on accu- 
 racy and completeness of observation, 
 ii. Discounts prejudice and dogmatism, 
 iii. Is more deliberate in its judgments. 
 
 iv. Checks its hypotheses by artificially creating experimental conditions and 
 not merely relying on chance repetitions. 
 
 (d) Curiosity, the desire to know, to collect instances and round out different fields 
 of study, is a prerequisite for scientific research. 
 
 (e) Scientific investigations begin with a difficulty, a problem, a situation incom- 
 pletely understood. 
 
 John Dewey, How We Think, 68-78; Dewey, Reconstruction in Philosophy, 
 132-160. 
 (/) The situation is examined, its elements subjected to scrutiny; comparisons are 
 instituted with similar instances, and inclusive generalizations reached. (In- 
 duction.) (John Dewey, How We Think, 79-100; Jones, 79-109.) This 
 process varies in quality with 
 i. The penetration of the analyzing mind — its freedom from prejudice or pre- 
 conception, its familiarity with the field, its fertility of suggestion, its 
 persistence in investigation. 
 John Dewey, How We Think, 29-44. 
 
 [I7l 
 
ii. The use of exact methods of observation for the purpose of determining the 
 precise nature of the data. (Instruments of Precision.) Dependence of 
 scientific progress on the development of such instruments, 
 iii. The exactness of classification and definition of the elements considered. 
 This requires knowledge of critical differences as well as of similarities. 
 Jones, 32-44. 
 iv. The re-examination of the situation under controlled conditions, in order 
 that the elements and their interaction may be thoroughly understood. 
 (Experimentation.) 
 (g) Generalizations or hypotheses once reached are tested. 
 
 i. The implications, consequences of accepting the hypotheses, are developed 
 and observations taken to determine the reliability of the inferences. 
 (Deduction.) 
 
 John Dewey, How We Think, 79-100; Jones, 126-136. 
 ii. The reliability of the generalization varies with 
 
 (t) The correspondence of the predictions arising from the generalization, 
 
 with the subsequent events. 
 (ii) The conformity of the generalization with other related and already 
 confirmed generalizations, 
 iii. Value of simplicity in generalization. 
 (h) The quantitative basis of scientific procedure. 
 
 i. For exact definition and for the determination of relations with a view to 
 
 their repetition quantities must be known, 
 ii. The sciences have developed in exactness in proportion as they have suc- 
 ceeded in expressing their formulations in numerical terms. 
 Thomson, 81-123; Sedgwick and Tyler, History of Science, 449-457. 
 iii. Social sciences are still inexact since precise measurements are extremely 
 
 difficult and rare in the field of human behavior, 
 iv. Statistical treatment and its importance in the establishment of laws and 
 in showing through correlations, conjoined appearance and probability. 
 D. Science a human instrument. 
 Thomson, 224-248. 
 
 (a) Scientific knowledge may be used for the accomplishment of any purpose. In 
 itself it is "amoral." 
 
 (b) The direction of its development and the goal of its application depend upon 
 the recognized purposes of the individuals or nations using it as a tool. 
 
 4. Morals and moral valuation. *Human Traits, Chapter XV. 
 A . The pre-conditions of morality. 
 
 (a) The instinctive or native equipment of man. 
 
 i. Man's primary activities are not operative as separated traits, or in their 
 natural rudimentary forms. All activities, however sophisticated and 
 complicated, are combinations more or less complex of original native 
 capacities. 
 
 Democracy and Education, 53-54; Dewey and Tufts, Ethics, 49-50; Creative 
 Intelligence, 362-363. 
 ii. The complex, highly artificial character of our civilization often obscures the 
 presence of these powerful natural impulses. But they appear : 
 (i) In roundabout ways (sublimation). 
 (ii) When suppressed appear in various forms of morbidity and "balked 
 
 disposition." 
 (iii) In sporadic outbursts of violence (mob violence, individual crimes of 
 violence, etc.). 
 
 [18] 
 
(6) The conflict of interests between men and groups, 
 i. Men cannot act freely upon impulse because 
 
 (t) Men live together and in the satisfaction of their primary impulses 
 both need the cooperation of their fellows and come in conflict with 
 them. 
 (ii) One of man's most powerful native endowments is his sensitivity to 
 the praise and blame of his fellows. This sensitivity operates power- 
 fully to qualify the operation of man's other instincts. 
 Trotter, 1 12-120. 
 ii. The conflict occurs between 
 
 (t) Individuals seeking the same satisfaction from the same source, food, 
 
 sex gratification, honor, wealth, etc. 
 (ii) Between groups, classes, tribes, nations, 
 iii. Common group interests and allegiances tend to establish powerful control 
 over individuals. Adjustments between individuals effected by established 
 and authoritative folkways. 
 Sumner, Folkways, 62-68. 
 
 (c) Recognition of acts as sanctioned or as disapproved by the group. 
 
 i. Certain acts come to be associated with social approval and others with 
 
 social condemnation, 
 ii. These approvals and disapprovals are often enforced, not only by custom, 
 
 but by law or by religion (sometimes taking the form of tabu or of initiation 
 
 ceremonies, among primitive peoples). Punishments range from disrepute 
 
 to execution; rewards, from praise to such concrete compensations as 
 
 wealth, rank, power of office. 
 
 Dewey and Tufts, 54-64. 
 iii. These sanctions and prohibitions are consciously transmitted from one 
 
 generation to another by means of initiation ceremonies (principally in 
 
 primitive life) and the diverse processes of education and social coercion, 
 
 e. g., hereditary rank and title, family feuds, etc. 
 
 John Dewey, Democracy and Education, 6-7. 
 
 (d) Conformity to the customarily established is unreflective morality. 
 
 i. Where social life, as in primitive society, is almost completely regulated by 
 custom, those acts are regarded as moral which conform to the customarily 
 recognized, and those immoral which are violations of the customary. 
 Dewey and Tufts, 51-54 
 ii. The accustomed gains a great moral influence whenever it is associated with 
 the sacred. Hence a violation of the customary in such cases comes to be 
 regarded with great emotional revulsion. The immoral as the "unclean." 
 Survivals in contemporary civilization. 
 B. The levels of moral action. 
 
 On all the levels the problem of morals is essentially a social problem, the prob- 
 lem of the relation of individuals to each other. 
 (a) Custom. 
 
 i. The value of custom. 
 
 (i) Custom often rational in its origin. In general those acts which are 
 preserved are associated with the general welfare, and become recog- 
 nized as good or moral or right. 
 Dewey and Tufts, 69-70. 
 (ii) Makes possible adjustment of conflicting individual interests with 
 
 reference to wider social welfare. 
 (iii) Establishes enduring standards and the continuity and order which 
 are necessary to the effective continuance of large social units in which 
 the individual members are constantly changing. 
 
 [19] 
 
ii. Defects of custom. 
 
 (t) Acting according to custom may be purely mechanical conformity; 
 
 may not involve the intelligent discrimination of the agent. 
 (ii) Customs may outlive their usefulness and become useless or positively 
 
 disadvantageous conventions. 
 (iii) In a morality based solely upon custom, sanctioned acts, whether 
 trivial or important, receive the same indiscriminate support and 
 involve the same expenditures of physical, moral, and emotional 
 energies. 
 
 Dewey and Tufts, 70. 
 (iv) Customary morality tends to emphasize the letter rather than the 
 spirit of the act, and the form and ritual rather than the content and 
 consequences. 
 (v) A morality based upon tradition and conformity to established usage 
 discourages individuality and individual variation. A premium is 
 set upon the usual, the habitual, and the "normal." 
 Troller, 55-60. 
 (»») Emphasis upon the established tends to promote regular repetition and 
 fixity, and to discourage change, regardless of the possible benefits of 
 specific changes. 
 Dewey and Tufts, 74. 
 (vii) Emphasis upon conformity to recognized standards tends to secure 
 external conformity and sometimes fanatical allegiance to the letter 
 of the law without inner conviction and devotion to its spirit. 
 (viii) Where the customary morality is drastic and suppressive of individual 
 impulse, there is frequently, along with fanatic public professions and 
 practices of virtue, private violation of the conventional moral code. 
 (b) Reflection. 
 
 i. Reflective morality arises where individuals observe discrepancies between 
 recognized codes ostensibly intended to promote the good, and the inade- 
 quate or disastrous results of these pre-reflective standards, 
 ii. Reflection tends to substitute relevant and adequate standards for standards 
 
 undeliberately accepted, 
 iii. Reflective morality does not replace the operation of instinct and custom; 
 it attempts to rationalize and modify them. In an increasingly multiform 
 and technological civilization, a large proportion of acts are necessarily per- 
 formed on the basis of custom. 
 iv. Reflection must take certain things for granted, and must move within 
 certain limits. These it may find in custom. Customs themselves may be 
 established by reflective consideration and become social economies when 
 practised, 
 v. Reflection may itself become a custom, and a habit of alert criticism of 
 
 existing folkways become one of the most valuable of social habits, 
 vi. The values of reflective morality. 
 
 (t) Intellectual preferences and valuations are rooted in primary impulses 
 
 but reflection may determine action so as to secure the most effective 
 
 and harmonious fulfilment of natural desires, and desires arising from 
 
 reflection. 
 
 (ii) Action on the reflective level involves not merely acting according to 
 
 standards, but a persistent criticism of those standards. 
 (iii) Reflective morality offers a check and control upon customs which out- 
 live their relevance and usefulness because they have become habitual 
 and the center of emotional attachments. 
 
 [20] 
 
(iti) Reflection makes actions genuinely moral because 
 a. It makes actions voluntary, not merely habitual. 
 6. It emphasizes the conscious and willing participation of the agent. 
 Aristotle, Ethics, Book II, especially Chap. III. 
 
 c. It deliberately measures the consequences of an act in terms of 
 human well-being, in place of accepting traditional standards 
 simply because they are traditional. 
 
 d. It constantly sets up ideal standards by which current standards 
 may be judged and corrected. 
 
 John Dewey, Reconstruction in Philosophy, 1 03-131. 
 (») Reflection frees action from the enslavement of passion, prejudice, and 
 
 routine, 
 (w) Reflection substitutes for the casual and external domination of cus- 
 tom, genuine freedom which is disciplined and self-controlled. 
 John Dewey, How We Think, 66-67. 
 (vii) Reflection insures flexibility and adaptability to changed conditions, 
 vii. The defects of reflective morality. 
 
 (») Reflection frequently tends to stop at criticism, and remains often 
 
 merely destructive and subversive, 
 (it) A purely reflective or theoretical morality never widely effective 
 socially, since morality to be effective must have emotional support 
 and must be a constant practice. 
 Russell, Why Men Fight, 1-41. 
 (*'«) Reflection tends to reduce moral problems to purely logical categories 
 
 to the neglect of their animal and instinctive basis. 
 («») A too exclusive pre-occupation with reflection upon morals may 
 produce weakness and vacillation in action (Hamlet). 
 C. Types of reflective morality. 
 
 (a) Reflection upon action produces certain characteristic types of moral theory. 
 These may be classified, though because of the complexity of factors involved 
 in any moral situation, cross division is inevitable, 
 i. Absolutism. 
 
 («') The fundamental moral idea is duty or conformity to the right. 
 («) The right is unalterable and imperative, 
 (tit) The good is obedience to a fixed moral authority. 
 (t'») The morality of an act is determined by the motive, the "good will." 
 (v) Conscience is the innate (and frequently divinely given) intuition of 
 good and evil. 
 Dewey and Tufts, 224-227. 
 ii. Relativistic or teleological morality. 
 
 (») The fundamental idea is the attainment of the good. This may be: 
 a. Pleasures and the avoidance of pain (hedonism, utilitarianism). 
 
 J. S. Mill, Utilitarianism; Thilly, History of Philosophy, 101-102. 
 6. Happiness, the full and harmonious use of all native capacities. 
 (Energism, modern behaviorism.) 
 
 Aristotle, Ethics, Book I, Chaps. IX-XII; Book X, Chaps. VI-X. 
 (»*) Laws, rules, are concerned with the means of achieving or defining the 
 
 good, 
 (t'tt) Conscience is explained in terms of early environment and individual 
 
 temperament. 
 (iv) The morality of an act is determined by its consequences in terms of 
 human welfare. 
 Dewey and Tufts, 224-225. 
 
 [21] 
 
iii. The contrast between the two dominant types of morality may be ap- 
 proached from the aspect of moral knowledge. 
 (») Empiricism. 
 
 a. The good and bad are discoverable in experience, and only in experi- 
 ence, and are settled definitively in terms of their consequences. 
 6. That acts are not moral or immoral in themselves, but in their con- 
 sequences and relations. 
 Dewey and Tufts, 226. 
 (»*) Intuitionalism. 
 
 a. Values are intuitively and immediately perceived. 
 
 b. Acts are intrinsically and absolutely right or wrong, and immedi- 
 ately recognized as such. 
 
 Dewey and Tufts, 226. 
 D. Ethics and life. 
 
 (a) All ethical theories are concerned with the definition and attainment of the 
 
 good, and may be tested in the degree to which, when acted upon, they 
 
 promote it. 
 
 Aristotle, Book I, Chap. I; John Dewey, Reconstruction in Philosophy, 161-186. 
 (6) The aim of a moral code may generally be said to afford a method of life in the 
 
 practice of which individuals will find happiness. 
 
 For a complete realization of native capacities constitutes happiness. Aristotle, 
 
 Book I, Chap. III. 
 
 (c) The purpose of reflection upon morals is to show how a harmonious and com- 
 plete realization of natural capacities may be attained. 
 
 (d) Insofar as an ethical theory is merely repressive and negative, excluding part of 
 man's natural endowments from fulfilment, it has not succeeded in devising a 
 method that will completely attain happiness. 
 
 («) An ethical theory is a method successful in promoting the good when it enables 
 individuals to secure genuine freedom, i. e., self-controlled spontaneity — self- 
 realization. 
 
 Santayana, Reason in Science, 251-261. 
 (J) No moral code, however adequate in its theoretical formulation of human 
 happiness, or the means for its attainment, is effective socially merely as theory. 
 It becomes an instrument of human happiness only when it has been made the 
 spontaneous habitual mode of life of the individual and the group through the 
 long continuous processes of education, public opinion, and law. 
 Aristotle, Book X, Chap. X. 
 E. Morals, law, and education. 
 
 (a) The conduct of individuals is largely fixed by the customary recognition of 
 certain acts as approved, and others as outlawed. These approvals and dis- 
 approvals are transmitted through education. 
 
 John Dewey, Democracy and Education, 31-40. 
 
 (b) Education refers not merely to the formal institutions of teaching, but to the 
 complete social environment, the approvals and disapprovals with which the 
 individual comes in contact. 
 
 John Dewey, Democracy and Education, 31-40. 
 
 (c) Many social customs become fixed in law which may be said, in general, to 
 enforce social prohibitions, and to affect the scope and aims of education. 
 John Dewey, Democracy and Education, 102-108. 
 
 (d) Law and education are symptomatic of the degree of moral progress of a group, 
 and in turn influence the character of the moral life of the maturing generation. 
 John Dewey, Democracy and Education, 102-108; Dewey, Reconstruction in 
 Philosophy, 187-216. 
 
 [22] 
 
SECOND DIVISION 
 
 SURVEY OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE 
 PRESENT AGE 
 
 BOOK III. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF 
 CONTEMPORARY CIVILIZATION, 1400-1870 
 
 Introduction: The fundamental conceptions of the present age. 
 
 Man's nature in its original character remains unchanged from the dawn of 
 history, and nature in its basic resources has not altered greatly. But man's store 
 of knowledge has increased, and in the western world new conceptions have arisen 
 so important as to be considered new tools which human beings use when they 
 attempt to control their situation. These conceptions will be shown in their 
 development in Book III. They are presented here for the sake of preliminary 
 emphasis. 
 
 A. The belief in the value of the scientific study of man and nature— the intellectual 
 revolution. 
 
 (a) The early emphasis on knowledge as power — Francis Bacon and the Renais- 
 sance scientists. 
 (6) The exact study of specific activities shows the fashion in which men and 
 things behave, and makes possible the limited control of natural forces and 
 human nature. 
 
 (») Newton and the 18th century conception of nature and natural law. 
 (»*) Belief in human progress through a scientific study of man — -psycholo- 
 gists, political philosophers, and economists of the 18th century. 
 
 (c) The expansion of the method of inquiry to the place of man in nature— de- 
 velopment of biology in the 19th century and the theory of evolution. 
 
 (d) The application of scientific knowledge to industrial pursuits, and the present 
 "age of applied science." 
 
 B. The new developments in agriculture, the factory system of production, and the 
 era of world trade — the economic revolution. 
 
 (a) The discovery of the new world and of new routes to the East led to an ex- 
 pansion of commerce, transformed the methods of business, and created a 
 demand for increased manufacture — the commercial revolution. 
 
 (6) These changes hastened the decline of the manorial system, the rise of private 
 property in land, and the introduction of new agricultural methods — the 
 agricultural revolution. 
 
 (c) The demand for increased manufacture was satisfied by the invention of 
 machinery and the application of science to industry which gave rise to modern 
 "mass production," the method dominant in industry today, and responsible 
 for many social changes apparent during the past century — the industrial 
 revolution. 
 
 (d) These revolutions in commerce, agriculture, and industry tended to link the 
 world together. Products are now manufactured for a world market, and 
 western influence has been extended into every quarter. 
 
 [23] 
 
C. The participation of adult citizens in their own government — the political revolu- 
 tion. 
 
 (a) The belief in man's ability (intellectual revolution) and the changes in his 
 economic life (commercial, industrial, and agricultural revolutions) led to a 
 widening of the group participating in government. The American, French, 
 and 19th century revolutions. 
 (6) In industrialized lands political problems are now generally approached in term 
 of popular determination through some form of democratic control. Develop- 
 ment of political democracy during the 19th century. 
 (c) With the widening of the group participating in political decisions the senti- 
 ments of patriotism and of loyalty to the political group have been strength- 
 ened — Nationalism. 
 
 1. The intellectual outlook of the Renaissance— the birth of modern 
 science, and the rise of national cultural traditions in Western Europe. 
 
 A. Comparatively little progress in natural science had been made during mediaeval 
 times. Sedgwick and Tyler, Short History of Science, 1-177. 
 
 (a) Examples of erroneous ideas: the Ptolemaic cosmology, the "four elements," 
 
 etc. 
 (6) Reasons for the backwardness of science, 
 i. Lack of instruments. 
 
 ii. Reliance upon authority and upon deductive reasoning— scholasticism, 
 iii. Interest deflected from nature to the supernatural and other worldly. 
 
 B. From the thirteenth century on increasing attention was paid to scientific obser- 
 vation and experimentation. 
 
 *Hayes, I, 177-185, 196-201; Sedgwick & Tyler, 177-304; Descartes, Discourse 
 
 on Method; Francis Bacon, Novum Organum, The Advancement of Learning, The 
 
 New Atlantis; H. O. Taylor, Thought and Expression in the Sixteenth Century; 
 
 J. Dewey, Reconstruction in Philosophy, 28-52. 
 
 (o) Decline of scholasticism. 
 
 (6) Humanism and the revival of ancient learning. 
 
 (c) Fresh interest in nature appears. 
 
 (d) Travel and explorations on land and sea. 
 
 (e) Remarkable discoveries begin the development of the natural sciences. 
 
 i. Astronomy: Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, Newton. 
 ii. Physics: Galileo, Newton. 
 (/) Formulation of scientific method. 
 
 i. Experiment and induction advocated by Francis Bacon, 
 ii. Mathematical analysis advocated by Rene Descartes. 
 
 C. The Protestant revolt. 
 
 *Hayes, I, 167-169; A. C. McGiffert, Protestant Thought before Kant, 9-20; Taylor. 
 (o) Protestantism, though not in sympathy with the new science nor inspired by 
 
 a faith in man's ability, weakened the authority of the mediaeval tradition 
 
 over the mind, 
 (i) Protestantism and the religious controversies which it engendered gave rise 
 
 to educational movements of an extensive character. 
 (c) Protestantism championed by many secular princes gave added prestige and 
 
 power to these governments — "religion nationalized." 
 
 D. The rise of national culture traditions in western Europe. 
 
 *Hayes, I, 185-196; Robinson, History of Western Europe, 329-347; F. S. Marvin,, 
 
 The Living Past, 140-193, Taylor. 
 
 (a) Decline of mediaeval Latin and the development of the vernaculars. 
 
 [24] 
 
(6) Rise of national literatures — Dante, Cervantes, Moliere, Luther, Shakespeare. 
 
 (c) Painting, sculpture, and architecture — DaVinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, 
 Rubens, Velasquez, Rembrandt, Diirer, Wren. 
 
 (d) The cultural unity of Europe gives way to a group of competing nations, 
 each with its own language, and in many cases with its own government. 
 
 2. The Commercial Revolution. 
 
 A . Definition. 
 
 (a) It may be denned as that expansive movement by which commerce radiated 
 from Europe as a center to all parts of the world. 
 
 (b) This process, which covers the period of geographical discovery and coloniza- 
 tion, began in the middle of the 15th century and continued for about 300 
 years. It may be regarded as the first phase of the Europeanization of the 
 world.* Map study — Appendix, II, 1 (page 120). 
 
 [B. Influence of Geography on Civilization — Appendix I. 
 
 (a) River valleys as highways of migration and commerce. 
 
 (b) Mountains, deserts and oceans as barriers. 
 
 (c) Social consequences.] 
 
 C. Development of mediaeval trade. 
 
 *Hayes, I, 36-39, 43-49; *Cheyney, Industrial and Social History of England, 75-94. 
 
 (a) Rise of fairs, cross-road markets, towns at trade-junctions. 
 
 (b) Organizations of commerce largely on a municipal basis. 
 
 i. The merchant guild, 
 ii. The staple town, 
 iii. Social consequences. 
 
 (c) Trade and trade-routes. 
 
 i. Trade with the East. 
 
 (j) Influence of the Crusades in stimulating Eastern trade. 
 (ii) Role of the Italian cities. 
 
 (iii) Influence of geography in determining routes, 
 ii. Trade in Europe. 
 (i) Commodities. 
 (ii) Advantageous situation of Italian, German, Dutch and Flemish cities. 
 
 D. European exploration and commercial expansion. 
 *Hayes, I, 49-69; Wallas, The Great Society, 3~I9- 
 
 (a) Factors which combined to produce this exploration and expansion, 
 i. Intellectual curiosity, 
 ii. Desire of nations on Atlantic seaboard to share in profitable trade with the 
 
 East, 
 iii. Religious zeal. 
 
 iv. Improvements in the art of navigation. 
 (6) Consequences. 
 
 i. Decline of Italian and German city-states; rise of national states of West- 
 ern Europe; impetus to nationalism and dynastic aggrandizement, 
 ii. New commercial methods: chartered companies; mercantilism; banking 
 
 and credit, 
 iii. Stimulation of economic life in general; hence, increased wealth, 
 iv. Growth of the trading class, the bourgeoisie. 
 
 v. Enrichment and expansion of European culture; progress of science, 
 vi. Colonization, 
 vii. Slavery and the slave-trade. 
 
 viii. New commodities of commerce; growing interdependence of all parts of 
 world. 
 
 [25] 
 
ix. Changes in mental outlook, due to increased facilities for communication 
 and broadening of interests. 
 E. Remarkable growth of commerce during the 18th century. 
 
 *Hayes, I, 399-403; Ogg, Economic Development of Modern Europe, 73-87. 
 
 (a) Continuation of effects of exploration and commercial expansion. 
 
 (b) The rising commercial and maritime power of England. 
 
 (c) Restrictions and handicaps. 
 
 i. Mercantilism. 
 
 ii. Internal tariff and customs barriers, 
 iii. Wars. 
 
 iv. Lack of rapid and cheap transportation. 
 [(d) The movement to emancipate commerce, 
 i. The Physiocrats (see below), 
 ii. Adam Smith (see below).] 
 
 3. The Agricultural Revolution. 
 
 A . Relation to the Industrial Revolution. 
 
 (a) The Agricultural Revolution occurred almost simultaneously with the Indus- 
 trial Revolution; the former did for agriculture what the latter did for industry. 
 
 (b) The Agricultural Revolution had begun before the Industrial Revolution, and 
 helped to render the latter possible by releasing labor from the land and by 
 providing an increased supply of food and raw materials. 
 
 (c) The Industrial Revolution, in turn, promoted the Agricultural Revolution by 
 providing capital and machinery for scientific farming. 
 
 B. Definition. 
 
 (a) In general, by the Agricultural Revolution is meant the destruction of the 
 manorial system of agriculture and the introduction of 
 
 i. Modern ideas of absolute ownership of land: Freehold, 
 ii. Scientific methods of tillage and breeding, 
 iii. Specialized production for market rather than for local consumption. 
 
 (b) Aside from these general features, the Agricultural Revolution meant different 
 things in different parts of Europe (see below). 
 
 (c) The Agricultural Revolution might be regarded as a long process, continuing 
 from the 13 th to the 19th centuries, and culminating in a series of rapid, revo- 
 lutionary changes in the period 1760-1845. 
 
 C. General aspects of mediaeval agriculture. 
 
 *Hayes, I, 28-36, 395-399; *Ogg, Economic Development of Modern Europe, 18-44; 
 Cheyney, 31-52, 136-147. 
 
 (a) Majority of the population rural. 
 
 (b) Organization of agriculture, chiefly manorial. 
 
 i. Significant features of the manorial system (contrast with modern condi- 
 tions), 
 (i) Social inequality: serfdom and aristocracy. 
 (ii) Attachment of peasant to soil. 
 (iii) Burdensome obligations of serf. 
 (iv) Inefficiency and self-sufficiency. 
 
 (c) Methods. 
 
 i. Persistence of wasteful primitive methods: 
 (i) The three-field system. 
 (ii) Crudity of implements. 
 (iii) Unscientific cattle-raising. 
 (iv) Connection between primitive methods and manorial organization. 
 
 [26] 
 
(d) Social consequences of agricultural conditions. 
 i. Economic necessity of large rural population, 
 ii. Relatively low standards of comfort. 
 iii. Intellectual isolation and conservatism of economically self-sufficient rural 
 
 communities, 
 iv. Lack of effective impetus to invention, enterprise, and improvement. 
 v. Discontent of peasantry. 
 
 D. The agricultural transformation. 
 
 *Ogg, Economic Development of Modern Europe, 37-44, 117-132, 187-188. 
 
 (a) The abolition of serfdom. 
 
 i. In England it had gradually disappeared by 1700. 
 ii. In France during French Revolution (see below) . 
 iii. In other countries subsequently: Prussia, 1807; Austria, 1848; Russia, 
 
 1 86 1, etc. 
 iv. Manorial system and serfdom never widely or firmly established in the 
 United States. 
 
 Becker, The United States, an Experiment in Democracy, 145-185. 
 (») Prevalence of freehold tenures. 
 (ii) Abundance of unoccupied land. 
 
 (iii) Influence of these economic conditions in promoting spirit of de- 
 mocracy. 
 
 (b) Breakdown and partial disappearance of the manorial system. 
 
 i. In England. 
 
 («') Decline of serfdom: contractual labor. 
 (ii) Rapid progress of enclosure. 
 
 a. Increased profitableness of arable farming, due to 
 1. Rise of industrialism. 
 
 *. Growth of population. 
 
 3. Enlarged demands for foodstuffs. 
 
 4. Improved transportation. 
 
 b. Ease of obtaining special legislation necessary for enclosures. Par- 
 liament dominated by landlords. 
 
 c. Advocacy of enclosures by economists, notably Adam Smith. 
 
 d. Methods by which enclosures were effected. 
 
 e. Approximate area enclosed. 
 /. Social consequences. 
 
 1. Decline of the class of small holders, and concentration of land- 
 ownership in hands of a relatively small class. 
 
 2. Widespread public discontent. 
 
 3. Shift in population from country to town and city. (cf. Indus- 
 trial Revolution.) 
 
 4. Possibility of introducing new agricultural methods on large 
 scale. 
 
 ii. On continent breaking up great estates and increase of small holdings. 
 (i) Peasant-proprietorship. 
 (ii) Metayage as in France. 
 (iii) Exceptions in East Prussia, Sweden and some other countries. 
 
 (c) Improvement of agricultural technique. 
 
 i. Stimulated by 
 
 (»') Steady increase in prices of agricultural produce, due to economic 
 
 and to artificial causes (Corn Laws). 
 (»'»') Industrial Revolution. 
 (iii) Napoleonic Wars. 
 
 [27] 
 
(mi) Work of scientific men, inventors, agricultural societies, and ''gentle- 
 men farmers." 
 ii. Scientific rotation of crops, 
 iii. Great advance in art of stock-breeding, 
 iv. Introduction and improvement of agricultural machinery, 
 v. Improved methods of fertilization, 
 vi. Drainage. 
 (d) Application of capital to agricultural enterprise for 
 i. Improvement of soil: fertilization and tillage, 
 ii. Experimentation with new crops and with fancy stock. 
 iii. Purchase of machinery, 
 iv. Development of cooperation and agricultural credit institutions. 
 
 4. The Industrial Revolution. 
 
 Probably no other event has so profoundly affected the ordinary every-day life 
 of the average man, and, at the same time, exercised so vital an influence in poli- 
 tics and even in the domain of education and culture, as the Industrial Revolution. 
 It is one of the main foundations of Contemporary Civilization. When it occurred, 
 how and why it came about, and how it has affected and is affecting civilization, 
 are questions of first-rate importance for him who would understand present-day 
 civilization. 
 
 A. Definition. 
 
 (a) As an historical event: the rapid introduction and development of machine- 
 processes, capitalistic organization, and the factory system into certain English 
 industries, notably the textile and metal industries and transportation, in the 
 period, approximately, between 1770 and 1815 or 1830. 
 (6) As a continuing process: 
 
 i. Continuing substitution of manufacture by complicated machine processes 
 
 for manufacture by hand and with simple tools, 
 ii. Ever-expanding utilization of artificial power: water, steam, gas, oil, 
 
 electricity, 
 iii. Ever-expanding application of mass-production, standardization, and sub- 
 division of labor, 
 iv. Continuous growth of factory system and of capitalistic organization, 
 v. Introduction and development of these features of modern industry in 
 other countries besides England: United States since about 1800, in West- 
 ern Europe since about 1815, in Eastern Europe since about 1850, in Japan 
 since about 1870. The Industrial Revolution still in its infancy in China, 
 India, etc. 
 
 B. Industry prior to 1770. 
 
 *Hayes, I, 40-42; *Ogg, Economic Development of Modern Europe, 45-64 
 (a) General aspects of medieval industry. 
 
 i. Its relatively small place in economic life, 
 ii. Lack of machinery and of applied science, 
 iii. The handicraft system and the craft guilds, 
 iv. Inter-relation of agriculture and manufacturing. 
 (6) Gradual decline of the craft guilds; reasons for decline. 
 (c) Rise of the "domestic system." 
 
 i. Definition of domestic system. 
 
 ii. Conditions favorable to its growth: increase of capital, expansion of 
 markets and of commerce, development of industrial technique, growth of 
 population. 
 
 [28] 
 
(d) General growth of industry in eighteenth century. 
 
 (e) Social consequences. 
 
 i. Rise of industrial classes. 
 
 ii. Tendency toward substitution of modern wage-system for medieval guild- 
 system. 
 iii. Rise of competition and economic individualism (see below, p. 31). 
 
 C. Conditions favorable to the Industrial Revolution in England. Map Study — 
 Appendix II, 2. (p. 123). 
 
 *Hayes, I, 67-69; Ogg, Economic Development of Modern Europe, 133-135. 
 (o) Prosperous and progressive condition of English industry and commerce in the 
 1 8th century, 
 i. England the ''nation of shopkeepers." 
 ii. Thriving commerce; colonial markets; necessity of expanding markets as 
 
 encouragement to expanding industry, 
 iii. England less embarrassed by wars than Continental nations, 
 iv. English industries relatively free from regulation. 
 
 v. Abundance of capital; capitalistic system and factories beginning to 
 develop even before the epoch of great inventions. 
 (6) Possession of basic raw materials: iron, coal, wool; possession of water-powei ; 
 ease of importing cotton. 
 
 (c) Climatic conditions favorable to textile manufacture. 
 
 (d) Agricultural progress, releasing cheap labor for industry, and making it more 
 nearly possible to feed a large industrial population (see above, p. 27). 
 
 D. The great mechanical inventions. 
 
 *Hayes, II, 69-75; Ogg, Economic Development of Modern Europe, 135-145; Chey- 
 ney, 199-212. 
 
 (a) Conditions necessary for successful mechanical inventions, 
 i. Economic demand, 
 ii. Sufficiently advanced state of skill in handicrafts to make construction of 
 
 machines possible, 
 iii. Application of scientific knowledge. 
 (6) Inventions in the textile industry, 
 i. Hargreaves and the Jenny, 
 ii. Arkwright's water-frame. 
 iii. Crompton's mule, 
 iv. Cartwright's loom. 
 v. Whitney's cotton gin. 
 
 (c) The steam-engine and its applications. 
 
 i. Fore-runners of James Watt. 
 
 ii. Watt's achievements. 
 
 iii. Application to spinning-mule and to loom, 
 iv. Use in mining and metallurgy. 
 
 v. The steamboat, 
 vi. The locomotive, 
 vii. The steam printing-press. 
 
 (d) Other industries rapidly revolutionized by inventions and by application ot 
 steam-power. 
 
 E. Capitalism and the factory system. 
 
 *Hayes, II, 77-80; *Ogg, Economic Development of Modern Europe, 145-147. 
 (a) Effect of the inventions in promoting the factory system and capitalistic con- 
 trol of industry. 
 i. Expense of machines. 
 
 [29] 
 
ii. Necessity of large factories. 
 
 iii. Necessity of large-scale buying and selling. 
 
 iv. Subdivision of labor. 
 
 v. Utilization of cheap and unskilled labor. 
 (6) Sir Richard Arkwright as an early type of the factory-owner, 
 (c) Rapid growth of the factory system. 
 
 F. Significant consequences of the Industrial Revolution. 
 
 *Hayes. II, 75~77. 80-97; Ogg, Economic Development of Modern Europe, 147-152. 
 (a) Expansion of commerce and industry, hence, increase of wealth and gradual 
 
 rise of standard of living. 
 (6) Rapid growth and urban concentration of population. 
 
 (c) Rise of acute social problems. 
 
 i. Child labor, 
 ii. Employment of women. 
 
 iii. Prevalence of poverty, vice, and disease among factory and mine workers. 
 iv. Industrial over-production, crises, and unemployment, 
 v. Labor agitation ; destruction of machines by workingmen; trade-unionism; 
 
 discontent of "proletariat." 
 vi. Growth of slums in cities. 
 
 (d) Temporary triumph of "economic individualism" or laissez-faire. 
 
 i. The philosophy of economic individualism. 
 
 ii. Gradual emancipation of industry and commerce from governmental re- 
 strictions and oppressive tariffs. 
 
 iii. Unwillingness of factory-owners in first half of 19th century to permit trade- 
 unionism or to sanction labor-legislation. 
 
 iv. Early protests against economic individualism: Robert Owen, Saint-Simon, 
 Fourier, Louis Blanc. 
 
 (e) Enrichment and strengthening of bourgeoisie. 
 
 i. Increased numerical and economic power of bourgeoisie. 
 ii. Demand of bourgeoisie for a voice in the government; hence, tendency of 
 Industrial Revolution universally to stimulate demand for representative 
 government, 
 iii. Tendency of bourgeoisie to use political power for their own economic 
 interests; illustrations from English and French history, 1830-1848. 
 (/) Progress of science and education, 
 i. Larger leisure class. 
 
 ii. Cheap printing: newspapers and books no longer the rich man's luxury, 
 iii. Prestige of science, enhanced by economic utility of applied science, 
 iv. Improved means of communication, 
 v. Influence of urbanization. 
 (g) Greater mobility of civilization ; society no longer as static and unchanging as 
 before the Industrial Revolution; spirit of innovation and invention. 
 
 5. The development of thought in the 18th century — humanitarianism, 
 rationalism, and romanticism. 
 
 *Hayes, I, 414-426; Robinson and Beard, The Development of Modern Europe, I, 
 157-182; Thilly, History of Philosophy, 307-391; A. C. McGiffert, Protestant 
 Thought before Kant, Chap. X; J. B. Bury, History of Freedom of Thought, Home 
 University Library, Chap. VI. 
 
 A. Continuing development of the natural sciences. 
 Sedgwick and Tyler, 304-323. 
 (a) Experimentation in electricity, chemistry, biology, medicine, and geography. 
 
 [30] 
 
(*) Popularity of science in the 18th century; patronage by governments, forma- 
 tion of scientific societies, the Encyclopedia. 
 
 B. The conception of nature and of natural law. 
 J. Dewey, Reconstruction in Philosophy, 53-76. 
 
 (a) Tendency to conceive the world of nature as a mechanism — Newton. 
 
 (b) This conception applied to theology by the deists — critique of the miraculous 
 as a violation of the laws of nature. 
 
 (c) The emergence of atheism — serious concern with the problem of evil. Vol- 
 taire, Candide. 
 
 C. Man conceived as natural, as acting in accordance with natural laws, and as hav- 
 ing natural rights. 
 
 (a) Application of the mechanistic hypothesis to the psychology of the human 
 mind — Helvetius and Bentham. 
 
 (b) Attempt to discover natural laws in economics — rise of the science of political 
 economy. 
 
 H. J. Laski, Political Thought from Locke to Bentham, 290-302; Gide & Rist, 
 History of Economic Doctrines, 1-118; W. A. Dunning, Political Theories from 
 Luther to Montesquieu, 57—65. 
 i. Ideas of the physiocrats — Quesnay and Turgot. 
 
 (i) The natural order providentially ordained for our happiness by God 
 
 has three foundations: private property, security, and liberty. 
 (ii) Free trade and free circulation of grain. 
 (Hi) Legislation to be reduced to a minimum — laissez faire. 
 (iv) State to be a passive policeman; defend private property, promote 
 education and public works, 
 ii. Adam Smith developed similar ideas and applied them more broadly to 
 industry and commerce — criticism of the mercantile system. "The Wealth 
 of Nations," 1776. 
 
 (c) Attempt to discover natural laws in politics. 
 
 Laski, 38-55; W. A. Dunning, Political Theories from Luther to Montes- 
 quieu, 335—435; Political Theories from Rousseau to Spencer, 1-129; Merriam, 
 American Political Theories, 38-176; Montesquieu, Spirit of the Laws; Rous- 
 seau, Social Contract. 
 i. Locke's political philosophy: the state of nature, the laws of nature, the 
 social contract, the right of revolution. 
 
 S. P. Lamprecht, The Moral and Political Philosophy of John Locke. 
 ii. Development of Lockian political philosophy in France: Voltaire, Mon- 
 tesquieu, and Rousseau, 
 iii. Development of Lockian political philosophy in America: Paine, Franklin, 
 
 Jefferson, 
 iv. New analyses of government based on historical studies and travels. 
 (i) Montesquieu, and the separation of governmental powers. 
 (ii) John Adams and James Madison — the faith in a "natural aristocracy." 
 
 (d) The conception of natural rights criticized — Jeremy Bentham. 
 
 1 W. L. Davidson, Political Thought in England from Bentham to J. S. Mill, 
 
 46-113. 
 i. Social utility, not nature, the test of human institutions, 
 ii. This utilitarian theory made the basis of a sweeping criticism of the old 
 ' regime, 
 
 iii. Far-reaching constructive ideas of Bentham on legislation, administration, 
 
 jurisprudence, penology, education, 
 iv. Many of these ideas fruitful in the 19th century. 
 
 [31] 
 
D. Violent criticism of established institutions as disutile, unnatural, and unreason- 
 able. 
 (a) Criticism of ecclesiastic institutions, "divine right" monarchy, the economic 
 
 and social systems. 
 (6) Toleration, and respect for the natural man demanded — humanitarianism. 
 
 (c) Confidence in the powers of human reason — rationalism. 
 
 (d) Trust in the emotions as naturally good — romanticism. 
 
 (c) Belief in progress and the perfectibility of man through education — Helvetius, 
 Rousseau, Condorcet. 
 
 6. The American Revolution. 
 
 The American Revolution was an economic and political revolt against England. 
 The struggle of the colonial merchants and traders to rid themselves of the British 
 mercantilist restrictions developed into a struggle between parliamentary govern- 
 ment and the principle of absolute monarchy. The Revolution, therefore, in its 
 theory and outcome represents a sharp focus of the intellectual, economic and 
 political movements of 18th century Europe. By its success it had consider- 
 able influence upon the political revolutions and reorganization which followed 
 in the 1 8th and 19th centuries throughout Europe and the rest of the world. 
 
 A . Causes and course of the Revolution. 
 
 *Hayes, I, 322-337; Becker, Beginnings of the American People, 161-274; C. E. 
 Merriam, A History of American Political Theories, 38-95; Farrand, Development 
 of the United Stales, 33-51. 
 (a) Causes. 
 
 i. Opposition to British commercial restrictions, 
 (i) Earlier policy of "salutary neglect." 
 
 (ii) Attempts to renew restrictions after French and Indian War. 
 (iii) British attempt to have colonies bear part of burden of Imperial de- 
 fence, 
 ii. Development of spirit of nationality in colonies. 
 
 («') Development of representative assemblies and vigorous political life. 
 (ii) Distance of colonies from mother country. 
 (iii) Frontier conditions and development of divergent social systems in 
 
 colonies. 
 (iv) Religious differences between colonies and mother country. 
 (v) Self-confidence as result of French and Indian war. 
 (6) Conflicting groups in the Revolution. 
 
 i. Divisive and uniting forces between colonies. Economic life, religion, 
 
 social customs, common need of defence, English background, 
 ii. Divisions within single colonies. "Tidewater and back country;" Tory and 
 
 Patriot, 
 iii. Divisions in England. Tories and Whigs; King vs. Parliament, 
 iv. The conflict in Europe. European opposition to British commerce. French 
 aid and its importance to colonial success. 
 
 [B. Political theory of the Revolution. The political theory developed immediately 
 before and during the Revolution is closely related to the European thought 
 of the time, and especially the political theory of the English revolution of the 
 17 th century. 
 
 (a) Constitutional rights of Englishmen. 
 
 (b) Natural rights. 
 
 i. State of nature. 
 ii. Social contract. 
 
 [32] 
 
iii. Right of revolution, 
 (c) Criticism of hereditary monarchy: Paine, Jefferson. See page 31.] ' 
 C. Political institutions of the Revolutionary period — Merriam, American Political 
 Theories, 74-95. 
 
 The Revolution caused but a slight change in political institutions, nor did it bring 
 about the transfer of political power to a different class. The political institutions 
 developed after the War, were, therefore, largely a continuation of colonial insti- 
 tutions. 
 
 (a) Decentralized government, with fear of centralization. 
 (6) Distrust of a strong executive; government largely in hands of legislative 
 
 assembly. 
 
 (c) Principle of written constitution. 
 
 i. Bill of rights, 
 ii. Idea of delegated government. 
 
 (d) Limited suffrage; property and religious qualifications. 
 
 (e) Absence of feudal institutions and hereditary privileges. 
 (/) Later developments. 
 
 The economic depression and political disorder following the war led in 1789 
 to the adoption of a more centralized government embodying the principle 
 of the separation of powers, checks and balances, etc., under the leadership of 
 Madison, Hamilton and Adams. 
 
 7. The French Revolution. 
 
 In sharp contrast with the present, the people of Europe, as late as the 18th cen- 
 tury, were for the most part divided into two classes, the privileged and the un- 
 privileged. The privileged, composed of the higher clergy and descendants of the 
 old feudal nobility, were relatively small in number. Although they had long 
 since ceased to be of great service to society, as in feudal days, they still retained 
 all their former privileges: social position, possession of the land from whence 
 they derived rents and feudal dues, exemption from taxation, sinecures, pensions 
 and gifts. Instead of engaging in some useful pursuit most of them idly spent their 
 time in the luxurious surroundings of the court. The unprivileged, on the other 
 hand, constituting the mass of the population, were also divided into two groups, 
 although the lines of demarcation between them were less distinct than between the 
 privileged and the unprivileged. The middle class or bourgeoisie was composed 
 of bankers, merchants, shipowners, and shopkeepers — able, intelligent and well- 
 to-do. They jealously aspired to the social plane of the privileged whose indolence 
 and waste of money they freely criticised. In the lowest ranks of the social order 
 were the peasants, workingmen and lower clergy. Of ignoble birth, culturally 
 inferior and without landed property, they nevertheless constituted the industrial 
 backbone of the continent. It was they who bore the burden of the irksome tasks 
 and paid the feudal dues. They too had their ambitions, but most of all they de- 
 sired relief from the ever increasing payments of taxes to king and nobleman. In 
 government the unprivileged hadno voice. Just as democratic representative govern- 
 ment is the prevailing type today, so despotism was the general type in Europe 
 less than two hundred years ago. Only in England, where the middle class had 
 succeeded in limiting the power of the monarch, was there a semblance of present 
 day representative government. It is the purpose of this section to indicate how a 
 great movement, beginning in France, and inspired in part by the American Revo- 
 lution, swept away feudal and despotic institutions and promoted the ideas of 
 liberty, political democracy, social equality and national patriotism. 
 A. Why the Revolution began in France: general causes. 
 
 *Hayes, I, 449-461, 464-466; Shailer Mathews, The French Revolution, 1-51, 73-110 
 
 1 Brackets indicate that the enclosed passage is inserted for the sake of completeness in outlin- 
 ing, but will not be treated in detail at that point. 
 
 [33] 
 
B. Conflicting class-interests in the revolution: court, bourgeoisie, urban proletariat; 
 peasantry, foreign monarchs. 
 
 *Hayes, I, 467-468. 
 
 C. The first or moderate phase of the revolution, 1789-1701. 
 
 (a) The immediate cause of the revolution: financial difficulties of Louis XVI, 
 
 leading to convocation of Estates-General. 
 (6) The Estates-General, 1789. 
 
 *Hayes, I, 468-474; Shatter Mathews, 102-137. 
 i. Nature of the institution. 
 
 ii. Spirit of the delegates as shown by the cahiers. 
 
 iii. How the Estates-General was transformed into the National Constituent 
 Assembly. 
 
 (c) The National Constituent Assembly, 1 789-1 791. 
 *Hayes, I, 474-486; Shatter Mathews, 138-165. 
 
 i. Basis of its power: the revolutionary force of proletariat and peasantry, 
 as demonstrated by the taking of the Bastille, the march to Versailles, and 
 the uprisings throughout the country, 
 ii. Work of the Constituent Assembly. 
 
 (*') Social equalizing: the "August Days." 
 (ii) Declaration of the Rights of Man. 
 (iii) Administrative reforms : the departments. 
 (iv) Finance: the assignals. 
 (v) Ecclesiastical legislation. 
 (vi) The Constitution of 1791. 
 iii. General character of the reforms of this period: middle-class liberalism 
 and moderation. 
 
 (d) The limited monarchy and the failure of moderate liberalfsm, 1791-1792. 
 *Hayes, I, 486-500; Shatter Mathews, 166-206. 
 
 i. Opposition of reactionaries. 
 
 ii. Opposition of radicals: their leaders and their theories, 
 iii. Outbreak of war with foreign monarchs. 
 (») Reasons for war. 
 
 (ii) Immediate effect on French politics. 
 (iii) Ultimate effect : wider significance of the French Revolution. 
 
 D. The second or radical phase of the revolution, 1 792-1 794. 
 *Hayes, I, 500-511; Shatter Mathews, 207-265. 
 
 (a) Form of government during this period: republic, administered by National 
 
 Convention and Committee of Public Safety. 
 (6) Political theories during this period, 
 i. Condorcet and the Girondins. 
 
 ii. Marat, Danton, Robespierre, and the Jacobins. 
 
 iii. Influence of Rousseau's writings. 
 
 (c) Radical reforms of the Convention; contrast with reforms of Constituent 
 Assembly; explanation of reason for difference. 
 
 (d) The "Reign of Terror." 
 
 (e) Development of patriotism and militarism in the struggle against foreign inter- 
 vention; Carnot and the army; significance of the new democratic patriotism 
 as compared with the older loyalty to national monarchs. 
 
 E. The Third Phase: Reaction, 1794-1799. 
 *Hayes, I, 511-517; Shatter Mathews, 266-285. 
 
 (a) Downfall of Robespierre, July, 1794, and end of Reign of Terror. 
 
 (b) Constitution of the Year III. 
 
 (c) Transformation of the republic into a military dictatorship under Napoleon. 
 
 [34] 
 
F. Significance of the Revolution. 
 
 ♦Marvin, Century of Hope, 1-22; *Hayes, I, 517-519. 
 (a) Meaning of the motto: "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity." 
 (6) Impetus given to movements for 
 i. Political democracy. 
 
 ii. Social equality. 
 
 iii. Civil, religious, and economic liberty. 
 
 iv. Education. 
 
 v. National patriotism of new type. 
 
 vi. Militarism. 
 
 (c) Rise of bourgeoisie and peasantry; disappointment of urban workingmen; 
 importance of this situation in view of the Industrial Revolution, which was 
 then in its infancy. 
 
 (d) The French Revolution as an inspiration to revolutionists in later times: in- 
 fluence of the revolutionary tradition. 
 
 8. Napoleon Bonaparte's work in preserving and spreading certain 
 ideas and achievements of the French Revolution. 
 
 A. The Period of Napoleon's Rule: the Consulate (1799-1804); the Empire (1804- 
 1814). 
 
 B. Napoleon as the "Son of the Revolution." 
 *Hayes, I, 527-533; H. Fisher, Napoleon. 
 
 (a) The principle of popular sovereignty : the plebiscites. 
 
 (b) Financial reform. 
 
 (c) The Concordat. 
 
 (d) Perpetuation of revolutionary principles in Napoleon's codes of law. 
 («) Educational reform. 
 
 (/) Maintenance of revolutionary principles as regards abolition of guilds, of local 
 
 customs duties, and of serfdom, 
 (g) Militarism and patriotism. 
 
 C. Disregard for liberty and democracy. 
 *Hayes, I, 528, 534~535. 544-545- 
 
 (a) Absolutism of Napoleon as emperor: the political theory and practice of 
 Bonapartism 
 
 (b) Administrative centralization. 
 
 (c) Censorship and secret police. 
 
 (d) New titles of nobility. 
 
 (e) Aggressive foreign policy, wars of conquest, creation of vassal kingdoms and 
 principalities. 
 
 D. Communication of revolutionary principles to other lands, as a result of Napo- 
 leon's conquests. 
 
 *Hayes, I, 545, 555-558, 573-575- 
 
 (a) Social equalizing in lands conquered by Napoleon. 
 
 (b) Indirect influence : stimulation of liberalism and nationalism in Germany, Italy, 
 and Spain. 
 
 E. Overthrow of Napoleon. 
 *Hayes, I, S°°-573- 
 
 (a) Fatal weaknesses of Napoleonic Empire. 
 
 (6) Defeat of Napoleon in 1814. 
 
 (c) First exile of Napoleon and restoration of the Bourbon monarchy. 
 (<2) The "Hundred Days" and Waterloo. 
 
 [35] 
 
(e) Second exile. 
 
 (/) Nature and influence of the "Napoleonic Legend." 
 F. General significance of the Napoleonic Era. 
 *Hayes, I, 573-576; Taine, The Modern Rlgime. 
 
 9. Unsuccessful attempt of Metternich and the conservatives to restore 
 and preserve the Old Regime. 1815-1848. 
 
 A. Nature of the conflict between conservatives and liberals in the era of Metternich. 
 *Hayes, II, 1-3. 
 
 B. The political philosophy and policies of Metternich. 
 
 *Hayes, II, 3-5. 
 
 C. The Congress of Vienna and Its Work (1814-1815). *Map Study, Appendix, II, 3 
 
 (p- 125) 
 
 *Hayes, II, 5-10. 
 
 (a) Undemocratic character of the congress. 
 
 (6) Application of the principle of "legitimacy." 
 
 (c) Rewards to the victors, and the principle of "compensations." 
 
 (d) The Germanic Confederation. 
 
 (c) Instances of disregard for nationalism. 
 (/) Disregard for liberty and democracy. 
 
 D. Alliances for the preservation of peace and order. 
 
 *Hayes, II, 11-14, 20-28, 45-5°- 
 
 (a) The Quadruple Alliance. 
 
 (b) The Holy Alliance. 
 
 (c) International intervention to suppress liberal revolutions. 
 
 i. Protocol of Troppau. 
 
 ii. Suppression of revolutions in Italy (1821) and Spain (1823). 
 iii. Failure of intervention in Spanish colonies; the policy of Canning; the 
 
 Monroe Doctrine; disruption of the Quadruple Alliance, 
 iv. Breakdown of the interventionist policy in the case of the Greek Revolt 
 
 (1821-1832). 
 v. Inability to cope with general revolutionary movements of 1830 and 1848. 
 
 E. The Revolutionary Movements of 1830: Partial collapse of Metternich's system. 
 *Hayes, II, 14-20, 50-53. 
 
 (a) The Revolution of 1830 in France, 
 i. Events leading to the revolution. 
 
 («) The restoration- of the Bourbon Monarchy (1814); compromise with 
 
 revolutionary principles; the charter of 1814. 
 (ii) Attempt of reactionaries during reign of Charles X to restore the old 
 regime, 
 ii. The "July Revolution" and its outcome. 
 1 (b) The Belgian revolution of 1830. 
 
 "Hayes, II, 53-54. Map Study, Appendix, II, 4 (p. 126). 
 i. Short-sightedness of the settlement of 1814-1815. 
 ii. Influence of French Revolution of 1830. 
 iii. Independence of Belgium. 
 
 (c) Unsuccessful revolts in German and Italian states, 1830-1831. 
 *Hayes, II, 55-56. 
 
 i. Metternich's attempts to repress liberal agitation, 
 ii. Outburst of liberalism in 1830. 
 iii. Failure of liberal movement. 
 
 (d) Unsuccessful revolt of Poles (1831). 
 *Hayes, II, 56. 
 
 [36] 
 
(e) Revolutions of 1830 foreshadow collapse of Metternich's regime and ultimate 
 triumph of democracy and nationalism. 
 *Hayes, II, 57. 
 
 F. Effects of the Industrial Revolution upon politics. 
 
 *Hayes, II, 88-97. 
 (a) While Metternich was struggling to suppress liberalism, the Industrial Revo- 
 lution was strengthening the bourgeoisie and preparing the way for ultimate 
 triumph of liberalism. Growth of factory-industry on the Continent during 
 Era of Metternich. 
 (6) Immediate political effects of the Industrial Revolution, as apparent in period, 
 1830-1848. 
 i. In general, demand of bourgeoisie for political and economic liberty, 
 ii. Illustrations: 
 
 (t) In England: Reform of 1832; Repeal of Corn Laws (to be considered 
 
 more fully below) . 
 (»») In France: Middle-class reforms under Louis Philippe. 
 (iii) The German Zollverein. 
 iii. Discontent of industrial wage-earners or "proletarians" not very serious 
 until 1848. 
 
 G. The contest between conservatism and liberalism in Great Britain, and the com- 
 promise between the two. 
 
 *Hayes, II, 28-37, 9°~93. 102-116. 
 
 (a) Reactionary policies of the Tories, during French Revolution and until about 
 1832. 
 
 i. Fear of revolutionary excesses. 
 
 ii. Repression of liberal agitation during Napoleonic wars, 
 iii. Opposition to reform, 1815-1832. 
 iv. Class legislation in favor of landed aristocracy. 
 (*) Inclosures. 
 (ii) Corn Laws. 
 
 (b) Factions demanding reform. 
 
 i. "Intellectual Radicals." 
 ii. Roman Catholics and Dissenters, 
 iii. Industrial classes. 
 
 (c) Religious reforms, 1828-1829. 
 
 (d) Parliamentary Reform, 1832. 
 
 i. How secured. 
 ii. Provisions, 
 iii. General effects. 
 
 (e) Failure to achieve real democracy. 
 
 i. Theories of Radicals: Bentham; Place; Cobbett. 
 
 ii. The Chartist Movement, 
 iii. Reasons for failure. 
 (/) Miscellaneous social and political reforms. 
 
 i. Municipal reform (1835). 
 
 ii. Repeal of Corn Laws and revision of tariff. 
 iii. Poor Law Reform (1834). 
 iv. Labor legislation: the Factory Act of 1833 and the Mines Act of 1842. 
 
 v. Other reforms: law, prisons, slavery, education. 
 
 H. General significance of the period 1815-1848. 
 
 (a) Failure of Metternich's attempt to stand in the path of liberalism and nation- 
 alism already becoming manifest. 
 
 [37] 
 
(6) Principles of French Revolution, namely, political democracy, civil liberty, 
 social equality, and nationalism, making headway throughout Europe, in spite 
 of repression. 
 
 (c) Industrial Revolution spreading on Continent; hence, growing importance of 
 bourgeoisie in politics, and beginnings of labor unrest. 
 
 10. The Revolutionary Movements of 1848-1850. 
 
 A. General Significance. 
 
 *Hayes, II, 116-144; Hazen, Europe Since 1815, Chap. VI-IX; Schapiro, 
 
 Modern. and Contemporary European History; 97-106, 123-138. 
 (a) Complete overthrow of Metternich and his reactionary system, 
 (i) Indication that all countries of western and central Europe had become 
 affected by 
 i. Ideas of French Revolution, particularly civil liberty, political democracy, 
 
 nationalism, and social equality, 
 ii. Influence of Industrial Revolution. 
 
 (») Desire of bourgeoisie for political power. 
 (ii) Unrest of working classes. 
 
 B. The Revolution of 1848 in France. 
 
 (a) Reasons for opposition to Louis Philippe. 
 
 (b) The February Revolution. 
 
 (c) The Second French Republic 1848-1852. 
 
 i. First phase: Louis Blanc and the "national workshops." 
 ii. Second phase : the "June Days" and the triumph of the middle classes and 
 
 peasantry, 
 iii. The constitution. 
 
 (d) Influence of the February Revolution throughout Europe. 
 
 C. The Revolution in Austria-Hungary. 
 
 (a) Conflicting aims of democracy and nationalism. 
 
 (6) The Vienna riots and the overthrow of Metternich (March, 1848). 
 
 (c) The Austrian Constitution of April, 1848; the Imperial Diet, and the abolition 
 of serfdom. 
 
 (d) Nationalistic movements. 
 
 i. The Pan-Slav Congress at Prague, 
 ii. The Hungarian Republic (1849) and its collapse, 
 iii. Rule of the Serbo-Croats. 
 
 (e) Failure of the revolution in the Hapsburg dominions. 
 
 i. General reaction, 
 ii. Permanent abolition of serfdom. 
 
 D. In the Germanies. 
 
 (a) Constitutions granted in various states. 
 (6) Attempt to unify Germany. 
 
 i. The proposals of the Frankfort Assembly. 
 
 ii. Reason for their failure. 
 
 iii. Failure of the Prussian attempt in 1850. 
 (c) Permanent achievement: the Prussian constitution of 1850. 
 
 E. In the Italian States. 
 
 (a) Rival plans for unification. 
 
 (i>) Insurrection against Austrian rule (March, 1848). 
 
 (c) Republican insurrections in Rome and Tuscany. 
 
 (.d) Suppression of revolution, and general reaction, 
 
 (e) Lapse of papal liberalism. 
 
 [38] 
 
(/) Permanent achievement: the Sardinian constitution. 
 
 F. In England. 
 
 The Chartist movement as a phase of the general European revolution of 1848. 
 
 G. General Aspects of the Revolutions of 1848-1850. 
 (a) Reasons for general failure of revolution. 
 
 (6) Small gains for liberalism: constitutions in France, Prussia, Sardinia, Switzer- 
 land, Denmark, Holland. 
 
 (c) First appearance of a widespread radical republican and democratic movement. 
 
 i. Ephemeral republics established in France, Hungary, Rome, Tuscany, and 
 
 several German states. 
 ii. Rule of the discontented industrial proletariat in republican insurrections. 
 
 (d) Intensified spirit of nationalism. 
 
 11. European Struggles for Nationalism and Democracy. 1850-1871. 
 
 A. Louis Napoleon and the triumph of nationalism over democracy in France. 
 *Hayes, II, 149-163. 
 
 (a) Louis Napoleon's political ideas. 
 
 i. "Caesarism." 
 
 ii. Patriotism and the "Napoleonic Legend." 
 iii. Social reform without revolution, 
 iv. Conciliation of all parties. 
 (6) Overthrow of the Second French Republic. 
 
 i. Louis Napoleon as president of the republic, 1848-1852. 
 
 ii. Conflict with the assembly, 
 iii. Coup d'etat of December, 1851. 
 iv. Proclamation of the Second Empire, December, 1852. 
 
 (c) Apparent stability of the Second Empire. 
 
 i. Napoleon's apparent success, at first, in conciliating all groups. 
 
 ii. Promotion of business interests: economic reforms, imperialism, public 
 
 works, 
 iii. Legislation favorable to workingmen. 
 iv. Success in the Crimean War. 
 
 (d) The paradox of the Second Empire. 
 
 i. Nationalism the strength of Louis Napoleon. 
 
 ii. Aggressive nationalism, or militarism, the fatal weakness of the Second 
 Empire. Interference in Mexican, Italian, and German affairs leads to 
 discredit and collapse of Louis Napoleon's government (to be treated in 
 detail, below, in connection with unification of Italy and of Germany). 
 
 B. National Unification of Italy. 
 
 *Hayes. II, 163-175. Map Study, Appendix, II, 4 (p. 127). 
 (a) Reasons for Sardinian leadership. 
 
 i. Sardinia as the chief antagonist of Austria, 
 ii. Liberalism in Sardinia: the constitution of 1848. 
 iii. Policy of Victor Emmanuel and Cavour. 
 (6) The alliance with France and the war of 1859. 
 i. The Plombieres interview, 
 ii. The successful war. 
 iii. Louis Napoleon's change of heart. 
 
 iv. The plebiscites in Tuscany, Parma, Modena and Romagna. 
 v. Provisions of the Treaty of Turin, i860, 
 (c) Annexation of the Two Sicilies, i860, 
 i. Garibaldi's expedition. 
 
 [39] 
 
ii. The plebiscite. 
 
 (d) Annexation of Umbria and the Marches, i860. 
 
 (e) Proclamation of the Italian Kingdom, 1861. 
 (/) Annexation of Venetia, 1866. 
 
 i. The Seven Weeks' War. 
 
 ii. The plebiscite, 
 (g) Occupation of Rome, 1870; Rome the capital of Italy, 1871. 
 (h) Italian unification incomplete : "Italia irredenta." 
 
 C. National Unification of Germany. 
 
 *Hayes, II, 180-204. Map Study, Appendix, II, 4 (p. 127). 
 (a) General aspects. 
 
 i. Forces making for German unification. 
 (») Sentimental : nationalism. 
 
 (ii) Economic: the Zollverein and the effects of the Industrial Revolution, 
 ii. German nationalism coupled with liberalism and democracy prior to 1866; 
 divorced after 1866; reasons for this change; Bismarck's policy and 
 Prussian militarism, 
 iii. Reasons for Prussian leadership and Austrian opposition. 
 (6) The War of 1864. 
 
 i. The Schleswig-Holstein dispute: Danish vs. German nationalism, 
 ii. Defeat of Denmark, 
 iii. Dispute between Austria and Prussia over disposal of Schleswig-Holstein. 
 
 (c) The Seven Weeks' War, 1866. 
 
 i. Bismarck's diplomacy: Prussia as the aggrieved party; Prussia as cham- 
 pion of national unification; alliance with Italy, 
 ii. Defeat of Austria. 
 iii. Prussian annexations, 
 iv. Dissolution of Germanic confederation; establishment of North German 
 
 confederation; Bismarck's concession* to liberalism, 
 v. Prussian leadership vindicated; Austria excluded. 
 
 (d) The Franco-German war and the establishment of the German Empire. 
 
 i. The diplomatic duel between Bismarck and Louis Napoleon. 
 
 ii. Alliance of South German states with Prussia, 
 iii. Defeat and downfall of Louis Napoleon, 
 iv. Proclamation of the German Empire. 
 
 v. The Treaty of Frankfort, 
 vi. The Franco-German war as one of the causes of the Great War of 1914. 
 
 D. Decline and Fall of the Second Empire in France. 
 *Hayes, II, 175-180, review 195-203. 
 
 (a) Effect of Louis Napoleon's Italian policy on French parties. 
 (6) Concessions to liberalism, i860. 
 
 (c) Effect of Louis Napoleon's refusal to aid Polish Insurrection of 1863, 
 
 (d) Failure of French Intervention in Mexico, 1862-1867. 
 
 (e) Further liberal reforms to appease opposition, 1869. 
 
 (/) The final blunder: the negotiations with Bismarck and the Franco-German 
 
 War, 1870. 
 (g) Proclamation of the Third French Republic, 1870. 
 
 E. The Polish Revolt of 1863, another instance of the struggle for nationalism. 
 
 F. Nationalistic movements in the Balkans, 1850-1870 (not to be considered in detail). 
 
 (a) Union of Moldavia and Wallachia as Rumania. 
 
 (b) Nationalistic aspirations of other Balkan peoples. 
 
 G. The English Reform Bill of 1867 (see p. 45). 
 
 [40] 
 
H. Significance of the struggles for nationalism and democracy from 1850 to 1871. 
 *Hayes, II, 204-206. 
 
 [12. Nationalism, Democracy and the Industrial Revolution in the United 
 States from Washington to Grant. 
 
 Croly, The Promise of American Life, 27-65. 
 
 A. The Constitution and the Federalist regime. 
 
 Farrand, 77-96; Merriam, 96-142; Allen Johnson, Union and Democracy, 1-104. 
 (a) The Constitution as a reaction to the Revolutionary political theory. 
 (6) The Constitution as a dilution of direct democracy. 
 
 (c) The Constitution and the movement for commercial and financial centraliza- 
 tion. 
 
 (d) Hamilton's policy, the promotion of commercial and financial interests. 
 
 (e) The opposition of the agricultural and democratic groups. 
 
 B. Jeffersonian democracy. 
 
 Merriam, 143-175; Farrand, 98-143; Johnson, 105-141. 
 (a) The promotion of agricultural interests. 
 (6) Jefferson's theories in practice. 
 
 i. Decentralization vs. Louisiana Purchase, 
 ii. Democratic faith and political compromise. 
 
 C. The influence of the frontier. 
 
 Turner, The Frontier in American History, 1-31; Merriam, 176-202; Farrand, 146- 
 
 191 ; Johnson, 282-345, 
 
 (a) Existence of economic equality and social democracy. 
 
 i. Political expression in spoils system, frequent elections. 
 
 ii. Opposition to the financial power of the East. 
 (6) Settlement by migration, intermingling of states and resulting growth of 
 
 nationalism. 
 
 (c) Maintenance of economic opportunity. 
 
 (d) Maintenance of a home market. 
 
 D. The industrial revolution. 
 
 (a) Industrial growth in North and East. 
 
 (6) Desire of city wage earners for political participation. 
 
 E. Jacksonian democracy. 
 
 (a) Combination of the city wage earner and the frontier democrats. 
 (6) Introduction of white manhood suffrage and increase of elective officers with 
 short terms. 
 
 F. The Civil War. 
 
 (a) Divergent economic systems and interests. 
 
 (6) The struggle for maintenance of the Union and triumph of nationalism.] 
 
 BOOK IV. THE RECENT HISTORY OF THE GREAT NATIONS, 
 1871 TO THE PRESENT 
 
 Introduction: Important factors in the development of civilized nations 
 since 1871. 
 
 In this Book the historyof eachof the principal nationssince 1871 is outlined with 
 some attention to details. Here at the outset certain important factors common to 
 all civilized nations during this period are described for the sake of preliminary 
 emphasis. 
 
 [41] 
 
[A . Economic factors : The industrial and agricultural revolutions as the background of 
 political and social changes. 
 
 (a) Increased production and general rise in standards of living. 
 
 (b) Effect of urbanization, cheap printing, easy transportation, rapid communica- 
 tion, and popular education upon the masses. 
 
 (c) Railways, steamships, telegraphs, banks, and commerce as factors in promoting 
 nationalism and imperialism; expansion of the group spirit in recent times as 
 contrasted with narrow horizon of medieval manor or of medieval town. 
 
 (d) Ever-increasing importance of economic questions in political and social life. 
 
 (e) Influence of economic considerations upon science and philosophy; increased 
 attention to applied science; tendency toward materialism. 
 
 (f) Influence of economic development upon social classes: declining prestige of 
 hereditary aristocracy and of clergy; tendency to make wealth the chief basis 
 of social distinctions; growing importance of capitalistic bourgeoisie and of 
 industrial proletariat.] 
 
 B. The development of science and its effect upon philosophy and religion. 
 
 *Hayes, II, pp. 230-238; Sedgwick and Tyler, 323-398; T. H. Huxley, The Progress 
 of Science. 
 
 (a) Enormous advances of science in recent times. 
 
 i. Celestial mechanics— Laplace and the nebular hypothesis, 
 ii. Physics and chemistry. 
 
 (i) Continuous accumulation of data and exploration of new fields — 
 
 electro-dynamics, radioactivity, etc. 
 (ii) Construction of a periodic table of the elements. 
 
 (iii) New generalizations respecting the conservation of energy and the 
 electronic constitution of matter, 
 iii. Geology. 
 
 (») Lyell and the uniformitarian theory. 
 (ii) Great age of the world suggested. 
 iv. Biology — the theory of organic evolution. 
 
 (») The early work of Lamarck and Malthus. 
 (ii) The Darwinian theory. 
 
 a. "The Origin of Species,'' 1859. 
 
 b. "The Descent of Man," 1871. 
 (iii) Post-Darwinian theories. 
 
 (iv) General points of agreement and of disagreement in biological theory 
 today. 
 
 ♦Scott, The Theory of Evolution, 1-27, 82-120; Locy, Main Currents of 
 Zoology. 
 v. Great growth of historical science. 
 
 (») Theory of evolution stimulates interest in origins and development. 
 (ii) Technique of historical research developed. 
 (iii) Influence of historical study upon social movements and vice versa. 
 
 (b) Rapid development of applied science. 
 
 i. Expansion of scientific societies, laboratories, etc. 
 ii. Science put to industrial uses more and more, 
 iii. Popularization of science and scientific method. 
 
 (c) Effect of science upon philosophy. 
 
 *Hoyes, II, 238-239; Marvin, History of European Philosophy, 350--369. 
 384-428; R. B. Perry, Present Philosophical Tendencies; The Present Conflict 
 of Ideals, 21-62, 150-172; H. Spencer, Progress: its Law aHdCait.se,- T.H.Huxley, 
 Evolution and- Ethics; A. Tennyson, In Memoriam; J. Dewey, The Influence of 
 Darwin on Philosophy. 
 
 [42] 
 
i. The entire physical universe conceived as one closed system operating 
 
 according to discoverable natural laws. 
 ii. Philosophers reacted variously to this conception. 
 
 (»") Eighteenth century optimism was continued and reinforced by the 
 theory of evolution — There is an inevitable progiess according to a 
 natural law — New arguments adduced for laissez-faire — Spencer. 
 (ii) A new optimism developed which glorified man's might in the animal 
 world — Nietzsche and the "superman"- — "social Darwinism" and the 
 "survival of the fittest." 
 (»"»«) Pessimism developed because of nature's apparent indifference to 
 man's interests and the probable fate of the solar system — "the alien 
 world" — Tennyson, Arnold, Clough, Huxley. 
 (»'») An aesthetic cult developed which sought an escape from the world of 
 
 fact to the realm of beauty — Wilde, Pater, etc. 
 (») A mystic apotheosis of nature developed — pantheism. 
 (vi) Some philosophers abjured all absolute generalizations about the 
 universe, and turned their attention to more specific problems of 
 human well-being — pragmatism and experimentalism — James, Dewey, 
 etc. 
 (d) Effect of science upon the churches. 
 
 *Hayes, II, 23J-252; A. C. McGiffert, Rise of Modern Religious Ideas; Pius X. 
 Pascendi Gregis. 
 
 The new theories as to the age and history of the world, the origin of man, and 
 the historical criticism of the Bible ("higher criticism") seemed to call for a 
 revision of theological traditions. The churches adjusted themselves to the 
 situation in various ways, 
 i. Effect upon the Protestant churches. 
 
 (») Retention by the orthodox parties of the established theologies of the 
 sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, with emphasis upon creeds and 
 with attacks upon modern science; e. g., the "low-church" party in the 
 Anglican Church, 
 (j'i) Readjustment of theology to science by the liberals; the abandonment 
 or neglect of the dividing lines between the sects and of the doctrines 
 incompatible with scientific conclusions; a. growing tendency towards 
 a basis of union among the different sects through the acceptance of a 
 common program of action; e.g., the "broad-church" party in the 
 Anglican Church, and the Federal Council of the Churches of Christ 
 in America, 
 ii. Effect upon the Catholic Church. 
 
 (»') Reassertion of the Catholic dogmas as divinely revealed and authori- 
 tative. 
 (ii) Seemingly acute and irreconciliable conflict with recent scientific ten- 
 tencies during the pontificate of Puis IX: the Syllabus of Errors, 1856. 
 (Hi) Tendency towards disappearance of the conflict during the pontificate 
 of Leo XIII. 
 
 a. Revival of medieval philosophy (St. Thomas Aquinas) and the 
 formulation of a Catholic attitude towards the theory of evolution. 
 
 b. Encouragement of research in church history. 
 
 c. Papal patronage of natural science. 
 (iv) Condemnation of "modernism." 
 
 o. Nature of the modernist movement. 
 
 b. Attitude of Pius X. 
 
 c. Present status of modernism. 
 
 [43] 
 
C. Conflict between Church and State — Clericalism and anti-clericalism. 
 *Hayes, II, 223-230. 
 
 Coincident with this adjustment of Christianity to the new scientific theories 
 there was a conflict in most Catholic countries between Church and State, 
 (a) Reasons for the conflict. 
 (6) Catholic attitude toward "liberalism." 
 
 i. Attitude of Pius IX. 
 
 ii. Growth of parties in Germany, Austria, Belgium, France, and other 
 countries, favorable to political democracy and liberty. 
 
 (c) Effect of the Vatican Council and the Decree of Papal Infallibility. 
 
 (d) Effect of the annexation of Rome by Italy. 
 
 (e) Conflict between clericalism and anticlericalism, illustrated by "Kulturkampf" 
 in Germany, disestablishment of the Church in France and Portugal, antago- 
 nism between papacy and secular government in Italy. (For details, see under 
 each country, below.) 
 
 (/) The question of education. Tendency toward secular education. 
 
 D. Growing power of the middle classes or bourgeoisie. 
 *Hayes, II, 211-223. 
 
 (a) Their interpretation of the principles of the French Revolution. 
 
 (6) Their success in securing governmental action favorable to business interests. 
 
 (c) Their services in promoting political democracy, social welfare, science, and 
 education. 
 
 (d) Bourgeois character of the period. 
 
 [E. Nationalism, Militarism, and Imperialism (for fuller discussion, see Book VIII). 
 Hayes, II, 205, 211, 213. 
 (a) Definition of nationalism. 
 (6) Forces behind nationalism. 
 i. Psychological, 
 ii. Economic, 
 iii. Influence of democracy and of French Revolutionary principles. 
 
 (c) Widespread development of nationalism in recent years. 
 
 i. Patriotism on the part of nations already constituted, 
 ii. Irredentism. 
 
 iii. Tendency of "subject nationalities" and disunited nationalities to demand 
 independence and unification. 
 
 (d) Militarism as an outgrowth of nationalism. 
 
 (e) Imperialism as an outgrowth of nationalism.] 
 
 [F. Political Democracy and Liberalism (for fuller discussion, see Book IX). 
 Hayes, II, 100-102, 212. 
 (a) Definitions of democracy and liberalism. 
 (6) Influence of Industrial Revolution. 
 
 i. Increasing power of bourgeoisie; bourgeois liberalism, 
 ii. The printing press and the growing democracy of knowledge, 
 iii. Demands of industrial workers for enfranchisement. 
 (c) Widespread tendency toward constitutional government and democracy.] 
 G. Tendencies opposed to laissez-faire. (See pp. 92-96 for fuller treatment.) 
 
 *Hayes. II. 252-271; Orth, Socialism and Democracy in Europe; Bertrand Russell, 
 Proposed Roads to Freedom; H. G. Wells, Outline of History, II, 399-416. 
 (a) Socialism. 
 
 i. Early communistic and socialistic ideas: Babeuf, Robert Owen, Fourier, 
 
 Saint-Simon, Louis Blanc, 
 ii. Marxian Socialism. 
 
 U4] 
 
(t) The Communist Manifesto, 
 (it) Tenets. 
 
 (iii) The "International." 
 (»'») Formation of national Socialist parties. 
 
 (v) Reformism. 
 
 (b) Anarchism. 
 
 i. Ideas of Godwin, Proudhon, Bakunin. 
 ii. Syndicalism. 
 
 (c) Growth of labor unions and labor parties. 
 
 i. Economic importance, 
 ii. Political influence. 
 
 (d) Agrarian dissent from laissez-faire, especially in United States and Germany. 
 
 (e) The single-tax movement: influence of Henry George. 
 
 (f) The Catholic social reform movement: Bishop von Ketteler, Cardinal Man- 
 ning, Count Albert de Mun, Leo XIII's encyclical "On the Condition of the 
 Working Classes." 
 
 (g) Tendency of Protestant churches in industrial communities to shift their 
 emphasis from dogmatic theology to "social service": the "institutional 
 churches"; activities of the Interchurch World Movement; Christian Socialism. 
 
 (h) The recent Guild Socialist Movement. 
 
 (»') Marked tendency on the part of bourgeois liberals, in the face of these move- 
 ments, to modify their economic ideas; decline of laissez-faire or economic 
 individualism. 
 
 [H. Spread of Western civilization as result of colonial and imperialistic expansion of 
 European nations. (See Book V; also pp. 5S~6i)] 
 
 1. The United Kingdom and the British Empire since 1867. 
 
 A. The breakdown of the "Victorian Compromise.'' 
 *Hayes, II, 277-278. 
 
 (a) Nature of the "Victorian Compromise," during period 1832-1867. Review 
 of situation before 1867. 
 
 i. Conservative hereditary aristocracy had conceded to middle classes : 
 (i) An important share in political life: the Reform Bill of 1832 and the 
 
 Municipal Reform of 1835. 
 (ii) Economic legislation for the promotion of business interests: free 
 
 trade, poor law reform, etc. 
 (Hi) Religious toleration. 
 
 (iv) Social reforms such as abolition of slavery, prison reform, etc. 
 ii. Middle-class liberals, in return for these concessions, acquiesced in: 
 
 (i) Maintenance of monarchy, Established Church, hereditary aristocracy, 
 
 House of Lords. 
 (ii) Exclusion of masses from franchise, 
 iii. Workingmen left without a voice in politics, at mercy of landlords and 
 capitalists. 
 (6) Reasons for breakdown of "Victorian Compromise". 
 i. Trade unionism and labor agitation. 
 
 ii. Rivalry of Liberals and Conservatives in bidding for popular support, 
 iii. Growing strength of democratic spirit and demand for political and social 
 reform. 
 
 B. The Achievement of Political Democracy in the United Kingdom (1867-1918). 
 *Hayes, II, 278-290. 
 
 (a) The Reform of 1867. 
 
 i. The political situation leading to the Reform. 
 
 [45] 
 
(i) Disraeli's attempt to rejuvenate the Conservative party. 
 (ii) Affiliation of John Bright with Gladstone; advocacy of parliamentary 
 
 reform. 
 (iii) Failure of the Liberal Reform Bill, 1866. 
 
 (iv) The Conservative Reform Bill; reasons for the "leap in the dark." 
 ii. Provisions of the Reform Act of 1867. 
 
 (b) The Ballot Act, 1872, 
 
 (c) The Representation of the People Act of 1884. 
 
 (d) The Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885. 
 
 (e) The Parliament Act of 191 1. 
 
 i. Nature and powers of the House of Lords before 191 1. 
 ii. The political situation leading to the reform, 
 iii. Provisions of the Act. 
 iv. The House of Lords since 191 1. 
 
 (f) Representation of the People Act, 1918. 
 
 (g) Demands for further democratic reform. 
 
 C. The Government of the United Kingdom. 
 
 *Hayes, II, 290-297; Webb, Constitution for the Socialist Commonwealth of Great 
 Britain, 59-93; Ogg, Governments of Europe, 46-142, 167-192; Ogg and Beard, 
 National Governments and the World War. 
 
 (a) The British system of government as the product of a series of historical com- 
 promises. 
 
 i. Character of the British Constitution, 
 ii. Survivals of undemocratic authority. 
 
 (i) The Crown: its nominal and its actual power. 
 (ii) The House of Lords, 
 iii. Popular representation. 
 
 («') Democratic evolution of the House of Commons. 
 (ii) Electoral procedure. 
 (iii) Powers and functions of the Commons. 
 
 (b) The parliamentary or cabinet system of government. 
 
 i. Nature of the cabinet. 
 
 ii. Relations between crown, cabinet, and parliament. 
 iii. Importance and efficiency of the ministry. 
 
 (c) Centralized regulation of local government. 
 
 i. Jurisdiction of parliament throughout the United Kingdom, 
 ii. Local administration supervised by five central authorities, 
 iii. The counties and boroughs, 
 iv. Unique position of London. 
 
 D. British Political Parties. 
 
 *Hayes, II, 297-307; Ogg and Beard. 
 
 (a) Changing character of the two-party system in Britain, 
 i. Effect of Reform Bill of 1832 on Whigs and Tories. 
 
 ii. Effect of rising power of masses on Liberals and Conservatives since 1867. 
 (6) The Unionist (Conservative) Party. 
 
 i. Transformation of Tory Party into Conservative Party after 1832. 
 ii. Reorganization by Disraeli. 
 
 iii. Coalition of Conservatives with "Liberal Unionists" in 1895 to form Union- 
 ist Party, 
 iv. Policies. 
 (c) The Liberal Party, 
 i. Whig origins. 
 
 [46] 
 
ii. Character of the Liberal Party under leadership of Gladstone and Bright, 
 (i) Economic liberalism: free trade, non-intervention in industrial ques- 
 tions, 
 (it) Advocacy of moderate democratic reform. 
 (iii) Opposition to imperialism. "Little Englanders." 
 (hi) Irish Home Rule (after 1885). 
 iii. Regeneration of the Liberal Party after Gladstone's death, 
 (i) Revival of Free-Trade issue. 
 (ii) Program of land reform and social legislation. 
 (iii) Alliance with Labor and Irish Nationalist Parties. 
 (iv) Achievements, 1906-1914. 
 
 (d) The Labor Party. 
 
 i. Reasons for its formation, 
 ii. The Labor Representation Committee, 1900. 
 iii. Growing strength since 1906. 
 iv. Policies. 
 
 (e) The Irish Nationalist Party. 
 
 (/) The parties during and since the war. 
 
 i. The Coalition and Lloyd George's administration. 
 
 ii. The split in the Liberal Party, 
 iii. Growth of the Labor Party, 
 iv. Decline of the Nationalist Party; growth of Sinn Fein. 
 
 v. The elections of 1918. 
 
 E. British Social Legislation. 
 
 *Hayes, II, 307-319; Hayes, British Social Politics. 
 
 (a) The principle of the minimum standard of living. 
 
 i. Factory and Mines Acts. 
 
 ii. The Trade Boards Act. 
 iii. The Minimum Wage Act of 1912. 
 iv. Workingmen's compensation. 
 
 v. Child welfare and education, 
 vi. Old Age Pensions, 
 vii. Unemployment. 
 viii. National Insurance Act of 1911. 
 
 (b) Removal of restrictions on trade-unionism. 
 
 (c) Taxation of the rich. 
 
 (d) The land problem and Lloyd George's land program. 
 
 (e) Significance and tendencies of British social legislation. 
 
 F. The Irish Question. 
 
 *Hayes, II, 319-326; Shapiro, Modern and Contemporary European History, 
 
 Chap. XIV. 
 
 (a) Dissatisfaction with British government in Ireland. 
 
 i. Religious grievances of the Irish Catholics. 
 
 ii. British landlordism and agrarian evils. 
 
 iii. Irish nationalism: a long-standing problem. 
 
 (b) The British government and Irish reform. 
 
 i Disestablishment of the Irish Church (1869). 
 ii. Land acts of 1870, 1891. 1896: securing of "fair rent, fixity of tenure, 
 
 and free sale." 
 iii. Local Government Act of 1898. 
 iv. Home Rule bills of 1886, 1893, 1912. 
 (i) Failure of Gladstone's bills. 
 (ii) Bill of 1912 brings on threat of civil war in Ireland. 
 
 [47] 
 
v. The Home Rule Act of 1914. 
 
 (*) Outbreak of the war unites Irish factions. 
 
 (ii) Home Rule Act passed, but temporarily suspended (owing to war), 
 (c) Ireland and Home Rule. 
 
 i. Failure of British Government to put Home Rule Act into operation, 
 ii. Strengthening of Sinn Fein movement, 
 iii. Proclamation of the "Irish Republic" (ioio)- 
 iv. Subsequent developments. 
 G. The Empire. 
 
 *Hayes, II, 640-675; Bryce, Modern Democracies, I, 45S _ 5°8, II, 166-321. 
 (a) Size and complexity of the Empire. 
 (6) The self-governing colonies. 
 
 i. Their nature and relative importance, 
 ii. Character of their governments, 
 iii. Relations with the mother-country, 
 iv. Movement for closer imperial federation. 
 
 (c) Crown colonies and protectorates. 
 
 i. Importance, 
 ii. Undemocratic administration. 
 
 (d) The Empire of India. 
 
 i. Gradual introduction of representative government, 
 ii. Demands for home rule, 
 iii. Economic progress under British rule. 
 
 (e) Importance of the Empire for England. 
 
 i. Economic advantages for British capitalists. 
 
 ii. "Parasites" of imperialism, 
 iii. Dependence upon naval powe*. 
 iv. Imperialism in British politics; connection with the tariff issue. 
 
 2. France since 1870. 
 
 A. Proclamation of the Third Republic, September 4, 1870; Provisional Government 
 under Council of National Defense. 
 
 B. Adoption of a Republican Constitution. 
 *Hayes, II, 331-342- 
 
 (a) The National Assembly, convoked to ratify peace with Germans. 
 (6) The National Assembly arrogates to itself the power to govern France and to 
 draft a constitution, 
 i. Suppression of the Paris "Commune." 
 ii. The Rivet Law. 
 
 iii. Financial, military, and administrative reforms. 
 
 iv. The question of restoring monarchical government: inability of the mon- 
 archists to agree on a monarch, 
 v. Adoption of the constitutional laws of 1875. 
 
 C. Triumph of Republicanism. 
 *Hayes, II, 342-345. 
 
 (o) The struggle between Gambetta and MacMahon. 
 
 (6) Republicans gain control of Chamber of Deputies (1875), Senate (1879), and 
 
 presidency (1879). 
 (c) The Republic ceases to be regarded as provisional. 
 
 D. Policies and Achievements of the French Government since 1879. 
 *Hayes, II, 345-361. 
 
 (a) Bourgeois character of the government; solicitude for bourgeois interests. 
 
 [48] 
 
(6) Promotion of economic interests: agriculture, industry, commerce and colonies. 
 
 (c) Attempts to conciliate workingmen by social legislation. 
 
 (d) Anticlericalism. 
 
 i. Reasons for growth of anticlericalism. 
 
 ii. The Ferry Laws. 
 
 iii. Effects of Boulanger episode and Dreyfus Affair. 
 iv. The Associations Act. 
 
 v. The Separation of Church and State. 
 
 vi. Decline of anticlericalism during and after the Great War. 
 vii. Military and foreign policies (see below). 
 
 E. Important Political Groups. 
 
 *Hayes, II, 340—342; Bryce, Modem Democracies, I, 223-326; Ogg, 308-351. 
 
 (a) The Monarchists: decline of monarchist groups; revival of monarchist 
 political philosophy by Action Francaise. 
 
 (b) Action Liberate, composed of Catholic Republicans. 
 
 (c) Progressists, or conservative republicans. 
 
 (d) Radicals and Socialistic-Radicals. 
 
 (e) Socialists. 
 
 (/) General aspects of the French party system. 
 
 *Hayes, II, 361-367; E. M. Sait, Government and Politics of France, Chap. X; 
 
 R. L. Buell, Contemporary French Politics, Chaps. I, II, III. 
 (g) Governmental system. 
 
 i. The constitution: comparison with British and American constitutions. 
 
 ii. Contrast between French and American presidents as regards method of 
 election, functions, and powers. 
 
 iii. The ministry: comparison with British and American cabinets; the group 
 system as compared with the two-party system; the question of instability. 
 
 iv. The parliament: composition and functions. 
 
 v. Strongly centralized system of local government. 
 (h) France during the war and since. 
 
 Hayes, Brief History of the Great War, 292-293, 399-401, 403; Buell, Chaps. 
 
 VI, VIII, X, XI. 
 
 3. Italy since 1871. 
 
 A. Social and Economic Problems. 
 
 *Hayes, II, 367-378; King and Okey, Italy To-Day (1909)- 
 
 (a) Industrial backwardness, especially in the south; scarcity of raw materials. 
 
 (b) Burden of taxation. 
 
 (c) Emigration. 
 
 (d) Illiteracy: the education law of 1877. 
 
 (e) Labpr agitation, socialism, syndicalism, and recent social legislation. 
 
 B. The Problem of Church and State, 
 (a) Position of the papacy. 
 
 (6) The non expedit. 
 
 (c) Policy of Benedict XV; permission for Catholics to participate in elections; 
 the encyclical of 1020. 
 
 C. Government and Parties. 
 
 D. Political History, 1870-1914- 
 
 (a) Regime of the "Right," 1870-1876. 
 
 (6) Depretis and Crispi, 1876-1896; regime of the "Left." 
 
 (c) Militarism, imperialism, and irredentism. 
 
 149] 
 
E Italy since the War. 
 
 (a) Stimulation of aggressive nationalism. 
 
 (b) The elections of 1919. 
 
 (c) Socialism and social unrest. 
 
 4. Germany since 1871. 
 
 A. Constitution and Government of the German Empire, 1871-1918. 
 *Hayes, II, 397-403; Ogg, 608-702. 
 
 (a) Position of the emperor; his actual powers as king of Prussia. 
 (6) The Bundesrat: contrast with American Senate. 
 
 (c) The Reichstag: lack of controlling power. 
 
 (d) The Chancellor and the ministers. 
 
 (e) Relations between federal and state governments. 
 CO Predominant position of Prussia. 
 
 (g) Character of state governments. 
 
 B. Germany under Bismarck, 1871-1890. 
 *Hayes, II, 404-415. 
 
 (a) Consolidation of the empire; legal, financial and military reforms; imperial 
 
 control of railways and communications. 
 (6) Political parties under Bismarck. 
 
 (c) The Kulturkampf. 
 
 (d) Social reforms and Bismarck's conflict with Socialism, 
 (c) Protective tariff. 
 
 CO Acquisition of colonies. 
 
 C. Germany under William II, 1890-1914. 
 *Hayes, II, 415-426. 
 
 (a) Character of William II. 
 
 (6) Rapid growth of industry and of population. 
 
 (c) Political parties under William II. 
 
 (d) Imperialism and militarism. 
 
 i. Economic basis; industrial expansion and demand for world markets, 
 ii. Sentimental basis: exaggerated nationalism. 
 
 iii. Acquisition of Kiao-chau, Caroline, Pelew and Marianne islands, Samoa, 
 iv. The Bagdad railway scheme and German policy of dominating Balkans and 
 
 Near East, 
 v. German interest in Morocco, 
 vi. Creation of a powerful navy, 
 vii. Militarism and the Army Bill of 1913. 
 viii. Reasons for popular support of chauvinist policy. 
 
 D. Germany in the World War. 
 
 ♦Hayes, Brief History of the Great War, 360-367. 
 (a) Solidarity of all parties in early stages of war. 
 (ft) Extravagant war-aims of chauvinists. 
 
 (c) Persistent growth of opposition. 
 
 (d) Tardy promises of democratic reform. 
 
 (e) Collapse of monarchical government, 1918. 
 CO The peace. 
 
 E. The German Republic. 
 
 Political Science Quarterly, Record of Political Events, September 1919, and fol- 
 lowing years. 
 
 (a) Struggle between extreme radicals and moderates. 
 (6) The constitutional convention and the constitution. 
 
 [50] 
 
i. Parties in the convention. 
 
 (»') German National People's Party (Conservatives). 
 (it) German People's Party (National Liberals). 
 (iii) German Democratic Party (Progressives). 
 (iv) Christian People's Party (Catholic Center). 
 (») Social Democrats, 
 (t/t) Independent Socialists, 
 ii. The Constitution, 
 iii. The Ebert government. 
 
 (c) The attempted reactionary coup d'elat of March, 1920. 
 
 i. Agitation of reactionaries and militarists. 
 
 ii. Temporary success. 
 
 iii. The general strike and the restoration of the Ebert coalition government, 
 iv. Ensuing conflict between the government and the Communists. 
 
 (d) Problems of readjustment to new conditions arising out of the war. 
 
 5. Austria-Hungary, 1867-1918. 
 
 *Hayes, II, 426-435. 
 
 A. Constitution and Government. 
 
 (a) The joint government: the A usgleich; the "Delegations.'' 
 
 (b) Government of Austria. 
 
 (c) Government of Hungary. 
 
 (d) Status of Bosnia-Herzegovina. 
 
 B. Political and Social Reforms in Austria. 
 
 (a) The electoral reforms of 1896 and 1907. 
 (6) Social legislation. 
 
 C. Oppressive Policies of Hungarian Government, 
 (a) Failure to achieve political democracy. 
 
 (6) Illiberal treatment of Rumans and Serbo-Croats. 
 
 D. The Problem of Conflicting Nationalities. 
 
 (a) Racial or national groups in the Dual Monarchy. 
 
 (b) Failure of provincial autonomy in Austria as a solution. 
 
 (c) Nationalistic conflicts in Austrian and Hungarian politics. 
 
 (d) The archduke Francis Ferdinand and "Trialism." 
 
 (e) Progress of nationalistic movements during the war. 
 
 E. Disintegration of the Dual Monarchy, 
 (a) Effect of the armistice, 1918. 
 
 (6) Establishment of independent republics: German-Austria, Czecho-Slovakia, 
 Hungary. 
 
 (c) Annexation of remaining territories by Poland, Italy, Jugoslavia, and Rumania. 
 
 (d) The problem of future relationships between the new states. 
 
 6. Russia since 1855. 
 
 A. Alexander II and Reform. 
 *Hayes, II, 37-41. 452-460. 
 (a) Autocratic heritage from Nicholas I. 
 
 i. Russia still essentially agricultural in 1850. 
 ii. Privileged position of the nobility and clergy, 
 iii. Base legal and economic position of the peasantry; serfdom, 
 iv. The government an absolute monarchy, corrupt and inefficient. 
 v. Unyielding attitude of Nicholas I toward liberalism and democracy. 
 
 [51] 
 
(b) Reforming efforts of Alexander II. 
 
 i. Influence of Russian defeat in the Crimean War (1854-1856) upon the 
 
 demand for reform, 
 ii. Liberal character of the new Tsar. 
 iii. Alexander's reforms. 
 
 (*) Emancipation of the serfs. 
 
 (ii) Erection of elective provincial assemblies or Zemstvos. 
 (iii) Remodeling of the legal and judicial systems. 
 (t») Organization of elementary and technical schools. 
 (») Qualified liberty of the press. 
 
 (c) Abandonment of reform by Alexander II. 
 
 i. Causes. 
 
 (»') Polish insurrection (1863). 
 
 (ii) Opposition of the bureaucracy, clergy, nobility and army to reform. 
 (iii) Impatience of radical groups with gradual reform : nihilist; anarchistic 
 socialists; terrorists, 
 ii. Organization of the secret police. 
 
 iii. Introduction of compulsory universal military service, 
 iv. Assassination of Alexander II (1881). 
 
 B. Factors making for the maintenance of autocracy. 
 *Hayes, II, 460-473; Hazen, Chap. XXIX. 
 
 (a) Heterogeneity of peoples composing the Russian Empire. 
 
 i. Great Russians, 
 ii. Little Russians, 
 iii. Poles. 
 
 iv. Finns, Esthonians, Livonians. 
 
 v. Polyglot character of the Caucasus regions and various Siberian provinces, 
 vi. Peculiar position and status of the Jews. 
 
 vii. Mutual distrust of these various groups hinders cooperation in securing 
 more efficient and democratic government. 
 
 (b) Pan-Slavism and Russification. 
 
 i. Definition: The idea that nearly all the peoples of the Russian Empire, 
 the Balkan states, and the Slavic groups in Austria and Germany are in 
 fact of Russian nationality, 
 ii. Pan-Slavic program : to "Russify" all peoples within the empire and to ex- 
 tend Russian influence in foreign lands occupied by peoples of Slavic stock, 
 iii. Progress of Russification under Alexander III and Nicholas II. 
 iv. Intimate association of patriotic Pan-Slavism and support of the autocracy. 
 
 (c) Tradition of autocracy. 
 
 i. Philosophy and practice of reaction: PobSdonostsev and Plehve. 
 
 ii. Loyalty of the governing classes, 
 iii. Support of the Orthodox Church, 
 iv. Lack of popular education. 
 
 v. Filial devotion of the peasantry to the Tsar, 
 vi. Russia predominantly agricultural and conservative, 
 vii. Repressive measures of the government. 
 
 C. Strengthening of opposition to the autocracy. 
 *Hayes, II, 473-487; Hazen, Chap. XXXI. 
 (a) Rise of industrialism. 
 
 i. Demands of the new business interests, 
 ii. Attempt of Count de Witte to commit the government to business men's 
 
 ideas; his failure, 
 iii. Rise of a class-conscious proletariat imbued with violent revolutionary ideas. 
 
 [52] 
 
(b) The intellectual radicals and their idealization of "the people." 
 
 (c) Revolutionary movement of 1905 and its consequences. 
 
 i. Causes. 
 
 (*) Influence of Russian reverses in the Japanese war upon revolutionary 
 
 agitation. 
 (»"») Discontent rife among all industrial classes; strikes and industrial 
 
 paralysis. 
 (iii) Demand of the peasants for land reform. 
 (iv) Opposition of submerged nationalities to "Russification." 
 (v) Stern repression of first popular demonstrations: "Red Sunday, 
 ii. Concessions of the Tsar, 
 iii. The Duma, 
 iv. Autocratic reaction. 
 
 War and Revolution. 
 
 ♦Hayes, Brief History of the Great War, 225-260, 334-342; Olgin, Soul of the Russian 
 Revolution; Ransome, Russia in iqiq; Williams, Ransome, and Robins, Lenin, the 
 Man and His Work; Ross, The Russian Bolshevik Revolution; Brailsford, The 
 Russian Workers' Republic, 
 (a) Imperial Russia in the World War. 
 
 i. Tsaristic motives for entering the war. 
 ii. Pan-Slavic enthusiasm, 
 iii. Efforts of the Tsar to conciliate all factions. 
 
 iv. Progress of the war on the eastern front as influencing the stability of the 
 government. 
 (6) Causes for defeat and collapse of the imperial government, 
 i. Glaring inefficiency and corruption, 
 ii. Lowering of popular morale. 
 
 iii. Attempt of the autocracy to make peace with Germany, 
 iv. Other causes. 
 
 (t) Failure of the autocracy to respond to popular demands of the people. 
 {ii) German propaganda. 
 (iii) Radical propaganda in the armies. 
 
 {iv) Gradual undermining, since 1906, of popular affection for the Tsar 
 and the Orthodox Church. 
 
 (c) Government of the moderate liberals. 
 
 i. Incidents in overthrow of the Tsar, 
 ii. Organization of the Lvov-Milyukov government, 
 iii. First stage of government of Constitutional Democrats. 
 
 (d) Regime of Kerensky. 
 
 i. Attitude toward separate peace and Allied war aims. 
 
 ii. Breakdown of discipline in the army, 
 iii. Suppression of revolt under Kaledines and Korniloff. 
 iv. Capture of Riga by the Germans. 
 
 v. Overthrow of Kerensky. 
 
 (e) Regime of the Bolsheviki. November, 1917 to — . 
 
 i. Announcement of policy. 
 
 ii. Educational policy, 
 iii. Agrarian policy. 
 
 iv. Undermining of capitalism: ownership and control of industry by the 
 workingmen. 
 
 v. The soviet constitution and system of government, 
 vi. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. 
 vii. Dispersal of Constitutional Assembly. 
 
 [53] 
 
viii. Secessionist and counter-revolutionary movements, 
 ix. Hostility of Allied Powers: the blockade; intervention. 
 x. Modification of Bolshevist theories in practice. 
 
 7. The Near East. 
 
 A. Genesis of Problem. 
 
 *Hayes, II, 490-492. 
 (a) Mohammed (Muhammad) and the spread of Saracen civilization; Seljuk and 
 
 Ottoman Turks; the fall of Constantinople (1453); the organizing of the 
 
 Turkish Empire: Suleiman the Magnificent; the Turkish Empire and eastern 
 
 Europe to the repulse at Vienna (1683). 
 (6) Christian advance against the Turk: the freeing of Hungary (Passarowitz, 
 
 1718); the loss of the Crimea (Kuchuk-Kainardji, 1774). 
 
 B. Beginnings of National States in the Balkan Peninsula. 
 
 *Hayes, II, 492-504. Map Study, Appendix, II, 4 (p. 128). 
 
 (a) The Turks and the subject peoples of south-eastern Europe. 
 
 i. The problem of race. 
 
 ii. The problem of religion, 
 iii. Nationalism in the Balkans, 
 iv. The government of the Turkish Empire. 
 
 (b) Aims and interests of the great European powers in the Balkans and the 
 Near East. 
 
 i. Russia: warm water ports; territorial aggrandizement; religion; Pan- 
 Slavism, 
 ii. Austria: fear of Russian aggression in Balkans; territorial gains; com- 
 mercial interests, 
 iii. England: commercial interests in the Levant; protection of the gateway 
 
 to India; Egyptian interests, 
 iv. France: finance and religion, 
 v. Italy: commercial and strategic. 
 vi. Germany: commercial and colonial. 
 
 (c) Autonomy of Montenegro (1799) and of Serbia (1830). 
 
 (d) The war for Greek independence (1827-1832). 
 
 (e) The Crimean War (1853-1856). 
 
 (/) The emergence of Rumania (1862). 
 
 C. The Russo-Turkish War and its aftermath (1876-1908). 
 
 *Hayes, II, 504-514. 
 (a) The war: oppression in Macedonia; Turkey and the Powers; defeat of Turkey 
 
 by Russia. 
 (6) Treaty of San Stefano (1878). 
 
 i. Proposals for free and autonomous states in the Balkans, 
 ii. Attitude of the powers, especially England and Austria. 
 
 (c) The Congress of Berlin (1878): decision of the Powers. 
 
 i. Independence of Serbia, Montenegro, and Rumania recognized. 
 
 ii. Bulgaria an autonomous principality. 
 
 iii. Austro-Hungarian advance in the Balkans: Bosnia-Herzegovina, 
 iv. Final settlement of the Near Eastern question deferred: the Porte given 
 a new lease of life. 
 
 (d) Violations of the settlement at Berlin. 
 
 i. Unification and independence of Bulgaria (1885-1908). 
 ii. Graeco-Turkish war (1897): the question of Crete, 
 iii. Austro-Hungarian annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina (1908). 
 
 [54] 
 
D. The Balkan States: Material Problems, 1878-1912: the Governments; Economic 
 Situation; Social Questions; Education; Religion and Nationalism; Taxation. 
 Finance, Military Establishments. 
 
 *Hayes, II, 515-523. 
 
 E. Attempted reorganization of the Turkish Empire. 
 
 *Hayes, II, 523-539; Hazen. Chap. XXVIII. 
 
 (a) Turkish nationalism; the young Turk movement. 
 
 (b) Revolution of 1908-1909: deposition of Abdul Hamid II (1909); establish- 
 ment of constitutional government. 
 
 (c) Opposition in the Balkans to the nationalizing policies of the Young Turks: 
 the Balkan wars (1912-1913). 
 
 i. Defeat of Turkey and practical exclusion from the Balkan peninsula. 
 ii. R61e of great powers: Conference of London; the Principality of Albania, 
 iii. Dissatisfaction of Bulgaria with the settlement and the Second Balkan War 
 (1913)- 
 
 F. The States of Southeastern Europe and the Turkish Empire in the World War. 
 
 *Hayes, II, 706-710; *Hayes, A Brief History of the World War, 69-73, 124-129, 
 181-191. 
 
 (a) The new phase of the Near Eastern question: the central empires and the 
 Drang nach Osten. 
 i. German commercial interests in the Turkish Empire. 
 ii. The Berlin-Bagdad railway. 
 
 iii. Opposition of Serbia to German-Austrian commercial schemes. 
 iv. Italy in the Balkans and Turkey: the Tripolitan war (1911-1912). 
 (6) The problem of nationality: Austria, Serbia, and Jugo-Slavia; immediate 
 
 cause of the war. 
 (c) Aims and policies of the various states, 
 i. Position of Serbia and Montenegro . 
 ii. Adhesion of the Porte to the central powers, 
 iii. Bulgaria's attitude, 
 iv. Difficult position of Rumania, 
 v. Greece and the Allies. 
 
 G. The Peace Settlement in the Near East. 
 
 8. The Far East. 
 
 *Hayes, II, 560-586; *Hayes, A Brief History of the World War, 62-65, 271, 370-371. 
 General references: Hazen, Chap. XXX; Gibbons, New Map of Asia. 
 
 A . The opening up of China and loss of tributary provinces. 
 
 (a) Hostility of China to foreign intercourse, before 1840. 
 
 (b) Forcible interference with Chinese exclusiveness. 
 
 i. The Opium War of 1840-1842 and the treaty of Nanking. 
 ii. The Second Chinese war, 1856-1860, and the treaties of Tientsin, 
 iii. Extension of "open-port" privileges by treaties with other powers. 
 
 (c) Loss of outlying provinces and tributary states. 
 
 i. Amur River region, 
 ii. Annam and Tonkin, 
 iii. Burma, 
 iv. Japanese recognition of Korea's independence. 
 
 B. Awakening of Japan. 
 
 (a) End of Japanese seclusion: visits of Perry (1853) and Harris (1857). 
 (6) The Japanese revolution (1867-1868). 
 
 i. Conversion of the Daimios and overthrow of the Shogun. 
 
 [55] 
 
ii. Abolition of feudalism. 
 
 iii. Strengthening of the power of the central government: the Mikado. 
 (c) The Europeanization of Japan (1868-1895). 
 i. The Constitution, 
 ii. Growth of industry and commerce, 
 iii. Adoption of Western culture, 
 iv. Development of military and naval power. 
 v. Beginnings of imperialism. 
 
 C. The Chino- Japanese war (1894-1895). 
 
 (a) Revelation of Japanese power and weakness of China. 
 
 (b) Attitude of the European powers. 
 
 D. Scramble for spheres of influence in China (1895-1905). 
 (a) The leased ports. 
 
 (6) Widening of commercial concessions. 
 
 (c) China's problem: Europeanization or partition?; the Boxer rebellion. 
 
 (d) The "open door" policy of the United States. 
 
 E. Russo-Japanese war (1904-1905). 
 
 (a) Conflict of interest in Manchuria. 
 
 (6) Reasons for Japanese success. 
 
 (c) Terms and significance of the treaty of Portsmouth. 
 
 F. Reform and revolution in China. 
 
 (a) Reforming efforts of the Manchu dynasty (1905-1911). 
 (ft) Beginnings of constitutional government, 
 (c) Adoption of occidental methods and ideas. 
 
 G. The Far East in the World War. 
 
 (a) Japan's conquest of Shantung. 
 
 (b) Efforts of Japan to develop a "Far Eastern Monroe Doctrine": the Lansing- 
 Ishii agreement. 
 
 (c) China's participation in the war and disappointment at the peace conference. 
 H. The Chinese Consortium. 
 
 (a) Purpose. 
 
 (6) Chinese opposition. 
 
 i. Bankers. 
 
 ii. Fear of territorial aggrandizement. 
 
 9. Middle and western Asia. 
 
 *Map study — Appendix II, 5 part A (p. 129). 
 
 A. Development of British power in India and central Asia. 
 *Hayes, II, 662-675. 
 
 (a) India prior to 1858. 
 
 i. India before the coming of Europeans, 
 ii. British struggle for supremacy, 
 iii. Government of India by the East India company. 
 
 (b) Extension of British power in India, 1858-1914. 
 
 i. Suppression of the independence of native princes, 
 ii. Assumption of title of "Empress of India" by Victoria, 1877. 
 
 (c) Present state of India. 
 
 i. Economic and social conditions: poverty and ignorance, 
 ii. The case for and against England. 
 
 iii. Nationalist demands and the difficulties in the way of realization, 
 iv. Extension of British power northward and into Persia. 
 
 [56] 
 
B. Expansion of Russia in central Asia. 
 
 *Hayes, II, 586-592. 
 (a) Extension of Siberian frontiers (1863-1886). 
 (6) Interference in Persia. 
 
 i. Opposition on the part of the nationalist reform party in Persia: estab- 
 lishment of constitutional government (1906-1909). 
 ii. Clash with England: Anglo-Russian spheres of influence (1907). 
 
 C. Germany and the Drang nack Osten. 
 
 (a) Development of German influence in Turkey. 
 (6) The Berlin-Bagdad railway project. 
 
 (c) British, French and Russian opposition to the German advance in the Near 
 East: the Anglo-Russian agreement (1907). 
 
 D. Influence of the World War on the central and western Asiatic situation, 
 
 Hayes, A Brief History of the World War, 69-73; 342-356; Gibbons, New Map of 
 
 Asia. 
 
 (a) Russian revolution of 1917 and the Russian withdrawal from Persia. 
 
 (6) German defeat (1918) and collapse of German schemes in western Asia. 
 
 (c) Turkish collapse and the problem of the disposition of Asiatic Turkey. 
 
 i. Position of England in Arabia, the Tigris-Euphrates valley, and Palestine, 
 ii. France in Syria, 
 iii. Greek and Italian ambitions, 
 iv. Armenia, 
 v. British control in Persia: Anglo-Persian agreement of 1919- 
 
 10. Africa. 
 
 *Hayes, II, 614-637, 650-653, 660-662; *Hayes, A Brief History of the World War, 
 
 65-69. 
 *Map study — Appendix II, 5 part D (p. 131). 
 General references: Hazen, Chap. XXIII; Gibbons, New Map of Africa. 
 
 A. Preliminary steps in the partition of Africa. 
 
 (a) Small extent of European control in Africa prior to the nineteenth century. 
 (6) British annexation of Cape Colony (1806) and of Natal (1843). 
 (c) French conquest of Algeria (1830-1847). 
 
 B. Staking out of claims by European powers (1880-1914). 
 
 (a) Explorations leading to European interest in the interior. 
 (6) Leopold II and the Congo. 
 
 i. Establishment of Congo Free State, 
 ii. Subsequent annexation by Belgium (1908). 
 (c) English intervention in Egypt and the Soudan. 
 (<2) German acquisitions (1883-1885). 
 (e) French expansion in northern and central Africa. 
 i. Protectorate over Tunis (1881). 
 ii. French influence in western Soudan and Sahara, 
 iii. Clash with Great Britain in eastern Soudan: the Fashoda Incident (1898) 
 
 and its result, 
 iv. Protectorate over Morocco (1912). 
 (J) Italy's share in the partition. 
 
 i. Unimportant possessions in Somaliland and Eritrea, 
 ii. The Turko-Italian war and attempt to conquer Tripoli (1911-1920). 
 (g) British advance in south and central Africa. 
 
 i. British East Africa and Uganda: British-German agreement of 1890 
 ii. Penetration of Rhodesia. 
 
 [57] 
 
iil. Conquest of the Boer republics (1899-1902) and establishment of the 
 Union of South Africa (1010). 
 
 C. Survey of holdings of European powers on eve of the World War. 
 
 D. Africa in the war. 
 
 (a) Employment of native troops in Africa and Europe. 
 (6) British Protectorate over Egypt (1914). 
 
 (c) Conquest of German colonies by Allies. 
 
 (d) The peace settlement; the mandatary system and the apportionment of former 
 German colonies. 
 
 E. Relations between Europeans and native populations. 
 
 11. Australia and the islands of the South Pacific. 
 
 *Hayes, II, 592-596, 646-650. 
 Map study — Appendix II, 5 part B (p. 130). 
 
 12. American development since 1871. 
 
 A. The United States since the Civil War. 
 Croly, The Promise of American Life, 100-140. 
 (a) Continuation of the industrial revolution. 
 
 i. Development of transcontinental railways, 
 ii. Growth of trusts and monopolies. 
 iii. Exploitation of natural resources, 
 iv. Rapid urbanization and growth of population, 
 v. Immigrant labor and the development of labor organization. 
 (6) Agricultural development. 
 
 i. Continuation of agricultural revolution. 
 
 ii. Disappearance of the frontier: social and economic consequences and 
 effects upon national political policy. 
 
 (c) The Spanish War and the growth of imperial interests. 
 
 i. Acquisition of island dependencies. 
 
 ii. American interests and policies in the Pacific and Far East, 
 iii. American influence in the Caribbean and Central America. - 
 
 (d) Attempts at governmental economic control. 
 
 i. Agrarian and Populist attacks on finance and transportation, 
 ii. The Progressive movement: conservation and economic regulation, at- 
 tempt to control "the bosses." 
 
 (e) America and the world war. 
 
 i. New position in international politics. 
 ii. Accentuation of industrial problems, 
 iii. New financial position. 
 
 *Hayes, II, 592-596, 646-650. 
 
 Map study — Appendix II, 5 part C (p. 130). 
 
 B. Latin America as a field for economic development. 
 
 C. Establishment and growth of the Dominion of Canada. 
 
 13. The diplomatic background of the World War. 
 
 A. The Concert of Europe: persistence of the idea after 1830. 
 *Hayes, II, 679-691. 
 (a) Neutralization of Belgium (1832). 
 
 (6) Congress of Paris (1856), Geneva convention (1864), and Congress of Berlin 
 (1878). 
 i. Attempted liquidation of the affairs of the Ottoman empire. 
 
 [58] 
 
ii. Development of international law. 
 iii. The establishment of the Red Cross. 
 
 (c) Settlement of various colonial questions, especially African, in accordance 
 with the principles of the Concert: Congress of Berlin (1884-1885), Algeciras 
 conference (1906). 
 
 (d) Application of the principle to the solution of the Chinese problem at the time 
 of the Boxer uprising (1900). 
 
 (e) Preservation of the "Concert of Europe" during the Tripolitan and Balkan 
 wars, 1911-1913. 
 
 (/) Development of the principle of arbitration. 
 
 i. Geneva award; settlement of the Alabama claims (1871). 
 ii. Establishment of international tribunals at the Hague for the arbitra- 
 tion of justiciable questions (1899-1907). 
 G>) Forces operating in opposition to the principle of Concert: nationalism; 
 militarism; economic rivalry; the principle of the "Balance of Power." 
 
 B. The hegemony of Germany (1871-1890). 
 *Hayes, II, 691-697. 
 
 (a) International relations of Germany after the Franco-Prussian War. 
 
 (6) Foreign policy of Bismarck; the isolation of France. 
 
 (c) The "Three Emperors' League." 
 
 (d) Bismarck and England. 
 
 (e) The Triple Alliance (1882). 
 
 (f) Success of the policy of Bismarck. 
 
 C. The Balance of Power (1890-1914): reaction against hegemony of Germany. 
 *Hayes, II, 697-710; Seymour, Diplomatic Background of the War. 
 
 (a) The breaking of isolation of France: the Dual Alliance (1892). 
 (6) Abandonment by England of her policy of 'isolation. 
 
 i. Anglo-Japanese alliance (1902). 
 
 ii. The entente cordiale (1904): Delcasse and Edward VII. 
 
 (c) Formation of the Triple Entente (1907)- 
 
 (d) Isolation of Germany and Austria. 
 
 (e) Triple Alliance and Triple Entente: international crises (1905-1914). 
 
 i. The Moroccan question: the conference at Algeciras (1906); the affair of 
 Casablanca (1908); the Agadir incident (191 1); the Franco-German con- 
 vention (191 1). 
 
 ii. The Near Eastern question: German ambitions in the Near East; annexa- 
 tion of Bosnia-Herzegovina by Austria (1908); the Tripolitan War (1911- 
 1912); the Balkan wars (1912-13). 
 
 iii. The "armed truce" and preparations for a world war. 
 
 14. The World War (1914-1918). 
 
 *Hayes, II, 710-719; *Hayes, A Brief History of the World War, 1-13, 62-65; 89-99;, 
 
 201-219. 
 
 *Map Study — Appendix II, 6 (p. 131). 
 
 A. The precipitation of the conflict: Austro-Serbian crisis. 
 
 B. Readjustment of international alliances. 
 
 (a) Pact of London (1914)- 
 
 (b) Japan's entry into the war. 
 
 (c) Italy's indecision and final choice in favor of the Allies. 
 
 (d) Secret agreements among the Allies. 
 
 (e) Enlistment of Turkey and Bulgaria by the Central Powers. 
 
 159) 
 
C. Widening of the conflict : entrance of the United States into the war. 
 (a) Reasons for American intervention. 
 
 i. Indignation at the violation of neutral rights and of laws of warfare, 
 ii. Fear of German domination, 
 iii. Sympathy for the Allies. 
 
 iv. Belief that the Allies were fighting for democracy as against autocracy, 
 v. Economic motives. 
 (6) Importance of American intervention. 
 
 i. Failure of Russia had left Allies in critical position, 
 ii. Financial and economic assistance, 
 iii. Military and naval aid. 
 iv. Moral contribution. 
 (c) America's example influences other nations to declare war on or break diplo- 
 matic relations with Germany. 
 
 D. Military and naval events of the war. 
 
 E. [The Peace Conference. 
 
 *Hayes, A Brief History of the World War, 365-411. 
 
 (a) Conflicting theories as to principles upon which the peace settlement should 
 be based. 
 
 i. Punishment of Germany and her allies, 
 ii. Secret treaties among the Entente powers, 
 iii. "Peace without annexations and indemnities." 
 iv. The "Fourteen Points." 
 
 v. Increase of nationalistic agitation after armistice; consequent tendency 
 of each nation to put forward extreme demands; operation of "herd- 
 instinct." 
 
 (b) Method of negotiation at the peace conference. 
 
 i. Preparation of treaties by preliminary conference from which Central 
 Powers were excluded. 
 
 ii. The question of "open diplomacy." 
 iii. Comparison with Congress of Vienna, 
 iv. Acceptance of treaties by Germany and Austria-Hungary. 
 
 (c) Outline of the peace settlement. 
 
 i. Punitive measures against Central Powers. 
 (»') Military. 
 (ii) Economic. 
 (iii) Political, 
 ii. Territorial readjustment in Europe. 
 
 (»') Territories annexed by members of Entente coalition. 
 (ii) Creation of new national states. 
 
 a. Poland. 
 
 b. Czechoslovakia. 
 
 (iii) The plebiscites in Schleswig. 
 (iv) Uncertain status of Finland, Baltic Provinces, Lithuania, Ukraine, 
 
 Georgia, and other nationalities included in former Russian empire. 
 (») Expulsion of Turkey from Europe, 
 iii. Dismemberment of Asiatic Turkey, 
 iv. Disposition of German colonies: the mandatary system. 
 v. The question of "freedom of the seas." 
 vi. The League of Nations. 
 vii. Labor provisions. 
 
 (d) Ratification of the treaties. 
 
 [60] 
 
F. General summary of the important changes brought about by the war and the 
 peace conference. 
 
 15. The continued struggle for markets and power. 
 
 Political Science Quarterly, Record of Political Events 1919 and following years; 
 Current Literature. 
 
 A. Apparent strengthening of nationalism as result of the Great War — armaments. 
 
 B. French fear of German recovery expressed by 
 
 (a) Attitude toward any revision of Versailles Treaty. 
 (6) French alliances with 
 
 i. Belgium. 
 
 ii. Poland, 
 (c) France and the Balkans — the "Little Entente.'' 
 
 C. Weakening of the Entente Cordiale on account of fundamental differences of 
 British and French policy relative to 
 
 (a) Soviet Russia. 
 
 (b) Poland and the Silesian question. 
 
 (c) Sevres Treaty and the Near East. 
 
 (d) Germany. 
 
 D. Greek-Italian rivalry in the Balkans and the Near East. 
 
 E. Japanese interests in Eastern Asia and the Pacific. 
 (a) China. 
 
 (6) Siberia. 
 
 F. Policy of the United States as expressed by 
 (a) Attitude toward League of Nations. 
 
 (6) Limited participation in European affairs. 
 
 [61] 
 
THIRD DIVISION 
 
 THE INSISTENT PROBLEMS OF TOD A Y 
 
 BOOK V. THE PROBLEMS OF IMPERIALISM AND THE "BACKWARD 
 
 PEOPLES" 
 
 1. The old colonial movement and the new imperialism. 
 *Hayes, II, S4S~S6o. 
 
 A. The old colonial movement and its achievements. 
 
 (a) Spanish and Portuguese civilization in Latin America. 
 
 (b) The Dutch in the East Indies, South Africa, America. 
 
 (c) France in North America and the West Indies. 
 
 (d) English colonization and conquest in the Americas, South Africa, India, 
 Australia. 
 
 B. Partial collapse of the old colonial movement. 
 (a) Colonial revolts. 
 
 (6) Gradual modification of mercantilist theory; beginnings of colonial self- 
 government; application of laissez-faire doctrine to colonies; the "Little 
 England" idea; Cobden and Bright. 
 
 C. Underlying causes and motives of the new imperialism, 
 (a) The industrial revolution provides economic motives. 
 
 i. Desire for markets, resulting from surplus production, 
 ii. Desire for opportunity to invest surplus capital in "backward regions.* 
 iii. Desire for raw materials, food stuffs and other colonial products. 
 (6) Growth of nationalism provides patriotic motives, 
 i. National power and prestige. 
 
 ii. Desire for colonies as homes for surplus population. 
 (c) Revival of missionary zeal. 
 
 2. "Backward peoples" and the dogma of race superiority. 
 
 Wells, Outline of History, II, 449-473; Deniker, Races of Man; Ripley, Races of 
 Europe; T. Veblen, Imperial Germany and the Industrial Revolution, 1— 10. 
 Map Study — Appendix, III, 1 (p. 132). 
 
 A. Deutschland iiber Alles. 
 
 B. The Anglo-Saxon tradition. 
 
 C. Scientific knowledge of race differences, 
 (a) Anthropological data. 
 
 (6) Psychological data. 
 
 (c) Pseudo-science and nationalistic propaganda. 
 
 3. The problems of imperialism. 
 
 *Hayes, II, 672-675. 
 
 General references: *Lippmann, Stakes of Diplomacy, 87-111, 150-163; Weyl, 
 American World Policies; Hobson, Imperialism; Brailsford, The War of Steel and 
 Gold; G. Murray, The Problem of Foreign Policy. 
 
 [62] 
 
A. Is imperialism necessary? 
 
 (a) The economic argument. 
 
 (6) The question of the maintenance of order in backward countries, 
 (c) Are European and Europeanized nations under obligation to extend their civi- 
 lization to backward peoples? 
 
 B. Can conflicts between imperialistic nations be avoided? 
 (a) Experiments in internationalization. 
 
 (5) The mandatary system: trusteeship versus proprietorship. 
 
 (c) The principle of the right of self-determination as a factor in eliminating con- 
 flict. 
 
 C. Can the interests of the imperial nations be reconciled with the interests and aspira- 
 tions of the native peoples? 
 
 (a) Tendency to expropriate natives. 
 
 (6) Difficulty of inducing natives to work without compulsion. 
 
 (c) Injurious effect upon natives of the introduction of white man's vices. 
 
 (d) The problem of education and religion. 
 
 (e) Obstacles to realization of natives' desire for self-government. 
 
 D. Who profits from imperialism? 
 
 BOOK VI. PROBLEMS OF NATIONALISM AND 
 INTERNATIONALISM 
 
 1. National self-determination versus historic, ethnic, strategic, geo- 
 graphic, and economic claims. 
 
 ♦Duggan, The League of Nations, 161-183; Stoddard and Frank, Stakes of the War; 
 Arnold Toynbee, Nationality and the War. 
 
 A. Historical claims, 
 (a) Illustrations. 
 
 (6) Difficulties raised by such claims. 
 
 B. Ethnic and cultural claims. 
 
 (a) Different conceptions of "nationality," providing basis for territorial claims. 
 
 (6) Illustrations. 
 
 (c) Difficulties raised by such claims. 
 
 C. Strategic claims. 
 
 (a) Reasons for desiring strategic frontiers. 
 
 (6) Illustrations. 
 
 (c) Difficulties. , 
 
 D. Geographic claims: "Natural frontiers." 
 
 (a) Statement of the principle of "natural frontiers." 
 (6) Illustrations. 
 (c) Difficulties. 
 
 E. Economic claims. 
 
 (a) Nationalistic .desire for possession of raw materials: basis of this desire; 
 
 illustrations; difficulties. 
 (6) Nationalistic desire for "access to the sea": basis; illustrations; difficulties; 
 
 attempted compromises. 
 
 F. National self-determination, 
 (a) Definition. 
 
 (6) Applications of the principle. 
 
 (c) Arguments often advanced in favor of self-determination. 
 
 (d) Arguments often advanced against the principle. 
 
 [63] 
 
2. The problem of war and peace. 
 
 *Irwin, The Next War; Folks, The Human Costs of the War; Perry, Conflict of 
 Ideals; Krehbiel, Nationalism, War and Society; Hobson, Imperialism. 
 
 A. The case for war. 
 
 (a) The argument from Darwinism: "survival of the fittest"; Bernhardi, Cramb. 
 (6) The argument from human nature: the "fighting-instinct." 
 
 (c) War's benefits to science, industry, patriotism, morality, religion, art. 
 
 (d) Means of last resort for the solution of moral issues. 
 
 B. The case against war. 
 
 (a) The human cost of war. 
 
 i. Destruction of best stock. 
 
 ii. Numbers of killed, maimed, and disabled by military operations. 
 iii. Increased sickness and mortality due to starvation, exposure, typhus, 
 
 cholera, venereal diseases, etc. 
 iv. Effect of war on the birthrate, on infants, on children. 
 v. Increase of mental diseases. 
 
 vi. The moral waste: frequent loss of ambition or of ideals on the part of 
 soldiers; difficulty of discontinuing certain habits formed in the army. 
 (6) The economic cost of war. 
 
 i. Diversion of human effort from productive industry to military and naval 
 
 preparedness, 
 ii. Cost of "preparedness" for war. 
 
 Duggan, The League of Nations, 122. 
 iii. Cost of war itself. 
 
 (c) War as a drawback to political and social progress. 
 
 (d) Artificiality of modern war. 
 
 i. Modern war lacking in romance; not a natural expression of fightingr 
 
 instinct, 
 ii. Wars often fought for causes which do not concern common man directly 
 
 or vitally, 
 iii. Propaganda. 
 
 (e) Unreasonableness of war. 
 
 i. Absurdity of expecting just or wise settlement of international problems 
 
 from test of armed strength, 
 ii. Tendency toward unreasoning support of any cause, regardless of its merit. 
 "My country right or wrong." 
 
 C. Measures which have been proposed for the prevention of war. 
 
 ♦Duggan, The League of Nations, Chaps. I, II; Bourne, Toward an Enduring Peace, 
 (a) Informal "Concert of Europe." 
 i. Historical traditions, 
 ii. Practical difficulties. 
 (6) Arbitration. 
 
 i. Extent to which arbitration has been utilized, 
 ii. Successes and failures. 
 
 (c) Reduction of armaments and government-ownership of armament works. 
 ♦Duggan, The League of Nations, Chap. VII. 
 
 i. Psychological effect of competition in armaments, 
 ii. Promotion of international suspicion by armament manufacturers, 
 iii. Practical difficulties of reducing armaments. 
 
 iv. Advantages and disadvantages of government-ownership of armament 
 industries. 
 
 (d) Democratic control of foreign policy. 
 
 I 64] 
 
(e) The "general strike" of the laboring classes. 
 W. E. Walling, The Socialists and the War. 
 
 (f) The League of Nations. 
 
 i. Provisions of the peace treaty for a League of Nations, 
 ii. Comparison with other schemes for international organization, 
 iii. Nationalistic opposition to the League as an embryonic "super-nation." 
 iv. Radical opposition to the League as undemocratic and conservative; 
 Article X as a barrier to progress; character of representation in the League, 
 v. Arguments of those who advocate the League. 
 Hobson, Towards International Government. 
 
 D. Potential causes of international conflict. 
 
 (a) Conflicting territorial claims. (See i, above). 
 
 i. Enumeration of the principal "sore-spots," or "conflict-areas,"' in which 
 claims clash. 
 
 Stoddard and Frank, Stakes of the War; Duggan, The League of Nations, 
 Chap. IX; Murray, The Problem of Foreign Policy. 
 ii. Difficulty of settling such conflicts to satisfaction of both parties. 
 («') Conflicting claims often based on different principles. 
 (ii) Nationalistic claims often unreasonable and exaggerated. 
 (iii) Self-determination as a proposed solution. 
 
 (b) Conflicting economic interests and policies. 
 
 i. Nationalistic competition for control of backward regions of the earth, 
 (i) Concessions and national monopoly of raw materials. 
 (ii) Spheres of influence and the "closed door." 
 ii. Protection versus free trade. 
 
 (») National control of "key industries." 
 
 (ii) Unfair nationalistic competition resulting from discriminating em- 
 bargoes, tariff retaliation, violation of "open door," unfair use of 
 bounties, subsidies, rebates, trade mark and patent restrictions. 
 
 (c) Maritime rivalry and freedom of the seas. 
 
 (d) National rivalry for control of important ports, coaling stations and agencies 
 of communication (cables). 
 
 (e) Militarism. 
 
 Krehbiel, Nationalism, War and Society, Chap. VI. 
 i. The causes of militarism. 
 ii. Psychology of militarism. 
 iii. Disarmament as the remedy for militarism. (See C (c) , above.) 
 
 (f) Jingoism or Chauvinism. 
 Lippmann, Stakes of Diplomacy. 
 
 i. Definition. 
 
 ii. Tendency to regard national interests as superior to world-interests, 
 iii. "My country right or wrong." 
 iv. "Might is right." 
 
 v. Tendency to regard even a trivial affront as an insult to "national honor," 
 and, therefore, a casus belli. 
 
 E. Interrelation of nationalistic economic policy, national prestige, patriotism, and 
 diplomacy. 
 
 F. Some factors opposed to war. 
 Duggan, The League of Nations, 38-49. 
 (a) Widespread desire for lasting peace. 
 
 (6) Increasing economic interdependence of the nations. 
 
 (c) Internationalist tendencies of the labor and socialist movements. 
 
 (d) The churches as advocates of peace. 
 
 [65] 
 
(«) Increasing tendency toward international agreement and cooperation: Red 
 Cross, Hague conferences, postal union, copyright and patent laws, inter- 
 national congresses, etc. 
 
 3. Individualism, nationalism, cosmopolitanism. 
 
 A . Individualism versus nationalism. 
 
 (a) Nationalism like every other manifestation of "herd-instinct" demands loyalty 
 to the group and conformity to group standards and, therefore, curbs individual 
 liberty, as in the following: 
 i. Treatment of racial and religious minorities, 
 ii. Desire to exclude or to assimilate immigrants, 
 iii. Suppression of "disloyal" political agitation, 
 iv. Nationalistic control of education. 
 J. F. Scott, Patriots in the Making. 
 v. Compulsory military service. 
 (6) Disadvantages of excessive insistence upon conformity to will of the group, 
 (c) Advantages of national homogeneity and loyalty. (See under Problems of 
 Political Control, page 105.) 
 
 B. Nationalism versus cosmopolitanism. 
 
 (a) Nationalism as a cause of desirable variety in literature, art, and culture. 
 
 i. Provides for heightening of individuality by affording a common focus and a 
 wider field, 
 ii. Releases energies for the accomplishment of group aims. ' 
 
 (b) Nationalism as an obstacle to cultural progress and waste of time in education. 
 
 i. Difficulty of communication, due to existence of many national languages, 
 ii. Unwillingness of nations, especially in war-time, to appreciate cultural 
 
 achievements of other nations : ban on "enemy" music, etc. 
 iii. Waste of time in education, due to necessity of learning languages. 
 
 (c) Advantages of an international language. 
 
 i. Practical difficulties. 
 ii. Attempts to invent an international language: Esperanto. 
 
 (d) Human nature in nationalistic culture. 
 
 i. The "herd-instinct" a human trait: tendency toward group differentiation 
 
 a universal phenomenon, 
 ii. Is the nation a natural cultural unit? 
 
 (e) Economic argument for internationalism: increased productiveness of world- 
 industry through appropriate national specialization. 
 
 (J) Breakdown of natural barriers and increasing interdependence of individuals, 
 communities and nations. 
 
 BOOK VII. THE PROBLEMS OF CONSERVATION 
 
 1. Definition. 
 
 The proper preservation and the scientific utilization of the world's resources 
 both natural and human, for the purpose of securing the greatest good to mankind 
 for the longest period of time. 
 
 2. Importance. 
 
 (a) To lengthen human life, increase its healthfulness, efficiency, and happiness. 
 (6) To provide as far as possible adequate resources for ourselves and for posterity. 
 
 [66] 
 
3. Conservation of natural resources. 
 
 ' *Marshall and Lyon, Our Economic Organization. 419-444; Van Hise, The Con- 
 servation of Natural Resources in the United States; Towne, Social Problems, 307-33 1 ; 
 Ely, Hess, Leith, Carver, The Foundations of National Prosperity, 191-252. 
 
 A . Distribution. 
 
 *Map Study — Appendix III, 2 (p. 136). 
 
 B. Minerals: a resource that cannot be reproduced. 
 (a) Fuels: Coal, peat, petroleum, natural gas. 
 
 (6) Metals: iron, copper, lead, zinc, gold, silver, aluminum and others. 
 
 (c) Estimated available amounts of each: 
 
 i. In United States, 
 ii. In world. 
 
 (d) Necessity for elimination of waste due to • 
 
 i. Mining: neglect of low-grade material, and leaving behind considerable 
 
 amounts of high-grade ore. 
 ii. Losses in by-product. 
 
 iii. Failure to use substitutes for minerals which are being rapidly exhausted, 
 iv. Failure adequately to protect against useless oxidation. 
 
 C. Water: 
 
 Newell, Water Resources; Present and Future Uses, 
 (a) Its necessity for plant and animal life. 
 (6) Its availability for 
 i. Water-power. 
 
 (») Generation of electrical energy. 
 (ii) Manufacturing industries. 
 (iii) Substitution for fuel minerals. 
 (iv) Extent to which it has been harnessed. 
 
 (v) Urgent need in face of decreasing fuel supply for extensive develop- 
 ment of water-power of world, 
 ii. Navigation. 
 
 (i) Utilization as an agency of transportation. 
 
 (ii) Influence on commerce and industry, particularly freight-rates and 
 commodity prices, 
 iii. Irrigation. Appendix III, 2 (p. 138). 
 
 (*") Definition: the artificial transfer to land of water for agricultural 
 
 purposes. 
 (ii) Industrial and agricultural importance, 
 iv. Water supply for increasing urban populations. 
 (c) Its control. 
 
 i. In United States, 
 ii. In principal foreign countries. 
 
 D. Forests: a natural resource that can be reproduced. 
 
 (a) J The intimate relationship of forests and forest products to man. 
 i. Furnish timber for building and construction purposes, 
 ii. Furnish wood for fuel, furniture, implements, and vehicles of travel, 
 iii. Furnish wood fiber for print paper, 
 iv. Furnish investment for capital and employment for labor, 
 v. Regulate water supply, prevent erosion, check winds, and modify temper- 
 
 ture. 
 vi. Serve as homes for birds and animals, 
 vii. Are useful as rest and recreation grounds for man. 
 viii. Add beauty to landscape. 
 
 [67] 
 
(6) Extent of original forests in Europe and North America. 
 
 (c) The existing forests of Europe and North America. 
 
 i. Privately owned, 
 ii. Publicly owned. 
 
 (d) Consumption of forests due to 
 
 i. Necessary use. 
 ii. Waste. 
 
 (») In cutting. 
 
 (ii) In milling and manufacturing. 
 ij.ii) In turpentining. 
 (iv) In fire. 
 
 (») In fungus and insect pests. 
 («) Necessity for 
 
 i. Elimination of above waste, 
 ii. Better utilization of by-products, 
 iii. Scientific reforestation, and forest preserves. 
 iv. Extending life of timber by preservative treatment. 
 v. Substitution of other products for timber, 
 vi. Remedial legislation. 
 (i) To prevent waste. 
 (ii) To encourage forest conservation. 
 
 (f) Forestry education : state and national. 
 
 John Ise, The United States Forest Policy, 369-377. 
 
 (g) Forest policy of United States compared with that of Canada and European 
 countries, especially Germany. 
 
 E. Land. 
 
 Towne, 327-331; Van Hise, 263-339; J. J. Hill, Highways of Progress. 
 
 (a) The basic factor in supplying needs of man. 
 
 i. Food, 
 ii. Clothing. 
 
 (b) Waste due to 
 
 i. Erosion. 
 
 ii. Unscientific crop rotation. 
 iii. Lack of drainage, 
 iv. Faulty tillage. 
 
 (c) Reclamation of wet land. 
 
 i. Increase in value of drained land, 
 ii. Relation of drainage and increased population, 
 iii. Importance of drainage to health. 
 
 (d) Correlation of land conservation, scientific agriculture, and increase in 
 population. 
 
 4. Conservation of plant and animal life. 
 
 Towne, 335-352; Van Hise, 339-344. Appendix III, 2, part B (p. 137). 
 
 A. Importance to mankind. 
 
 B. Plant losses. 
 
 (a) Due to insect pests. 
 
 (6) Due to plant diseases. 
 
 (c) Due to rodents and other animals. 
 
 C. Animal losses from disease. 
 
 (a) Cattle. 
 
 (b) Sheep. 
 
 (c) Hogs. 
 
 [68] 
 
D. Control and prevention of plant and animal diseases. 
 
 E. Birds, fish, game, and fur-bearing animals, 
 (a) Their propagation and protection. 
 
 F. Other factors affecting conservation of plant and animal life. 
 
 (a) Warnings of flood and frost: the weather bureau. 
 
 (b) Introduction of new species of grains and fruit. 
 
 (c) Scientific agriculture and possibilities of increased production. 
 
 (d) Dissemination of information. 
 
 i. State and federal experiment stations. 
 
 ii. Agricultural schools and colleges, 
 iii. Farm papers and journals, 
 iv. Grange and farm bureau reports. 
 
 5. Conservation of man. 
 
 *Marshall and Lyon, 448-464; Appendix, III, 3 (p. 140); *H. W. Hill, The New 
 Public Health, 17-24, 114-123, 131-132 (Summary), 147 (Summary), 170-172 
 (Summary), 178-181; I. Fisher, National Vitality, Its Wastes and Conservation, 
 
 A. Interrelation of conservation of natural resources and conservation of man. 
 
 B. Interrelation of health and happiness. 
 
 C. Diseases which affect mankind. 
 
 (a) Infectious: due to growth in body of micro-organisms (germs) which feed 
 upon its fluid and tissues, and at the same time give off poisonous substances. 
 i. Present extent of principal infectious diseases in the United States, espe- 
 cially tuberculosis and venereal disease, 
 ii. Losses sustained from infectious diseases. 
 (») Sacrifice of life: death rate, 
 (it) Economic: estimated loss. 
 (iii) Social: suffering and sorrow, 
 iii. Sources and transmission of infectious disease. 
 (») Man himself a germ-carrier. 
 (ii) Recently infected water, milk, food, and flies. 
 
 (iii) Germs transmitted from body to body chiefly in discharges of some 
 form or by contact, 
 iv. Control and prevention. 
 («) By the individual. 
 
 a. High general physical health: diet, exercise, good ventilation, 
 proper sleep. 
 
 b. Avoidance of disease: exclusion from body, usually from mouth 
 of the infected discharges of others. 
 
 c. Immunity: 
 
 1. Natural. 
 
 2. Acquired: by inoculation and antitoxins. 
 (ii) By the community. 
 
 a. Protection of all public supplies which may become routes of 
 infection: water, food, milk. 
 
 b. Elimination of flies, mosquitoes, etc., as infection carriers. The 
 public health engineer. 
 
 1. Proper physical construction to exclude infection. 
 
 2. Proper physical operation to maintain this exclusion. 
 
 . 3. Proper community (state) supervision of the human factor: 
 the men in actual control of actual operations. 
 
 [69] 
 
c. Physical supervision for infection: public health laboratory. 
 
 1. The detection of infectious persons (sources). 
 
 2. Identification of infected things (routes). 
 
 d. The sociological supervision of all infectious persons: the public 
 health statistician. 
 
 (6) Non-infectious diseases, physical defects, and deformities. 
 
 Toume, 356-384; Fisher, 126-129; Periodicals and Current Literature. 
 Appendix, III, 3, part B, (p. 141). 
 i. Types: 
 
 (*) Constitutional defects. 
 (ii) Feeble-mindedness. 
 (Hi) Insanity. 
 
 (»») Physical defects and deformities. 
 
 (») Industrial diseases: those which are contracted in, or caused by certain 
 work or conditions of labor. 
 ii. Prevalence. 
 
 iii. Results, social and economic, 
 iv. Control and prevention. 
 
 (*) State inspection for detection and remedying of initial defects. 
 (ii) Supervision and frequent inspection throughout life, especially during 
 school period, for detection and remedying of defects, disabilities, and 
 diseases which may develop from time to time. 
 (iii) Education. 
 (iv) Legislation. 
 
 D. Accidents and conservation of human life. 
 (a) Prevalence of accidents. 
 
 (6) Significance of "safety first." 
 (c) Organizations for safety. 
 
 i. State. 
 
 ii. Industrial (railroads, mines, factories). 
 
 E. Agencies of human conservation. 
 
 (a) Red Cross. 
 
 (b) Philanthropic and charitable institutions. 
 
 (c) Hospitals. 
 
 (d) Reform prisons and other correctional institutions. 
 
 F. Measures suggested in United States for increasing conservation of human life. 
 Newsholme, Public Health and Insurance, 71—182. 
 
 (a) Creation of a Federal department of health. 
 
 (b) Increased power and scope of activity of state and local boards of health. 
 
 (c) Eugenics and more stringent marriage laws. 
 
 (d) Pure food legislation. 
 
 (e) Nation-wide education in hygiene and sanitation by means of schools, theatres, 
 insurance companies, industrial establishments, newspapers, public lectures, 
 hospitals, and other institutions. 
 
 G. Interdependence of individual health and social health. 
 
 BOOK VIII. INDUSTRIAL PROBLEMS 
 
 1. A survey of the prominent features of the modern industrial system. 
 
 A. Private property. 
 
 ♦Seligman, Principles of Economics, 125-138; *Hamilton, Current Economic 
 Problems, 762-775; R. T. Ely, Property and Contract in their Relation to the Distri- 
 bution of Wealth, I, 165-190. 
 
 [70] 
 
(a) The meaning of the right of private property: the exclusive control over 
 
 valuable things by private persons. 
 (6) Theories concerning the basis of property rights. 
 i. Occupation, or seizure. 
 ii. Natural rights, 
 iii. Labor, 
 iv. Legal theory, 
 v. Social utility. 
 
 (c) Property rights — rights vested in the owner of private property. 
 
 i. Right of gift. 
 
 ii. Right of disposition by contract. 
 iii. Right of use. 
 iv. Right of bequest. 
 
 v. Right of unlimited acquisition. 
 
 vi. Right to exclude. 
 
 (d) Limitations on property rights: social considerations limit the extent of 
 private property rights. 
 
 i. Right of use limited by principle of "eminent domain." 
 ii. Right of use restricted by laws against "nuisances," etc. 
 iii. Right of bequest limited by inheritance tax laws. 
 
 iv. Proposed limitations on the right of unlimited acquisition; the modern 
 attitude toward great fortunes. 
 
 (e) Property and social authority. In the modern economic system private 
 property is the chief basis of social authority and power. 
 
 B. Competition as an economic principle. (See p. 88.) 
 
 The doctrines of individualism and laissez faire are still regarded by modern 
 business and industry as the basis for economic operation. It is felt that competition 
 stimulates producers and protects both producers and consumers. 
 
 C. The use of machinery and artificial power. 
 
 ♦Marshall and Lyon, Our Economic Organization, 207-227; *Clay, H., Economics 
 for the General Reader, 21-27; Marshall, Wright & Field, Materials for the Study 
 of Elementary Economics, 158-160, 198-199. 
 
 (a) The standardization and mechanization of industrial processes and of indus- 
 trial labor. 
 (6) Resulting tendency toward an elaborate technical division of labor, and toward 
 a reduction of human effort to the simple repetition of a single operation. 
 This mechanical character is typical of modern productive processes even 
 where machinery is not employed, 
 (c) Limitations to the use of machinery. 
 
 i. Unadapted to processes incapable of reduction to routine, 
 ii. Not applicable where tastes of individual consumers must be considered; 
 the demand for quality and distinction. 
 
 D. The factory system. (See above, p. 29.) 
 *Hamilton, n 2-1 13. 
 
 E. The wage system. 
 ^Hamilton, 121-122; 617-619. 
 
 (a) The elaboration of the means of production has rendered ownership of the 
 productive equipment by the laborers impossible under the present system. 
 
 (6) Modern industrial workers are thus in large part detached from direct personal 
 control and responsible interest in the production and sale of commodities; 
 dependent for livelihood upon employment as wage-workers by the owners of 
 the means of production. The wage connection ("cash nexus") the primary 
 bond between the worker and his work. The proletariat. 
 
 [71] 
 
(c) The mobility of labor under the wage system. 
 F. The extensive use of capital and credit in promoting and conducting business and 
 industrial undertakings. 
 
 ♦Ely, Outlines of Economics, 212-230; *Hamilton, 110-112, 185-195, 206-208, 
 211-215; Clay, 97-104. 
 (a) Distinction between business and industrial units. 
 
 i. The business unit: the unit of promotion and management. Types of 
 business units. 
 (i) The individual business enterpriser. 
 (ii) The partnership. (See (c) below.) 
 (Hi) The corporation. (See (c) below.) 
 ii. The industrial unit: the unit of production; the store, workshop, and 
 factory. t 
 
 (6) The necessity of capital and credit in industry today. 
 
 i. The use of extensive plants and complicated machinery, 
 ii. The interval between production and sale may be long. Stock must be 
 carried, workers must be paid, and other business and industrial expenses 
 met in the meantime. 
 
 (c) Means of securing capital and credit. 
 
 i. Individual and partnership enterprises. 
 
 (i) Use of capital of individual owners of the business. 
 (ii) The use of bank credit. 
 
 a. Banks as depositories of idle capital. 
 
 b. Banks as agencies of credit, 
 ii. The corporation. 
 
 (») Capital secured by sale of stock. 
 
 a. Types of stock — common and preferred. 
 
 b. The function and rights of stockholders. 
 
 (ii) Capital secured by borrowing; the issuance of bonds. 
 
 a. Types of bonds. 
 
 b. The function and rights of bondholders. 
 (Hi) The use of bank credit. 
 
 (d) The relation of the business enterpriser (entrepreneur) to the owners of 
 capital. 
 
 i. The function of the promoter or organizer of a large corporation. 
 (i) The work of promotion. 
 
 (ii) The relation of the promoter to the investors. 
 (Hi) The rewards of the promoter, 
 ii. The function of the executive officials of a corporation. 
 (*) The powers of the board of directors. 
 
 (ii) The theoretical and actual relation of the directors to the investors 
 and creditors, 
 iii. The possibility of misuse of power by the business representatives of 
 owners of capital. 
 
 (e) The social importance of the separation of the actual ownership of property 
 from direct control of that property. 
 
 i. Corporate type of organization is breaking the direct relation of ownership 
 
 between men and goods, 
 ii. Resulting change in the nature of the institution of private property. 
 The dominance of large-scale enterprise in certain lines of industry. 
 ♦Taussig, Principles of Economics, I, 49-66; Clay, 123-127. 
 (Note — This section treats only the "legitimate" aspects of large scale production. 
 Monopolies, combinations and "trusts" are treated under 3, p. 88). 
 
 [72] 
 
(a) Marked increase in the size of the industrial unit within recent years. 
 
 (b) Reasons for the development of large-scale enterprises. 
 
 i. Industrial reasons. 
 
 (t) Tendency toward increasing returns in industry. 
 (»») Advantages of standardization of product, 
 (itt) Utilization of by-products, 
 (is) Economy of power. 
 
 (») Greater division of labor possible. 
 (»») Scientific and technical research possible, 
 ii. Business reasons. 
 
 (i) Elimination of cost of competition, 
 (it) Selling advantages. 
 (««) Buying advantages. 
 (*"») The stimulus of promoter's profits. 
 
 (c) Restriction of the tendency toward large-scale production to certain indus- 
 trial fields. 
 
 (d) Large scale enterprise and wide markets. As local specialization develops and 
 the size of the productive unit increases, the entrepreneurs are driven to more 
 distant markets to sell their produce. Large-scale enterprise is therefore 
 dependent upon good means of transportation. 
 
 i. Requirements for effective means of transportation. 
 
 (i) Speed : the importance of the time element in transportation, especially 
 in the case of perishable goods. Refrigeration cars. Interest on in- 
 vested capital while goods are in transit. 
 (ii) Regularity: e.g. the milk supply of New York City. Commutation. 
 (»»«) Safety: passenger traffic, fragile goods. 
 
 (»'») Cheapness: high rates reduce the size of the market. "Discriminating 
 rates" in U. S. 
 
 ^Marshall, Wright &* Field, 259-266. 
 (v) Elasticity: ability of the transportation systems to meet 
 
 a. the peak-load requirements; e.g., coal in U. S. The after-the- 
 harvest situation. 
 
 b. the needs of the localities off the main lines of communication. 
 The great increase in motor-truck transportation in the U. S. 
 
 ii. [Can the economic and social demands for means of transport be met by 
 private companies? See 5> B, f.] 
 
 . The interdependence of all parts of the industrial structure. 
 *Hamilton, 113-115, 204-205, 208-211; L. Alston, How It All Fits Together, 14-49. 
 
 (a) Industrial and geographical division of labor; resulting interdependence of 
 different industries and regions. The whole industrial system thus constitutes 
 what is in effect a single productive machine. 
 
 (b) The credit structure knits all modern business and industry together. The 
 credit basis typical of modern business. 
 
 (c) Modern monetary and banking systems international in their scope. 
 
 (d) Manifestations of this interdependence: financial panics and industrial de- 
 pressions. (Business cycles.) Railway strikes. 
 
 The organization of production: problems arising from the con- 
 flicting interests of certain of the agents of production. 
 
 The agents of production. 
 
 ♦Ely, Outlines of Economics, 1 16-130; *Clay, 46-63, 92-94; Seligman, Principles 
 of Economics, 283-287; Seager, Principles of Economics (Second Edition), 122-169; 
 Marshall, Wright & Field, Materials, 58-61, 106-108, 204-206. 
 
 [73] 
 
(a) Natural agents : the basis of all production; the source of raw materials. 
 
 i. Types of natural agents. 
 («) Agricultural land. 
 (ii) Urban land, furnishing sites for dwellings, stores, office-buildings, 
 
 factories, etc. 
 (iii) Forests. 
 (iv) Mines and quarries. 
 (v) Waterways and harbors. 
 
 (vi) Sources of natural power: wind, waterfalls, etc. 
 ii. Certain characteristics of natural agents. 
 
 (i) Incapable of material increase in amount. 
 (ii) Different units may vary in productivity. 
 (Hi) Varying locations make different units more or less accessible. 
 
 (b) Labor: physical and intellectual activities conducing to production. 
 
 i. Labor and natural agents are the two primary factors in production, 
 ii. The gain in efficiency secured by division of labor. (See above, p. 30.) 
 iii. Different individuals possess varying degrees of productive ability. 
 
 (c) Capital. 
 
 i. Technical meaning of the term ''capital" : goods produced by man and used 
 
 by man to assist him in further production, 
 ii. The money value of capital goods not to be confused with the concrete 
 
 capital goods, 
 iii. The function of capital in production. 
 
 (i) Increases the efficiency of man's labor by enabling labor to be more 
 
 effectively applied. 
 (ii) Enables labor to be supported during the process of production. 
 
 (d) Business enterprise, or organization. 
 
 i. The necessity of an organizer in modern production. In the modern highly 
 complex industrial system natural agents, labor and capital have to be 
 brought together and suitable arrangements made for their cooperation in 
 the production of any desired commodity. The task has become especially 
 important under modern industrial conditions, for the productive factors 
 are in general separately owned, 
 ii. The function of the business enterpriser in production. 
 (i) To organize the factors in production. 
 
 (ii) To evaluate the services rendered by each factor to his undertaking. 
 (iii) To assume, in part, the business risks involved in the enterprise, 
 iii. The relation of the enterpriser to production under the corporate form of 
 
 organization. (See above.) 
 iv. The work of the business enterpriser may involve labor of management, 
 which is separately remunerated. The business enterpriser may invest his 
 own capital, for which service he is also separately remunerated. 
 
 B. The relation of the business enterpriser to labor; conditions underlying the labor 
 problem ; the conflict of interests. 
 *Hamilton, 615-619, 628-635. 
 (a) The business interests of the employer. 
 
 i. Maximum profits : ordinarily secured by 
 (i) Efficient and well-disciplined labor force. 
 (ii) Low labor costs. 
 
 (iii) Production on basis of market conditions. The process of production 
 is normally subordinated to that of sale, for advantage must be taken 
 of changing market conditions, (e. g., coal.) This may result in 
 irregular production. 
 
 [74] 
 
(iv) Limitation of expenditures on plant to those which will increase 
 profits, 
 ii. Complete control of his own business and of his working force. 
 
 (b) The interests of the laboring force. 
 
 i. High wages, 
 ii. Short hours. 
 
 iii. Protection against industrial accident and disease by elimination of danger- 
 ous and insanitary working conditions, 
 iv. Regular employment, 
 v. Participation as responsible agents in the industrial process. 
 
 (c) These competing interests, together with the necessity of cooperation in 
 production, give rise to the labor problem. 
 
 The machinery of agreement; methods of adjusting the conflict of interests. 
 (a) Individual versus collective bargaining. 
 *Hamilton, 32-37, 636-640. 
 
 M. R. Beard, A Short History of the American Labor Movement, 19-21; L. C. 
 Marshall, Readings in Industrial Society, 560-569. 
 i. The system of individual bargaining. 
 
 (i) The meaning of individual bargaining. Separate agreements made 
 between employer and each of his employees as to wages and general 
 conditions of employment; both parties to the contract free and equal 
 agents; laborers free to work for any employer and to leave at will; 
 employers free to employ any one they choose, and to terminate that 
 employment at will. 
 (ii) The assumptions underlying the system of individual bargaining. 
 a. Laissez faire; the interests of the whole are advanced by allowing 
 complete freedom to each individual. (See above: Competition, 
 p. 71, and also below, p. 88.) 
 6. Bargaining equality of employer and employee. 
 c. The r61e of the employer in this concept of the industrial relation: 
 a private individual engaged in a private enterprise, employing 
 private property and subject to no control, except that furnished 
 by business competition. 
 (iii) Advantages claimed for the system of individual bargaining. 
 
 a. Costs kept down and production increased by allowing full liberty 
 to the employer. 
 
 b. A mobile, elastic labor supply is thus secured. The employer is 
 free to increase force when business is good, and to decrease force 
 when business conditions call for limited production. The free 
 and independent laborer, following his own interests will be found 
 where he is wanted and when his labor is needed. Supply and 
 demand given free play. 
 
 c. Domination by organizations of laborers prevented when each 
 man is free to bargain individually with the employer. 
 
 d. Each individual worker secure in the superior advantage of his 
 own efficiency. 
 
 (iv) Defects charged to the system of individual bargaining. 
 
 u. Fallacies in the assumption of complete equality between the 
 parties to the bargain. 
 
 1. The stakes at issue are not the same: for the employer it is a 
 question of one employee more or less in any individual case; 
 for the worker it is a question of the means of livelihood for 
 himself and his family. He is thus forced to accept employer's 
 terms, and is not free to bargain in regard to them. 
 
 [75] 
 
2. The employee may be a minor, in which case there can bo 
 no equality of bargaining power. 
 
 b. The system has resulted in the exploitation of minors and of many 
 classes of male and female workers. 
 
 c. The right of the employer to take on and discharge at will, depend- 
 ing upon business conditions, leads to irregularity of employment 
 and consequent suffering on part of workers. 
 
 ii. The system of collective bargaining. 
 
 Different interpretations of "collective bargaining.'' 
 (i) The right of wage-earners within a given industrial unit (e. g., a fac- 
 tory or mine) to organize and to bargain with their employer through 
 representatives elected from their own number. 
 (ii) "The right of wage-earners to organize without discrimination, to 
 bargain collectively, to be represented by representatives of their 
 own choosing in negotiations and adjustments with their employers 
 in respect to wages, hours of labor and conditions of employment." 
 (Resolution presented to Industrial Conference at Washington, 
 October 22, 1910, by Labor Group.) 
 (Hi) The concept of full collective bargaining: bargaining between repre- 
 sentatives of organized employees and of organized employers in a 
 given industry. (e. g., New York Garment Workers; English Indus- 
 trial Conference program.) 
 (The use of the system of collective bargaining, and its advantages and 
 defects, will be considered in connection with the discussion of labor organiza- 
 tions below.) 
 (b) Collective bargaining further considered ; the combination movement in labor. 
 i. Causes of the movement toward combination. 
 *Hamilton, 619-622. 
 (*) Development of large-scale industry with increased use of capital 
 after the Industrial Revolution led to a sharp differentiation between 
 employers and workers, creating a class of industrial wage-workers 
 divorced from the land. (See above, p. 30.) 
 (ii) Weakness of the individual employee under a system of individual 
 
 bargaining. 
 (iii) Desire of workers to escape labor competition in regard to hours, 
 wages, and conditions of employment. "The union organization 
 attempts to cover the industrial field within which there is labor 
 competition with respect to hours, wages, and conditions of employ- 
 ment." Hoxie. 
 (iv) Development of class consciousness among the permanent wage- 
 workers. (The Communist Manifesto.) 
 ii. Main types of labor combinations. Labor unionism is complex, many- 
 sided, and opportunistic. 
 
 *Hoxie, Trade Unionism in the United Stales, 31-53. 
 (*') Structural division of labor combinations. 
 
 a. The braf t or trade union : an organization of wage-workers engaged 
 in a single craft. 
 
 b. The federation of craft unions. 
 
 1 . The local trades council. 
 
 2. The state or district federation. 
 
 3. National or international federation. In a federation the 
 constituent organizations retain a large part of their individual 
 independence. 
 
 [76] 
 
c. The industrial union: an organization of wage-workers employed 
 in a given industry; attempts to unite skilled and unskilled in a 
 single group. Industrial unions may be plant, local, district, 
 national, or international, (e. g„ the I. W. W.; the French syndi- 
 cates.) 
 
 d. The labor union : an organization of all workers in a given district 
 regardless of craft or industry (e. g., The Knights of Labor). 
 
 e. The "inside union" (employers' union). 
 (it) Functional classification of unionism. (Hoxie.) 
 
 u. Business unionism. 
 
 i. Characteristics: trade conscious, conservative, aiming at im- 
 mediate results, "more." 
 2. Methods: collective bargaining, trade agreements, strikes 
 and boycotts as last resort, (e. g., R. R. brotherhoods.) 
 
 b. Friendly or uplift unionism. 
 
 1. Characteristics: conservative, law-abiding, idealistic. 
 
 2. Methods: collective bargaining, mutual insurance, profit-sharing 
 and cooperation, (e. g., Knights of Labor.) 
 
 c. Revolutionary unionism. 
 
 i. Characteristics: class conscious, radical in view-point and 
 
 action, repudiating existing institutional order, and refusing to 
 
 be bound by prevailing morals and laws. 
 2. Methods: direct action, sabotage, strikes. Collective bargaining 
 
 and mutual insurance regarded as conservative. («. g., the 
 
 I. W. W.) 
 
 d. Predatory unionism. 
 
 i. Characteristics: opportunistic, selfish and ruthless. 
 *. Methods: may be those of open bargaining combined with 
 secret bribery and violence (e. g., those of certain building 
 trades organizations) or a secret "guerilla" warfare (e. g., that 
 carried on by Bridge and Structural Iron Workers a few years 
 ago), 
 iii. Labor combinations in the United States. 
 
 Hoxie, Trade Unionism in the United States, 89-98, *I03-I3S; Brissenden, 
 The I. W. W.; C. H. Parker, The I. W. W., Atlantic Monthly, November, 
 1917; Marshall, Wright & Field, Materials for the Study of Elementary 
 Economics, 668-694, 700—704. 
 (j) The early character of labor combination in both England and U. S. 
 was idealistic, friendly, and altruistic. The members favored politi- 
 cal action, cooperation and education. The Knights of Labor in the 
 U. S. is an illustration. 
 (ii) The American Federation of Labor. 
 
 a. General characteristics. 
 
 1. A loose federation of virtually independent unions. Because 
 of the elastic character of the organization room has been 
 found within the A. F. of L. for many diverse types of unions. 
 Originally a federation of craft unions. Recently several indus- 
 trial unions have been admitted to membership (e. g., United 
 Mine Workers of America). 
 
 2. Non-theoretical and opportunistic. Immediate results sought. 
 
 b. Types of subordinate organizations. 
 1. National and international unions. 
 *. Local unions. 
 
 [77] 
 
3. Local and district councils: organizations of local craft unions 
 in the same or allied industries to govern interrelations and 
 deal with employers. 
 
 4. City central labor unions: composed of delegates from the 
 local unions of the A. F. of L. in a given city. 
 
 5. State federation: organization of A. F. of L. union bodies 
 within a given state. 
 
 6. The departments: federations of allied national and interna- 
 tional unions. 
 
 c. Organic character of the A. F. of L. 
 
 1. The annual convention, the sovereign power. 
 
 2. The permanent executive council, to carry out the will of the 
 convention. 
 
 d. General functions of the A. F. of L. 
 
 1. Administration of intercraft union affairs; settling jurisdictional 
 disputes. 
 
 2. Advancing labor's interests by labor legislation. 
 
 3. Maintenance of a labor press. 
 
 4. Promoting the organization of wage-workers. 
 
 5. Promoting the use of the union label. 
 
 6. Mediation between unions and employers. 
 
 7. Giving financial and moral assistance to unions on strike. 
 
 8. Education and publicity. 
 
 e. Weaknesses charged to the A. F. of L. 
 
 1. Limited membership: less than 10% of workers, 
 z. Lacks adherence of several strong unions, (e. g., R. R. brother- 
 hoods.) 
 
 3. Inability to organize laborers in great trust-controlled industries. 
 
 4. Failure to organize and help unskilled labor. 
 
 5. Jurisdictional disputes within A. F. of L. 
 
 6. Tendency to pursue immediate results; opportunistic policy 
 said to have limited its accomplishments. 
 
 7. Craft form of organization not adapted to progressive specializa- 
 tion found in scientifically managed industries. 
 
 (Hi) The Railroad brotherhoods. 
 
 a. General characteristics. 
 
 1. Models of pure craft unions. 
 
 2. Highly centralized control, disciplined membership. 
 
 3. Skilled, specialized and highly paid membership. 
 
 4. Conservative type business union. 
 
 5. Recent tendency to change policy because of problem of govern- 
 
 ment ownership of railroads — The Plumb Plan. 
 
 b. Methods: 
 
 1. Collective bargaining, trade agreements. Avoidance of strikes 
 except as last resort. 
 
 2. Legislation. 
 
 3. Mutual insurance. 
 
 4. Recent movement for Plumb Plan. 
 
 (iv) The unions in the clothing industry. 
 
 Budish and Soule, The New Unionism, 27-45, 256-273, 191-204. 
 a. The nature of the clothing industry. 
 
 1. Seasonal demand and seasonal unemployment. 
 
 [78] 
 
u. Highly competitive system and "contracting out" in small 
 
 producing units. 
 3. Prevalence of immigrant labor, large percentage of women. 
 
 b. Union organization of the industry. 
 
 1. Early prevalence of the sweat shop with low wages and bad 
 
 sanitary conditions. 
 *. Early failures to correct these evils by legislation and union 
 
 organization. 
 
 3. Rapid growth of unionism after 1914. 
 
 4. The establishment of trade agreements and joint boards with 
 impartial chairmen. 
 
 c. Policies of the Amalgamated Clothing Workers as a type. 
 
 1. Belief in industrial unionism. 
 
 2. Ultimate aim to establish self-government and control in in- 
 dustry. 
 
 3. Encouragement of collective bargaining, shop committees and 
 "industrial government." 
 
 4. Opposition to sabotage as a hindrance to the training of the 
 workers in self-government. 
 
 5. Promotion of workers' education and cooperative enterprises. 
 
 6. Anti-restrictionist attitude toward immigration. 
 
 7. Promotion of separate political action. 
 (») Revolutionary Unionism. 
 
 The types of labor combinations given above stand for the modifica- 
 tion and improvement of the status of the laborer under the existing 
 systems of government. Revolutionary unionism is opposed to the 
 existing political as well as economic organization. It believes that 
 no real improvement of the position of labor can take place under the 
 present political regime. It is organized therefore with the expressed 
 purpose of over-throwing the governments as they are, and reor- 
 ganizing society so that labor will receive its proper share of the 
 national dividend. The Industrial Workers of the World is the most 
 prominent example of this form of labor combination in the U. S. 
 (See 5. B, (h), iv. American Syndicalism: the I. W. W.) 
 iv. Labor combinations in Great Britain. 
 
 S. & B. Webb, Industrial Democracy; G. D. H. Cole, An Introduction to 
 Trade Unions; G. D. H. Cole, The World of Labor;. 
 
 British industry is rather thoroughly organized into unions of many 
 varieties and types. Craft unions, industrial unions and general labor 
 unions are found side by side, often competing for members in the same 
 industry. Since these unions have grown up haphazardly, without control 
 or direction, no common principle of organization is found. In England, 
 as in the United States, there are two rival types at present contending for 
 supremacy: craft unionism and industrial unionism, 
 (j) The growth in strength of organized labor in Great Britain. 
 
 a. 1892: total population, United Kingdom, 40,000,000; member- 
 ship of unions, 1,500,000; 4% of population organized; 20% of 
 male manual workers organized; 3% of women workers organized. 
 6. 1915: total population, 46,000,000; membership of unions, 
 4,127,000; 9% of population organized; 45% of male manual 
 workers organized; 10% of women workers organized. 
 c. In 1917 the total membership in the unions was 5,287,522. 
 (»») Types of labor organizations in Great Britain. 
 
 [79] 
 
o. The Miners' Federation of Great Britain: a strong industrial 
 federation. 
 S. & B. Webb, Industrial Democracy, 51, 57, 146. 
 
 b. The National Union of Railwaymen : an industrial union. 
 
 c Transport Workers' Federation: a federation of unions among 
 dock and vehicle workers. 
 Webb, History of Trade Unionism, 499-502. 
 
 d. Cotton, engineering (steel-working), and ship-building industries 
 organized into a great many separate craft unions, of whioh the 
 Amalgamated Society of Engineers (A. S. E.) is the most powerful. 
 
 c General labor unions: strong organizations including unskilled 
 and general laborers in many industries. General labor unions 
 have developed comparatively recently, for up to 1890 craft 
 unions of skilled workers dominated the labor movement in Great 
 Britain. The organization of unskilled workers has been carried 
 forward rapidly since that date. 
 (iii) Mechanism of unification and cooperation. 
 
 S. & B. Webb, Industrial Democracy, 265—278. 
 
 a. Trades' councils; federations of local trade union branches in each 
 particular district; workers in different industries included. 
 
 b. National federations of trade unions: federal combinations of 
 local or of national trade unions. These federations, many of them 
 strongly centralized, add strength and unity to labor organization. 
 
 c. The Triple Alliance: the first great inter-industrial federation in 
 the British labor movement. A general alliance between the 
 Miners' Federation of Great Britain, the National Union of Rail- 
 waymen and the Transport Workers' Federation to secure joint 
 action in industrial disputes. The disintegration of the Triple 
 Alliance in 1921. S. and B. Webb, History of Trade Unionism 
 (1920), 516-517- 
 
 d. The Trades Union Congress. (Approximately 75% of the mem- 
 bership of British trade unions are included in this Congress.) 
 
 S. and B. Webb, History of Trade Unionism (1920), 561-575, 
 649-663. 
 
 1. Character of the Congress: an annual conference of delegates 
 from affiliated societies. 
 
 2. The Parliamentary Committee of the Trade Union Congress. 
 The central executive authority of the Congress. 
 
 (a) Limitation of powers, because it cannot enforce any obliga- 
 tion upoji the affiliated unions. 
 
 (b) Resemblance to Executive committee of the A. F. of L. 
 
 3. The functions of the Trade Union Congress and its parliamen- 
 tary committee primarily industrial. 
 
 e. The Labor Party. A federation of trade unions, socialist and other 
 societies organized for purposes of political action. (See below: 
 The use of the political weapon by labor.) 
 
 Ogg, Economic Development of Modern Europe, 441—447. 
 {iii) Policies and methods of British unions. 
 
 a. Policies. 
 
 1. Earlier policies: conservative uplift unionism. 
 
 2. Radical character of recent policies: the fight for nationaliza- 
 tion and participation in control. (See below.) 
 
 3. The proposed use of the industrial weapon for political purposes. 
 
 b. Methods. 
 
 [80] 
 
S. & B. Webb, Industrial Democracy, 796-806. 
 
 1. Mutual insurance and benefits. 
 
 2. Collective bargaining. 
 
 3. Trade agreements; the standard rate. 
 
 4. Legislation. 
 
 5. Combined industrial action: the methods of the Triple Alliance. 
 
 (c) Combination among employers. 
 
 *Hoxie, 188-206; Marshall, Wright and Field, Materials, 694-699. 
 i. Types of employers' organizations. There are many structural and func- 
 tional types, corresponding closely to similar union bodies'. In general, 
 two main functional types may be distinguished. 
 
 The conciliatory association, seeking to maintain industrial peace 
 (»') largely through bargaining and conciliation. 
 
 (ii) The militant association, one of the chief objects of which is to break 
 union organizations, 
 ii. Methods of militant employers' associations. 
 
 (i) Effective counter organization, paralleling union structure. 
 (ii) War on closed shop, by action and propaganda; blacklisting. 
 (Hi) Mutual aid; assistance given employers in time of strikes. 
 (*») Establishment of welfare plans, insurance and pension schemes which 
 
 are subject to forfeiture in case of strike. 
 (v) Organization of counter-unions. 
 
 (vi) The use of the law: injunctions and damage suits, etc. 
 (yii) Methods of political action, 
 iii. Mediatory employers' associations. 
 
 (*') Organization paralleling union structure. 
 (ii) Collective bargaining and conciliation. (See below.) 
 iv. The employers' associations and the principle of individualism. Significant 
 departure from strict laissez-faire principles is involved in the formation of 
 strong employers' organizations. 
 
 (d) Relations between labor combinations and employers. 
 
 i. Typical forms of collective bargaining in operation. 
 *Hoxie, 254-275; Seager, Principles of Economics, 548-572; Taussig, 
 Principles of Economics, Vol. z, 313-322; Hamilton, 638-650, 663-666, 
 602-605, 731-739, 788-793; Marshall, Wright and Field, Materials, 
 683-691; Arthur Young, The International Harvester Industrial Council 
 Plan; J. D. Rockefeller, Jr., The Colorado Industrial Plan. 
 (») The "inside union"; collective bargaining with Works Committees. 
 The Colorado plan; the Midvale plan; the International Harvester 
 plan. 
 (ii) Negotiation and trade agreements between organized workers and 
 organized employers. 
 
 a. Examples of negotiation in American industry: the bituminous 
 coal situation; the garment workers. 
 
 b. Subjects of negotiation and character of agreements reached. The 
 principle of uniformity; the standard rate; the minimum wage. 
 
 c. The legal character of trade agreements. 
 
 (iii) Mediation, conciliation and arbitration by outside agencies as modes 
 of securing industrial peace. 
 Report of President Wilson's Second Industrial Conference. 
 
 a. Limited applicability. Questions of recognition of union and of 
 open versus closed shop not usually open to arbitration. 
 
 b. Boards of arbitration, public and private. 
 
 [81] 
 
(iv) Compulsory arbitration: employers and employees must accept 
 decision of a judicial arbitration tribunal; the case of New Zealand. 
 
 a. The object of compulsory arbitration: to prevent industrial 
 stoppage due to strikes and lockouts. 
 
 b. Difficulties of compulsory arbitration. 
 
 i. Difficulty of enforcing findings against labor. 
 z. In attempting to determine what are "fair" wages the tribunal 
 must determine what are "fair" profits and "fair" interest. 
 Whole distributive process thus subject to regulation. 
 o. The present status of compulsory arbitration: the attitude of 
 labor; the situation in New Zealand and Australia. 
 (v) Kansas Industrial Relations Court plan. 
 Allen, Party of the Third Part. 
 Some provisions of the law: 
 
 a. Creation of a tribunal vested with "power, authority and juris- 
 diction" to hear and determine all controversies which tend to 
 threaten the operation of essential industries. 
 
 b. All essential industries must be operated with reasonable contin- 
 uity. Permission to discontinue must be given by Court. 
 
 c. Right of collective bargaining is recognized. 
 
 d. Violations of the act are punishable by fine or imprisonment or 
 both. 
 
 ii. The appeal to force. 
 
 *Hamilton, 650-639, 677-680; Marshall, Wright & Field, Materials 
 705-709; Adams and Sumner, Labor Problems, 175-212. 
 (i) The weapons of the unions. 
 
 u. The strike in relation to collective bargaining. 
 
 1. Definition: The refusal of a number of workingmen to sell 
 their labor for less than a stipulated price or to work under 
 other than specified conditions of employment, coupled with 
 the refusal of the purchaser of that labor to accede to their 
 demands. 
 
 2. The sympathetic strike. 
 
 3. The utility of the strike as a weapon for the attainment of 
 union ends. The right to strike considered by labor to be an 
 essential element in collective bargaining. 
 
 4. Criticisms of the strike. Strikes and violence. Proposed laws 
 prohibiting strikes. 
 
 b. The ostracism of non-union workers. 
 
 c. The boycott and the "unfair list": means of discouraging the 
 purchase of products of a hostile employer. The law against the 
 boycott; the Danbury Hatters' case. 
 
 (ii) The weapons of the employer. 
 
 a. The lockout. 
 
 b. The black-list. 
 
 c. The use of strike-breaking and detective agencies. 
 
 d. The employers' associations sometimes in a position to use the 
 power of the state in breaking strikes. 
 
 iii. The weapons of revolutionary unionism. Disavowal of collective bar- 
 gaining, conciliation, arbitration, and trade agreements, 
 (i) The strike. 
 
 (ii) The general strike: a general stoppage of work in all industries. 
 u. Attempts to utilize the weapon of the general strike in the past. 
 [82] 
 
b. The general strike as the weapon by which the revolutionary 
 unionists hope to achieve their final objects. 
 (Hi) Sabotage; "Ca Cannie"; the "strike on the job." The reduction of 
 output by disabling machinery, working less efficiently, or destroying 
 part of the product. 
 
 Points of conflict between labor and capital and proposed solutions. 
 *J. B. Andrews, Labor Problems and Labor Legislation, 23-44. 
 (The discussion above has been confined largely to a description of the ma- 
 chinery of agreement, the means by which cooperation in production is normally 
 secured. Some of the points at issue, other than that of collective bargaining, are 
 now to be considered.) 
 (a) The struggle for higher wages. 
 
 Hamilton, 586-602; 591-593; Marshall, Wright and Field. 643-647, 659-669; 
 Seager, 583-590. 
 i. Factors in the wage dispute. 
 
 (*") Earlier theories of wages according to which the remuneration of the 
 laborer was fixed by agencies not in his control. 
 
 a. Malthus and the subsistence theory of wages. 
 
 b. The wages-fund theory. 
 
 (ii) Wage levels in the early years of the Industrial Revolution. (See 
 
 above, p. 30.) 
 (Hi) The standard of living and the fight for higher wages. 
 
 a. Education and the standard of living. 
 
 b. The struggle to maintain and to raise the standard of living an 
 ever-present cause of conflict over wages. 
 
 c. The standard of living and rising prices. 
 
 (mi) The wage question and unionism. The standard rate an essential 
 element in collective bargaining, 
 ii. Methods of adjusting wage disputes. 
 
 (i) Trade agreements as to wages. Such agreements constitute merely 
 
 temporary solutions. 
 (ii) Profit-sharing: an attempt to eliminate wage disputes, increase 
 efficiency of workers and harmonize the interests of employers and 
 employed by giving the workers a share in the profits. 
 
 a. Types of profit-sharing. 
 
 6. Advantages and defects of profit-sharing. 
 c. Failure of profit-sharing to eliminate industrial disputes. 
 (Hi) Bonus and premium systems, involving additional rewards to excep- 
 tional men for added output, 
 o. Object: increase in output without increase in labor cost per unit. 
 
 b. Opposition of organized labor to these systems, based upon 
 
 1. Tendency of such arrangements to weaken collective spirit in 
 laborers. 
 
 2. Danger of pace-making. 
 
 3. Alleged cutting of rates by employers if earnings of men become 
 large. 
 
 (is) The legal minimum wage. 
 
 a. Definition: A minimum wage established by the state for work 
 of a certain sort or workers of a certain class. 
 
 6. The argument against the minimum wage: wages are automati- 
 cally adjusted to the productive ability of the worker, and cannot 
 be set above this point by legal enactment. 
 
 c. The argument for the minimum wage. 
 
 [83] 
 
i. Exploitation of workers, especially women and children, must 
 
 be prevented. 
 2. Adequate standard of living must be maintained, and it is the 
 
 duty of the state to see that this standard is not lowered. 
 d. The application of minimum wage laws presents the problem of 
 providing for the inefficient and the unemployable. 
 
 (b) The struggle for shorter hours. 
 
 *Andrews, Labor Problems and Labor Legislation, 45-69; Hamilton, 784-787; 
 Stager, 574-583; Goldmarck, Fatigue and Efficiency; Marshall, Wright and 
 Field, 716-721; Commons and 1 Andrews, Principles of Labor Legislation, 
 221-286. 
 i. The efficiency argument for short hours. 
 
 (*) Investigations concerning the relation of fatigue to efficiency. 
 (ii) The experience of the war : the economy of short hours, 
 ii. Other arguments for short hours. 
 
 (») Necessity of protecting women and children. 
 (ii) Necessity of regulating hours in dangerous occupations. 
 (iii) Short hours and democracy. Necessity of leisure for education and 
 participation in the life of the democracy, 
 iii. The legal regulation of hours. 
 
 (t) Laws regulating hours of labor of children. State and federal legis- 
 lation in United States. 
 
 a. The federal law of 1916 forbidding interstate traffic in goods 
 produced by children working long hours; set aside by Supreme 
 Court. 
 6. The federal tax on the profits of establishments employing children 
 between 14 and 16 at night or for more than 8 hours daily. 1919. 
 (ii) State legislation limiting hours of labor of women. 
 (iii) Recent movements toward legal regulation of men's hours. The 
 Adamson railroad law establishing 8 hours as the standard for pay. 
 iv. Limitation of hours through collective bargaining. 
 
 («) The 8-hour day being largely established through direct bargaining. 
 (ii) The movement toward further reduction of hours: the 44-hour week. 
 v. Increased productivity versus shorter hours. 
 *Hamilton, 700-705. 
 
 (c) Conditions of employment. 
 
 ♦Andrews, Labor Problems and Labor Legislation, 69-82, 83-92; Hamilton, 
 566-570; 577-S78, 584-586; Seager, Principles, 583-590; Seager, Social In- 
 surance; Marshall, Wright &* Field, 721-723; Ogg, Economic Develop- 
 ment of Modern Europe, 568-641. Commons and Andrews, 323-382. 
 i. Safety. 
 
 (») General nature and causes of industrial accidents. Types of danger- 
 ous occupations. 
 (ii) The cost of industrial accidents. 
 
 a. The burden as borne by the workers; the theory that wages are 
 adjusted to risk. 
 
 b. Social results of this system. 
 
 (iii) Methods of reducing the number of industrial accidents. 
 
 a. Trade union regulations concerning working conditions. 
 
 b. Industrial safety laws. 
 
 (iv) Workmen's compensation laws as a means of relieving the worker of 
 the cost of accidents. 
 
 1 84] 
 
ii. Health. 
 
 (*) Nature and causes of occupational diseases. 
 
 (t») The improvement of working conditions and the reduction in amount 
 of occupational disease through legal and trade union action. Prohi- 
 bition of dangerous substances and regulation of working conditions. 
 (»«) The movement for social insurance as a method of relieving the 
 worker of the burden of sickness, 
 iii. Working conditions under the "sweat-shop" system. 
 
 (t) The evils of tenement house manufacture: congestion, unsanitary 
 
 conditions, low wages, long hours, child labor. 
 (ii) The fight against the sweating system. 
 (d) Scientific management. 
 
 *Hamilton, 705-713; *Hoxie, 296-348; Marshall, Wright &■ Field, 219-233; 
 Goldmark, Fatigue and Efficiency, 192-210; Marot, Creative Impulse in 
 Industry, 29-55. 
 i. The meaning of "scientific management." 
 
 (i) The application to machines and workers of scientifically established 
 laws governing the processes of production and the modes of payment 
 for the purpose of increasing efficiency in industry. 
 (ii) Time and motion study the method by which the facts and laws 
 of efficient production are to be established. 
 
 a. Narrow conception of time and motion study: an instrument for 
 task-setting and efficiency rating merely. 
 
 b. Broader conception : time and motion study as a method of analysis 
 applicable to every feature of the productive and distributive 
 process. 
 
 ii. Scientific management and production. Systematic scientific study of 
 productive processes and methods affords possibility of great increase of 
 world's productive efficiency, a possibility which should be utilized. 
 Ui. Scientific management in the mechanical and in the human sphere. 
 
 (») The unquestioned success of scientific management in dealing with 
 the mechanical, material factor in production; efficient mechanical 
 arrangements and processes have been established. 
 (ii) Inability of scientific management to discover objective laws of 
 
 universal validity in regard to the human factor. 
 (iii) Danger that scientific management will reduce workers to a little- 
 skilled, interchangeable, unorganized mass. 
 
 a. The tendency to extreme specialization. 
 
 b. Traditional craft knowledge systematized in the hands of the 
 employer; the workers' skill vested in the foreman and manager. 
 
 c. Established crafts and craftsmanship tend to break down, 
 iv. The opposition of organized labor to scientific management. 
 
 (i) Reasons given for labor opposition. 
 
 o. Danger of narrow specialization and loss of craftsmanship. 
 6. Undemocratic character of scientific management, with tendency 
 to break down collective bargaining. 
 
 c. Unfair character of tasks set and wages paid. 
 
 d. Scientific management a device for increasing production and 
 profits. 
 
 e. Scientific management a speeding up and sweating system. 
 /. Work under scientific management is monotonous routine. 
 g. Continuity and certainty of employment lessened. 
 
 [85] 
 
(»»■) Fundamental antagonism of scientific management and dominant 
 type of modern unionism, the essential principle of which is uni- 
 formity, 
 v. The problem of securing the benefits of increased productivity which 
 scientific management can give, without reducing the status and crafts- 
 manship of the worker. 
 (») Antagonism of labor will persist if scientific management is used as 
 
 an instrument for profit-making and exploiting the workers. 
 (ii) Human defects of scientific management may in part be overcome by 
 
 a. A broad and universally applied system of industrial education. 
 
 b. Fuller and more intelligent participation by labor in the processes 
 of industrial production. 
 
 (e) Insecurity of employment. 
 
 Hamilton, 545—566 *547~549, 554-566; Marshall, Wright and Field, 709-715; 
 W. H. Beveridge, Unemployment; Andrews, 7-21; F. C. Mills, Theories of 
 Unemployment and of Unemployment Relief, 1 18-164. 
 i. General causes of insecurity of employment. 
 
 (»') Seasonal fluctuations in the demand for labor. 
 («'») Cyclical fluctuations in the demand for labor. 
 (iii) Necessity of labor reserve due to the casual character of employment 
 
 in many industries, 
 (in) Changes in industrial structure resulting in decreased demand for 
 
 labor of certain types. 
 (v) Deficiencies of industrial training. 
 (vi) Old age and personal deficiencies. 
 ii. Results of insecurity of employment. 
 («) Decreased productivity of industry. 
 
 (tt) Evil effects of uncertainty of employment upon the worker. 
 (iii) The evil of under-employment and under-nourishment. 
 (»») The development of the habit of casual employment. 
 (ji) The migratory laborer a product of seasonal and casual demand for 
 labor. Evil results of a migratory existence, 
 iii. Proposed methods of remedying insecurity of employment. 
 
 (i) The organization of the labor market. Haphazard hawking of labor 
 should be replaced by systematic placing of labor through govern- 
 mentally organized employment offices. 
 (ii) The regularization of industry. 
 (iii) Diversification of industries and systematic distribution of public 
 
 work to offset fluctuations in demand for labor. 
 (iv) Adequate industrial training. 
 
 (v) Unemployment insurance to protect worker during periods of un- 
 avoidable unemployment. 
 
 (f) Immigration in its relation to the labor problem. 
 
 Hamilton, 496-527; 496-516; Frances Kellor, Immigration and the Future, 
 227-258. *See Appendix III, 4 (p. 146). 
 
 i. The character of recent immigration to the United States contrasted with 
 earlier immigration. 
 (»") Marked predominance of northern and western Europeans prior to 
 
 1890. 
 (ii) The influx of southern and eastern Europeans since 1890; the stimu- 
 lation of immigration by steamship companies and large employers 
 of labor, 
 ii. Date of change in character of immigration practically corresponds with 
 
 [86] 
 
date of exhaustion of free land in U. S. Immigrants after 1890 thus be- 
 came definitely laborers, rather than settlers and independent farmers. 
 iii. Problems arising from the changed character of recent immigration. 
 
 (t) Language and educational differences; the necessity of immigrant 
 
 education today. 
 (t») Differences in standards of living. 
 
 a. Inability of workers with high standards to compete with some of 
 
 new arrivals. 
 6. The forcing down of wages in unskilled occupations. 
 (iii) Difficulties arising from the congestion of immigrant population in 
 
 large cities; relation to unemployment and to the sweating system. 
 (iv) Recent immigrants and organized labor. 
 
 a. Occasional use of immigrants as strike-breakers. 
 6. Difficulty of organizing immigrants. 
 
 c. Successful organization of immigrants in certain industries within 
 recent years, 
 iv. The problem of future immigration. 
 
 (i) Reasons advanced for curbing immigration, 
 a. The alleged racial inferiority of certain types. 
 6. The question of "hyphenated" Americans. 
 
 c. The maintenance of the American standard of living. 
 
 d. The danger of over-population and of forcing wages to a sub- 
 sistence level. 
 
 e. The difficulty of educating and absorbing large numbers of immi- 
 grants of a different culture. 
 
 (**) Arguments advanced for a continuance of our former immigration 
 policy. 
 
 a. There is no basis for the claim of racial inferiority of certain types. 
 
 b. The United States must continue to furnish a haven for the 
 oppressed of the world. 
 
 o. American industries need a large supply of immigrant labor. 
 More labor, not less, is needed, for overpopulation is a very distant 
 danger. 
 
 d. Immigrants make intellectual and morol contributions which are 
 valuable to American democracy. 
 
 e. Education and absorption will not be difficult if congestion in 
 large cities is prevented. 
 
 (iii) Proposed policies. 
 
 a. The continuance of a selective immigration policy. 
 
 1. Exclusion of paupers and illiterates. 
 
 2. Prevention of stimulation of immigration. 
 
 3. Perfection of machinery for educating and absorbing immi- 
 grants. 
 
 b. Complete exclusion, permanently, or for a term of years. 
 (iv) The recent immigration act, 1921. 
 
 (g) Recognition of the Union. 
 
 The closed versus the open shop, 
 i. Open shop with no recognition of unions. 
 
 ii. The closed shop with the closed union may result in a form of labor monop- 
 oly, 
 iii. The closed shop with the open union. 
 (h) Participation in management. (The demands of organized labor have in the 
 past been confined in the main to questions of hours, wages and conditions of 
 
 [87] 
 
employment. Within recent years, however, questions of management and 
 control have come within the scope of labor's interest. In England and, to a 
 lesser extent, in the United States, organized labor is now seeking to secure a 
 share in the control of industrial undertakings, especially the large public 
 service enterprises such as mining and transportation. This question is taken 
 up below, in the section on "The problem of control in industry.") 
 
 3. The organization of production: competition versus combination 
 and monopoly. 
 
 *Clay, Economics for General Reader, 107-115; Seligman, 139-150. 
 *Hamilton, 429-478; Seager, Chaps. XXIII, XXV. 
 
 A . The meaning and significance of competition. 
 
 (a) The doctrine of laissez-faire in industry; its importance during the nineteenth 
 century. The basis of laissez-faire: the belief that an individual in seeking 
 to advance his own interests is thereby, "as if led by a hidden hand," advancing 
 the interests of society. 
 
 (6) The meaning of modern business competition: the struggle to obtain the 
 largest possible amount of wealth in exchange for commodities produced or 
 services rendered. 
 
 (c) Competition the regulating factor by which the flow of economic goods is 
 directed. 
 
 (d) Relation between competition and cooperation: both a conflict and a com- 
 munity of interests between individuals and groups in the modern economic 
 system. 
 
 (e) The extent of competition today. 
 
 i. Limitations placed on competition by government. 
 
 ii. Limitations placed on competition by agreement and combination between 
 competitors. 
 
 iii. Inherent limitation because of the unnecessary expenses of competition in 
 advertising; duplication of plant and services. 
 
 iv. Ultimate limitation claimed by some, who point out the general waste 
 and social loss resulting from unregulated competition. This loss is illus- 
 trated by over-production, unequal, "unfair" and cut-throat competition. 
 
 B. Combination in business and industry. 
 
 (Note — Monopolistic control may be obtained by forcing competitors out of busi- 
 ness either by underselling or by taking them into a combination. The latter 
 form has been the more prominent in recent years.) 
 
 (a) The movement toward combination in recent years. 
 
 i. Causes of movement toward combination. (See above.) 
 ii. Forms of combination. 
 
 (i) The selling agreement. 
 (ii) The pool. 
 (iii) The trust. 
 (iv) The holding company. 
 (v) The giant (unified) corporation, 
 iii. To what extent has the movement toward combination been a natural one 
 and to what extent a forced one? 
 
 (b) Advantages of combination. 
 
 i. General advantages of large-scale production. (Cf. above.) 
 ii. Monopolistic or semi-monopolistic advantages due to limitation of com- 
 petition and partial or complete control of prices and markets through 
 the complete or partial limitation of the supply of the monopolized com- 
 modity. 
 
 [88] 
 
(c) Disadvantages of combination. 
 
 i. Difficulty of adequate supervision and control, 
 ii. Tendency toward loss of personal initiative among employees, 
 iii. Burden of uneconomical charges carried (e. g., promotors' profits, "water" 
 of various types, etc.). 
 
 C. Competition versus combination in relation to the consumer. 
 
 (a) Productive advantages of combinations in certain industries and avoidance 
 of competitive charges make possible a lowering of price to consumers. 
 
 (b) If a combination secures a monopolistic or semi-monopolistic position extor- 
 tionate prices may be charged. Thus competitive charges may be in some 
 cases lower and in some cases higher than those of a combination. The problem 
 is: How may the advantages of large-scale production be secured without 
 placing unregulated monopolistic power in the hands of combinations? Gov- 
 ernmental action has been found necessary to secure this. 
 
 D. The attitude of the state toward combinations. 
 
 (a) The historical development of governmental policy. 
 
 i. The early attempts to enforce competition and to prohibit combination. 
 Anti-trust laws: the Sherman Act, 1890, prohibiting monopolies and 
 combinations "in restraint of trade." 
 ii. The recognition of the necessity of permitting combination in certain 
 fields; the problem of regulating combination. 
 
 (b) The present situation in the United States. 
 
 i. The Clayton Act; reenforces the Sherman Act and makes illegal 
 
 (»') Intercorporate stockholding when the effect may be to lessen com- 
 petition. 
 (ii) Interlocking directorates. 
 (iii) Discriminatory trade practices, 
 ii. Federal Trade Commission; vested with wide powers of investigation and 
 supervision. 
 
 E. Proposed solutions of the Trust problem. 
 
 (a) Regulatory remedies. 
 
 i. Full publicity. 
 
 ii. Strict prohibition of unfair competition, 
 iii. Prevention of monopolistic practices, 
 iv. Federal incorporation. 
 
 v. Strict regulation by government commissions. 
 
 (b) Remedies involving greater changes in the industrial system. (Government 
 ownership, and socialistic and syndicalistic proposals are discussed below.) 
 
 4. Problems connected with the distribution of the annual social income. 
 
 King, Wealth and Income of the People of the United States, 154-167; Ely, Out- 
 lines of Economics, 384-405; Seager, Chap. XI; Seligman, 352-431; Clay, 279-354 
 See Appendix, III, 5. (p. 147). 
 A. General statement of the problem. The total volume of goods produced each year 
 constitutes an annual flow of consumable commodities and services which are 
 apportioned among the agents of production. A share goes to the owners of the 
 natural agents, a share to the owners of capital, a share to the laborers, and a share 
 to the business organizers of production — the entrepreneurs. Money income is 
 merely a claim to a share in the distribution of commodities and services which 
 constitute the real income of an individual or a group. Many of the current 
 economic problems arise from disputes concerning the right of certain of the agents 
 of production to shares in this distribution, and from attempts of the different 
 
 [89] 
 
agents to increase their own shares. As the organizing factor in production the 
 business enterpriser evaluates the services rendered by each of the other factors. 
 Payment of the shares in distribution to the other agents is made through him. 
 The fundamental question in distribution is: What determines the amount the 
 business enterpriser must pay to each of the other agents and the amount he may 
 keep for himself? 
 B. Briefly stated, the following are the principles on which distribution takes place 
 today: 
 
 (a) The owners of the natural agents of production receive a share in the social 
 income which is called rent. The amount of the rent paid the owner of any 
 particular piece of land depends upon the relative advantage resulting from 
 the utilization of that piece, as compared with others. This differential 
 advantage may be due to 
 i. Favorable location. 
 
 ii. Fertility (or richness, as in the case of mines). Payment to the owners 
 
 of these natural agents is based upon the fact of possession. The question 
 
 as to whether the owner inherited the site, bought it when it was worth 
 
 little and held it till its value increased, or bought it at its present value 
 
 with money earned by his own labor has nothing to do with his receipt of 
 
 a share in the social income, under the present distributive system. 
 
 (6) Interest. The owners of capital receive a return which is called interest. The 
 
 amount of interest paid at any time for the use of a given amount of capital 
 
 depends upon the amount of available capital in existence and upon the 
 
 strength of the demand for the use of it. Business men are willing to pay for 
 
 the capital borrowed because, by the use of capital, the productiveness of labor 
 
 is increased (c. g., a man with a plough is more effective in tilling the soil 
 
 than a man with a pointed stick). It is believed that the stimulus of interest 
 
 is necessary in order to promote saving. Interest is paid to the owner of capital 
 
 irrespective of the means by which he may have acquired ownership, whether 
 
 by personal abstinence, inheritance, gift, or other means. 
 
 (c) Wages. The share of the annual income paid for labor, physical or mental, is 
 called wages. In general, those who receive this form of income may be divided 
 into six non-competing groups, set off from each other by differences of edu- 
 cation and training, environmental differences, and differences of inborn gifts: 
 
 i. Unskilled day laborers. 
 
 ii. Semi-skilled workers, 
 iii. Skilled workmen, 
 iv. Clerical workers. 
 
 v. Professional workers, 
 vi. Salaried business managers. 
 
 Within each of these groups wages tend to a rough equality. The wage 
 received by an individual within any group is fixed, in general, somewhere 
 between a lower limit set by the standard of living (a standard of bare physical 
 subsistence in the lowest group) and an upper limit determined by the relative 
 degree of efficiency or indispensability of the labor constituting that group. 
 This degree of indispensability will depend upon his productive ability, upon 
 the number of workers within the group of equal productive ability, and upon 
 the character of the demand for workers of that particular type. The point 
 at which wages will be fixed between these two limits is determined by the 
 relative bargaining power of employers and workers. 
 
 (d) Profits. The share in income which the business enterpriser receives is called 
 profits. It is a residual share, left over after the other agents of production 
 have been paid. Profits vary greatly in amount depending upon the degree 
 
 [90] 
 
of risk undertaken, the extent to which competition or monopoly operates in a 
 given industry, and the degree of exceptional efficiency found in a given 
 individual. Competitive profits tend to disappear, insofar as true competi- 
 tion operates, but profits based upon a monopolistic advantage do not. 
 
 Summary. The distribution of the annual social income today is thus, in 
 general, based upon the strategic strength of the position occupied by the 
 owners of the various agents of production. Those individuals or groups 
 which are in a relatively strong position, whose services are indispensable, 
 (or relatively so) for any one of a number of reasons, secure a relatively high 
 return. Those whose services are less indispensable, due to weaker demand 
 for their products, greater number of competitors, lower efficiency, receive a 
 lower return. The degree of indispensability, it is important to note, may 
 depend upon personal efficiency, or upon any one of a number of other factors. 
 
 C. Arguments advanced to justify the present distributive system. 
 
 (a) Distribution under the present system is based upon competitive efficiency. 
 
 Society gains by giving high prizes to the highly efficient. 
 (6) Inequalities of capacity must be recognized; corresponding inequalities of 
 
 reward are justified. 
 
 (c) The various distributive shares at present criticized, such as interest, rent, 
 profits, high salaries, are necessary to secure the services called forth — 
 thrift necessary for accumulation of capital, effective use of land, and high 
 business ability. 
 
 (d) Such payments as do not represent services (as rent) are necessarily involved 
 in the retention of the system of private property, and are therefore legally 
 and economically justifiable. 
 
 D. Arguments advanced against the present system of distribution. 
 
 (a) Distribution today is based chiefly upon the power to take, and only secondarily 
 upon productive efficiency. Accordingly not all shares in distribution serve 
 as stimuli to production. 
 
 (b) Men would save their surplus money, use their land effectively, and develop 
 their individual capacities to the full without the bribe of a special pecuniary 
 reward. 
 
 (c) Rent, in particular, does not arise as a result of personal effort and therefore 
 should belong to the community as a whole. 
 
 (d) The stimulus of profits has perverted business enterprise from the production 
 of commodities as the chief end to that of profit-making, with a consequent 
 loss to the consumers. Greater profits may be made in some cases by limiting 
 production than by increasing production. 
 
 E. Proposed changes in the system of distribution. 
 *Russell, Proposed Roads to Freedom, 86-1 10. 
 
 (a) Continuance of present system, insofar as payments are based upon efficiency 
 and productive ability, but with state appropriation of unearned increments; 
 limitation of great fortunes and of rights of inheritance; the use of taxation 
 as a means of correcting distributive injustice. 
 [(6) Socialistic and communistic ideals. (See below, p. 94.) 
 
 i. Distribution on the basis of need; i. e., approximately equal distribution, 
 
 irrespective of work performed, 
 ii. Distribution on the basis of sacrifice; payment based on irksomeness of 
 various occupations.] 
 
 5. The problem of control in industry. 
 
 [A. The present system of control and management in industry: a brief restatement, 
 (a) Chief characteristics of modern system. 
 
 [91] 
 
i. The system of private property, 
 ii. The four-fold division of function in production, 
 iii. The status, and degree of initiative, responsibility and control resting in 
 
 each of the agents of production, 
 iv. The importance of large-scale industry today. 
 
 (b) Advantages claimed for the present system of management. 
 
 i. Strong and efficient leaders reach the top and exercise power, 
 ii. Scope given for initiative and individual ability, 
 iii. Quantity production secured. 
 
 iv. Prices kept down by rigorous competition for markets, 
 v. Compatible with human nature; strong instincts of acquisitiveness and 
 pugnacity satisfied in a competitive system based on private property and 
 survival of the strongest. 
 
 (c) Defects charged to the present system. 
 
 i. Characterized by inefficiency in production. 
 (i) Duplication of services; competitive waste. 
 
 (ii) Business side of industry over-developed at expense of productive 
 efficiency; production subordinated to profits, 
 ii. Chaotic system of distribution; lack of order and system in marketing 
 
 organization, 
 iii. Periodic breakdowns (financial panics and business depressions) consti- 
 tute a fundamental weakness, 
 iv. Many individuals performing no useful service continue to share in the 
 social income, while many productive workers continue to live in poverty. 
 v. An autocratic rather than a democratic form of government exists in 
 
 industry, 
 vi. Continual labor unrest affords evidence that the present industrial system 
 does violence to human nature. 
 B. Proposed solutions of the problem of industrial control. 
 
 (a) Competitive individualism: continuance of the nineteenth century system 
 without state interference, 
 i. Conditions involved in this type of solution. 
 (i) Maintenance of full private property rights. 
 (ii) Restoration of complete freedom of competition. 
 
 (iii) Restoration and maintenance of individual bargaining; denial of 
 right of collective bargaining; refusal to recognize labor organizations, 
 ii. Advantages claimed for competitive individualism. (Cf. above.) 
 iii. Difficulties involved in this solution. (Cf. above.) 
 
 (i) Recent changes in industrial structure, type and size of modern in- 
 dustrial unit, development of corporate form of organization, large 
 scale enterprise, render impossible the maintenance of such a system. 
 (ii) Return to this individualistic system impossible in view of present 
 unrest. 
 
 (b) Continuance of present system of control; amelioration of labor conditions 
 and limited degree of regulation of industry by the State. 
 
 Object: The maintenance of the advantages of the present competitive 
 system and the avoidance of competitive excesses by state protection of labor 
 and state regulation of competition and monopoly. 'The New Freedom.' 
 
 (c) Continuance of present system of management with collective bargaining in 
 matters of wages, hours, and general conditions of employment. 
 
 i. Collective bargaining in the organized trades today. (Cf . above.) 
 ii. Trade union control under this system. 
 
 (i) Negative character of trade union control; union rules and regula- 
 
 [92] 
 
tions necessarily restrictive, in that direct and positive control is 
 exercised by the employer. 
 (ii) This control, though negative, constitutes an important factor in the 
 management of industry today, 
 iii. Inability of trade unions and industrial unions as at present organized to 
 take over more effective control. 
 (i) Faulty organization; jurisdictional disputes. 
 (ii) Lack of effective coordination between unions. 
 (iii) Lack of adequate leadership. 
 
 (mi) Technical experts and managers not included in union organization. 
 (») The difficultyof securing capital.] 
 
 (d) Full collective bargaining, with a share in control vested in labor; the English 
 program. 
 
 *Hamilton, 716-729; Memorandum of the Industrial Situation after the War, 
 (Garton Foundation), 158-175. 
 i. Recognition and encouragement by the State of organization on the part 
 
 of employers and workers, 
 ii. The National Industrial Council: a national council to secure joint action 
 between representative organizations of employers and workers, prevent 
 and adjust industrial disputes, and to serve as official consultative author- 
 ity to the government upon industrial relations, 
 iii. Machinery of organization within each industry. The Whitley scheme, 
 (t) Joint Standing Industrial Councils (National) composed of repre- 
 sentatives of employers and employed in each industry. 
 (ii) District Councils: representative of trade unions and employers' 
 
 associations in each district. 
 (iii) Works Committees: representative of management and workers 
 in particular plants, 
 iv. Functions of Works Committees, District Councils and National Councils. 
 (i) To deal with questions of hours, wages and conditions of employment. 
 (ii) To provide security and continuity of earnings and employment. 
 (iii) To provide for technical education, training, and industrial research. 
 (*») To deal with proposed legislation affecting the industry. 
 v. The advantages and limitations of the Whitley Plan and similar proposals: 
 attitude of organized labor. 
 
 (e) The Cooperative system. 
 
 Seager, Chap. XXXI; S. and B. Webb, A Constitution for the Socialist Com- 
 monwealth of Great Britain, 248-263. 
 i. The object of cooperation: the elimination of the managing employer 
 and of private profits; general policy settled and risks assumed by co- 
 operators as a body; ownership and control vested in a body of cooperating 
 equals, 
 ii. Cooperation in retail and wholesale trading; success of the Rochdale stores 
 
 and the Schulze-DelitSsch societies, 
 iii. Cooperation in production. Comparative lack of success in this field. 
 
 (») Character of operations fundamentally different from those of retail 
 
 trading and banking. 
 (ii) Difficulty of carrying on production on large scale, due to lack of 
 
 capital. 
 (iii) Failure to secure capable leaders, 
 iv. Cooperative Credit Societies. 
 
 (f) Government ownership of great public service industries (nationalization) ; 
 control by joint boards representing workers, managers, and public. 
 
 [93] 
 
i. The proposed organization of the English coal mining industry; the 
 Sankey Report. 
 
 *Coal Industry Commission Act, igig — Second Stage, Reports, 5-26. 
 (*) State purchase of coal royalties and coal mines. 
 
 (it) Control by councils of workers, consumers and technical experts, 
 
 under the general supervision of a Ministry of Mines; the National 
 
 Mining Council, District Mining Councils, and Local Mining Councils. 
 
 ii. The Plumb Plan for railroad re-organization in the U. S. 
 
 *The Sims Bill. 
 
 (i) Government purchase of all railroad systems, on basis of capital 
 
 invested. 
 (ii) Administration. 
 
 a. Operation of roads by a board of fifteen directors, five representing 
 
 the public, five the managers, five the classified employees. 
 6. Rate-making by Interstate Commerce Commission. 
 (iii) Division of surplus between government and employees, provided 
 that if surplus exceeds a certain percentage of the operating revenues, 
 rates must be reduced; deficits to be met by government, 
 iii. The present status of the Sankey scheme and the Plumb Plan. Sig- 
 nificance of these proposals, 
 (g) Collectivism: ownership and control of all industrial undertakings by the 
 state; State Socialism. 
 
 ^Hamilton, 847-860; *Russell, Proposed Roads to Freedom, 1-31; Ogg, 
 Economic Development of Modern Europe, 477-567; Gide and Rist, History 
 of Economic Doctrines, 407—479. 
 i. The general principles of Socialism. 
 
 (i) Abolition of private property in the means of production (land and 
 capital), with retention of private property in articles of personal 
 use. Collective (State) ownership of means of production. 
 (ii) Administration of collectively owned industrial system through a 
 
 democratic political organization. 
 (iii) Abolition of wage system as' at present constituted, 
 ii. The basic doctrines of Marxian Socialism. 
 
 (*) The materialistic interpretation of history. All human phenomena 
 can be explained in terms of the underlying material facts of life. 
 Irresistible economic forces shape human history. 
 (ii) The law of the concentration of capital. Capitalistic undertakings 
 tend to become larger and larger; small competitive enterprises 
 tend to disappear, and to be replaced by great trusts. 
 (iii) The class war. Increasing concentration of capital leads to division 
 of society into two great classes, the capitalist class and the wage- 
 earning class, bourgeoisie and proletariat. Between these two classes 
 a struggle will go on until all wage earners combine, locally, nationally 
 and internationally, and take over the ownership and control of land 
 and capital for the common good. View of Marx that this process of 
 concentration of capital, increasing misery, class war and ultimate 
 social control is natural and inevitable, a working out of irresistible 
 economic forces. The Communist Manifesto. The great influence of 
 Marx on socialist thought, 
 iii. Other types of socialistic doctrine; the Fabian policy of securing reforms 
 and collective ownership gradually, by the use of constitutional methods; 
 the Socialist Party in politics, 
 iv. The Socialist program today; arguments advanced for a Socialistic organi- 
 zation of industry, and objections to it. 
 
 [94] 
 
(k) Syndicalism: ownership and control by the workers in each industry. (See 
 above: The Industrial Workers of the World.) 
 
 ♦Russell, Proposed Roads to Freedom, 56-85; Kirkaldy, Economics and Syndi- 
 calism; Gide and Rist, 479-483; Brissenden, The I. W. W., 155-177, 259-282. 
 i. General principles of syndicalism. 
 
 (»') Organization of industry by the workers as producers, not as con- 
 sumers. The industry as the unit of ownership and control; owner- 
 ship by organized labor. 
 (»») Substitution of industrial (direct) action for political action; boycott, 
 union label, strike, and sabotage. The general strike the chief weapon. 
 (iii) Destruction of the state, 
 ii. Syndicalism in practice. 
 
 (»') French syndicalism: The C. G. T. 
 
 (ii) [American syndicalism: The I. . W. W] (See iv below.) 
 iii. Syndicalism as a working principle of industrial organization; advantages 
 
 claimed for it and objections to it. 
 iv. The Industrial Workers of the World. C. H. Parker, The Casual Laborer, 
 (i) Their principles. 
 
 a. Class conflict. "The working class and the employing class have 
 nothing in common. Between these two classes a struggle must go 
 on until the workers of the world organize as a class, take possession 
 of the earth and the machinery of production, and abolish the wage 
 system": Preamble of the I. W. W. Constitution. 
 
 b. Abolition of the wage system. 
 
 c. Organization on industrial instead of craft lines. 
 
 1. The doctrine of working class solidarity, "One Big Union." 
 
 2. The organization of the unskilled together with the skilled; 
 opposition to labor aristocracy. 
 
 d. Accomplishment of ends by direct industrial action. 
 
 [Note: A seceding wing of the Industrial Workers of the World 
 (Detroit Branch) favors political action, but the dominant group 
 (Chicago Branch) disavows political organization.] 
 
 e. Ultimate complete control of the industrial system by the workers; 
 control of the political system will necessarily accompany industrial 
 control. 
 
 (it) The structure of I. W. W. 
 
 a. The local industrial union. 
 
 b. The District Industrial Council. 
 
 c. The International Industrial Department. 
 
 d. The General Executive Board. 
 
 1 . Power originally strongly centralized in the Executive Board. 
 
 2. The movement toward decentralization; present weakness of 
 the central authority. 
 
 (iii) Method and tactics of the I. W. W. 
 
 a. Direct action; various forms of direct action; sabotage. 
 6. Free speech fights as means of propaganda. 
 c. The general strike. 
 (iv) The I. W. W. today. 
 a. Membership. 
 
 1. Confined to textile, steel, lumber, mining, farming, railroad 
 construction and marine transportation industries. 
 
 2. Majority of members migratory unskilled workers; a radical, 
 militant, relatively unstable group recruited from industries 
 
 [95] 
 
characterized by irregularity of employment and bad working 
 conditions. 
 3. Numerical strength: not over 60,000 members at present. 
 Actual influence not measured by paid-up membership. 
 
 b. The I. W. W. as a social phenomenon; conditions and causes of its 
 existence. 
 
 c. Weaknesses of the I. W. W. 
 
 1. Inability to maintain stable membership. 
 
 2. Organic weaknesses due to internal conflict. 
 
 a. Centralization of power versus decentralization. 
 
 b. Constructive industrial unionism versus the revolutionary 
 ideal of uncontrolled agitation, "guerilla" warfare against 
 authority. 
 
 3. Financial weakness. 
 
 4. Membership unfitted for constructive endeavor. 
 
 d. The future of industrial unionism in the United States; the agita- 
 tion for industrial unionism in the A. F. of L. ; dual unionism 
 versus "boring from within." 
 
 (t) Guild Socialism: a compromise type of organization, standing between col- 
 lectivism and syndicalism. 
 
 *Russell, 80-85; G. D. H. Cole, Self Government in Industry; S. G. Hobson, 
 Guild Principles in War and Peace; *Hamilton, 860-870, G. D. H. Cole, Guild 
 Socialism, 187—195. 
 i. General principles of guild organization. 
 
 (») Ownership of the means of production by the State, as trustees for 
 
 the community. 
 (it) Management of industrial undertakings by guilds or workers in 
 each industry, acting also as trustees for the community; payment 
 of tax or rent to State. 
 (Hi) The Guild Congress: a body consisting of representatives of all 
 National Guilds, and having supreme authority in industrial matters. 
 (iv) Parliament to retain supreme authority in political matters; Parlia- 
 ment to represent consumers. 
 (») Joint Committee of Parliament and Guild Congress to deal with 
 conflicts arising between the two bodies; Joint Committee to recon- 
 cile interests of producers and consumers. 
 (vi) Adjustment of prices by Joint Committee. 
 (vii) Adjustment of pay within each industry by the National Guild con- 
 trolling that industry, 
 ii. Guild socialism as a possible working principle; advantages claimed for it; 
 objections to it. 
 
 BOOK IX. PROBLEMS OF POLITICAL CONTROL 
 
 1. Conflicting estimates of political democracy. 
 
 Bryce, Modern Democracies, I, 20-23, 43~79. 143-150; II, 335-357. 535-584; 
 *20-23, 43-50, 70-79; II, 535-551, 575-584; J. S. Mill, Representative Government, 
 Chaps. Ill, IV, VI; Perry, The Present Conflict of Ideals, 513-528; J. W. Garner, 
 Introduction to Political Science, 205-230; Russell, Proposed Roads to Freedom, 129- 
 138. 
 A . What political democracy is. 
 
 (a) Majority rule and universal suffrage. 
 
 [96] 
 
(6) Formal representation and effective control. 
 
 (c) Liberty and democracy. 
 
 (d) Natural equality and democracy. 
 
 (e) Democracy and republicanism. 
 (/) Democracy as a social ideal. 
 
 B. The arguments advanced for political democracy. 
 
 (a) It affords opportunity for the participation of large numbers of individuals in 
 government and thus insures individual expression and the development of 
 the individual through carrying responsibilities. 
 
 (6) It affords opportunity for men possessing high qualities of political leadership 
 to utilize their abilities. 
 
 (c) It educates the participant. 
 
 (d) Monarchy and oligarchy have inherent defects: under hereditary monarchy 
 the ruler is often incapable; oligarchies tend to oppress the many in the inter- 
 ests of the few. 
 
 (e) Democracy rests upon the consent of the majority, and tends to promote the 
 interests of the majority; each person is the best judge of his own interests. 
 
 (J) Democracy substitutes peaceful elections for violent revolution as the method 
 of overthrowing governments unacceptable to the majority. 
 
 C. Fundamental difficulties of political democracy, 
 (a) Wide variations in intelligence among citizens. 
 
 (f>) Lack of education and limitations of school education in developing political 
 
 ability, 
 (c) Natural oligarchic tendency in all group organization. 
 id) Dependence of public opinion on the press and platform; demagogy; human 
 
 trait of submission. 
 
 (e) Sporadic character of interest in politics. 
 
 (f) Increasing complexity of governmental problems. 
 
 (g) Danger of majority tyranny; relation of man's instinctive equipment to this 
 danger. 
 
 (h) The difficulty of having real political democracy while great, inequalities of 
 economic power exist. 
 
 D. Recent tendencies. 
 
 (a) World war and spread of political democracy. 
 
 (b) Decline of popular confidence in representative bodies. 
 
 (c) Growth of class divisions and direct action. 
 
 (d) Movement to obtain economic equality through revolution. 
 
 [(e) Criticism of political democracy by Monarchists, Anarchists, Syndicalists, 
 Bolshevists. (See page 95.)] 
 
 E. Difficulty of estimating value of political democracy, 
 (a) Its comparatively recent development. 
 
 (6) Its present incompleteness. 
 
 i. Survival of monarchical and aristocratic institutions. 
 ii. Limitations on the franchise. 
 
 2. The problem of popular control. 
 
 In a political democracy the fundamental problem is to secure actual popular 
 control of the government, to choose such representatives and to effect such an 
 organization of the institutions of government as will make for the real as well as 
 formal execution of popular desires. This general problem may be divided, for 
 purposes of analysis, into the following specific problems: (A) How can democratic 
 control of the sources and agencies of public opinion be secured? (B) How can 
 
 [97] 
 
people best be organized into groups for the popular control of the government? 
 
 (C) How can elections be made to register most accurately the public opinion? 
 
 (D) How can popular control be most effectively maintained within the organs of 
 government themselves? (E) Does direct legislation secure more or less popular 
 control of government? 
 
 Popular control and public opinion. 
 
 *Bryce, I, 92-110, 151-162; C. G. Haines, Principles and Problems of Government, 
 85-107; W. Lippmann, Liberty and the News. 
 (a) What public opinion is. 
 
 (6) Growing importance of the press as a source of public opinion: press ownership 
 and propaganda. 
 
 (c) Other agencies for the creation and organization of public opinion: the plat- 
 form, pulpit, schools, tradition, voluntary associations. 
 
 (d) The influence of well organized and energetic minorities. 
 
 (e) Elections as an index of public opinion. 
 Popular control through political parties. 
 
 *Bryce, 1, 111-128; Lowell, 57-110; Hayes, II, 297-307, 361-367, 372-378, 406-410, 
 417-419, 431-432; Ogg, Governments of Europe, passim; Bryce, II, 27-46, 477-497; 
 Haines, 127-151. 
 (a) The function of parties. 
 
 i. To frame issues upon which the electorate may express its opinion, 
 ii. To nominate candiates from among whom the electorate may choose its 
 
 officers, 
 iii. To bring about a working agreement between separate governmental 
 
 organizations; the party caucus, 
 iv. To furnish collective responsibility, 
 v. To educate the electorate. 
 (6) The origin of parties. 
 
 i. Parties arise when the electorate is divided on questions relatively funda- 
 mental and specific. 
 (i) Whigs and Tories on the question of ministerial responsibility to 
 
 parliament. 
 (ii) Federalists and Anti-Federalists on the question of adopting the 
 
 United States Constitution. 
 (iii) Republicans and Democrats on the question of the extension of 
 slavery in the territories, 
 ii. What bearing does the fighting instinct have on the origin and maintenance 
 
 of parties? 
 iii. Under simple economic conditions and limited suffrage the party issues 
 
 are relatively simple and party programs sharply defined, 
 iv. Under extended suffrage and with the rise of a multiplicity of political 
 issues, parties tend to reduce their programs to the lowest common denomi- 
 nator of the interests of the wide electorate to which they appeal; they 
 emphasize the maintenance of fundamental institutions of the country 
 with which only the revolutionary groups quarrel. Recent examples, 
 v. Under such conditions parties tend to register public opinion inaccurately 
 and often becomes ends in themselves, seeking to perpetuate their control 
 through appeals to: 
 (i) Traditional loyalty and partisanship. (Compare "conservatism" and 
 
 "herd-instinct"). 
 (ii) Selfish interests through spoils of office, 
 vi. When this tendency becomes too pronounced, new parties may arise with 
 more specific issues; recent examples. 
 
 [98] 
 
(c) The two-party system versus the many-party system. 
 
 i. The two-party system in England and the United States. 
 
 (*) Persistence of the two-party system notwithstanding the development 
 
 of new issues. 
 (ii) Tendency toward many parties. 
 
 a. In Great Britain. 
 
 i. Irish party; the Coalition. 
 
 2. The Labor Party. An organization of brain and hand workers; 
 strength in cities; opposition in Parliament. 
 
 b. In the United States. 
 
 i. Agrarian parties, Prohibition and Socialist parties; Progressives. 
 
 2. The Non-Partisan League movement. 
 
 3. Tendency toward Labor Party. Traditional opposition of A. F. 
 of L. to political organization. (See page 77.) "Rewarding friends 
 and punishing enemies;" recent division of opinion within labor 
 party as to desirability of separate political action; The National 
 Labor Party and its platform; The Farmer-Labor Party 1920. 
 
 ii. The many-party system in Continental Europe. 
 (»') The parties in France, Germany, Italy. 
 (ii) Attempt to consolidate parties, 
 iii. The reasons for this divergence of party practice in different countries. 
 (i) Lowell's explanation. 
 (ii) Effect of different forms of electoral procedure; the majority system 
 
 versus the plurality system; the French and German systems. 
 (iii) The difficulty of explaining adequately divergent practices in different 
 countries, 
 iv. Advantages claimed for the two-party system. 
 
 (i) Makes changes in government less frequent, though more radical; 
 
 hence, permits longer periods of continuity in executive power. 
 (ii) Promotes responsible criticism of government by the "opposition." 
 v. Advantages claimed for the many-party system. 
 
 (i) Affords more accurate representation of differences of public opinion, 
 
 since more than two beliefs on public policy generally exist. 
 (ii) Promotes greater continuity of general policies and renders alterations 
 of policy less abrupt. 
 
 (d) Evils often associated with party government. 
 
 i. Control by professional politicians and "bosses" who sacrifice public to 
 
 private interests, 
 ii. Blind partisanship of many voters. 
 iii. Confusion of political issues by 
 
 (i) Influence of personality in elections: "mud-slinging;" advertisement of 
 
 domestic virtues of candidates, etc. 
 (ii) Difficulty of voting on any one issue; different voters are attracted 
 by different planks in party platform; sometimes one issue is stressed 
 during election campaign and another afterwards, 
 iv. Complexity of governmental organization; difficulty of locating respon- 
 sibility, 
 v. Maintenance of party control through special legislation, 
 vi. The traffic in offices ("Spoils system"). 
 vii. Influence of contributors to party funds, 
 viii. Undue influence of aggressive and independent minorities. 
 (e) Remedies that have been suggested. 
 
 [99] 
 
i. Reorganization of parties on clear-cut issues. Method of achieving this 
 reorganization? 
 ii. Education of electorate to vote more intelligently and independently; 
 the short ballot and simplification of governmental machinery as an 
 aid; citizen organizations, 
 iii. Increased public control over party machinery through 
 (i) Direct primaries. 
 
 (ii) Publication of campaign funds and expenditures. 
 (iii) Corrupt practises legislation. 
 (iv) Civil service reform. 
 (v) Anti-lobby legislation, 
 iv. Divorce of national and local politics through 
 (i) Separation of national from local elections. 
 (ii) Provision for non-partisan local elections. 
 [C. Popular control through economic representation. 
 
 Russell, 133-138; Garner, 469-474; Wallas, Our Social Heritage, 101-154; G. D. H. 
 Cole, Guild Socialism, 18-41; S. & B.Webb, A Constitution for the Socialist Common- 
 wealth in Great Britain, 108—146; Laski, The Problem of Administrative Areas, 
 3I-4S- 
 
 (a) British parliament originally based upon class representation: peers represent- 
 ing aristocratic landholders, clergy representing the church (which had large 
 landed interests) , knights representing smaller landholders, burgesses repre- 
 senting commercial and industrial middle classes. 
 
 (b) Tendency toward this kind of representation early in history of United States. 
 
 (c) The influence of such bodies as bar associations, merchants' associations, 
 and labor unions upon the government at present. 
 
 (d) General arguments of those advocating representation by economic and 
 professional groups. 
 
 i. Provides opportunity for direct and open presentation of economic claims, 
 as substitute for the use of indirect influence (lobby) and for direct economic 
 action, 
 ii. The increasing amount of economic legislation requires expert criticism by 
 
 representatives of economic groups, 
 iii. The preponderance of economic over geographic interests. 
 
 (e) Objections frequently made to economic representation. 
 
 i. Emphasizes material interests to the detriment of political ideals. 
 ii. Fosters economic and class conflicts, and thus tends to overthrow of 
 
 present social and industrial order, 
 iii. Would increase the enormous power of the workers in key industries over 
 
 all the rest, 
 iv. Fails to consider the interests of general public. (What is meant by the 
 
 general public?) 
 
 (See page 82.)] 
 
 D. Popular control through elections. 
 
 Mill, Chaps. VII, VIII; *Chap. VII; *Bryce, II, 498-518; Caner, 440-474. 489- 
 516; Haines, 297-300. 
 
 (a) The problem of the franchise: plural voting. 
 
 (b) Direct vs. indirect elections. 
 
 (c) Fixed vs. indefinite term of office : recall. 
 
 (d) Size and nature of the constituency. 
 
 (e) Proportional representation. 
 
 E. Popular control within the organs of government. 
 
 *Bryce, II, 390-416, 461-476; Mill, V, XIII, XIV; Goodnow, Principles of Con- 
 
stitutional Government, 114-125; Merriam, American Political Theories, 107-116, 
 
 136-141; Garner, 407-440, 474-488, 517-606; Haines, 259-279. 
 
 (a) The theory of the separation of powers and functions; checks and balances; 
 
 limited versus direct government. 
 (6) The legislature; the legislative function. 
 
 i. Origin of upper chambers as organs representing upper classes (England) 
 
 or regional interests (United States), 
 ii. Advantages and disadvantages of the bicameral system. 
 
 (*) Is designed to secure more careful consideration of legislation. 
 (ii) Is designed to secure more adequate representation. 
 (iii) Increases complexity of governmental machinery. 
 (iv) Increases difficulty of legislation. 
 
 (v) Divides responsibility; hence, makes popular control more difficult. 
 (vi) What should the upper house represent in a democratic state? 
 
 (c) The executive; the executive function. 
 
 i. The independent executive (presidential form of government) versus the 
 responsible executive (parliamentary form of government). Comparison of 
 France, England, United States. 
 (»') Theory that elected executive (as in the United States) more truly 
 
 represents the people than does the legislature. 
 (ii) Danger of deadlocks in presidential form of government when the 
 president and legislature differ in political views, 
 ii. The Swiss Federal Council system. Comparison with parliamentary and 
 presidential forms. 
 
 (d) The judiciary; the judicial function. The independent judiciary versus the 
 supremacy of the legislative power. Comparison of United States and England. 
 
 i. Theory that Supreme Court should act as a check upon the legislature, to 
 
 curb ill-considered action and prevent rule of mob-spirit. 
 ii. Criticism of judicial independence: argument that judicial revision of 
 legislative acts is undemocratic, especially when judiciary is appointive. 
 F. Popular control through direct legislation. 
 *Bryce, II, 417-434; Lowell, 152-235. 
 
 (a) Forms of direct legislation. 
 
 i. The initiative, 
 ii. The referendum. 
 
 (b) Arguments advanced by advocates of direct legislation. 
 
 i. Direct legislation affords the opportunity, which representative government 
 through parties does not, for the electorate to pronounce its opinion clearly 
 on any particular issue. (See above.) 
 ii. Direct legislation, by admitting the common people to a larger share in 
 
 government, promotes growth of intelligent public opinion, 
 iii. Direct legislation enables the people to pass laws which might have been 
 successfully thwarted by the influence of private interests over elected 
 legislatures, and to defeat laws passed by a legislature contrary to the 
 interests of the public. 
 
 (c) Arguments of those opposed to direct legislation. 
 
 i. A referendum does not permit clear expression of opinion on any given issue; 
 e. g., voters may favor a protective tariff in principle but vote against the 
 particular form of protective tariff submitted to them, 
 ii. The voters are not able to form an intelligent opinion on many matters of 
 
 legislation; the technicality of modern legislation. 
 iii. The voters would not be sufficiently interested to vote on many questions, 
 iv. Direct legislation in practise might lead to 
 
 [101] 
 
(t) Undue conservatism. 
 (ii) Exaltation of men aspiring to dictatorship or monarchy. (Illustrations 
 
 from French history.) 
 (iii) Government by owners of newspapers. 
 (iv) Excessively radical legislation. 
 (d) Direct legislation in practise. 
 i. In Switzerland, 
 ii. In United States: state and local. 
 
 (i) The new Massachusetts Initiative and Referendum amendment. 
 
 3. The problem of centralization versus decentralization. 
 
 *Bryce, I, 129-133, II, 435-445; *Mill (Everyman edition), 354-359; Goodnow, 
 Principles of Constitutional Government, 14-23; 75-81; Merriam, American Political 
 Ideas 1865-1917, 228-249; Cole, Social Theory, 158-171; Willoughby, The Govern- 
 ment of Modern States, 181-226; Laski, The Problems of Sovereignly, 277-285; 
 Garner, 191-197, 230-234; Haines, 248-258; R. L. Buell, Contemporary French 
 Politics, Chaps. X-XII. 
 
 A . The necessity of centralization. 
 
 (a) Need for uniformity and standardization. 
 
 (6) Centralization of economic units and need of control by correspondingly large 
 political units. 
 
 (c) Need of establishing a national minimum of efficiency for backward areas. 
 
 (d) Desire for national solidarity and military efficiency. 
 
 B. Advantages of decentralization. 
 
 (a) Opportunity for local variety and experiment. 
 
 (b) Local self government as a school of democracy. 
 
 (c) Greater interest in local problems on the part of citizens. 
 
 (d) Relief of overworked legislatures and overcentralized administrative bureaus. 
 
 C. Various solutions of the conflict. 
 
 (a) Adoption of the federal principle: United States as an example. 
 
 i. Constitutional division of powers and judicial maintenance of this division, 
 ii. State-national relations. 
 
 iii. Municipal home rule and the federal principle applied to city-state re- 
 lations. 
 
 (b) The unitary system. 
 
 i. Great Britain an example of partially decentralized administration. 
 ii. France and centralized administration. 
 
 (c) The federal principle and international relations. 
 
 i. British empire and federation, 
 ii. The Balkans and need of federation. 
 
 iii. The legal concept of national sovereignty vs. international economic and 
 social needs. 
 
 4. The problem of securing efficient administration. 
 
 *Lowell, 262-303; Bryce, II, 358-366; Haines, 171-195; Cleveland and Buck, 
 The Budget and Responsible Government. 
 
 A. Growing importance of public administration. 
 
 (a) Increase of governmental tasks. 
 
 (b) Technical and strategic character of public administration. 
 
 B. Difficulty of securing competent officials; election versus appointment. 
 
 (a) Popular tendency to value candidate's patriotism, political views, private 
 virtues, etc., more than administrative ability and training. 
 
 [102] 
 
(b) Appointments by patronage system. 
 
 (c) Frequent changes of at least the higher administrative personnel, due to 
 fluctuations in strength of political parties. 
 
 (d) Insufficient remuneration. 
 
 (e) In some cases, stigma of being a •'politician.* 
 
 (/) Unwillingness of able administrators to abandon profitable and well-assured 
 careers in private life in order to accept government positions where tenure of 
 office is uncertain, salary inadequate, and genuine independence of action 
 often impossible. 
 
 C. Difficulty of effective control over officials. 
 
 (a) Complexity of governmental machinery; hence, difficulty of Ibcating respon- 
 sibility for inefficiency. 
 
 (6) Difficulty of remedy even when responsibility is located. 
 
 (c) Complexity and variety of administrative problems and consequent difficulty 
 of inexpert political control over administrative experts. 
 
 D. Inflexibility and inefficiency of governmental machinery because of legal definition 
 and regulation of duties and functions, particularly in reference to subordinate 
 officials; "Red Tape." Contrast between public and private enterprises. 
 
 E. Extravagant expenditures. 
 
 (a) Expenditures for the direct benefit of party or private interests; "the Pork 
 
 Barrel.'' 
 (6) Excessive charges by contractors, 
 (c) Extravagance due to lack of business methods. 
 
 F. Remedies which have been proposed. 
 
 (a) Reduction of number of elective officers, and simplification of administrative 
 machinery. 
 
 i. The short ballot. 
 
 ii. The centralization of the state administrative system. 
 
 iii. The commission, city manager, and "strong mayor" forms of government 
 for cities. 
 
 (b) Budget system of finance. Significance of budget as planning agency and 
 agency of control over administration. 
 
 (c) Building up of an expert, administrative public service. 
 
 i. Making higher positions an honorable, attractive and permanent career 
 
 recruited from apprenticeship in subordinate positions. 
 ii. Adoption of principles of employment management for the lower branches 
 of the service, including training within service, intelligent recruiting and 
 training for service, equitable and adequate salaries, promotion by merit, 
 adequate discharge and retirement provisions, satisfactory working con- 
 ditions, 
 iii. Comparison of English and American systems. 
 
 5. The problem of determining the sphere of governmental activity. 
 
 J. S. Mill, On Liberty; Chap. II; *Frank I. Cobb, The Press and Public Opinion 
 (pamphlet); *A brams et al. versus the United States (pamphlet) ; Bryce, I, 51-59; 
 Garner, 274-329; 373-406; Willoughby, 149-177; Angell, The British Revolution 
 and the American Democracy, 263-295; Chafee, Freedom of Speech. 
 A. Individual rights versus interests of the community. 
 
 (a) Nineteenth century respect for individual rights; laissez-faire applied to 
 personal liberty and private property. 
 
 (b) The collectivist tendency in contemporary political philosophy, exalting the 
 idea of the state and the nation at the expense of individual rights. 
 
 [ 103] 
 
(c) The range of opinions regarding the sphere of government: anarchism; laissez 
 faire individualism; advocacy of moderate social legislation; advocacy of 
 radical social legislation; state socialism; guild socialism. 
 
 B. Constitutions as a protection against governmental encroachments. 
 Contrast between the American and English constitutions. 
 
 (a) The advantages of rigid constitutions as a guarantee of individual rights and 
 
 as a definition of the sphere of governmental activity. 
 (6) The rigid constitution as a guarantee against ill-considered legislation, 
 (c) Arguments sometimes advanced against rigid constitutions. 
 
 i. They afford no protection in time of crisis, because they are violated at 
 
 such times, 
 ii. As interpreted by conservative judicial bodies, they tend to safeguard the 
 
 privileges of the few rather than the interests of the many, 
 iii. In practise they are often obstacles to desirable innovations, 
 iv. Constitutions are difficult to interpret. Interpretation is sometimes 
 virtually legislation. Hence, the interpretation of a rigid constitution by 
 a judiciary body really means legislation by that body, 
 v. Constitutions framed by one generation are often unsuited to the altered 
 political and social conditions present in a later generation. 
 
 C. General agreement that government should exercise the following functions: 
 
 (a) Maintain internal order. 
 
 (b) Provide for national defense. 
 
 (c) Administrate the civil law; its great importance. 
 
 (d) Conduct foreign relations. 
 
 (e) Promote general welfare in fields where private enterprise does not seem to be 
 feasible: c. g., posts, copyrights, patents. 
 
 D. Difference of opinion relative to the following functions: 
 
 (a) Extent of governmental action relative to public health and morals: e. g., 
 
 controversy regarding prohibition. 
 (6) Support of, or interference with, religious bodies. 
 
 i. In some countries there is an established religion or state church; in others 
 
 there is none, 
 ii. In some countries religious freedom is curtailed by the government: n. g., 
 
 in France monastic orders are subjected to restrictions, 
 iii. The problem of religious schools. (See below.) 
 
 (c) Public and private education. 
 
 i. Should the government grant financial support to private as well as to 
 public schools, in proportion to the number of pupils, inasmuch as all 
 citizens alike pay taxes for the support of schools (e. g., the parochial 
 school)? Note the recent constitutional amendment in Massachusetts. 
 ii. To what extent should government dictate curricula of public and of pri- 
 vate schools? 
 iii. How much education may the government make compulsory? 
 
 (d) Enforcement of national homogeneity. 
 
 i. By restricting use of foreign language, 
 ii. By curtailing freedom of press and of speech, 
 iii. By promoting nationalist propaganda, e. g., "Americanization." 
 
 (e) Military service. 
 
 i. Compulsory military service and military training, 
 ii. The "conscientious objector." 
 (/) Regulation or ownership of business. 
 
 i. Regulation and ownership of quasi-public businesses (public utilities). 
 [104] 
 
ii. Prevention of monopolies in business, and punishment of unfair business 
 
 practices, 
 iii. Interference in freedom of contract; regulation of hours; child and woman 
 labor; conditions in factories and mines; minimum wage; etc. 
 (g) Social insurance; old age pensions; sickness insurance; accident insurance; 
 unemployment insurance (and government employment offices); maternity 
 benefits, etc. 
 (h) Extent and purpose of taxation; taxation for revenue only versus taxation for 
 protection of home industries and taxation for the equalization of wealth, 
 i. The protective tariff, 
 ii. Taxes on luxuries. 
 
 iir. Taxes on wealth: progressive income and inheritance taxes; taxes on profits; 
 the single tax. 
 (») Intervention in conflicts between capital and labor, in the interests of public 
 order or of the consumers. 
 
 6. The problem of homogeneity. 
 
 ♦Mill, Representative Government, Chap XVI; *Lowell, 28-40; Hayes, II, 319-326, 
 433-434- . 
 
 A. Difficulties arising from lack of homogeneity. 
 
 (0) Unwillingness of dominant groups to share political power with subordinate 
 groups or classes, 
 i. Where the subordinate group is of different race, e. g., the negroes in south- 
 ern United States and in South Africa, 
 ii. Where the subordinate group is of different religion, e. g., Jewish minorities 
 in Continental Europe; the Roman Catholic Irish in the United Kingdom, 
 iii. Where the subordinate group is of different nationality (usually implying 
 different language, and different cultural and historical traditions), e. g., 
 unassimilated alien elements in United States; the Irish in the United 
 Kingdom; the French in Alsace Lorraine before the war; the Egyptian 
 and Indian nationalities, 
 iv. Where the subordinate group is of inferior economic or social status, e. g., 
 disfranchisement of laboring classes in most countries until comparatively 
 recent times; survival of aristocratic attitude towards labor. 
 (b) Focussing of attention on group antagonisms. 
 
 i. Prominence of race question in United States, 
 ii. Prominence of Irish question in British politics. 
 
 iii. Difficulty of democratic government in the old Austro-Hungarian mon- 
 archy because of nationalistic antagonisms, 
 iv. Group antagonisms offer favorable conditions for undemocratic govern- 
 ment. Policy of "divide and rule." 
 (e) Tendency of subordinate groups to become embittered and violent, or revo- 
 lutionary, 
 i. The Boer Rebellion in South Africa, 
 ii. The Irish Rebellion, 
 iii. Negro riots in the United States. 
 iv. Nationalist manifestations in Egypt and India. 
 
 B. Difficulty of obtaining homogeneity. 
 
 (a) Spirit of solidarity (compare "herd-instinct") in each group. 
 i. Unwillingness of Irish to be treated as Englishmen, 
 ii. Race-consciousness in the United States. 
 
 [105] 
 
C. Methods of promoting homogeneity, 
 (a) Public education. 
 
 i. Influence of public schools in United States. 
 
 ii. Difficulty in European countries; unwillingness of subordinate nationalities 
 to accept dominant language as language of instruction. 
 (6) Propaganda. 
 
 i. The "Americanization" program. 
 (c) Restriction of immigration. 
 
 i. The facts regarding immigration to the United States. 
 
 ii. Possible difficulties. 
 
 D. Disadvantages of homogeneity. 
 
 (a) Lack of the stimulation that comes from mixture of different cultures. 
 (6) Possible excessive development of rigid social standards, and consequent lack 
 of tolerance. 
 
 BOOK X. EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 
 
 The discussion of education has been placed at the end of the course because 
 the problems of education can be understood only when considered wjth reference 
 to the total situation in contemporary society. The bearing of education upon the 
 various social problems already discussed is emphasized rather than the questions 
 in which the educational specialist is particularly interested. 
 
 1. The nature and aims of education. 
 
 J. Dewey, Democracy and Education, Chapter I; *Wallas, Our Social Heritage, 15-25; 
 *Thorndike, Education, 1— 51. 
 
 A. Definition: In the broadest sense education may be defined as the attempt to guide 
 life so as to enhance its value. 
 
 B. General characteristics of education, 
 (a) The process of education implies 
 
 i. The transmission of experience from one generation to another, 
 ii. The revision of experience through the discovery of new facts and new 
 values. 
 (6) Education has the following general aims: 
 
 i. To train native human powers for the performance of necessary and de- 
 sirable operations, 
 ii. To give information. 
 
 iii. To develop individual powers of judgment. 
 
 iv. To develop individual capacities for enjoyment and accomplishment, 
 v. To strengthen social coherence by coordinating various human activities 
 
 and by developing a sense of individual responsibility to the group, 
 vi. To perpetuate social traditions. 
 
 vii. To improve man's estate by the discovery of new truth, 
 viii. To perfect human nature — moral education. 
 {c) Education is modified by the conditions peculiar to the society in which it 
 functions, 
 i. In simple societies (e. g., American Indian tribes) where the group activities 
 are relatively few, 
 («) Education need not be a separately organized social process, but may 
 come through a direct participation of the young in the activities of 
 the group. 
 (ii) The aims of education are few and simple. 
 
 [106] 
 
(Hi) The aims of education are a matter of universal agreement because 
 the group is comparatively homogeneous, 
 ii. In complex societies (e. g., contemporary civilized nations) where the group 
 activities are various and many, 
 (») There must be a special and elaborate organization of education 
 because 
 
 a. The processes which minister to the basic human needs in such 
 societies are extremely complicated, and can be mastered only 
 slowly and with considerable difficulty. 
 
 b. These processes in such societies call for the cooperation of widely 
 scattered and widely different people. Such cooperation cannot 
 exist without some community of interest, feeling, and idea. 
 
 c. The quality of life which is associated with such societies can be 
 maintained only by an elaborate training. 
 
 (ii) The specific aims of education will be numerous because the purposes 
 of the group are numerous. 
 
 (««») There will be differences in opinion as to what aims should be em- 
 phasized in education, because the group is not homogeneous. These 
 differences appear in the various social ideals current in the group. 
 (See page 115 for treatment of conflicting ideals in contemporary civili- 
 zation.) 
 
 2. The agents of education in contemporary civilization. 
 
 Contemporary society possesses extensive and elaborately organized instruments 
 of education. In a sense everything with which the individual comes into contact 
 may contribute to his education, but the discussion must be limited here to those 
 agents from which he learns most continuously and consciously. 
 
 A. Schools. 
 
 (a) General schools, 
 i. Public schools. 
 
 (i) Full time day schools — elementary and secondary schools; colleges 
 
 and universities. 
 (ii) Evening and extension schools, 
 ii. Private schools. 
 
 (») Full time day schools — parochial schools, colleges, and universities. 
 (ii) Evening and extension schools — labor colleges, etc. 
 ,(b) Technical schools — public and private. 
 (c) Professional, industrial and business schools. 
 
 B. Public institutions such as libraries, museums, information bureaus, exhibitions, 
 lectures, concerts, etc. 
 
 C. The press. 
 
 Walter Lippmann, Liberty and the News. 
 
 D. The churches. 
 
 Wallas, Our Social Heritage, 253-284. 
 
 E. The family. 
 
 F. Business, professional, and industrial organizations. 
 
 (a) Education acquired through apprenticeship in professions, industries, and 
 businesses. 
 
 (b) Educational departments of professional, industrial, and business establish- 
 ments. 
 
 (c) Alliances between technical schools and professional, industrial, and business 
 establishments. 
 
 [107] 
 
(d) Trade union schools. 
 
 A. Gleason, Workers' Education: American Experiments. 
 G. Military and naval establishments. 
 H . Talented and experienced individuals acting as mentors to the inexperienced. 
 
 J. S. Mill, Autobiography. 
 
 3. Current educational problems. 
 
 A. The revision of social experience. 
 Wallas, Our Social Heritage, 22-25. 
 Problem : To discover what is true, and what is good for the conduct of life. 
 
 (a) Necessity of testing the received body of knowledge constantly. 
 
 i. Inherited opinions may be false. 
 
 (*) Though true in the past a change in the situation may make them 
 
 false in the present. 
 (ii) They may have been false from the beginning, though their falsehood 
 remained undetected because they were never put to the test. 
 ii. Though false knowledge, if undetected, may give social prestige, it does 
 not avail to control nature and "relieve man's estate." 
 
 (b) Necessity and importance of extending knowledge. 
 
 i. New problems are constantly arising which call for increased knowledge, 
 ii. Extension of knowledge often leads to the increase of human power, 
 
 which may be used to enhance the value of life, 
 iii. The search for truth has its own intrinsic values. 
 
 (c) Difficulty of testing and extending knowledge. 
 
 i. The search for truth is intrinsically difficult because of the errors to which 
 
 the human mind is naturally prone — Bacon's "idols." Francis Bacon, 
 
 Novum Organum, Aphorisms, 1—68; *John Dewey, How We Think, 18-26. 
 
 ii. Most men have little ideal interest in testing or increasing their knowledge, 
 
 and their practical interest is usually limited to a narrow field, 
 iii. Those men who are naturally fitted for and interested in scientific work arc 
 often in a poor position to pursue it. 
 (i) Difficulty of discovering one's natural aptitudes and dangers of being 
 
 side-tracked until it is too late. 
 (ii) Economic embarrassments prevent proper training and equipment. 
 (iii) Poor coordination of research leads to much duplication and wasted 
 effort, 
 iv. In many fields the testing and extending of knowledge is hindered by 
 prejudices and special interests. 
 
 (d) To what extent should universities emphasize research rather than teaching, 
 and in how far can they meet these difficulties? 
 
 J. H. Newman, The Idea of a University, Chap. VI; T. Veblen, The Higher 
 Learning in America. 
 
 (e) The maintenance and refinement of standards of value. 
 *Bertrand Russell, Proposed Roads to Freedom, 164-212. 
 
 i. Genius and the discovery of value. 
 
 !i) There are men of wide sympathies and unusual moral insight who 
 discover more values in life than does the average man. The refine- 
 ment of conceptions as to what is good and valuable in life depends 
 largely upon genius of this kind. 
 (ii) These discoveries of value are recorded in 
 
 a. Great artistic achievements. 
 
 b. Science and philosophy. 
 
 c. Great works of statesmanship. 
 
 [108] 
 
d. The work of social and moral leaders. 
 
 e. Religions. 
 
 (iii) Although little is known as to how such discoveries may be encour- 
 aged, it seems that the following conditions would be advantageous: 
 a. The development of methods for the early discovery of persons 
 
 of unusual ability. 
 6. The provision of special nurture for this unusual ability, 
 c The general diffusion of knowledge and elevation of taste in society. 
 ii. Heightening the general appreciation of values in society. 
 
 Although little is known as to how the appreciation of values can be 
 heightened in the average person, it seems that the following conditions 
 would be advantageous: 
 (i) A general relief of economic strain and an increase of leisure by the 
 more efficient management of industry. 
 (See also above under Industrial Problems.) 
 (ii) Increased opportunity for the longer continuance of general and 
 
 cultural education. 
 (iii) Increased opportunity for a more extensive contact with the material 
 instruments of our society. Could a system of national service aid in 
 giving this? 
 (iv) Increased opportunity for the development of some skill in the arts 
 
 and sciences by all persons. 
 (v) Increased contact of all people with the great achievements of past 
 
 generations in arts and sciences, 
 (it') Decreased contact of all people with the mediocre and ugly in their 
 daily surroundings. How can commercial and industrial manage- 
 ments pay more attention to the general cultural effects of the voca- 
 tional environment? 
 (vii) Increased opportunity in the process of education for contact be- 
 tween pupils and persons of unusual ability. 
 
 B. Making education universal. 
 
 H. G. Wells, The Salvaging of Civilization, 141— 193. 
 Problem: To provide at least the minimum of education needed by everyone. 
 (a) The maintenance of a decent standard of living in contemporary civilization 
 demands that: 
 i. Everyone should read, write, and speak the language of his nation with 
 
 correctness, 
 ii. All people should know at least enough simple arithmetic to enable them 
 
 to keep'their accounts, 
 iii. All people should observe the elementary principles necessary for the 
 
 maintenance of private and public health, 
 iv. Each person should learn a socially useful vocation, and should have some 
 
 conception of its relation to the other vocations, 
 v. All people should know at least the following things about the society in 
 which they live: 
 (i) Its provisions for public crises and how to call upon them; e. g., fire, 
 
 police departments, etc. 
 (ii) Its more essential regulations for the conduct of ordinary activities, 
 
 and how they are maintained. 
 (iii) The means for changing these regulations. 
 (iv) The morals generally recognized in its customs, institutions, and 
 
 laws. 
 (v) Some of its past achievements which are memorable. 
 
 [109] 
 
(»») Some simple notions of its extent, power, and relation to other socie- 
 ties, 
 (ft) In all countries there are some people without this necessary minimum of 
 education, due to 
 i. Poverty, 
 ii. Inaccessibility. 
 
 iii. Poor governmental regulation of schools. 
 *Appendix, III, 6. 
 (c) Suggested solutions of this problem. 
 i. Improved economic conditions, 
 ii. Public aid to school children, viz.: meals, transportation, housing, clothing, 
 
 etc. 
 iii. Part time and adult schools, 
 iv. National regulation of education to enforce a minimum national standard 
 
 of education, 
 v. A system of national service — universal participation in agricultural, 
 industrial operations, etc., to replace universal military service. 
 Wm. James, The Moral Equivalent of War (in Memories and Studies). 
 
 C. The organization of educational instruments. 
 
 Problem : To bring each pupil into the environment best adapted for his education. 
 
 (a) Difficulty of adapting educational instruments to individual differences be- 
 cause of the great number of pupils — prevalence of education en masse today. 
 ♦Thorndike, Education, 67-70, 262-281. 
 
 i. Inadequate specialization, 
 ii. Inadequate provision for defectives, and for persons of unusual ability. 
 
 (b) Difficulty of determining natural aptitudes in advance prevents rational 
 guidance of specialization. 
 
 (c) Other factors, such as poverty, location, personal inclination, parental desire, 
 etc., prevent proper placement even when the kind of school best adapted to 
 the pupil is known and is available. At present the schooling of most persons 
 is determined much more by such factors, especially economic circumstances, 
 than by the needs and potentialities of the individual. 
 
 (d) Suggested remedies. 
 
 i. Improved economic conditions. 
 
 ii. Provision for a greater number of schools and teachers, 
 iii. Development of tests for native ability. 
 
 D. The methods of teaching and learning. 
 J. Dewey. School and Society, 1-84. 
 
 Problem: To employ the best methods of teaching and learning. 
 
 (a) Difficulty of securing enough good teachers to meet present needs. 
 Thorndike, Education, 229-261. 
 
 (b) Disagreement as to where the emphasis should be placed in teaching. 
 
 i. On mental discipline by drill? 
 ii. On the presentation of subject-matter? 
 
 iii. On the production of certain specific powers of accomplishment? 
 iv. On the development of certain latent tendencies in the child? 
 v. On the planning and execution of projects? — the "project method." 
 
 ♦Dewey, How We Think, 157-169; Thorndike, Education, 95-202, *i68-202. 
 
 (c) Difficulty of securing an active state of mind in the class room. 
 
 i. Impossibility of training the judgment by enforcing a routine from with- 
 out, 
 ii. Need for awakening the pupil's interest so that his own desire for compe- 
 tence will supply the discipline required for successful study. 
 
 [no] 
 
iii. The limitations of teaching in education. 
 
 Russell, Why Men Fight, 153-181; Wallas, Our Social Heritage, 26-54. 
 
 (d) Dangers of a divorce between education and life — Formalism in education. 
 
 i. Does the education he receives prepare the pupil for life? 
 ii. If the educational program becomes formal and out of touch with society, 
 it is not apt to awaken the pupil's desire to learn. 
 
 (e) What should the general school be like? — Function, equipment, curriculum, 
 personnel, organization, size, etc. 
 
 Dewey, Democracy and Education, 22-27. 
 
 E. The supervision and control of educational instruments. 
 Problem: To maintain the efficiency of educational instruments. 
 
 (a) Difficulty of testing schools to determine how well they are performing their 
 functions. 
 
 *Thorndike, Education, 203-228. 
 
 i. Disagreement as to the standards and results which should be expected. 
 
 ii. Difficulty of collecting the required data. 
 
 iii. Consequent impossibility of providing an adequate external check upon 
 educational institutions. 
 
 (b) Lack of external checks means that improvement and maintenance of effi- 
 ciency are not insured. 
 
 (c) Extreme difficulty of controlling such agencies as the press, the church, the 
 family, the business organization, etc. 
 
 i. These institutions, though not primarily designed to educate, play a 
 
 tremendous role in education, 
 ii. They all represent special interests, and hence are propagandist rather than 
 
 scientific in their attitude, 
 iii. How shall conflicts in propaganda be adjusted? 
 
 (»') To what extent can veracity be insured? — in the press, in business 
 organizations, etc. 
 
 Walter Lippmann, Liberty and the News, 
 (ii) Who shall be judge of true and good opinions? 
 iv. Control of such agencies almost impossible because of the difficulty in 
 determining just what their influence is and how it is exerted. 
 
 F. The development of social coherence and cooperation. 
 
 Problem : To aid in the development of social responsibility and cooperation. 
 
 The various groups in contemporary civilization are held together by bonds of 
 interest, feeling, and idea. Habit plays a prominent role in maintaining these 
 bonds, but habit alone is insufficient, and education must aid in strengthening 
 them. It is also a primary function of education to aid in the formation of these 
 bonds so as to produce the most favorable cooperation in society for the accomplish- 
 ment of common aims and the development of the individuals participating in the 
 process. It is convenient at this point to examine (1) the bonds which hold 
 families together, (2) the bonds which unite vocational groups, (3) national ties, 
 and (4) the ties bringing all mankind together. It will be seen that strengthening 
 the bonds of certain groups by education may lead to disintegration and dissensions 
 elsewhere; in each case the total effect must be considered. In treating these 
 problems education must be interpreted in the broadest sense, 
 (a) The family: how can family life be made most valuable for all the members? 
 *G. Santayana, Reason in Society, 35-59. 
 i. Love between the sexes is a primary bond in the family. 
 
 (») But undisciplined sexual love is a fitful passion providing but a tem- 
 porary and uncertain basis for family life. 
 
 [Ill] 
 
(ii) How can education transform natural love into an enduring, purpose- 
 ful sentiment? (Note the effects of the Christian and chivalric tradi- 
 tions in this respect.) 
 ii. Children are another chief bond in the family. 
 (») The parents love and care for their children. 
 
 a. But the parental instincts compete with many others, and need 
 especially the guidance of intelligence and knowledge to be suc- 
 cessful in operation. 
 b. How can education strengthen and guide the parental interest and 
 care for the children? 
 (ii) The children love and are dependent upon the parents. 
 
 it. But when the children approach independence, filial devotion 
 competes with many other tendencies, and- may seem to obstruct 
 personal ambitions. 
 6. How can education strengthen and make more purposeful the love 
 of children for their parents? 
 iii. The promise of individual achievement and the stimulus of family tradi- 
 tions may be bonds in the family. 
 (b) The vocation: how can the vocation most enrich the lives of those engaged in it? 
 (See also under Industrial Problems.) 
 
 *Santayana, Reason in Society, 60-70; H. Marot, Creative Impulse in Industry, 
 Chap. IV; Wallas, Our Social Heritage, 120-154. 
 
 i. Money return is in the present industrial-commercial system the primary 
 bond in the vocation. 
 (i) But money return does little to create satisfaction in the vocation as 
 such; consequently, it often fails to insure good workmanship and 
 divorces the aim of working from the work. 
 (ii) How can money return be given more significance as representing 
 achievement? 
 ii. The interest in workmanship is another chief bond in the vocation. 
 
 (i) But in modern machine industry the routine character of the processes 
 
 gives little scope to the interest in workmanship. 
 (ii) How can the vocation be made to approach the nature of an art so as 
 to release most effectually the interest in workmanship? 
 iii. Native interest in a particular kind of work is another chief bond in the 
 vocation. 
 (») But native interest is in a great many cases not well marked, and is 
 not always correlated with ability to succeed in the work which calls 
 forth the interest. 
 (ii) How can education aid in giving us surer indications of native in- 
 terest and native ability? 
 iv. Personal association is a bond in the vocation. 
 
 (i) But the relations in large scale modern industry at least are largely 
 
 impersonal. 
 (ii) How can the modern vocation be endowed with a fuller social signifi- 
 cance for those engaged in it? (Cf. the mediaeval gilds in this re- 
 spect), 
 v. The idea of social service is a bond in the vocation. 
 
 (»') But modern industrial processes are so complicated that the individ- 
 ual gets little sense of the social significance of his operations. 
 (ii) How can the individual be made to see his vocation in its full social 
 setting? 
 
 I112] 
 
(e) The nation: how can the nation have most value for the lives of its citizens? 
 *Santayana, Reason in Society, 160-183; Wallas, Our Social Heritage, 77-100. 
 (See also above under Nationalism and Internationalism.) 
 i. The land is an important bond in the nation. 
 
 (i) But the modern nation is so extensive that the geographical basis of 
 
 nationality is by no means the same for all citizens, 
 (is) People today move about so much that the contact with the national 
 
 land is frequently broken. 
 (»'**') How can education give the citizen a conception of the extent and 
 character of the national land, and of its possibilities if wisely used? 
 Could a system of national service (such as suggested above) aid 
 effectually in this? 
 ii. The race is an important bond in the nation. 
 
 (»') But the modern nation is frequently not a racial unit. Its popula- 
 tion often comprises more than one race, and it rarely includes an 
 entire race within its bounds. 
 (ii) How can education aid in effecting cooperation between different 
 racial elements within the nation (e. g., American negro problem, 
 etc.)? 
 iii. A cultural history is an important bond in the nation. 
 
 (i) But the population of a modern nation comprises people with very 
 different cultural pasts, i. e. different languages, traditions, customs, 
 standards, and religions. 
 (ii) How can education aid in securing cooperation between these dif- 
 ferent peoples without losing the advantages to all contained in a 
 variety of values? Is cooperation compatible with such variety? 
 iv. The demand for protection and security is an important bond in the nation. 
 (»") But the conditions which threaten the security of peoples in modern 
 nations are no longer the same as they were when these nations 
 were established. It may be questioned whether the instruments of 
 protection developed by modern national states are the most effec- 
 tive in dealing with the dangers besetting modern peoples. 
 (ii) How can education aid in developing more effective instruments 
 than military establishments, for the protection and security of 
 modern peoples? Can some system of international organization aid 
 in this? 
 v. The need for regulating the activities of various groups within the nation 
 is an important national bond. 
 (i) But national administration must be in the interests of all these 
 
 various groups which make up the nation. 
 (ii) How can education aid in perfecting government so that it will deal 
 with vital social issues more promptly and effectually? 
 (See also above under Political Control.) 
 vi. An ideal of national greatness is an important bond in the nation. 
 
 (*) But within the modern nation there are a great many different con- 
 ceptions as to what the national ideal should be. 
 (ii) How can education aid in making the national life express as fully 
 
 as possible the aspirations of all the citizens? 
 (iii) The national ideal may become one of conquest, and its pursuit dis- 
 astrous to its champions and to other peoples. 
 (iv) How can education aid in making the pursuit of the national ideal a 
 contribution to the general good of mankind rather than an obstruc- 
 tion to the realization of human aims? 
 
 [113] 
 
(d) The community of all mankind: how can trans-national and international 
 relations be organized so as to increase the value of life for all men everywhere? 
 Wallas, Our Social Heritage, 190-217. 
 (See also above: Nationalism and Internationalism.) 
 i. Art is an important bond between all men. 
 
 (*") But art is also nourished by local traditions and aspirations, becoming 
 
 at times a factor in the integration of a limited group. 
 (ii) How can education develop the aesthetic sense so that it may be 
 enriched by the values in art of various national and local traditions? 
 (»«t) The appreciation of art is still far from universal, and its appeal is 
 
 easily brushed aside by many when it conflicts with other aims. 
 (*») How can education aid in increasing the social value of art by develop- 
 ing the aesthetic sense of all people? 
 ii. Science is an important bond between all men. 
 
 (») But comparatively few persons realize the value of science, and know 
 
 how exacting its discipline is. 
 (»*') How can education aid in developing a wide-spread recognition of the 
 importance of science, and an appreciation of the possibilities of trans- 
 national cooperation in science? 
 iii. The need for developing the uncivilized peoples is a bond between men of 
 different nations. 
 (*) But the development of backward countries may be approached as an 
 opportunity for private and national aggrandizement rather than as 
 a broad social enterprise. 
 («) The attempt to develop uncivilized peoples may be misguided through 
 
 a failure to understand the situation and aims of backward peoples. 
 (iii) How can education aid in bringing about a better understanding of 
 what "the white man's burden" really is? 
 iv. The need for regulating communication, commerce, etc., is a bond between 
 men of different nations. 
 (i) Such enterprises are today regulated largely by private agencies with 
 the assistance of national governments. Due to private and inter- 
 national rivalry this system is attended by a certain amount of dis- 
 order and chaos, which may bring disaster to unfortunately placed 
 regions of the world (e. g., Armenia, South-Eastern Europe at present). 
 (ii) How can education aid in developing international minds who will 
 see the problem of regulating those activities which minister to com- 
 mon human needs from the point of view of the general good of 
 mankind? 
 v. The desire to prevent wars is a bond between all men. 
 
 (*') But wars have served a great variety of interests, and cannot be 
 eliminated without a persistent and organized attempt to remove 
 their causes. 
 (ii) How can education contribute to an understanding of the causes of 
 wars, and to the development of more effective instruments for ful- 
 filling their functions? 
 vi. The sentiment of human brotherhood is a bond between all men. 
 
 (») But it competes with many other sentiments, and is weak because 
 
 directed to no purpose. 
 (ii) How can education aid in strengthening the sentiment of human 
 brotherhood, and in making it more purposeful? 
 vii. The worship of God is a bond between men of different nations. 
 (*) But men still seek Divine sanction for unethical enterprises. 
 
 [114] 
 
(ii) How can education aid in disciplining worship by ideals which have 
 stood the test of carefully scrutinized experience? 
 C. The conflict of social ideals. 
 
 Problem: To aid in adjusting various social ideals to each other by cultivating in 
 individuals an appreciation for preferences other than their own. 
 Since individuals differ by nature, and since modern institutions are a varied prod- 
 uct of many forces, it is inevitable that people with many different ideals should 
 be brought together in contemporary society. In many cases it is neither possible 
 nor desirable to eliminate these differences, for while developing his own tastes 
 the individual may enrich his life through cultivating an appreciation for the prefer- 
 ences of others. This is a chief function of education. In describing certain ideals 
 which are commonly opposed, an attempt is here made to present both the ad- 
 vantages and limitations of each ideal, and questions as to whether there can be a 
 synthesis of their values are suggested for consideration. 
 
 (a) Absolutism and relativism. Edman, 441—454. 
 
 i. The absolutist 
 
 (*) Believes that there is a universal, unchanging standard of right and 
 
 wrong, 
 (if) Emphasizes the need of following certain definite principles of law 
 
 and order. 
 (iii) Often exhibits great moral earnestness. 
 
 (»"») Often has difficulty in adjusting himself to changed situations, 
 ii. The relativist 
 
 (*") Believes that right and wrong are contingent upon the circumstances 
 
 of particular situations. 
 (ii) Usually exhibits great adaptability to changed circumstances. 
 (»'»'»') Often falls into opportunism because of hesitation to define his 
 standards, 
 iii. How can one have definite standards and ideals which will be always sub- 
 ject to clarification and improvement? 
 
 (b) Conservatism and radicalism. Edman, 246-274. 
 
 i. The conservative 
 
 (»') Is usually sensitive to the values in things and finds that their value 
 
 increases with their familiarity. 
 (ii) Tends to emphasize 
 
 a. The mastering of acquired human knowledge. 
 
 b. The development of social traditions. 
 
 c. Culture as the aim of life. 
 
 (iii) How can this sense for the values in the social inheritance be devel- 
 oped without reinforcing an uncritical resistance to change? 
 ii. The radical 
 
 (i) Is usually sensitive to the defects in things and is impatient for change. 
 (ii) Tends to emphasize 
 
 a. Reliance upon "natural" human development. 
 
 b. The discovery of new knowledge and methods. 
 
 c. Clearing the ground for a new start. 
 
 (iii) How can this sense for the defects in the social inheritance be devel- 
 oped without neglecting and losing its values? 
 iii. How can social change be made a process of improvement? 
 
 (c) Provincialism and cosmopolitanism. Santayana, Reason in Society, 160-183. 
 
 i. The provincial 
 
 (0 Feels uncomfortable away from home.— "There is no place like 
 home." 
 
 ["Si 
 
(ii) Has a sense for the subtle differences which distinguish his own 
 
 environment from others, and values them highly. 
 (iii) Sometimes shows disregard of the preferences of others, and usually 
 fails to appreciate them, 
 ii. The cosmopolitan 
 
 (i) Enjoys travel and contact with all sorts of people. 
 (ii) Often fails to appreciate uniqueness, and advocates one method and 
 way of life for all. 
 iii. How can uniqueness and variety be preserved without isolation, misunder- 
 standings, and conflicts? 
 
 (d) Individualism and collectivism. Edman, 81-109, 126-135; 138-147; Wallas, 
 Our Social Heritage, 155-182. 
 
 i. The individualist 
 
 (*) Seems less continuously affected by the need for social cooperation, 
 
 and desires a maximum of personal control over his own actions. 
 (ii) Tends to emphasize 
 
 a. Individual differences. 
 4. Freedom from restraint, 
 ii. The collectivist emphasizes 
 
 (i) .Social cooperation, and estimates the value of life by considering the 
 
 condition of the group. 
 (ii) Social efficiency by the training of individuals for specific social func- 
 tions. 
 (iii) The sacrifice of individual preferences to the welfare of the group. 
 (iv) Solidarity of the group in interest, feeling, and idea, 
 iii. How can there be a society of well-developed, self-directing individuals 
 cooperating for social aims? 
 
 (e) Aristocracy and democracy. *Santayana, Reason in Society, 88-136. 
 
 i. The aristocrat 
 
 (») Judges a society by considering the quality of life to which a few 
 
 favored persons attain. 
 (ii) Tends to emphasize 
 
 <*. The development of favored individuals to a high point of excel- 
 lence. 
 6. The special nurture of persons of unusual ability. 
 c. Culture as the aim of life. 
 (iii) How can unusually gifted individuals attain special excellence without 
 arbitrary discrimination? 
 ii. The democrat 
 
 («) Judges a society by considering the quality of life to which each 
 member attains. 
 (ii) Tends to favor 
 
 a. The treating of all individuals alike. 
 
 b. The adjustment of society so that each individual will be able 
 to realize the best of which he is capable. 
 
 (iii) How can the quality of life be improved for the great majority of 
 people without arresting the development of any specially gifted 
 persons? 
 iii. Can democratic society live a life of aristocratic quality? 
 (/) Puritanism and paganism. I. Edman, The New Puritanism (in The Columbia 
 University Quarterly); W. Bagehot, Literary Studies, v. 2, on Macaulay ,12-22. 
 i. The puritan 
 
 (i) Selects certain values, and concentrates upon increasing them in the 
 future, restricting meanwhile his present enjoyments. 
 
 [116] 
 
(it) Tends to emphasize 
 
 a. The idea of preparation for later responsibilities and privileges. 
 (The other-worldly view of life as preparation is an extreme form 
 of this.) 
 
 b. Negative commands and prohibitions designed to avoid diversion 
 from the main business in hand. 
 
 (Hi) How can this emphasis be given to the greater values in life without 
 reducing most of life to a means or method for the pursuit of these? 
 ii. The pagan 
 
 (t) Seeks to make each present moment yield as much immediate value 
 as it can. He cannot easily concentrate upon a greater future good 
 for which present satisfactions must be sacrificed, 
 (it) Tends to emphasize 
 
 a. The free expression of individual natures. 
 
 6. In the more highly developed forms of paganism a refined system 
 for the training of sensibility may be recommended; c g., Greek 
 Cyrenaics and Epicureans; Walter Pater, 
 (tit) How can this sense for the values which are present each moment be 
 developed without the loss of a sense of relative importance and of 
 responsibility for the future? 
 iii. How can the content of life be enriched without the loss of control over its 
 development? 
 
 [I17l 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 Statistical and Map Studies 
 
 PART I. THE WORLD OF NATURE 
 
 "The earth's geography, its inexorable climates with their flora and fauna, 
 make a play-ground for the human will which should be well surveyed by any 
 statesman who wishes to judge and act, not fantastically, but with reference 
 to the real situation. Geography is a most enlightening science. In describing 
 the habitat of man it largely explains his history." 
 
 [George Santayana, Reason in Society, p. 164] 
 
 The following studies are designed to furnish material illustrative of and 
 supplementary to syllabus and text, and are to be studied in connection with 
 the syllabus assignments. Where questions are asked they are to be written 
 out and handed in as a part of the assignment. The statistical tables and 
 other data are intended to illustrate and make more concrete the problems 
 discussed in the syllabus. Occasional references are given for following up 
 topics in more detail than is possible in the syllabus, and it is hoped that 
 interested students will make use of them, and report the results of their 
 readings to their instructors. 
 
 Although it is expected that the student may be able to answer from data 
 obtained in the lectures and class room discussions most if not all of the 
 questions here posed, the following books will be found of value in looking 
 up special points: 
 
 Brunhes, J. : Human Geography. 
 
 Chisholm, G. C. : Handbook of Commercial Geography. 
 
 George, H. B. : Relations of Geography and History. 
 
 Gregory-Keller-Bishop: Physical and Commercial Geography. 
 
 Hammond's Business Atlas of Economic Geography. 
 
 Harding, S. B.: European History Atlas. 
 
 Robinson, E. vanD. : Commercial Geography. 
 
 Semple, E. C: Influences of Geographic Environment. 
 
 Smith, J. Russell: Industrial and Commercial Geography. 
 
 Mulhall: Dictionary of Statistics. 
 
 Webb : Dictionary of Statistics. 
 
 Statistical Abstract for the United States Census. 
 
 Statesman's Year Book. 
 
 [118] 
 
In writing out the answers to the following questions the student may consult the 
 atlases and texts listed above. It is expected, however, that most of the questions 
 can be answered without reference to texts, 
 i. Name the continents, the oceans, and the principal seas. 
 
 2. Name the great river valleys about which oriental civilization centers. 
 
 3. Modern occidental civilization centers about what body of water? 
 
 4. Note that in general large rivers and large drainage areas enter the Atlantic Ocean 
 and steep, short drainage areas enter the Pacific Ocean. The drainage area of the 
 Atlantic Ocean covers 19,000,000 square miles and that of the Pacific 8,660,000 
 square miles. What are the approximate boundaries of the Atlantic drainage 
 basin? 
 
 5. The following countries have been or still are more or less isolated. Name the 
 natural barriers which have caused the isolation, and in each case name several 
 consequences (political, economic, or cultural) of the isolation: the British Isles, 
 United States, Italy, China. 
 
 6. What barriers have separated oriental and occidental civilization? 
 
 7. In general, are water-bodies centers or barriers of civilization? Give several illus- 
 trations. 
 
 8. In general, are mountains centers or barriers of civilization? Give several illus- 
 trations. 
 
 9. What are the principal ways in which climate influences the life of man? Watson, 
 Psychology, 369-376. 
 
 10. Contrast maritime and continental or inland climates. (Note how in general the 
 Temperature Range Lines on map pp. 86-87 of Hammond tend to follow coast 
 lines.) 
 
 11. Why is it necessary for agricultural purposes to know the annual temperature 
 range of a climate as well as its mean annual temperature? 
 
 12. What temperature ranges and latitudes appear to be most favorable for civiliza- 
 tion? See Hammond, pp. 86-87. 
 
 13. Compare the latitudes and climates of Labrador, Glasgow, and Washington, 
 D. C, and explain the differences and similarities which you find. See Hammond, 
 pp. 1, 9, 60-63, 68-71, 86-87. 
 
 14. Compare density of populations and rainfall. What seems to be the most favora- 
 ble rainfall? See climate and population maps in Hammond. 
 
 15. Name the chief power sources of contemporary civilization. 
 
 16. Name the chief mineral resources of contemporary civilization. 
 
 17. Name the chief staple foodstuffs of contemporary civilization. 
 
 18. What tropical products have become essential to contemporary civilization? 
 
 19. Are most localities independent or interdependent with respect to the above 
 mentioned products? 
 
 20. How would you ship machinery from New York to Petrograd? to Chile? to 
 Tokio? to Bagdad? 
 
 21. Give the approximate dates of (a) the first use of fire, (6) the first domestication 
 of animals, (c) the first use of steam driven machinery, (d) the beginning of modern 
 physics. H. F. Osborn, Men of the Old Stone Age; H. G. Wells, Outline of History, 
 I, 60, 78-80, 97, 104-105. 
 
 PART II. HISTORICAL MAP STUDIES 
 
 The studies are designed to aid the student to visualize the work on the 
 political factors of nineteenth and twentieth century history. They should 
 be prepared in conjunction with the reading; merely mechanical drawing 
 
 [119] 
 
of a map is of little value. One should try always to see the significance 
 o the lines one draws or the colors which one applies. Make the map tell 
 a story. 
 
 For suggestion and guidance in preparation of the maps certain references 
 are given: (i) to the text for illustrative reading material; (2) to atlases for 
 suggestive maps. Rarely should one simply copy a map from an atlas. In 
 general no one map in any atlas will give the required data. The best results 
 may be obtained through an intelligent correlation of the material in map 
 study, text, and atlas. Since atlases differ, the atlas used in preparation of 
 the map study and the pages referred to should in every case be indicated on 
 the key sheet. Material may be gathered from sources other than those 
 indicated, or from other pages of the atlases here referred to than those 
 suggested. The references at the head of each map study are meant to be 
 suggestive, not complete. Atlases referred to are: 
 
 Harding, European History Alias (cited Harding); Shepherd, Historical atlas 
 (cited Shepherd); Hammond's (Philips) New Historical Atlas for Students 
 (cited Muir); Robertson and Bartholomew, An Historical Atlas of Modern 
 Europe (cited R. &f B.); Hammond's Business Atlas of Economic Geography 
 (cited Hammond); Maps in Hayes, Political and Social History of Modern 
 Europe, Vol. II (cited Hayes, II). 
 
 Each map should be accompanied by an explanatory key sheet, giving 
 such information as cannot be indicated upon the face of the map itself. 
 It should also carry answers to questions asked in the map studies. 
 
 Constant reference is made to preceding map studies. The finished map, 
 after it is returned by the instructor, should be preserved. 
 
 Care should be taken in the use of the McKinley outline maps. In general 
 dotted lines indicating boundaries of states are those of about 1910. They 
 are therefore not necessarily correct for the nineteenth century, or for today. 
 In the preparation of the map studies the student should early learn to follow 
 natural contours — rivers are the best — and learn to orient himself from 
 these. 
 
 1. The Commercial Revolution. 
 
 Text: Hayes I, 27-28, 49-69. 
 
 Atlas: Shepherd, 98-99, 102-112; Muir, pp. 50-51, plates 46-49, 53, 54, 58-60; 
 Harding, H. 8, H. 14. 
 
 Three McKinley Outline Maps No. 100a. Place-names printed in italics are to be 
 printed on the maps in plain letters. 
 1. It is the purpose of this Map Study to illustrate that mighty expansive movement 
 which broadened European history into world history, extending the influence of 
 European civilization over all the other continents and reacting powerfully to modify 
 the economic life as well as the political ambitions of the European nations. There 
 is no better way to grasp the significance of the Commercial Revolution than com- 
 paring the "known world" before the great explorations of the fifteenth century with 
 the world as we know it today: after consulting Muzzey, 10; Muir, plate 46; and 
 
 [120] 
 
Hayes I, 27, 50; draw a line circling]the portion of (he earth's surface really known to 
 Europeans about the year 1400. 
 
 2. Trade before the Commercial Revolution. The principal economic cause of the 
 Commercial Revolution was the desire of western Europe to share in the trade of 
 the Orient by finding new routes to the land of spices, silks, and gold. On the map 
 show the chief localities in which the commodities of Eastern trade (Hayes I, 44-45) 
 were produced, denoting each commodity by initial (see economic maps in Ham- 
 mond). A glance at any good physical map (Shepherd, 2-3; Muir, plates 59-60; 
 Hammond, p. 17) will show how medieval trade between Europe and Eastern Asia 
 had to find its way through the few gaps in a great barrier-belt of deserts and 
 mountain-ranges — the Sahara, the Nubian Deserl, the barren tableland of Arabia, 
 the Plateau of Iran, the Hindu-Kush Mountains, the Tian-Shan Mountains, and 
 the Altai Mountains. Ever mindful of these physical features, observe how skill- 
 fully the medieval merchants, traveling the "old trade routes," avoided natural 
 obstacles such as precipitous mountain-ranges and broad deserts. Trace by means of 
 dotted lines (1) the route by which a packet of jewels would probably have been 
 transported from India to England, in the fifteenth century, via the "central route" 
 (Hayes I, pp. 46-47, map, p. 49; Shepherd, pp. 102-103, 98-99; Muir, plates 
 59-60); (2) the route of a cargo of spices from the Moluccas to Stockholm, 
 via the "southern route"; (3) the route of a bale of silk from China to Novgorod. 
 The interested student may compare the medieval trade routes with twentieth- 
 century railway and steamship lines. Note that, before the Commercial Revolu- 
 tion, advantageously situated Italian and German city-states and certain cities 
 in France and Netherlands were most important centers of trade. Locate four 
 leading Italian commercial cities; three French; and the cities mentioned by 
 Hayes I (49). An explanation frequently advanced for the decline of these older 
 towns after the Commercial Revolution (see Hayes I, pp. 52-53, 62) is that their 
 commerce with the Orient was strangled by the Turkish occupation of old trade 
 routes. Indicate the dates at which the old southern and central trade-routes 
 fell into the hands of the Ottoman Turks (Hayes I, pp. 52-53) and compare 
 with the dates of Prince Henry the Navigator, Diaz, and Columbus. Did the 
 Turkish conquests cause the Commercial Revolution? Do you think that they 
 accelerated it? 
 
 3. The explorations. Why should Portugal, rather than Spain, have undertaken, 
 early in the fifteenth century, the task of discovering a new trade-route to the 
 East by sailing south around Africa? From the year 1415, when an army of Por- 
 tuguese crusaders (among whom the youthful Prince Henry the Navigator was 
 numbered) conquered the Mohammedan stronghold of Ceuta in Northern Morocco, 
 expedition after expedition was sent out to explore the seemingly interminable 
 western coast of Africa. To mark the painfully slow progress of Portuguese ex- 
 ploration, indicate on the second map Madeira (1419), C. Bojador (1434). C. Blanco 
 (1441), and C. Verde (1445); at the death (1460) of Prince Henry, Gambia (see 
 Shepherd, p. 174) was the southernmost point yet reached. Trace the voyages 
 of Bartholomew Diaz and Vasco da Gama which finally crowned Portuguese per- 
 severance with success. From Calicut, the goal reached by da Gama in 1498, 
 measure the distance to the Spice Islands; how many years elapsed before the 
 Portuguese sent an expedition to the Spice Islands; to China; to Japan? 
 
 Meanwhile, Columbus, under the patronage of Queen Isabella, was striking 
 out in exactly the opposite direction, hoping to reach the Indies by sailing west- 
 ward. The reason for his confidence and the falsity of his calculations will at once 
 become clear if, after consulting Muzzey, p. 6, the student will place "Cipango," 
 "Cathay," and "India" on the map approximately where Columbus expected to find 
 
 [121] 
 
them, and then also in their true positions. Trace the route of Columbus' first 
 voyage. Indicate also the subsequent voyages of Columbus and the explorations 
 mentioned in Hayes I, p. 54. asking yourself in each case what was the aim, and 
 what the achievement of each explorer. 
 
 4. Colonial Empires. In order to avoid unfortunate and unseemly conflict, the 
 two earliest colonial powers, Portugal and Spain, agreed to divide the "heathen" 
 portion of the globe between them. The pope, acting as arbitrator, determined 
 a "line of demarcation" between the Portuguese and Spanish colonial area, a line 
 which was later modified by the Treaty of Tordesillas. On the third outline map 
 indicate the Tordesillas Treaty Line (Shepherd, pp. 107-110). 
 
 The Portuguese and Spanish colonial empires, once so great, have almost dis- 
 appeared from the map today. Outline in yellow the regions embraced by the 
 Portuguese colonial empire at its height, and in green those colonized by Spain 
 (Shepherd, pp. 107-110). Then draw brown oblique lines across the territories 
 later acquired by the Dutch (Shepherd, p. 128). France and England, though 
 they entered the field after Spain and Portugal, became the foremost colonial 
 nations of the present age. (Why France and England especially?) Show in blue 
 the colonies under French rule in 1914, and in red the British colonies (Shepherd, 
 pp. 179-182; Hayes II, p. 701). What parts of the present British colonial Empire 
 were once French? Dutch? Portuguese? (Shepherd, p. 128.) 
 
 What remains of the Spanish and Portuguese colonial realms? (Shepherd, 
 pp. 107-110 and 176.) Observe to what extent the once Spanish and Portuguese 
 colonies remain, to the present day, Spanish and Portuguese respectively in lan- 
 guage and culture. 
 
 The extension of European culture and European rule in America, Africal 
 Asia, and Australia is one of the most remarkable consequences of the Commercia, 
 Revolution, and one of the impressive features of modern history. A mental 
 picture of the process may be formed by looking at a series of world-maps from 
 1490 a. d. down to the present. (Muir, plates 46-52 inclusive, is best for this 
 purpose.) 
 
 5. The following table illustrates in the case of wheat how modern commerce over- 
 comes the natural inequalities in production among the European nations. (From 
 Webb, p. n.) 
 
 Home Production of Wheat Expressed as Per Cent of Total 
 Consumption of Wheat 
 
 Country 
 
 Importing Countries 
 
 Finland 
 
 Norway 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Holland 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Austria 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Greece 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Bosnia and Herzegovina 
 
 Germany 
 
 [122] 
 
 Average 
 
 Average 
 
 1896-1900 
 
 IOOI- 
 
 -190s 
 
 6 
 
 
 4 
 
 13 
 
 
 10 
 
 19 
 
 
 18 
 
 24 
 
 
 20 
 
 27 
 
 
 21 
 
 27 
 
 
 23 
 
 47 
 
 
 39 
 
 So 
 
 
 50 
 
 53 
 
 
 74 
 
 57 
 
 
 57 
 
 60 
 
 
 44 
 
 73 
 
 
 66 
 
 75 
 
 
 64 
 
Average 
 
 Average 
 
 c 896-1900 
 
 1901-1905 
 
 85 
 
 82 
 
 94 
 
 91 
 
 94 
 
 95 
 
 94 
 
 97 
 
 133 
 
 131 
 
 143 
 
 147 
 
 191 
 
 189 
 
 148 
 
 158 
 
 133 
 
 131 
 
 
 128 
 
 Country 
 
 Important Countries 
 
 Italy 
 
 Spain 
 
 Turkey 
 
 France 
 
 Exporting Countries 
 
 Russia 
 
 Hungary 
 
 Roumania 
 
 Bulgaria 
 
 Servia 
 
 United States (1907) 
 
 Europe as a whole produced during the period 1901-1905, 88 per cent, of its 
 wheat consumption. The average decrease in the above importing countries 
 for the periods 1896-1900 and 1901-1905 is 2.5 per cent; and the average increase 
 in the exporting countries is 1.6 per cent. What tendency does this indicate, a 
 tendency towards greater national independence or towards greater national 
 interdependence ? 
 
 2. The Industrial Revolution. 
 
 Text: Hayes II, 67-99. In addition the student may consult Cheyney, An 
 Introduction to the Industrial and Social History of England, Chapter VIII ; H. de B. 
 Gibbins, Industry in England, Chapters XX-XXVI; H. de B. Gibbins, Economic 
 and Industrial Progress of the Century. 
 
 Atlas: Hayes II, 277 map, 215 map; Shepherd, pp. 162-163; Muir, plates 30, 
 44, page 47; Gibbins, Industry in England, pp. 350, 454; Harding, H 18. 
 McKinley Outline Maps No. 121a and 121b. 
 
 The purpose of this map study is to make graphic certain aspects of the In- 
 dustrial Revolution which otherwise would not be obvious, and at the same time 
 to acquaint the student with some of the more famous English industrial cities. 
 
 1. In England. From Muir, plate 44 (best), Shepherd, 162, or the 1915 States- 
 man's Year-Book, p. 70, indicate in black oblique lines the chief coal-fields of England 
 and Wales at the present time (using Outline Map No. 121b). In red oblique 
 lines show the manufacturing districts at present (Shepherd, 162, or Gibbins, 
 Industry in England, 455) noting as you shade each locality the kind of manu- 
 facture. Then, taking pains not to obscure the red and black lines, tint green or 
 yellow the districts most densely populated at the present time (.Shepherd, p. 
 162). Observe to what an extent the area of dense population coincides with that 
 of manufacturers and mines. , You have now represented conditions after the 
 Industrial Revolution. The contrast with previous conditions is striking; on your 
 key sheet enumerate the most densely populated counties before the Industrial 
 Revolution (Shepherd, p. 162; note that the purple is a combination of pink and 
 blue) ;' draw a red line through the names of those which no longer rank in the 
 forefront; on the other hand, enumerate four counties which are now among the 
 most densely populated, but were not in 1750. To explain this spectacular shift 
 in population, observe how many of the declining counties were handicapped by 
 lack of coal-fields and other industrial advantages, and how many of the rising 
 counties possessed swift streams, which furnished the power for mills, or coal and 
 
 [123] 
 
iron fields, which supplied the materials for later factories. Broadly speaking 
 which parts of England are at present agricultural, and which industrial? 
 
 To make graphic the effect of the Industrial Revolution on British politics, locate 
 the following towns (using the second outline map. No. 121a), which were en- 
 franchised in 1832. In each case, either on your map or in your key, indicate the 
 branch of industry for which the region appears to be famous (Shepherd, p. 162; 
 Muir, plate 44; or Encyclopedia Britannica) : Leeds, Sheffield (where Sir Henry 
 Bessemer, 1813-1898, proved the practical value of his method for the manufacture 
 of steel), Manchester (scene of the Peterloo massacre, center of reform agitation 
 up to 1832, then of Cobden-Bright Free-trade movement), Liverpool (birthplace 
 of William Ewart Gladstone), Birmingham (where Watt and Boulton manufac- 
 tured steam-engines; scene of Chartist riots in 1839), Blackburn (Hargreaves 
 lived in the vicinity of Blackburn), Bury (home of John Kay, inventor of the 
 fly-shuttle), Rochdale (John Bright was the son of a Rochdale cotton-mill owner), 
 Merthyr Tydfil (four great ironworks established here between 1759 and 1782), 
 Sunderland (famous for its coal exports as early as the reign of Henry VII). On 
 Shepherd, p. 163, note particularly how the towns enfranchised in 1832 cluster 
 in Lancashire, in the West Riding, around Birmingham, and around the 
 metropolis. 
 
 The following figures give a general picture of the industrial revolution and its 
 effect in various countries. 
 
 a. Development in commerce and industry during the nineteenth century. (From 
 Statistical A bstract.) 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 Cotton 
 
 Coal 
 
 Pig 
 
 
 World's 
 
 Commerce 
 
 Ships 
 
 Railways 
 
 Telegraphs 
 
 Production Production Iron 
 
 
 Population 
 
 Million 
 
 Million 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 Million 
 
 Million 
 
 Million 
 
 Year 
 
 Millions 
 
 Dollars 
 
 Tons 
 
 Miles 
 
 Miles 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Tons 
 
 Tons 
 
 1800 
 
 640 
 
 1,479 
 
 
 
 
 520 
 
 II 
 
 0.8 
 
 1820 
 
 780 
 
 1.659 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 630 
 
 17 
 
 1.0 
 
 1830 
 
 847 
 
 1,981 
 
 III 
 
 0.2 
 
 
 820 
 
 25 
 
 1.8 
 
 1840 
 
 9S° 
 
 2,789 
 
 368 
 
 5 
 
 
 . 1,310 
 
 44 
 
 2.7 
 
 1850 
 
 1,075 
 
 4,049 
 
 864 
 
 24 
 
 5 
 
 1,435 
 
 81 
 
 4-7 
 
 i860 
 
 1,20s 
 
 7.246 
 
 I.7IO 
 
 67 
 
 100 
 
 2,551 
 
 142 
 
 7 
 
 1870 
 
 1,310 
 
 10,663 
 
 3.040 
 
 139 
 
 281 
 
 2,775 
 
 213 
 
 12 
 
 1880 
 
 1.439 
 
 14.761 
 
 5,88o 
 
 224 
 
 440 
 
 3.601 
 
 340 
 
 18 
 
 1890 
 
 1,488 
 
 17.519 
 
 8,296 
 
 390 
 
 768 
 
 5.6oo 
 
 446 
 
 27 
 
 1900 
 
 1.543 
 
 20,105 
 
 13.857 
 
 500 
 
 1,180 
 
 6,247 
 
 800 
 
 40 
 
 1906 
 
 1.579 
 
 27,418 
 
 19.713 
 
 564 
 
 1,200 
 
 7.650 
 
 885 
 
 58 
 
 1910 
 
 1,616 
 
 33,634 
 
 22,046 
 
 637 
 
 1.307 
 
 9.013 
 
 1,141 
 
 65 
 
 1911 
 
 1,630 
 
 35.909 
 
 23.932 
 
 666 
 
 1.356 
 
 10,634 
 
 1.309 
 
 62 
 
 1912 
 
 1.643 
 
 39.570 
 
 24,978 
 
 683 
 
 1,400 
 
 10,488 
 
 1,377 
 
 72 
 
 1913 
 
 1,652 
 
 40,420 
 
 26,317 
 
 690 
 
 1,462 
 
 11,099 
 
 1,478 
 
 74 
 
 1914 
 
 1,661 
 
 37,76o 
 
 27,988 
 
 703 
 
 1,489 
 
 12,418 
 
 1.346 
 
 58 
 
 1915 
 
 1,672 
 
 3L302 
 
 28,160 
 
 717 
 
 1,526 
 
 9.325 
 
 
 61 
 
 1916 
 
 1,692 
 
 46,523 
 
 27,858 
 
 720 
 
 1,322 
 
 9,182 
 
 
 
 [124] 
 
b. Development of commerce of the principal nations, 1720-1904. 
 
 Increase in Commerce Expressed in Million Pounds Sterling 
 
 1720 1750 1780 1800 1820 1830 1840 1850 186018701880 1890 1904 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 13 
 
 21 
 
 23 
 
 67 
 
 74 
 
 88 
 
 114 
 
 169 
 
 375 
 
 547 
 
 698 
 
 740 
 
 949 
 
 British Columbia and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 India 
 
 u 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 19 
 
 41 
 
 74 
 
 155 
 
 213 
 
 311 
 
 429 
 
 
 Holland and Belgium 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 IS 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 45 
 
 61 
 
 86 
 
 136 
 
 165 
 
 308 
 
 710 
 
 Germany 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 36 
 
 40 
 
 46 
 
 52 
 
 70 
 
 130 
 
 212 
 
 294 
 
 307 
 
 630 
 
 United States 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 17 
 
 23 
 
 22 
 
 4i 
 
 62 
 
 136 
 
 165 
 
 308 
 
 320 
 
 530 
 
 France 
 
 7 
 
 13 
 
 22 
 
 3i 
 
 33 
 
 41 
 
 66 
 
 95 
 
 167 
 
 227 
 
 339 
 
 3ii 
 
 475 
 
 Spanish America 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 48 
 
 70 
 
 94 
 
 135 
 
 160 
 
 166 
 
 
 Austria 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 22 
 
 29 
 
 47 
 
 83 
 
 107 
 
 92 
 
 183 
 
 Russia 
 
 8 
 
 14 
 
 17 
 
 30 
 
 22 
 
 28 
 
 33 
 
 40 
 
 48 
 
 103 
 
 131 
 
 118 
 
 177 
 
 Italy 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 38 
 
 52 
 
 66 
 
 91 
 
 94 
 
 151 
 
 Growth of annual Bank Clearings in one decade (from Webb). Expressed 
 in million pounds sterling. 
 
 Date 
 
 London 
 
 New York 
 
 Paris 
 
 1897 
 
 7.491 
 
 6,460 
 
 302 
 
 1898 
 
 8,097 
 
 8,220 
 
 342 
 
 1899 
 
 9.150 
 
 11,830 
 
 383 
 
 1900 
 
 8,960 
 
 10,720 
 
 426 
 
 1901 
 
 9.561 
 
 15.890 
 
 427 
 
 1902 
 
 10,029 
 
 15.420 
 
 399 
 
 1903 
 
 10,120 
 
 14,610 
 
 433 
 
 1904 
 
 10,564 
 
 12,410 
 
 473 
 
 1905 
 
 12,288 
 
 18,950 
 
 556 
 
 1906 
 
 12,711 
 
 21,400 
 
 714 
 
 d. A further indication of the radical changes brought about by the development of 
 modern industry is the shift in percentage of the population living in rural dis- 
 tricts. This is very noticeable in the United States evan since 1 880, as the follow- 
 ing figures show: 
 
 Percentage of Population 
 1880 1890 1900 1910 
 
 Urban 29.5 36.1 40.5 46.3 
 
 Rural 70.5 63.9 59.5 53.7 
 
 c The relative increase of the principal occupations of man tell a similar story: 
 
 1820 1840 i860 1890 
 
 Agriculture 100 124 170 270 
 
 Manufacture 100 153 280 536 
 
 Mining 100 183 567 1,320 
 
 Transport 100 135 213 376 
 
 Commerce 100 166 450 990 
 
 3. Europe in 1815. 
 
 Text: Hayes, II, 5-14. 
 
 Atlas: R. &= B., 3 (13, 14, 15, 17, 20-21, 23, 28, 31); Shepherd, 118, 86-87, 90, 
 
 122-123, 154-155, 157; Muir.S, 12 (CF. 11), 23d, 24b, 25a; Hayes, II, 1 map, 331 
 
 map; Hammond, 16; Harding, H 16. 
 
 McKinley Outline Maps : Nos. 1 1 2a and 82a (for Finland and Scandinavian states) . 
 
 [125] 
 
i. In order to understand the political evolution of modern European states it is 
 necessary to try to visualize the enormous changes which have transformed the 
 political map of Europe during the past four centuries. Turning to a map of Europe 
 of the sixteenth century observe that the Italian peninsula comprised a large num- 
 ber of petty principalities and city states; in place of the Germany of today, there 
 was then the "Holy Roman Empire," a confused mass of semi-independent states 
 owing a shadowy allegiance to an Emperor; the states of Austria-Hungary, Bel- 
 gium, Greece, Serbia, Rumania, and Bulgaria did not then exist; Scotland was an 
 independent state ; France was smaller than at present ; Russia was then the Grand- 
 duchy of Muscovy; Poland was one of the largest of the European states; the 
 Turkish Empire comprised the whole of the Balkan peninsula. 
 
 2. After noting the map of Europe as it appeared in the sixteenth century draw the 
 boundaries of European states as they were fixed by the Congress of Vienna, indi- 
 cating in solid color the acquisitions made by the various states allied against 
 Napoleon. (Note that Russia had already acquired Finland, 1807, and Bessarabia, 
 1812, prior to the Congress of Vienna.) 
 
 3. It is not alone sufficient to understand the political boundaries of states. One of 
 the most potent factors in the changing of those boundaries since the Congress of 
 Vienna is the growth of nationalism — a principle ignored at that Congress. It is 
 desirable, therefore, early to have in mind the principal ethnic groups in Europe 
 and the location of each. For this purpose study the ethnic maps in R. & B„ 3 
 (best); Hayes, II, 331 map, or Hammond, 16; Hayes, II, 427 map and Shepherd, 
 165, 168 are of help for southeastern Europe. Then draw on your outline map (82a) 
 an ethnographical map of Europe. In doing this be careful to employ allied colors 
 for each general group — e. g., Latin (including Spanish, French, Italians, and 
 Rumans), Teutonic (including Germans, Dutch, Scandinavians, etc.) and Slavic 
 (including Russians and Ruthenians, Poles, Czechs, Southern Slavs, etc.). 
 
 Compare this map with your political map of Europe. How nearly do boundaries 
 coincide? Mention on your key sheet the more glaring instances of the violation of 
 the principle of nationality at the Congress of Vienna. (Cf. Hayes, II, 9-10.) 
 
 4. Draw the boundaries of the new German Confederation, noting those territories 
 held by Austria and Prussia without the Confederation. Note also that Luxem- 
 burg and Holstein, within the Confederation, are ruled by kings of Holland and 
 Denmark respectively. 
 
 4. National unification in Europe, 1850-1914. 
 
 a. The object of this study is to illustrate how the spirit of nationalism operated, 
 during the last three quarters of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, 
 to weld together nationalistic groups into unified states. 
 
 *. The independence of Belgium (1830). 
 Text: Hayes II, 53-55- 
 
 Atlas: Hayes II, 211 Map (other references Shepherd and Muir as noted below). 
 McKinley Outline Map 125 a. 
 
 The land of Belgium has provided a bone of contention between the various 
 states of Europe for many centuries. As early as 843 it formed a part of the dis- 
 puted territory when the empire of Charles the Great was divided between his 
 three grandsons, the middle section, comprising a narrow strip of land on the west 
 bank of the Rhine (including roughly what is now Holland, Belgium, Luxemburg, 
 Lorraine, Alsace), a large part of the Swiss Cantons, a strip of Southeastern France, 
 and most of Italy, going to the eldest of the three, Lothaire. He gave his name to 
 his kingdom, Lotharineia, whence the modern Lorraine. In 870 that middle 
 
 [126] 
 
kingdom was absorbed by states which later came to be known as France and 
 Germany. In the fifteenth century most of what is now Belgium came under the 
 control of enterprising dukes of Burgundy and was left by the last of the Burgun- 
 dian line to Mary, wife of Maximilian of Habsburg (1477). It remained a posses- 
 sion of the house of Habsburg (from 1556 to 1713 a part of the domain of the 
 Spanish Habsburgs) until its conquest by France during the wars of the French 
 Revolution. As the previous map study showed it was given to Holland by the 
 Congress of Vienna in 1815 only to assert successfully its freedom as the kingdom 
 of Belgium fifteen years later. (For graphic illustration of these changes consult 
 Shepherd, 56, 62, 84, 86, 114, 118, 122, 134, 152, 154, 157. 158, or Muir, plates 4a, 6, 
 15b, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13.) 
 
 Indicate on map 125a the kingdom of Belgium. Note its physical characteristics 
 {Shepherd 2, Muir, plate 1, 2?. &• B. 1). Does a study of these maps give some 
 hint why Germany attacked France through Belgium in 1914? R. &" B. 2 and 4 
 show some interesting facts regarding the density of population and the industrial 
 life of Belgium. Perhaps that offers another explanation for the German attack 
 on Belgium, and indeed why it has been called the "cockpit of Europe." 
 
 3. The unification of Italy (1859-1871). 
 Text: Hayes, II, 163-175. 
 
 Atlas: Shepherd, 161; Muir, plate 18b; R. &* 23., 16-18; Hayes, II, 165 map, 427 
 
 map. 
 
 McKinley Outline Map No. 132a. 
 
 Until the latter half of the nineteenth century Italy was only a geographical expres- 
 sion. For a few years under Napoleon there was a "kingdom of Italy" (Shepherd, 
 151, 155 inset; Muir, plate II; R. &= B., 16) ; but the Congress of Vienna undid his 
 work as shown in the previous map study. Two factors stand out clearly in the 
 settlement at Vienna, (1) the tightening of the grip of the house of Habsburg upon 
 the peninsula and (2) the strengthening of the kingdom of Sardinia. The elimina- 
 tion of the former by the latter later resulted in the unification of Italy. 
 
 Recall the first unsuccessful attempt of Sardinia to drive Austria from the 
 peninsula. Then as you read the text (Hayes, II, 163-175) try to make your work 
 visual by constant reference to the atlas (Shepherd, 161 ; Muir, plate 18b; R. & B., 
 17; Hayes, II, 165 map). Draw on outline map the boundaries of the kingdom of 
 Sardinia in 1848. Indicate the territories which Cavour promised to Napoleon as 
 the price of French aid against Austria. Now trace on your map the steps in the 
 unification of Italy (1859-60), indicating on your key sheet when and how each 
 territory was annexed to Sardinia. Then show what the newly constituted kingdom 
 of Italy secured as fruits of her alliance with Prussia against Austria in 1866, and 
 from the Franco-German War (1870-71). 
 
 In how far had Italy now failed to reach her national boundaries? Show on your 
 map those lands of Italian speech which still remained in the possession of the 
 Habsburgs (Shepherd, 168; R. & B., 3; Hayes, II, 427 map). 
 
 4. The unification of Germany. 
 Text: Hayes, II, 180-202. 
 
 Atlas: Shepherd, 157, 158-159. 160. i°7; Muir, plates 23d, 34b. 12-13; R- & B„ 
 13-14; Hayes, II, 181 map, 211 map. 
 McKinley Outline Map No. 125a. 
 
 The Napoleonic era had eliminated a large number of states, lay and clerical, of 
 the Germanies, but the German confederation was still a confused group of some 
 one hundred states, small and large. The leadership in final unification fell to 
 Prussia. There were three stages: (1) the formation of an economic union (ZolU 
 
 [127] 
 
verein), (2) the exclusion of Austria and aggrandizement of Prussia, and the forma- 
 tion of the North German Confederation as a result of the Austro-Prussian War, 
 (3) final unification after the Franco-German War. 
 
 Show on map 125a, used to indicate Belgium, in solid color the state of Prussia as 
 determined at the Congress of Vienna. Then draw a line around the Zollverein as 
 it existed in 1834, noting additions to this union up to 1867 (Shepherd, 160, 1 and II; 
 Muir, plate Sid). Observe how closely the later political unification of Germany 
 followed the lines of this economic union. 
 
 Now follow carefully the pages of your text (Hayes, II, 1 86-191) and indicate 
 on outline map 125a by oblique lines the various acquisitions to Prussian territory 
 as a result of the wars with Denmark and Austria (1864-66), enumerating on your 
 key sheet the principal states thus annexed. One great problem of the Hohen- 
 zollerns during the past 200 years had been to link up their eastern territory (East 
 Prussia) and their western Rhenish possessions with the original mark of Branden- 
 burg. In how far was this aim now realized? What important harbor did these 
 acquisitions give to Prussia? 
 
 Follow now the events subsequent to the Austro-Prussian War (Hayes, 191-194, 
 201-202). Draw the boundaries of the North German Confederation and color 
 the non- Prussian states in the confederation so as to distinguish them from Prussian 
 territory. What were the results for the Empire of the Franco-German War 
 (1870-71) ? Mark clearly the parts of Alsace and Lorraine ceded by France. What 
 relation did this territory bear to the Empire? Of how many states was the German 
 Empire then formed? Note the position of Prussia, comprising roughly y s of the 
 total area of the Empire and surrounding or partially encircling several other states. 
 Draw the boundaries of the newly-formed Empire. 
 
 Was this German Empire, thus powerful and strongly united, coterminous 
 with the German nation? (Cf. Hayes, II, 427, 435; R. & B„ 3; Hammond, 16') 
 
 Note also that the "national unification" of Germany violated in several particu- 
 lars the principle of nationality. To the Polish problem in Posen was added a 
 Danish problem in Schleswig and a French problem in Alsace-Lorraine. 
 
 Note that the expulsion of the Habsburgs from German affairs led them to 
 seek compensation in southeastern Europe. 
 
 Nationalism in the Balkan states. 
 
 Text: Hayes, II, 490-539. 
 
 Atlas: Hayes, I, 165 map; Hayes, II, 331 map, 491 map, 535 map (R. &" B„ 18-26, 
 
 29-30). 
 
 McKinley Outline Map No. ma. 
 
 Referring to Shepherd, 124, Hayes I, 3 map, II, 491 map, 1 map, or Muir, plate 
 25b, 26, note the territorial changes in southeastern Europe during the three 
 centuries preceding 1815. When did the Turkish boundaries cease to advance? 
 How far had they receded by 1815 (refer to map study 3)? Study an ethnic 
 map of the Balkan peninsula (Hammond, 16; R. & B., 18; Shepherd, 165; Hayes, II, 
 331 map; map study No. 3), noting the relative position and extent of each of 
 the "national" groups. What is meant by "Greater Serbia," "Greater Bulgaria," 
 "Greater Rumania," and "Greater Greece"? 
 
 After reading your text (Hayes, II, 498-508) indicate on outline map No. ma 
 the various independent or semi-independent states that were carved out of Turkey 
 in Europe, either previous) / to or as a result of the Russo-Turkish War (1876-77). 
 Show by blue line the boundaries of the various states as they would have existed 
 by the terms of the treaty of San Stefano and by red line the boundaries as they 
 were actually established by the Congress of Berlin (Hayes, II, 507 map; Shepherd, 
 164). How were these boundaries modified as a result of the Balkan wars (1912-13)? 
 
 [128] 
 
Show on your map in solid color, being careful not to obliterate lines already 
 drawn, the Balkan states as they existed in 1914 at the outbreak of the World War, 
 noting especially the disposition made of Macedonia, the sanjak of Novi Bazar, 
 Rumelia, and the Dobrudja. (Cf. Hayes, II, 528-536, 535 map.) Do not fail to 
 include in your map the territories of Bosnia and Herzegovina annexed by Austria- 
 Hungary. Do the boundaries of these states coincide in any degree with the ethnic 
 frontiers as indicated by the ethnographic maps referred to above? Where will the 
 more striking adjustments be necessary in order to make political boundaries 
 conform to ethnic? Are you able from such a study to deduce any reasons for the 
 stand taken in the World War by the various states in the Balkan peninsula? 
 
 This will become even clearer when it is remembered that with the nationalistic 
 aspirations of the various Balkan peoples are intertwined certain economic and 
 strategic interests of the great European powersi 
 
 6. The independence of Norway (1905). 
 
 One further step in the undoing of the settlement of Vienna was the emergence of 
 Norway as an independent state. Merged with Denmark and Sweden by the 
 Union of Calmar (1397), its fortunes were linked with those of Denmark until 1815. 
 By decision of the Congress of Vienna, Sweden, which had withdrawn from the 
 Union in 1523, received Norway as compensation for the loss of Finland. There 
 was continual nationalistic opposition to this settlement, however, on the part 
 of Norway; and as a result that state finally in 1905 became independent under 
 its own king through an amicable agreement with Sweden. 
 
 5. European expansion. 
 
 A. Asia. 
 
 Text: Hayes, II, 547-596; Hayes, A Brief History of the Great War, 376, 384- 
 
 385. 399-402. 
 
 Atlas: Hayes, II, 561 map; Shepherd, 170-171; R. & B., 32-34, 36; Muir, plates 
 
 59, 60; Hammond, 24; Hayes, Great War, 401 map. 
 
 McKinley Outline Map No. 102a. 
 
 1. Before indicating the possessions or spheres of influence of the various great powers 
 in Asia run over again some of the natural features: the lofty mountain ranges, 
 cutting off India from the rest of the continent and furnishing a partial barrier for 
 China, and the great river systems with their densely populated valleys. (Shepherd, 
 170-171; Muir, plates 59, 60.) 
 
 2. Leased ports and spheres of influence in China. 
 
 Indicate in solid color the lands upon the mainland of Asia definitely in possession 
 of Japan and outline her spheres of influence indicating when and in what manner 
 each new sphere was acquired. {Hayes, II, 583-586, Statesman's Year Book, 1916 
 intro., and ibidem, 1919, p. 1018). Indicate also Formosa, acquired in 1895. Color 
 next the vassal states of China in the south acquired by France, and outline French 
 spheres of influence in southern China (Hayes, II, 564-569. 561 map). Follow the 
 same method for British acquisitions. Run your pencil over the annexations and 
 spheres of influence of Russia and Germany. What were these? When and how 
 acquired? (Hayes, II, 567-S68.) 
 
 3. Color British possessions in western and central Asia, giving names and, where 
 possible, dates of acquisition for all lands acquired during the nineteenth and 
 twentieth centuries. Outline, as within the British sphere of influence or as British 
 mandataries, Palestine, Arabia, the Tigris-Euphrates valley and Persian Gulf, 
 Persia, Nepal, Bhutan, and Thibet (cf. 2 above). Note how Afghanistan is now 
 surrounded on three sides by territory controlled by Great Britain. Its position is 
 
 [129] 
 
perhaps even more precarious than before the war when it acted as a buffer state 
 between the empires of England and of Russia. {Hayes, II, 561 map; Shepherd, 
 170-71; Hammond, 24.) 
 
 In what ways would you say the position of England has changed as a result of 
 the Great War? Draw the line of the railway projected by Germany from Constan- 
 tinople to Bagdad. Does the map throw any light upon why England feared such 
 a project? What state or states control that line at present? 
 Draw the boundaries of the former Russian Empire in Asia. What has been the 
 fate of these territories as a result of the war? (cf. Statesman's Year Book, 1919, 
 pages 1185-1186; Hayes, A Brief History of the Great War, 255, 401.) 
 
 Indicate the lands acquired by other states as mandatary powers in the division 
 of the Turkish Empire. (Hayes, A Brief History of the Great War.) 
 For the purposes of completeness it would now be well to color the independent 
 states of Asia. What general conclusions can you draw from your map study? 
 What modern state is most deeply involved in Asia? In view of the actions of 
 western powers and Japan what is China's problem? Why has the United States 
 stood for an "open door" policy? Why does the United States hesitate to become 
 a mandatary in the Turkish Empire? 
 
 The East Indies. 
 
 Text: Hayes, II, 593-596; Hayes, A Brief History of the Great War, 376, 399-402. 
 
 Atlas: Hayes, II, 561 map, 701 map; Shepherd, 179-182; R. 6° B., 34; Muir, 
 
 plate 52. 
 McKinley Outline Map No. 100a. 
 
 Referring to Hayes, II, 592-596, make a list of the more important Dutch, British, 
 and American possessions in the islands to the southeast of Asia. What possessions 
 had Germany in the Pacific Islands and what state or states have fallen heir to 
 them? Color on outline map 100a these colonies of the various European and 
 American states, making clear which are actual possessions and which are manda- 
 taries, and giving, where possible, actual or approximate dates of acquisition. 
 What is the approximate distance between Australia and New Zealand, between 
 Melbourne and Manila, between Manila and Tokio, from London to Manila via 
 the Suez Canal, from New York to Manila via the Panama Canal? How does the 
 area of the Philippine Islands compare with that of New York state? 
 
 The Americas. 
 
 Text: Hayes, II, 600-614. 
 
 Atlas: Hammond, 32; Shepherd, 176-182, 198-199, 212-215; Hayes, II, 607 map, 
 
 701 map. 
 McKinley Outline Maps No. 104a and 105a. 
 
 On map of the world (100a) used in the foregoing study, color any Pacific posses- 
 sions of the United States not already indicated, in each case giving dates of acquisi- 
 tion. On maps 104a and 105a show the acquisitions of the United States in North 
 America. Color first the 13 colonies as they existed in 1783, together with the 
 territory ceded to them by England (Shepherd, 196). By oblique lines show lands 
 ceded to the United States by Mexico; by horizontal lines lands acquired from 
 Spain; by cross-hatching those otherwise secured, not forgetting the latest acquisi- 
 tions, the Danish West Indies. In the same color outline those lands more or less 
 under the control of the United States: Cuba, Panama, Haiti, the Dominican 
 Republic, and Nicaragua. In a different color indicate British, and, for the sake 
 of completeness, French and Dutch possessions in the western hemisphere. Color 
 the Latin American states, choosing a distinctive color for those of Spanish and 
 those of Portuguese culture (Cf. Shepherd, 176, 177). Where in the western world 
 do you find French culture predominant? How do you account for this? How do 
 
 [130] 
 
you account for Portuguese speech and culture in South America? Why should the 
 United States wish to acquire the Danish West Indies? A few years ago occurred 
 a boundary dispute between England and Venezuela. Why was the United States 
 interested in that dispute? Where in South America have Germans settled most 
 conspicuously? What are the chief motives for the extension of European influence 
 in South and Central America at the present time? (Cf. Hammond, 25-31 for 
 physical, vegetation, economic maps.) 
 
 D. Africa. 
 
 Text: Hayes, II, 614-637; Hayes, A Brief History of the Great War, 376, 399-402. 
 
 Atlas: Hayes, II, 625 map; Hammond, 40 (cf. also 33-39 for physical and economic 
 
 features, etc.); R. &* B., 35; Muir, plate 64; Shepherd, 174-175 (much out of 
 
 date). 
 
 McKinley Outline Map No. 103a (do not follow too closely the lines indicating 
 
 state boundaries as they are now inaccurate). 
 Compare Shepherd, 136 with Hayes, II, 625 map, or Muir, plate 51, with plate 52. 
 How much of Africa had been appropriated by European states previously to 1870? 
 Using information in Hayes, II, 615-617, indicate in solid colors the colonies ac- 
 quired before that date. (Cf. Shepherd, 174-175.) It would be well to choose 
 Portuguese color nearly like that of the British and the Belgian like the French. 
 Why? 
 
 Then in cross-hatching of the same colors as the earlier acquisitions, indicate the 
 regions appropriated between 1870 and 1914, following in so far as you are able 
 the chronological order so as to reenact on paper the stirring story of the partition 
 of Africa. In coloring French possessions follow Hayes, II, 625 map. In coloring 
 German colonies note the solicitude of the German government to obtain access 
 to great rivers like the Congo and the Zambesi. Can you give reasons for this? 
 Note also how stubbornly the Germans in East Africa obstructed the British 
 scheme for a Cape-to-Cairo railway. What was the one barrier to a German 
 transcontinental empire from Kamerun to the Zanzibar Coast? What indications 
 do you note of an attempt on the part of England to maintain a strategic grip on 
 the German colonies? 
 
 How has European influence in North Africa changed during the war? 
 
 What has been the fate of the German colonies as a result of the war? How has 
 this benefited England? What advantage has it given France? 
 
 Indicate the line of the British Cape-to-Cairo Railway. How much of it has been 
 completed? 
 
 6. Europe in the World War. 
 
 Text: Hayes, A Brief History of the Great War, esp. 373-376, 383-387- 
 
 Atlas: Statesman's Year Book, 1919, Introduction; Hayes, II, 331; A Brief History 
 
 of the Great War, 81, 27, 41, 374, 375; R. &= B., 1; Harding, H27 
 
 McKinley Outline Map No. 101a. 
 
 1. On outline map 101a draw the boundaries of European states as they existed at 
 the outbreak of the war in 1914. Compare this with the ethnographical distribution. 
 Where do you find the political boundaries most strongly at variance with language 
 frontiers? Note especially the situation in southeastern Europe, the millions of 
 Slavs in the Habsburg dominions. Draw the line of the railway from Vienna to 
 Constantinople. Do you see how the economic motive reinforced the nationalistic 
 in the quarrel between Austria and Serbia? 
 
 2. Shade very lightly those countries of Europe which adhered to the entente alliance 
 and in another color those which formed the alliance of the central powers. What 
 was the relative extent of central and entente groups? What the relative man 
 power? What the relative wealth? (Figures may be secured from the Statesman's 
 
 [131] 
 
Year Book, or from one of the encyclopedias. A table of estimated wealth of nations 
 may be found in the World Almanac.) 
 
 3. Show by cross-hatching the principal war devastated areas in Europe. 
 
 4. Follow the terms of the various treaties of peace insofar as they have to do with 
 territorial readjustments in Europe. Indicate by broad boundary lines the new 
 states formed in Central and Eastern Europe as a result of the War, including as 
 clear a representation as you can give of the various governments of Russia in 
 Europe claiming independence. Mark in solid color those territories actually 
 ceded by the central powers to one or another of the entente allies, and by oblique 
 lines the territories in which the inhabitants are to have the right of self deter- 
 mination through a plebiscite. What is the status of Dantzig? of the Saar valley? 
 of Fiume? of Constantinople? 
 
 Compare your map of Europe as it was re-formed by the Treaties of Versailles 
 with the ethnographical map. Does it now conform more nearly to the principle 
 of nationality? Can you see any regions where there is a conspicuous failure to 
 give adequate consideration to the principle of nationality? 
 
 PART III. STUDIES ON THE INSISTENT PROBLEMS OF TODAY 
 1. Race. 
 
 A. The meaning of race. 
 
 In writing out the answers to the following questions the student should consult the 
 data on races given below and these texts: Marrett, Anthropology; Deniker, Race 
 of Man; Ripley, Races of Europe; Edman, 195,- F. Boaz, The Mind of Primitive 
 Man; H. G. Wells, Outline of History I, 136-148,' T. Veblen, Imperial Germany 
 and the Industrial Revolution, 1-10; A. L. Kroeber & T. T. Waterman, Source 
 Book in Anthropology, 158-184, 213-222. 
 x. By what criteria do anthropologists determine race? 
 
 2. What are the chief difficulties in determining race? 
 
 3. What psychological differences are frequently associated with difference in race? 
 
 4. What are the chief difficulties in determining the psychological characteristics 
 due to race? 
 
 5. Considering your answers to the above questions define race as carefully as you 
 can in your own words. 
 
 6. What is the difference between race and nationality? 
 
 7. What reasons can you give for the fairly common tendency to exaggerate race 
 differences? 
 
 8. What reasons can you give for race prejudice? 
 
 B. The racial distribution of man. 
 
 After a careful study of the following account of the racial distribution of man, 
 indicate on McKinley outline maps Nos. 1000, 101a, 1020, 103a, 104a, 105a the 
 present distribution of the human race; as an aid consult Ripley, Deniker, 
 Hammond, 81 map, 82 map, 88 map; Harding, H25; Andrees, Allgemeiner Hand- 
 atlas, 19—20. 
 
 By means of the letters H (high) and L (low) indicate the cultural character of 
 the peoples of each territorial division of the world. Note in which zone or zones 
 the most civilized peoples are to be found. What in your opinion are the charac- 
 teristics of a civilized people? Is density of population a good index to civilization? 
 In what parts of the world has there been a great intermingling of races? Suggest 
 several reasons for the shift of people from one part of the globe to another. 
 
 [132] 
 
The estimated population of the world in 1907 by continents is as follows: 
 Europe 420,000,000 
 
 Asia 850,000,000 
 
 A fr' ca 130,000,000 
 
 Americas 160,000,000 
 
 Oceania 50,000,000 
 
 Total 
 
 1,610,000,000 
 
 The populations of the principal nations of 
 reports are as follows: 
 Argentina 
 
 the world according to the latest census 
 
 Austria 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Brazil 
 
 British Empire 
 
 Bulgaria 
 
 Chile 
 
 China 
 
 Denmark 
 
 France 
 
 French Empire 
 
 Germany 
 
 German Empire 
 
 colonies) 
 
 (and 
 
 8,574,000 
 
 29,193.293 
 
 7.S7I.387 
 
 24,618,429 
 
 437.947.432 
 
 517,700 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 320,620,000 
 
 2,940,979 
 
 39,601,509 
 
 87,429,090 
 
 67,812,000 
 
 81,758,200 
 
 Greece 
 
 Hungary 
 
 Italy 
 
 Japan 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 Poland 
 
 Russia 
 
 Serbia 
 
 Spain 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 United States 
 
 4,821,300 
 20,886,487 
 36,546,437 
 56,860,735 
 
 6,583,227 
 
 i2,2'47,6oo 
 
 175,000,000 
 
 4,600,000 
 20,747,893 
 
 5,757.566 
 
 3,880,500 
 
 33,711,000 
 
 103,500,473 
 
 3. The racial distribution of man. 
 
 The science of ethnography is still in its infancy, and the following classification 
 must be taken tentatively. We are still uncertain regarding the determinants of 
 race. The ethnography of Europe is especially intricate and uncertain. The fol- 
 lowing is adapted from A. H. Keane in H. R. Mill, International Geography, 1900. 
 
 A. Ethiopic (black) division, 
 (a) Western (African) section. 
 
 Original habitat: Africa, south of the Sahara; Madagascar. Later expansion: 
 North Africa (sparsely); Southern United States; Nicaragua; West 
 Indies; Atlantic States of Brazil; the Guianas. 
 
 Population: Africa, 150,000,000; Madagascar, 3,000,000; Tropical and 
 sub-tropical America, 20,000,000; total, 173,000,000. 
 Physical characters: Head, long; prognathous jaws; broad flat nose; 
 thick everted lips; rather prominent cheek bones; arched brow; large 
 round prominent black eyes with yellowish cornea; flat foot; lark-spur 
 heel; color, very deep brown, rarely quite black; hair, short, black, woolly, 
 flat in cross-section; sparse beard; height, above the average; five feet 
 eight inches to six feet. 
 
 Cultural characters: No science or letters, few arts beyond agriculture, 
 weaving, pottery, woodwork and metallurgy (iron and copper) ; nature and 
 ancestry worship; fetishism; witchcraft; human sacrifice; ordeals; speech, 
 two varieties only in the south (Bantu and Hottentot), Malayo-Polynesian 
 in Madagascar, numerous stock languages north of the Equator. 
 (6) Eastern (Australasian) section. 
 
 Original habitat: Malaysia; Andamans; Philippines; New Guinea; most of 
 Polynesia; New Zealand; Australia; Tasmania. Present domain: Malay- 
 
 [133] 
 
sia, east Flores; Malay Peninsula, Andamans, parts of the Philippines, 
 Melanesia, parts of Australia. 
 
 Population: 2,000,000, chiefly in New Guinea and Melanesia. 
 Physical characters: Very variable, differing from the African section chiefly 
 in the height, which is about or even below the average; the hair, rather 
 frizzly, wavy or shaggy (Australia) than woolly; the nose, large straight, and 
 often aquiline with downward tip; and the lips less thick and never everted. 
 Cultural characters: Generally more savage than the African; head hunting 
 common in Melanesia; cannibalism formerly prevalent as in Africa; no 
 science, letters or arts except agriculture, pottery, weaving, and wood-work; 
 artistic sense somewhat developed, as shown especially in boat-building and 
 wood-carving; religion: nature and spirit worship, totemism; tabu; 
 speech: archaic forms of Malayo-Polynesian in Melanesia. 
 
 B. Mongolic (yellow) division. 
 
 Original habitat: Probably the Tibetan table land. 
 Early expansion: Indo-China; China; North Asia; Malaysia. 
 Present expansion: Corea, Japan, Formosa, Turkestan, Irania, Asia- 
 Minor, Caucasia, Russia, Baltic lands, Balkan Peninsula, Hungary, Mada- 
 gascar, Australia, America. 
 
 Population: China, 380,000,000; Japan and Corea, 55,000,000; Indo- 
 China, 35,000,000; Malaysia, 30,000,000; Mongolia and Manchuria, 10,- 
 000,000; Tibet, 6,000,000; Turkestan and Siberia, 7,000,000; West Asia, 
 13,000,000; Sundries, 4,000,000. Total, 540,000,000. 
 
 Physical characters: head, brachycephalous, moderately prognathous jaws; 
 very small concave nose; thin lips; prominent cheek-bone; small oblique 
 black eyes. Color: yellowish, pale, or white in Manchuria, Corea, Japan 
 and in Turkey and Russia; yellowish brown in Malaysia; hair: long, coarse, 
 and black, round in cross-section; no beard; height, below the average: 
 five feet, two inches to four or six inches. 
 
 Cultural characters: Science slightly, arts and letters moderately developed; 
 religion: nominal Buddhists and Mohammedans mostly; a few pagans and 
 Shamanists; nearly all spirit worshippers. Speech: three great families: 
 (1) Ural-Altaic; Lapland, to Japan, Turkestan to Hungary. (2) Tibeto- 
 Indo-Chinese; Tibet to the Pacific, Great Wall to Indian Ocean. (3) Ma- 
 layo-Polynesian, the "Oceanic" linguistic family, sweeping round from 
 Madagascar across the Indian and Pacific Oceans to Hawaii. 
 Chief sub-divisions: Mongols: range — Mongolia, Manchuria, North Tibet, 
 most of east Siberia; Turki branch: range — Lena basin, central and west 
 Siberia, Turkestan, Asia-Minor, parts of Caucasia, east Russia and Rumelia. 
 Urgo-Finns, Samoyedes, Lapps, Finns proper: range — north Siberia, islands 
 east of the Yenisei, Lapland, Finland, Esthonia, Livonia, parts of north and 
 east Russia, Hungary. Tibeto-Chinese: range — Tibet, Himalayan slopes, 
 most of Indo-China and China. Malayans: range — Malaysia, east to Flores, 
 Formosa, Philippines, parts of Madagascar. Coreans; Japanese; Sub-arctic. 
 
 C. American (red) division. 
 
 Original habitat: the whole of the new world. 
 
 Present restricted domain: the unsettled parts and some reserves in the 
 
 Dominion; Alaska, numerous reserves and some north and southwest tracts 
 
 in the United States; most of Mexico; Central and South America, partly 
 
 intermingled with the white and black intruders, partly still independent or 
 
 in the tribal state. 
 
 Population: (pure and mixed) full blood, 9,900,000; half-breeds, 12,270,000- 
 
 Total, 22,170,000, chiefly in Mexico (8,765,000), Brazil (4,200,000), Colom: 
 
 I 134] 
 
bia (3,150,000), Peru (2,700,000), Bolivia (1,560,000), Guatemala (1,400, 
 000), and Venezuela (1,325,000), in the United States only 250,000, and in 
 Canada, 100,000. 
 
 Physical characters: head, both round and long intermingled inextricably; 
 slightly projecting massive jaws; large straight or aquiline nose; moderately 
 prominent cheekbones; small straight black eyes; coppery color, shading 
 off to yellowish or brown; hair, like the Mongol, but longer and coarser; 
 scant beard; height, variable, average or under on the uplands, above the 
 average on the plains. Altogether a type specialized in the New World, 
 probably from generalized Asiatic (pre-Mongol) and European (pre-Cau- 
 casic) precursors, the former predominating. 
 
 Cultural characters: Science slightly, art and letters moderately developed; 
 religion: polytheistic, with human sacrifices where most developed (Aztecs, 
 Mayas); elsewhere nature worship and shamanism; speech: multifarious, 
 but everywhere of the same polysynthetic type, in which the elements of the 
 sentence tend to merge in a single word sometimes of prodigious length. 
 Being unknown in the old world, this type must have been entirely developed 
 in America from the common germs of articulate speech which accompanied 
 Pleistocene man in all his migrations. There are probably over 200 stock 
 languages of this character, crowded together in astonishing numbers in 
 some districts. 
 Caucasic (white) division: 
 
 Original habitat: North Africa, south to Sudan (Keane), but more probably 
 in Central or Northern Europe (Ripley). 
 
 Early expansion: All the Mediterranean lands; Northeast Africa; Arabia; 
 Central and West Europe; Britain; Irania; India; Southeast Asia; Ma- 
 laysia; Polynesia; Northeast Asia. 
 
 Later and present expansion: The whole of Europe; Aralo-Caspian Depres- 
 sion; East Turkestan; Manchuria; Korea; Japan; North Africa; Abys- 
 sinia; South Africa; North and South America; Australia; New Zealand. 
 Population: Europe, 355,000,000; Asia, 280,000,000; America, 115,000,- 
 000; Australasia, 5,000,000. Total, 770,000,000. 
 Physical characters and chief racial types: (From Ripley: Races of Europe). 
 
 Race 
 
 Head 
 
 Face 
 
 Hair 
 
 Eyes 
 
 Stature 
 
 Nose 
 
 Teutonic 
 
 Long 
 
 Long 
 
 Very 
 Light 
 
 Blue 
 
 Tall 
 
 Narrow : 
 aquiline. 
 
 Alpine: 
 
 Round 
 
 Broad 
 
 Light 
 
 Hazel- 
 
 Medium 
 
 Variable 
 
 Celto- 
 
 
 
 chestnut 
 
 gray 
 
 stocky 
 
 rather 
 
 Slavic 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 broad; 
 heavy. 
 
 Mediter- 
 
 Long 
 
 Long 
 
 Dark 
 
 Dark 
 
 Medium, 
 
 Rather 
 
 ranean 
 
 
 
 brown 
 or black 
 
 
 slender 
 
 broad. 
 
 Cultural characters: Science, letters and art highly developed; religion: 
 
 monotheistic (Judaism, Christianity, Mohammedanism), but polytheistic 
 
 (Brahmanism, etc.) in India and elsewhere; speech: two great linguistic 
 
 families: (1) Hamito-Ibero-Semitic in North Africa, South- West Asia, 
 
 Iberia; (2) Aryan (Indo-European), nearly all of Europe, Armenia, Irania, 
 
 Northern India, America, Australia, New Zealand, parts of North and South 
 
 Africa. 
 
 Chief sub-divisions: 
 
 Teutonic: Scandinavians, Germans, English, Scots, some Irish, some Austrians. 
 
 [135] 
 
Alpine: Tyrolese, some Austrians, Letto-Slavs, Armenians, Caucasians, 
 Turkomans. 
 
 Mediterranean: NortkMediterraneans: Albanians, Greeks, Ligurians, Iberians 
 (Spaniards, Portuguese, Basques, some Welsh and Irish) South-Mediterrane- 
 ans: Hamites (Berbers, Egyptians, etc.) and Semites (Arabs, Abyssinians 
 Syrians, Chaldaeans); Kurds and Indies (Hindoos). 
 Population of the World according to Races: From this survey it appears that 
 since Neolithic times the Ethiopic and American divisions have been losing, 
 and the Mongolic and Caucasian divisions gaining ground everywhere, with 
 results expressed in the following table : 
 
 Caucasians 770,000,000 
 
 Mongols 540,000,000 
 
 Ethiopians 175,000,000 
 
 Americans 22.000.000 
 
 2. Conservation of natural resources. 
 
 A . The distribution of natural resources. 
 
 The purpose of this study is to enable the student to familiarize himself with the 
 distribution of the more important natural resources. In the course of the exercise 
 he should note (1) how unevenly these resources are distributed; (2) how inter- 
 dependent most localities, therefore, are; (3) what the uneven distribution meant 
 before the development of modern commerce. 
 
 By reference to Hammond's Business Atlas of Economic Geography indicate on 
 McKinley maps Nos. 1000, 1010, 102a, 1030, 104a, 105a the location of: 
 u. Power resources, coal, oil, gas and water. 
 
 1. Estimated coal areas unworked in 1901. Total estimate for the world is at 
 least 800,000 square miles. (From Webb.) 
 
 
 Square Miles 
 
 
 Square Miles 
 
 China 
 
 232,500 
 
 Spain 
 
 5,500 
 
 United States 
 
 200,000 
 
 Japan 
 
 5.000 
 
 Canada 
 
 65,000 
 
 France 
 
 2,500 
 
 India 
 
 3S,ooo 
 
 Austria-Hungary 
 
 1,800 
 
 New South Wales 
 
 24,000 
 
 Germany 
 
 1,700 
 
 Russia (European) 
 
 20,000 
 
 Belgium 
 
 500 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 12,000 
 
 
 
 2. Distribution of water 
 
 power in various 
 
 countries. 
 
 
 
 Millions Horsepower 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 Country 
 
 Total 
 
 Utilized 
 
 Utilized 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 .96 
 
 .08 
 
 8.3 
 
 Germany 
 
 1-43 
 
 ■45 
 
 31-3 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 2-53 
 
 •50 
 
 20.4 
 
 Spain 
 
 5-00 
 
 •31 
 
 6.0 
 
 Italy 
 
 5.50 
 
 .96 
 
 17-5 
 
 France 
 
 6.20 
 
 .90 
 
 14.7 
 
 Austria 
 
 6.47 
 
 •56 
 
 8.0 
 
 Norway 
 
 6.7S 
 
 ■85 
 
 12.6 
 
 Sweden 
 
 7-50 
 
 .92 
 
 12.3 
 
 United States 
 
 30.00 
 
 5-00 
 
 16.6 
 
 Fibers, forests, metals. 
 Foodstuffs. 
 
 Directions: Use the following symbols: 
 Coal: draw a black line around coal fields. 
 
 [136] 
 
Oil: inverted capital V in red. 
 Gas : inverted capital V in blue. 
 
 Water: by means of capital X in green indicate principal rivers of the world 
 which have, or may be, harnessed for water power and irrigation purposes. 
 Forests : capital F in green. 
 Cotton: Ct. in orange. 
 Wool: capital W in blue. 
 Hemp: capital H in blue. 
 Iron: draw a red line around iron areas. 
 Copper: Cu. in orange. 
 Zinc: Zn. in blue. 
 Lead: capital L in green. 
 Silver: capital O in red. 
 Gold: plus sign (+) in red. 
 Aluminum : capital A in yellow. 
 
 Grain: draw orange line around grain producing areas. 
 Live stock: print name on section, c. g., "Cattle," "Swine," "Sheep." 
 Fruit: Fr. in red. 
 Sugar: capital S in blue. 
 Rice: capital R in green. 
 Rubber: Ru. in red. 
 
 B. Differences in the extent and intensity of agricultural conservation are indicated 
 in the following figures: 
 a. Growth of agricultural area 1820-1888. (Mulhall, p. 7.) Expressed in millions 
 
 of acres. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Country 
 
 1820 
 
 IS40 
 
 i860 
 
 1880 
 
 1888 
 
 Europe 
 
 364 
 
 427 
 
 471 
 
 546 
 
 558 
 
 United States 
 
 30 
 
 So 
 
 90 
 
 166 
 
 201 
 
 Canada 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 13 
 
 Australia 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 Argentine 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 Brazil 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Algeria 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 Egypt 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 Total 462 492 583 740 807 
 
 Acreage of cultivated land and per capita food production of the principal 
 countries. (U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: Geography of the World's Agriculture.) 
 
 
 Estimated Acreage 
 
 Acreage of 
 
 Estimated Food Pro- 
 
 Country 
 
 of Cultivated Land 
 
 Cultivated Land 
 
 duction per Capita in 
 
 
 in Millions 
 
 per Capita 
 
 Millions of Calories 
 
 United States 
 
 318 
 
 3-5 
 
 4-63 
 
 Russia 
 
 278 
 
 1-7 
 
 1.83 
 
 India (British) 
 
 265 
 
 1.1 
 
 .81 
 
 Germany 
 
 65 
 
 1.0 
 
 2.12 
 
 Austria-Hungary 
 
 61 
 
 1.2 
 
 2.09 
 
 France 
 
 59 
 
 1-5 
 
 1.79 
 
 Argentine 
 
 44 
 
 6.3 
 
 6-45 
 
 Italy 
 
 34 
 
 1.0 
 
 1. 00 
 
 Canada 
 
 37 
 
 4.6 
 
 6.30 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 18 
 
 .4 
 
 .56 
 
 Japan 
 
 17 
 
 •3 
 
 ■ 72 
 
 [137] 
 
c. Results of selective breeding of milk cows. (From Harper: Breeding of Farm 
 Animals.) Growth of average yearly production per cow in the United States 
 in fifty years. 
 
 Year 
 
 Milk, Pounds 
 
 Butter, Pounds 
 
 1850 
 
 1436 
 
 61 
 
 i860 
 
 ISOS 
 
 64 
 
 1870 
 
 1772 
 
 75 
 
 1880 
 
 2004 
 
 85 
 
 1890 
 
 2709 
 
 US 
 
 1900 
 
 3646 
 
 155 
 
 "Many factors are involved in this remarkable improvement, but chief of 
 them are suitable environment and records of performance which not only 
 enable us to know the high producers from the low producers, but provide us 
 with data whereby we can determine the animals that are actually producing 
 the high-yielding offspring." 
 
 d. Extermination of rodent pests. {Agricultural Year Book, 1917, p. 229.) 
 
 "During the spring of 1917 more than 16,000 farmers in North Dakota joined 
 in the movement to poison ground squirrels. Poisoned grain was prepared in 
 quantity, placed in plainly marked containers and distributed to the farmers, 
 who then applied it. The ground squirrels were poisoned on 4,500,000 acres, 
 resulting in a practical elimination of the pest in the areas treated and a saving 
 in the year's crop of more than $1,000,000." 
 
 e. The following table shows the results obtained by spraying potatoes in the volun- 
 teer experiments in New York during five years. (From Stevens and Hall: 
 Diseases of Economic Plants, p. 523.) 
 
 
 
 Average Gain Per Acre 
 
 Year 
 
 Acres Sprayed 
 
 Due to Spraying (Bushels) 
 
 1904' 
 
 364 
 
 58 
 
 1905 
 
 407 
 
 59 
 
 1906 
 
 598 
 
 53 
 
 1907 
 
 264 
 
 30 
 
 1908 
 
 74 
 
 66 
 
 Average gain for five years of 50.5 bushels per acre. 
 
 /. Rainfall. 
 
 1. In what portions of the globe are rainfall conditions uniform and in what por- 
 tions are they irregular? See climate maps in Hammond. 
 
 2. What causes deserts? Study climate and physical maps in Hammond. 
 
 3. What advantages has a. country of widely differentiated climate over one of 
 uniform climate? Illustrate. 
 
 (Note here the great irregularities of climatic conditions in Europe and North 
 America as contrasted with Asia, and of the northern hemisphere as contrasted 
 with the southern. See isothermal lines, temperature range lines, rainfall, etc.) 
 The following figures will suggest the problems arising out of irregularities of 
 rainfall. 
 
 "The annual rainfall of eastern Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan ranges 
 from thirty to forty-five inches. Assuming that these states have a growing sea- 
 son from the first day of April to the last day of September, Oshkosh, Wisconsin, 
 received in ten growing seasons twenty-seven droughts, having durations of fifteen 
 days or over, with less than one inch of rainfall. Sixteen of these droughts came 
 
 [138] 
 
in the spring and early summer, including the one of the greatest duration, fifty- 
 nine days. Seventeen droughts were twenty days or over in duration and effective 
 to nearly every crop grown in Wisconsin. Typical of the North Atlantic states, 
 the normal annual rainfall of New Jersey is approximately forty-five inches, yet 
 during the growing seasons of ten years this section has experienced forty-six 
 droughts with durations from fifteen to fifty-two days. Twenty-eight of these 
 were spring and early summer droughts, the most effective on all crops. The most 
 humid portion of the agricultural East is subject to the greatest irregularity of 
 rainfall. I refer to the southern states bordering on the Gulf of Mexico and the 
 Atlantic Ocean. The normal annual precipitation of this section ranges from 
 forty-five to fifty-five inches, yet we find that Columbia, S. C, has experienced 
 in ten consecutive growing seasons sixty-two droughts. Twenty-seven of these 
 lasted between twenty to thirty days; four between thirty and forty days; six 
 between forty and fifty days, and one a duration of sixty-one days. 
 
 "Throughout most of this section the supply of water for irrigation is abun- 
 dant. . . Irrigation will help some crops almost every year, and in some years 
 almost no crop can be grown without it." (From R. P. Teele: Irrigation in the 
 United States.) 
 g. Soil fertility. 
 
 Differences in yield of corn from year to year in three states. (From Monthly 
 Crop Report, January, 1919.) 
 
 Year 
 
 Yield in Bushels Per Acre 
 Virginia Iowa Kansas 
 
 Year 
 
 Yield in Bushels Per Acre 
 Virginia Iowa Kansas 
 
 1866 
 
 20 
 
 3IS 
 
 34-2 
 
 1867 
 
 20.9 
 
 33-8 
 
 38.6 
 
 1868 
 
 19-3 
 
 37 
 
 18 
 
 1869 
 
 15.5 
 
 33-2 
 
 48.4 
 
 1870 
 
 20 
 
 32 
 
 28 
 
 1871 
 
 22.6 
 
 42-5 
 
 40 
 
 1872 
 
 21 
 
 39-8 
 
 38.5 
 
 1873 
 
 19 
 
 29 
 
 39-1 
 
 1874 
 
 20 
 
 29.2 
 
 10.5 
 
 187s 
 
 22 
 
 35 
 
 40 
 
 1876 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 43-5 
 
 1877 
 
 19.6 
 
 32.5 
 
 36.5 
 
 1878 
 
 17.5 
 
 37-4 
 
 33-9 
 
 1879 
 
 19 
 
 38 
 
 33 
 
 1880 
 
 25 
 
 38 
 
 29-3 
 
 1881 
 
 IS 
 
 25.8 
 
 18.2 
 
 1882 
 
 19.1 
 
 25-9 
 
 33-7 
 
 1883 
 
 14 
 
 24-3 
 
 36.7 
 
 1884 
 
 15-2 
 
 34-5 
 
 36-9 
 
 188s 
 
 14.9 
 
 32.1 
 
 32.4 
 
 1886 
 
 15-5 
 
 25.1 
 
 21.8 
 
 1887 
 
 17.5 
 
 255 
 
 14.6 
 
 1888 
 
 16.3 
 
 35-8 
 
 26.7 
 
 1889 
 
 15-9 
 
 39-5 
 
 35-3 
 
 1890 
 
 I7-S 
 
 26 
 
 15-6 
 
 1 89 1, 
 
 19.7 
 
 36-7 
 
 26.7 
 
 a. 1 
 
 Assuming 
 
 agriculture 
 
 il meth 
 
 1892 
 
 15-3 
 
 28.3 
 
 24-5 
 
 1893 
 
 18.9 
 
 33-9 
 
 213 
 
 1894 
 
 19.1 
 
 15 
 
 11. 2 
 
 189S 
 
 18.6 
 
 35-1 
 
 24-3 
 
 1896 
 
 21.5 
 
 39 
 
 28 
 
 1897 
 
 18 
 
 29 
 
 18 
 
 1898 
 
 22 
 
 35 
 
 16 
 
 1899 
 
 20 
 
 31 
 
 27 
 
 1900 
 
 16 
 
 38 
 
 19 
 
 1901 
 
 22.2 
 
 25 
 
 7-8 
 
 1902 
 
 22 
 
 32 
 
 29.9 
 
 1903 
 
 21.8 
 
 28 
 
 25.6 
 
 1904 
 
 23-3 
 
 32.6 
 
 20.9 
 
 1905 
 
 23-4 
 
 34-8 
 
 27.7 
 
 1906 
 
 24-3 
 
 39-5 
 
 28.9 
 
 1907 
 
 25 
 
 29-5 
 
 22.1 
 
 1908 
 
 26 
 
 31-7 
 
 22 
 
 1909 
 
 23 
 
 31-5 
 
 19.9 
 
 1910 
 
 25 
 
 36.3 
 
 19 
 
 1911 
 
 24 
 
 31 
 
 14-5 
 
 1912 
 
 24 
 
 43 
 
 23 
 
 1913 
 
 26 
 
 34 
 
 3-2 
 
 1914 
 
 20 
 
 38 
 
 18.5 
 
 1915 
 
 28 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 1916 
 
 28 
 
 36.5 
 
 10 
 
 1917 
 
 29-5 
 
 37 
 
 14 
 
 the three states in the above table, what differences of fertility are exhibited? 
 What differences in the variability of the weather are exhibited? 
 
 [139] 
 
3. The conservation of man. 
 
 A . Variations in birth rates and infantile mortality. 
 
 a. Birth rates and rates of natural increase by countries. (From Newsholme, 
 The Declining Birth Rate, and Mulhall, Dictionary of Statistics.) 
 
 Per 1,000 
 
 of Population; N 
 
 I. = Natural Increase = 
 
 =Births- 
 
 -Deaths 
 
 
 
 1821- 
 
 1841- 
 
 1861- 
 
 1881- 
 
 188s 
 
 1901 
 
 -1 90s 
 
 1909 
 
 
 1840 
 
 1860 
 
 1880 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Births 
 
 Births 
 
 Births 
 
 Births 
 
 N.I. 
 
 Births 
 
 N. I. 
 
 Births N. I. 
 
 Russia 
 
 44.6 
 
 45-5 
 
 49.6 
 
 48.7 
 
 
 
 
 
 Austria 
 
 395 
 
 40-3 
 
 39° 
 
 38.2 
 
 8.1 
 
 35-° 
 
 11.4 
 
 
 Prussia 
 
 41.0 
 
 38.6 
 
 39-1 
 
 37-4 
 
 12.0 
 
 34-8 
 
 15-2 
 
 31-8 14.8 
 
 Italy 
 
 
 
 37-2 
 
 38.0 
 
 10.7 
 
 32.6 
 
 10.7 
 
 32.4 11. 
 
 England and Wales 
 
 
 33-4 
 
 35-1 
 
 33-5 
 
 I4.I 
 
 28.2 
 
 12. 1 
 
 25.8 II. 2 
 
 New South Wales 
 
 
 
 
 37-7 
 
 22.0 
 
 26.7 
 
 15-3 
 
 26.9 17.3 
 
 Belgium 
 
 
 30.2 
 
 32.0 
 
 30-7 
 
 IO.I 
 
 27.7 
 
 10.7 
 
 
 Ireland 
 
 
 
 26.2 
 
 23-9 
 
 5-9 
 
 23-2 
 
 5-6 
 
 23-5 6.3 
 
 France 
 
 29.7 
 
 26.7 
 
 25.8 
 
 24.7 
 
 2-5 
 
 21.2 
 
 1.6 
 
 19-6 0.3 
 
 b. International consequences of variations in 
 
 birth rates. 
 
 Changes in the rela- 
 
 tive size of nations. 
 
 (From Newsholme 
 
 Vital Statistics.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Population in 
 
 Millions 
 
 Country 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1789 
 
 1815 
 
 1890 
 
 France 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 29-5 
 
 38.3 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 19 
 
 38.1 
 
 Russia (in Europe) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 45 
 
 100.2 
 
 German Empire (or equivalent; 
 
 
 
 
 
 28 
 
 30 
 
 49.4 
 
 Birth rates in the United States. 
 
 A. Birth rates per 1,000 by race, 1916. (U. S. Census.) 
 
 Births 
 
 White 
 
 Colored 
 
 Total 
 
 24.9 
 22.8 
 24.8 
 
 Deaths 
 
 14-5 
 24.4 
 14.7 
 
 Natural 
 Increase 
 
 10.4 
 —1.6 
 
 IO.I 
 
 B. Relative increase of foreign-born parents and native parents. 
 
 State 
 
 Per Cent. Foreign-born Mothers 
 Are of Total White Mothers 
 
 Per Cent. Foreign-born Married 
 Females Are of Total Married 
 White Females (15-44 Years) 
 
 46.36 
 
 48.87 
 
 26.45 
 
 33-99 
 
 42.71 
 
 27.77 
 
 Connecticut 61.63 
 
 Massachusetts 56.32 
 
 Michigan 32.80 
 
 Minnesota 26.80 
 
 New York 52.84 
 
 Pennsylvania 37.65 
 
 What conclusions regarding birth rates can you draw from the preceding table? 
 
 d. Variations in infantile mortality. 
 
 Mortality Under 1 Year Per 1,000 
 Country 
 Chile 
 Russia 
 Hungary 
 Italy 
 
 1891-1895 
 
 1896-1900 
 
 1901-1905 
 
 1907 
 
 336 
 
 333 
 
 332 
 
 297 
 
 276 
 
 261 
 
 263 
 
 
 250 
 
 219 
 
 212 
 
 208 
 
 185 
 
 168 
 
 168 
 
 155 
 
 11401 
 
 
 
 
1891-1895 
 
 1 896- 1 900 
 
 1901-1905 
 
 1907 
 
 
 
 199 
 
 176 
 
 171 
 
 159 
 
 139 
 
 
 164 
 
 158 
 
 148 
 
 132 
 
 IS! 
 
 156 
 
 138 
 
 118 
 
 102 
 
 106 
 
 98 
 
 92 
 
 99 
 
 112 
 
 87 
 
 66 
 
 (From Newsholme, The Declining Birth- 
 
 Mortality Under 1 Year Per 1,000 
 Country 
 
 Germany 
 
 France 
 
 Belgium 
 
 England and Wales 
 
 Ireland 
 
 South Australia 
 
 e. Birth rates by economic classes. 
 rate.) 
 
 "No statistics free from errors due to varying circumstances appear to be 
 possible as to the relative ability of different classes. The history of the 
 many, who, notwithstanding social disadvantages, have attained to the 
 highest positions in law, medicine, the church, or other branches of the work 
 of the state, shows the need for caution in drawing conclusions as to the 
 social distribution of ability. The only statement that is certainly true is 
 that both intellectual and physical fitness are a function of stock not of class. . 
 . . . It may be accepted that the birth rate at present is disproportion- 
 ately high among wage-earning and probably also among th e poorest classes. 
 Also that this implies the survival of a disproportionate number who are 
 relatively ill-fed, ill-nourished, and brought up under conditions rendering 
 them less fitted to become serviceable citizens. But (a) t he p resent altered 
 distribution of the birth rate is only known to have been occurring for two 
 generations; (b) the conditions of life of the poorest are steadily having 
 more attention devoted to them, and there is good reason to expect that in 
 two additional generations their possibilities of health will be further im- 
 proved; and (c) it is not certain that the average inherent mental and 
 physical qualities of the majority of the wage-earning classes are not equal 
 to those of the rest of the population, though there may possibly be some 
 measure of inherent inferiority among a section of the poorest of the popu- 
 lation." 
 
 B. Variations in death rates and their causes. 
 
 a. Death rates per 1,000 of population. (U. S. Census, 1916.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 PerCent. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Decrease 
 
 
 
 1906- 
 
 1901- 
 
 1896- 
 
 1891- 
 
 1886- 
 
 1881- 
 
 1881- 
 
 Country 
 
 1910 
 
 1910 
 
 190s 
 
 1900 
 
 189s 
 
 1890 
 
 1885 
 
 1910 
 
 United States 
 
 13-6 
 
 iS-i 
 
 16.2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Australia 
 
 10.5 
 
 10.7 
 
 11.7 
 
 12.7 
 
 13-3 
 
 14.8 
 
 15.7 
 
 31.8 
 
 Austria 
 
 
 22.3 
 
 24.2 
 
 25.6 
 
 27.9 
 
 28.9 
 
 30.1 
 
 25-9 
 
 Belgium 
 
 
 15-9 
 
 17.0 
 
 18.1 
 
 20.1 
 
 20.2 
 
 20.6 
 
 22.8 
 
 Ceylon 
 
 32.2 
 
 30.8 
 
 26.7 
 
 27.0 
 
 28.3 
 
 25.1 
 
 
 
 England and Wales 14.0 
 
 14.7 
 
 16.0 
 
 17.7 
 
 18.7 
 
 18.9 
 
 19.4 
 
 24.2 
 
 France 
 
 19.6 
 
 19.2 
 
 19.6 
 
 20.7 
 
 22.3 
 
 22.0 
 
 22.2 
 
 13-5 
 
 Germany 
 
 
 17-5 
 
 19.9 
 
 21.2 
 
 23-3 
 
 24.4 
 
 25-3 
 
 30.8 
 
 Ireland 
 
 16.3 
 
 17-3 
 
 17.6 
 
 18.1 
 
 18.5 
 
 17.9 
 
 18.0 
 
 3-9 
 
 Italy 
 
 17.9 
 
 21.0 
 
 21.9 
 
 22.9 
 
 25.5 
 
 27.2 
 
 27-3 
 
 231 
 
 Japan 
 
 
 21.0 
 
 20.9 
 
 20.7 
 
 21. 1 
 
 20.6 
 
 
 
 
 Russia (in Europe) 
 
 
 
 30.9 
 
 31-9 
 
 35-8 
 
 33-2 
 
 35-4 
 
 
 Serbia 
 
 
 24.3 
 
 22.4 
 
 24-8 
 
 28.9 
 
 25-9 
 
 24-5 
 
 0.8 
 
 Spain 
 
 22.1 
 
 24-3 
 
 26.0 
 [14] 
 
 28.8 
 
 30.1 
 
 30.9 
 
 32.6 
 
 25.5 
 
In the United States the following differences in death rate prevail: 
 
 Per 1,000 Per 1,000 
 
 Population Population 
 
 13.5 Urban 15.0 
 
 White 
 Negro 
 
 20.5 
 
 Rural 
 
 12.9 
 
 Distribution of deaths by ages in the United States. 
 
 Age Period 
 
 
 Deaths 
 
 Age Period 
 
 Deaths 
 
 
 Per 
 
 1,000 Deaths 
 
 
 Per 1,000 Deaths 
 
 Under 1 year 
 
 
 164.3 
 
 5-14 years 
 
 34-6 
 
 1 year 
 
 
 36.1 
 
 15-24 years 
 
 58.6 
 
 2 years 
 
 
 16.3 
 
 2S-34 years 
 
 77-3 
 
 3 years 
 
 
 9.9 
 
 35-44 years 
 
 89.1 
 
 4 years 
 
 
 7.0 
 
 45-54 years 
 55-64 years 
 
 1 1 0.4 
 135.5 
 
 
 
 Total under 
 
 5 years 237.4 
 
 6 5 _ 74 years 
 
 138.2 
 
 
 
 
 75-84 years 
 
 108.2 
 
 
 
 
 85-94 years 
 
 26.8 
 
 d. Variations in death rate by occupations in England and Wales. The Table 
 below should be read as follows: "The same number of men, aged 25-65 
 (having equal numbers at the various inclusive ages) that would give 1,000 
 deaths among all males, would give 533 among the clergy, 1,810 among 
 file-makers, etc." (From A. Newsholme, Vital Statistics.) Data taken 
 from Report of Registrar General, Great Britain. 
 
 
 Comparative 
 
 
 Comparative 
 
 
 Mortality 
 
 
 Mortality 
 
 Occupation 
 
 Figure 
 
 Occupation 
 
 Figure 
 
 
 1890-1802 
 
 
 1800-1802 
 
 Farmer, grazier 
 
 563 
 
 Bricklayer, mason, builder 
 
 1,001 
 
 Schoolmaster, teacher 
 
 604 
 
 Coal-miner (Lancashire) 
 
 1,069 
 
 Laborer, in agricultural dis- 
 
 
 Law clerk 
 
 1,070 
 
 tricts 
 
 666 
 
 Plumber, painter, glazier 
 
 1,120 
 
 Coal-miner (Derby) 
 
 727 
 
 Cotton, linen manufacture 
 
 1,176 
 
 Artist, engraver, sculptor, etc. 
 
 778 
 
 Carman, carrier 
 
 1,284 
 
 Carpenter, joiner 
 
 783 
 
 Slater, tiler 
 
 1,322 
 
 Barrister, solicitor 
 
 821 
 
 Tool scissors, needle-maker, etc. 1 ,41 2 
 
 Fisherman 
 
 845 
 
 Brewer 
 
 1,427 
 
 Shopkeeper 
 
 859 
 
 Innkeeper, hotel servant 
 
 1.659 
 
 Medical practitioner 
 
 966 
 
 Potter, ' earthenware manu- 
 
 
 Tailor 
 
 989 
 
 facture 
 
 1,706 
 
 Wool, worsted manufacture 
 
 996 
 
 File-maker 
 
 1,810 
 
 Comparative mortality of males, 25-65 years of age in different occupa- 
 tions, from all causes and from several causes. From same sources as 
 the preceding. (1890-1892.) 
 
 [142] 
 
Occupation 
 
 to 
 to 
 3 
 cd 
 O 
 
 .S3 
 
 to 
 
 
 3 
 
 .a 
 3 
 
 iseases of th< 
 eart and Circi 
 tory System 
 
 J3 v 
 
 >~ >> 
 w 
 
 to 09 
 
 B 
 
 si £ 
 
 •a 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 aj 
 
 3 
 
 .2 
 
 •3 
 
 B 
 
 s 
 
 2 
 c 
 
 '0 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 Si 
 
 > 
 
 3 
 
 to 
 
 QJ 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 QJ 
 
 .S 
 
 a 
 
 to 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 
 < 
 
 H 
 
 a X « 
 
 Q 2 
 
 &4 
 
 m 
 
 < 
 
 <_) 
 
 G 
 
 a 
 
 s 
 
 All Males 
 
 1,000 
 
 192 
 
 132 
 
 102 
 
 107 
 
 88 
 
 56 
 
 47 
 
 34 
 
 29 
 
 I 
 
 Clergymen 
 
 533 
 
 67 
 
 82 
 
 69 
 
 45 
 
 II 
 
 9 
 
 35 
 
 36 
 
 18 
 
 
 Lawyers 
 
 821 
 
 Il6 
 
 118 
 
 104 
 
 55 
 
 17 
 
 22 
 
 60 
 
 45 
 
 55 
 
 
 Physicians 
 
 966 
 
 105 
 
 130 
 
 122 
 
 93 
 
 12 
 
 37 
 
 43 
 
 51 
 
 60 
 
 
 Draper 
 
 1,014 
 
 260 
 
 135 
 
 102 
 
 92 
 
 58 
 
 19 
 
 49 
 
 44 
 
 33 
 
 
 Carman, carrier 
 
 1,284 
 
 195 
 
 166 
 
 93 
 
 184 
 
 149 
 
 128 
 
 59 
 
 45 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 Innkeeper 
 
 1.659 
 
 311 
 
 190 
 
 148 
 
 165 
 
 89 
 
 47 
 
 53 
 
 46 
 
 174 
 
 
 
 Potter 
 
 1,706 
 
 333 
 
 227 
 
 123 
 
 135 
 
 378 
 
 20 
 
 35 
 
 42 
 
 32 
 
 17 
 
 File-maker 
 
 1,810 
 
 402 
 
 204 
 
 212 
 
 197 
 
 188 
 
 39 
 
 39 
 
 40 
 
 36 
 
 75 
 
 Contrast the distributions for pneumonia and heart diseases with those 
 for cancer and influenza. What peculiarities do you find in the distri- 
 bution for alcoholism, nervous diseases, diseases of liver, accident, 
 and plumbism? 
 
 Changes in death rates in the United States, 1900-1916, for various causes. 
 
 (U. S. Census, Mortality Statistics.) 
 
 Plot curves for the following figures: 
 
 Deaths Per 100,000 Population 
 
 Disease 
 
 1900 
 
 1902 
 
 1904 
 
 1906 
 
 1908 
 
 1910 
 
 1912 
 
 1914 
 
 1916 
 
 Tuberculosis 
 
 201 
 
 184 
 
 200 
 
 180 
 
 167 
 
 160 
 
 149 
 
 146 
 
 141 
 
 Pneumonia 
 
 180 
 
 155 
 
 171 
 
 145 
 
 130 
 
 147 
 
 132 
 
 127 
 
 137 
 
 Heart Diseases (acute) 
 
 123 
 
 128 
 
 145 
 
 140 
 
 141 
 
 150 
 
 151 
 
 150 
 
 159 
 
 Diarrhea and Enteritis (under two 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 years) 
 
 108 
 
 84 
 
 90 
 
 101 
 
 95 
 
 100 
 
 70 
 
 66 
 
 65 
 
 Nephritis and Bright's Disease 
 
 89 
 
 90 
 
 103 
 
 97 
 
 93 
 
 99 
 
 103 
 
 102 
 
 105 
 
 Cancer 
 
 63 
 
 65 
 
 70 
 
 69 
 
 71 
 
 76 
 
 77 
 
 79 
 
 81 
 
 Apoplexy 
 
 67 
 
 68 
 
 71 
 
 70 
 
 69 
 
 73 
 
 75 
 
 77 
 
 81 
 
 Typhoid Fever 
 
 35 
 
 34 
 
 31 
 
 31 
 
 24 
 
 23 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 13 
 
 C. Physical condition of drafted men. 
 
 o. Percentage of men passing both the local draft board examination and the 
 army surgeons' examination, by states. (Colonel L. P. Ayres, The War with 
 Germany, Statistical Report of the War, 1919.) 
 
 States in Which the Examinations Were Passed By 
 
 50-59 Per Cent. 
 New England 
 New York 
 Delaware 
 Michigan 
 Washington 
 California 
 Arizona 
 Colorado 
 
 60-64 Per Cent. 
 Pennsylvania 
 Virginia 
 Tennessee 
 South Carolina 
 Georgia 
 Oregon 
 Idaho 
 Nevada 
 Utah 
 
 65-69 Per Cent. 
 Maryland 
 North Carolina 
 Florida 
 Alabama 
 Mississippi 
 Louisiana 
 West Virginia 
 Ohio 
 Indiana 
 Illinois 
 Wisconsin 
 Missouri 
 Montana 
 
 I 143] 
 
 70-80 Per Cent. 
 Kentucky 
 Minnesota 
 Iowa 
 
 North Dakota 
 South Dakota 
 Wyoming 
 Nebraska 
 Kansas 
 Oklahoma 
 Arkansas 
 Texas 
 New Mexico 
 
b. What significance do you see in this distribution? 
 
 "Further analysis of the records of physical examinations shows that 
 the country boys made better records than those from the cities; the 
 white registrants better than the colored; the native-born better 
 records than those of alien birth. These differences are so con- 
 siderable that ioo.ooo country boys would furnish for the military 
 service 4,790 more soldiers than would an equal number of city boys. 
 Similarly, 100,000 whites would furnish 1,240 more soldiers than would 
 an equal number of colored. Finally, 100,000 native-born would yield 
 3,500 more soldiers than would a like number of foreign-born." 
 D. Human waste due to alcoholic intemperance. 
 
 a . The relation of alcoholic intemperance to poverty and pauperism. (From 
 Report of the Sub-Committee of so, N. Y., 1899.) 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 Poverty Male 
 
 Condition due to personal use 22.7 
 Condition due to intemperance of others 3.81 
 
 Total: due to personal use and others 26.5 
 
 Pauperism 
 
 Condition due to personal use 42.8 
 Condition due to use on the part of others 6.26 
 
 Total: due to personal use and others 49.0 
 
 of Applicants for Relief 
 Female 
 
 12.4 
 17.1 
 29.4 
 
 I6. S 
 12.7 
 29-3 
 
 Total 
 
 18.4 
 
 9-3 
 27.7 
 
 32.8 
 
 8.7 
 
 41-5 
 
 b. 
 
 Intemperance and crime by nationalities in the United States. (From 
 Report of Sub-Committee of so, N. Y., 1899.) 
 
 Per Cent, of Crimes 
 
 Per Cent, of Crimes 
 
 Nationality 
 
 Due to Alcoholism 
 
 Nationality 
 
 Due to Alco! 
 
 Russians 
 
 25 
 
 Poles 
 
 53-4 
 
 Austrians 
 
 34-6 
 
 Scandinavians 
 
 S6.2 
 
 Germans 
 
 44-8 
 
 Irish 
 
 56-7 
 
 Italians 
 
 50 
 
 Canadians 
 
 57-7 
 
 Americans 
 
 50.2 
 
 Scotch 
 
 58.3 
 
 English 
 
 S0.9 
 
 
 
 Drunkenness 
 
 210,024 
 
 25,110 
 
 c. Drunkenness in relation to total crimes committed. 
 
 Total Crimes and 
 Country Offences 
 
 England and Wales, 1907 746,955 
 
 Canada, 1906 70,900 
 
 d. Note effect of alcoholism on death rates in Study B., e. 
 E. Human waste due to sexual intemperance and disease. 
 
 a. Prostitution in New York City. (From Bureau of Social Hygiene: 
 titution in New York City, 191 7.) 
 
 Houses of Prostitution 1912 
 
 Tenement apartments 1,172 
 
 Massage parlors 300 
 
 Parlor houses 142 
 
 Furnished-room houses 112 
 
 Hotels 105 
 
 Pros' 
 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 484 
 
 238 
 
 101 
 
 90 
 
 9 
 
 13 
 
 78 
 
 22 
 
 3 
 
 Si 
 
 142 
 
 153 
 
 23 
 
 41 
 
 33 
 
 Total 
 
 1,831 
 
 726 
 
 [144] 
 
 452 
 
 303 
 
Venereal disease in the armies of various countries. Admissions per 1,000 
 in army to hospitals from all forms of venereal disease; average for the 
 years 1890-1892. 
 
 Army 
 
 Per 
 
 1,000 in 
 
 Army 
 
 Army 
 
 Per 
 
 1,000 in Army 
 
 German 
 
 
 27.2 
 
 
 United States 
 
 
 77-4 
 
 French 
 
 
 43-6 
 
 
 British (home) 
 
 
 203.6 
 
 Russian 
 
 
 43-0 
 
 
 British (Indian) 
 
 
 438.0 
 
 Austrian 
 
 
 63.S 
 
 
 Dutch (in the Indies) 
 
 
 455-6 
 
 Italian 
 
 
 71.3 
 
 
 
 
 
 "In 1864 — that is, just before the first Contagious Disease Act came into 
 operation — the proportional figure (in Great Britain) was 260; ten years 
 later it had fallen to 126; but in 1883 it had risen again to 234, in spite of 
 protection. Then, protection being removed, it rose to 276, but afterward 
 fell again progressively to 191 in 1895, without any protection. It is, there- 
 fore, evident that in interpreting the statistics allowance must be made for 
 large fluctuations due to causes quite independent of the protective systems. 
 The margin of difference, however, between the British and European 
 returns is so large that, when all allowances have been made, it is impossible 
 to doubt that a considerable degree of real protection is afforded to soldiers 
 by the system. This conclusion is confirmed by the comparatively high 
 returns for the army of the United States, and still more by the Indian 
 statistics. They rose gradually during the cantonment system, it is true, 
 but when that was dropped disease increased with shocking rapidity. Be- 
 tween 1887 and 1895 the admissions for primary syphilis rose from 75.5 to 
 174.1 per 1,000, and those for secondary syphilis from 29.4 to 84.6." (From 
 ■Encyclopaedia Britlanica, article on Prostitution.) 
 
 Venereal disease in the United States Army, 1917-1919. (From the Ayres 
 Statistical Report of the War.) 
 
 i. "Great success has been experienced in the control of venereal diseases. 
 A comprehensive program of education, together with medical prophy- 
 laxis, has produced unusual results. While these diseases have con- 
 tinued to be the most frequent causes of admissions to the sick report, 
 and the greatest source of non-effectiveness in the army, a large pro- 
 portion of the cases were contracted before entering the army. A 
 special study of all cases of venereal diseases reported at five large 
 cantonments during the year ended May 21, 1919, shows that of 
 48,167 cases treated, 96 per cent, were contracted before entering the 
 army and only 4 per cent, after." 
 
 ii. Venereal cases in hospitals among each 10,000 men in the American 
 Expeditionary Forces. 
 
 November, 1917 
 
 76 
 
 September, 1918 
 
 9 
 
 December, 191 7 
 
 55 
 
 October, 191 8 
 
 11 
 
 January, 191 8 
 
 33 
 
 November, 1918 
 
 13 
 
 February, 1918 
 
 30 
 
 December, 1918 
 
 16 
 
 March, 1918 
 
 24 
 
 January, 1919 
 
 18 
 
 April, 1918 
 
 21 
 
 February, 1919 
 
 22 
 
 May, 1918 
 
 20 
 
 March, 1919 
 
 28 
 
 June, 1918 
 
 16 
 
 April, 1 919 
 
 40 
 
 July, 1918 
 
 14 
 
 May, 1919 
 
 29 
 
 August, 1918 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 .145] 
 
Immigration in the United States. 
 
 Population of the United States in terms of race and nativity. (From U. S. Census, 
 1910.) 
 
 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 of Total Population 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Indian 
 
 Native Whites 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chinese 
 
 
 Foreign 
 
 
 Section 
 
 White 
 
 Negro 
 
 Japanese 
 
 Native 
 
 or Mixed 
 
 Foreign 
 
 
 
 
 Etc. 
 
 Parentage 
 
 Parentage 
 
 Born 
 
 Total U. S. 
 
 88.9 
 
 10.7 
 
 0.4 
 
 53-8 
 
 20.5* 
 
 14-5 
 
 The North 
 
 98.0 
 
 1.8 
 
 0.2 
 
 49.1 
 
 28.6 
 
 20.3 
 
 The South 
 
 69.9 
 
 29.8 
 
 0.3 
 
 63.2 
 
 4-3 
 
 2.5 
 
 The West 
 
 95-9 
 
 0.7 
 
 3-4 
 
 52-4 
 
 24-5 
 
 19.0 
 
 New York City 
 
 98.0 
 
 1.9 
 
 O.I 
 
 19-3 
 
 38.2 
 
 40.4 
 
 B. Immigration to the United States from Europe expressed in terms of percentage 
 of national population in Europe emigrating to the United States. 
 
 
 
 
 Average 
 
 Average 
 
 
 
 
 Number 
 
 Number 
 
 
 
 
 Immigrants 
 
 Per 1,000 
 
 
 
 Estimated 
 
 to U. S. 
 
 Estimated 
 
 
 
 Population 
 
 Annually 
 
 Population 
 
 Race or 
 
 People 
 
 in Europe 
 
 1899-1910 
 
 in Europe 
 
 Italian, South 
 
 
 20,000,000 
 
 157.300 
 
 7-9 
 
 Hebrew 
 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 88,232 
 
 II. 
 
 Polish 
 
 
 17,000,000 
 
 78,528 
 
 4.6 
 
 German 
 
 
 72,200,000 
 
 61.253 
 
 0.8 
 
 English and Scotch 
 
 
 35.300,000 
 
 37.882 
 
 1.1 
 
 Irish 
 
 
 4,500,000 
 
 35.086 
 
 7.8 
 
 Slovak 
 
 
 2,250,000 
 
 3L272 
 
 13-9 
 
 Italian, North 
 
 
 14,500,000 
 
 30.453 
 
 2.1 
 
 Magyar 
 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 27,848 
 
 3-5 
 
 Croatian and Slovenian 
 
 3,600,000 
 
 27.704 
 
 7-7 
 
 Swedish 
 
 
 5,727,000 
 
 24,463 
 
 4-3 
 
 Norwegian 
 
 
 2,311,000 
 
 17,204 
 
 7-4 
 
 Greek 
 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 17,162 
 
 2.9 
 
 Lithuanian 
 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 14.538 
 
 3-6 
 
 Finnish (Western) 
 
 
 3,700,000 
 
 12,436 
 
 3-4 
 
 Ruthenian 
 
 
 3,900,000 
 
 12,059 
 
 3-1 
 
 Bohemian and Moravian 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 8,301 
 
 i-4 
 
 Bulgarian, Servian, 
 
 Montenegrin 
 
 9,000,000 
 
 7,872 
 
 0.8 
 
 Dutch and Flemish 
 
 
 9,000,000 
 
 7.045 
 
 0.8 
 
 Roumanian 
 
 
 10,000,000 
 
 6,782 
 
 0.8 
 
 Russian (including Ruthenian in R.) 
 
 77,200,000 
 
 6.751 
 
 0.08 
 
 French 
 
 
 39,000,000 
 
 6,671 
 
 0.2 
 
 Danish 
 
 
 2,700,000 
 
 5.831 
 
 2.2 
 
 Portuguese 
 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 5.919 
 
 1.2 
 
 Dalmatian, Bosnian 
 
 , Herzegov'n 
 
 i. 573.000 
 
 2,601 
 
 1.7 
 
 Spanish 
 
 
 20,000,000 
 
 2,451 
 
 0.1 
 
 Armenian 
 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 » 2,127 
 
 0.4 
 
 Welsh 
 
 
 1,700,000 
 
 1,619 
 
 1.0 
 
 [146] 
 
5. The distribution of wealth among various classes of society is in- 
 dicated by the figures in the following table. 
 
 Percentage of total wealth owned by various classes in several countries. (From 
 King, Wealth and Income of the People of the United States.) 
 
 Upper Middle Class- 
 
 Richest — 2 per cent. 
 
 julation 
 
 Country and Date 
 
 Per Cent, of 
 Total Wealth 
 
 . of Population 
 
 Prussia, 1908 
 
 4-9 
 
 
 France, 1909 
 
 4-3 
 
 
 United Kingdom, 1909 
 
 1-7 
 
 
 Wisconsin, 1900 
 
 5-2 
 
 65-80 Per Cent. 
 
 Prussia 
 
 5-5 
 
 
 France 
 
 5-6 
 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 2.9 
 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 4.8 
 
 •80-98 Per Cent. 
 
 Prussia 
 
 30.6 
 
 
 France 
 
 29.4 
 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 23-7 
 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 33-0 
 
 
 Prussia 
 
 59-0 
 
 
 France 
 
 60.7 
 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 71.7 
 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 57-0 
 
 6. The problem of illiteracy. 
 
 A. Literacy in the principal countries, 1848 and 1890. 
 
 Per Cent, of 
 
 Per Cent, of 
 
 Per Cent, of 
 
 Per Cent. In- 
 
 Population 
 
 Population 
 
 Population 
 
 crease in Average 
 
 Literate 
 
 Literate 
 
 Literate 
 
 School Atten- 
 
 Country 1848 
 
 1890 
 
 1905 (Rough 
 
 dance in 1888 
 
 
 
 Estimate) 
 
 over 1840 
 
 Scandinavia 80 
 
 97 
 
 
 130 
 
 Germany 82 
 
 96 
 
 
 92 
 
 Switzerland 80 
 
 95 
 
 
 60 
 
 United States 80 
 
 92 
 
 92.3 
 
 520 
 
 United Kingdom 59 
 
 90 
 
 .. 
 
 118 
 
 Holland 70 
 
 86 
 
 96 
 
 153 
 
 France 47 
 
 85 
 
 86 
 
 117 
 
 Belgium 45 
 
 80 
 
 91 
 
 153 
 
 Austria 21 
 
 55 
 
 78 
 
 113 
 
 Italy 16 
 
 47 
 
 52 
 
 458 
 
 Spain 14 
 
 28 
 
 42 
 
 3t>9 
 
 Russia 2 
 
 15 
 
 30 
 
 444 
 
 B. Illiteracy in the United States by nativity and race. 1910. 
 
 
 
 
 Illiterate 
 
 
 U. S. Total 
 
 
 7-7 
 
 
 White 
 
 
 5-0 
 
 
 Native parentage 
 
 
 3-7 
 
 
 Foreign or mixed parentage 
 
 1.1 
 
 
 Foreign born 
 
 
 12.7 
 
 
 Negro 
 Indian 
 
 
 3°-4 
 45-3 
 
 
 Note. How do you account for the difference between native parentage whites and 
 those of foreign or mixed parentage? 
 
 [147] 
 
C. Illiteracy in the United States (1900 and 1910) by sections, 
 erates in population of ten years of age and over. 
 
 Percentage of illit- 
 
 
 
 
 
 Native White 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Native 
 
 Foreign 
 
 Foreign 
 
 
 Section 
 
 All Classes 
 
 Parentage 
 
 Mixed 
 
 Born 
 
 Negro 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Parentage 
 
 White 
 
 
 
 1910 
 
 1900 
 
 1910 
 
 1900 
 
 1910 
 
 1900 
 
 1910 
 
 1900 
 
 1910 1900 
 
 U. S. total 
 
 7-7 
 
 10.7 
 
 3-7 
 
 5-7 
 
 I.I 
 
 1.6 
 
 12.7 
 
 12.9 
 
 30.4 44.5 
 
 The North 
 
 4-3 
 
 5-o 
 
 1.4 
 
 2.4 
 
 0.9 
 
 1.4 
 
 12.7 
 
 12.8 
 
 10.5 18.2 
 
 The South 
 
 15.6 
 
 23-3 
 
 7-7 
 
 11.8 
 
 4-3 
 
 5-i 
 
 18.8 
 
 19.1 
 
 33-3 48.0 
 
 The West 
 
 4-4 
 
 6.3 
 
 1-7 
 
 3-4 
 
 0.8 
 
 1-3 
 
 9-5 
 
 8.5 
 
 7-0 13.1 
 
 D. Percentage of United States population (5-20 years of age) attending school 
 1900 and 1910. 
 
 Section 
 U. S. total 
 New England 
 Middle Atlantic 
 East North Central 
 West North Central 
 South Atlantic 
 East South Central 
 West South Central 
 Mountain 
 Pacific 
 
 1910 
 
 1900 
 
 59.2 
 
 50.5 
 
 64.5 
 
 57-5 
 
 60.3 
 
 53-3 
 
 62. s 
 
 56.8 
 
 64.7 
 
 58.9 
 
 53-3 
 
 40.4 
 
 54-6 
 
 41. 1 
 
 53-5 
 
 39-3 
 
 61.8 
 
 55-4 
 
 62.3 
 
 60.1 
 
 7. The geographical distribution of institutionalized religion. 
 
 A. The world's religions. (From World Almanac, 1919.) 
 
 Christians 
 
 564,500, 
 
 000 
 
 Buddhists 
 
 
 138,031,000 
 
 Confucianists and Taoists 300,830, 
 
 000 
 
 Shintoists 
 
 
 25,000,000 
 
 Mohammedans 
 
 221,825, 
 
 000 
 
 Jews 
 
 
 12,205,000 
 
 Hindus 
 
 210,540, 
 
 000 
 
 Unclassified 
 
 
 15,280,000 
 
 Animists 
 
 158,270, 
 
 000 
 
 
 
 
 Grand total 
 
 
 1,081,081,000 
 
 B. Religious distribution by continents. 
 
 
 
 
 Continent 
 
 Roman Catholic 
 
 Eastern Orthodox 
 
 Protestants 
 
 Jews 
 
 Europe 
 
 183,760,000 
 
 
 98,000,000 
 
 93,000,000 
 
 9,250,000 
 
 Asia 
 
 5,500,000 
 
 
 17,200,000 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 500,000 
 
 Africa 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 
 3,800,000 
 
 2,750,000 
 
 400,000 
 
 North America 
 
 36,700,000 
 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 65,000,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 South America 
 
 36,200,000 
 
 
 
 400,000 
 
 35,000 
 
 Oceania 
 
 8,200,000 
 
 
 
 4,500,000 
 
 25,000 
 
 [148] • 
 
C. Religious denominations in the United States. 
 
 
 Members or 
 
 Members or 
 
 Denomination 
 
 Communicants 
 
 Denominations Communicants 
 
 
 1015 
 
 
 1015 
 
 Protestant bodies 
 
 
 Protestant bodies (Continued) 
 
 
 Adventist bodies 
 
 98,927 
 
 Disciples or Christians 
 
 I.5I9.369 
 
 Baptist bodies 
 
 6,179,632 
 
 Evangelical bodies 
 
 194.535 
 
 Christian (Christian 
 
 
 Friends 
 
 122,004 
 
 connection) / 
 
 113,887 
 
 German Evangelical Synod 
 
 290,803 
 
 Church of Christ: 
 
 
 Independent Churches 
 
 48,673 
 
 Scientists 
 
 85,096 
 
 Lutheran bodies 
 
 2,444,970 
 
 Congregationalists 
 
 763.182 
 
 Mennonite bodies 
 
 57.337 
 
 Methodist bodies 
 
 7,328,829 
 
 Universalists 
 
 52,000 
 
 Presbyterian bodies 
 
 2,083,617 
 
 Roman Catholic Church 
 
 13,881,413 
 
 Protestant Episcopal 
 
 
 Jewish Congregations 
 
 143,000 
 
 Church 
 
 1,026,048 
 
 Latter-day Saints 
 
 375.000 
 
 Reformed bodies 
 
 478,951 
 
 Eastern Orthodox Churches 
 
 462,500 
 
 Unitarians 
 
 70,542 
 
 
 
 
 United Brethren bodies 
 
 343.016 
 
 Total of all denominations 
 
 38,805,559 
 
 .149 1 
 
INDEX 
 
 Abdul Hamid II, 55. 
 
 Absolutism, 115; moral, 21; political, 32, 33; 
 So; SU 
 
 Accidents, industrial, 84. 
 
 Activity, 4-3; and art, 15; mental, 5. 
 
 Adams, John, 31, 33. 
 
 Administration, government, 102-103. 
 
 Aesthetic experience, 14-16; cults, 43. 
 
 Africa, S7-S8; European expansion in, 131. 
 
 Agricultural Revolution, 26-28. 
 
 Agriculture, development of, 23; mediaeval, 
 26-27. 
 
 Alcoholic intemperance, 144. 
 
 Alexander II, Czar, 51; III, 52. 
 
 America, Latin, 58; (see also United States). 
 
 American Federation of Labor, 77-78. 
 
 Americas, European expansion in, 130-131. 
 
 Anarchism, 45; 140. 
 
 Animal life, conservation, 68-69. 
 
 Anti-clericalism, 44; 49. 
 
 Approval and disapproval, social, 6; and 
 morality, 19. 
 
 Arbitration, industrial, 81-82; international, 64. 
 
 Aristocracy, 116; French, 33; Russian, 51-52; 
 (see also Old Regime). 
 
 Arkwright, 29. 
 
 Armaments, 61; reduction, 64. 
 
 Arnold, 43. 
 
 Art, 4; 14-16; and sympathy, 6; and com- 
 munity of mankind, 114. 
 
 Asia, 55-57; Middle and Western, 56-57; Euro- 
 pean expansion in, 129-130. 
 
 Atheism, 31. 
 
 Australia, 58. 
 
 Austria, agricultural revolution, 27; and The 
 
 Balkans, 54. 
 Austria-Hungary, revolution of 1848, 38; 1807 
 to 1921, 51; (see also Hungary). 
 
 Babeuf, 44. 
 
 Backward peoples, 62. 
 
 Bacon, Francis, 23; 24. 
 
 Bakunin, 45. 
 
 Balance of power, 59. 
 
 Balkan States, 54-55; nationalistic movements, 
 
 40; 61; 128-129. 
 Beauty, expression of, 4. 
 
 Behavior, animal, 2; human, 2-4; types of, 3. 
 Belgium, Revolution of 1830, 36; in Africa, 57; 
 
 unification, 126-127. 
 Benedict XV, 49. 
 
 [151 
 
 Bentham, Jeremy, 31; 37. 
 
 Berlin-Bagdad Railway, 57. 
 
 Bernhardi, 64. 
 
 Biology, development of, 30; 42. 
 
 Birth rate, 12; 140. 
 
 Bismarck, 40; 50; 59. 
 
 Blanc, Louis, 30; 40. 
 
 Bolsheviki, 53-54. 
 
 Bourgeoisie; (see middle class). 
 
 Bright, 62. 
 
 British Empire, since 1867, 45-48; in Africa, 
 
 57-58; in Asia, 129-130; (see also England 
 
 and India). 
 Business organization, 74. 
 
 Canada, 58. 
 
 Canning, 36. 
 
 Capital, 72; 74; and agriculture, 28. 
 
 Capitalism, 29-30. 
 
 Cartwright, 29. 
 
 Catholic social reform, 45. 
 
 Cavour, 39. 
 
 Centralization, governmental, 102. 
 
 Cervantes, 25. 
 
 Charles X, 36. 
 
 Chartist Movement, 37; 39. 
 
 Chemistry, 42. 
 
 China, 55-56; treaty ports, 129, 
 
 Church and State, 44. 
 
 Churches and science, 43; and peace, 65; as 
 educational institutions, 107. 
 
 Civilization and control, 1-2. 
 
 Civil War, The, 41. 
 
 Clothing Industry, unions in, 78-79. 
 
 Clough, 43. 
 
 Cobbett, 37. 
 
 Cobden, 62. 
 
 Collective bargaining, 75-76; 92-93. 
 
 Collectivism, 94; 116. 
 
 Colonial Empires, 122. 
 
 Colonial movement, 62. 
 
 Color and aesthetic experience, 15. 
 
 Combination, industrial, 88-89. 
 
 Commerce, development in 18th Century, 26; 
 in 19th Century, 124-125. 
 
 Commercial Revolution, 23; 25-26. 
 
 Common sense and scientific method, 17. 
 Communication, 1; and the community of man- 
 kind, 114. 
 Community of mankind, 114. 
 Competition, economic, 71; industrial, 88. 
 
Concert of Europe, principle of the, 58-59; 64. 
 
 Condorcet, 32; 34. 
 
 Conflict, of interests, 19; of labor and capital, 
 83-88. 
 
 Congress of Berlin, 54; of Vienna, 36. 
 
 Conscience, 21. 
 
 Conservation, 66-70; 136-140. 
 
 Conservatism, 36; 115; in England, 37. 
 
 Control, of nature, 1-2; of instinct, 3; in in- 
 dustry, 91-96; political, 96-106. 
 
 Constitution, American, 33; 41; French of 
 1791. of the Year III, 34; Prussian of 1850, 
 38; Sardinian of 1848, 39-40; British, 45-47; 
 French of 1875, 48; German of 1871 and 1919. 
 50-51; Austro-Hungarian of 1867, 51; Russian 
 of 1905 and I9I7p 53". Turkish of 1909. 551 
 (see also Government). 
 
 Cooperation, industrial, 93; international, 114. 
 
 Copernicus, 24. * 
 
 Corn Laws, 27; 37. 
 
 Corporations, 72. 
 
 Cosmopolitanism, 66; 115; (see also interna- 
 tionalism) . 
 
 Cramb, 64. 
 
 Credit, 72. 
 
 Crispi, 49. 
 
 Crompton, 25. 
 
 Cultural continuity, 12-13. 
 
 Curiosity, 5; and science, 17. 
 
 Custom and morality, 10-20. 
 
 Dante, 25. 
 
 Danton, 34. 
 
 Darwin, Charles, 42. 
 
 Da Vinci, 25. 
 
 Death rates, 140-143. 
 
 Delcasse, 59. 
 
 Democracy, 24; 96-97; 116; in United Kingdom, 
 
 45 ; and foreign policy, 64. 
 Depretis, 49. 
 Descartes, 24. 
 Desires, basic human, 4-5. 
 Dewey, John, 43. 
 Differences, individual, 10-11; racial, 10; 62; 
 
 132. 
 Disease, plant and animal, 69; of man, 69-70; 
 
 occupational, 85; venereal, 145. 
 Disraeli, 46. 
 Distribution, of the annual social income, 89- 
 
 91; of wealth, 147. 
 Domestic system of manufacture, 28. 
 Drafted men, physical condition of, 143-144. 
 Diirer, 25. 
 
 East, the Near, 54-55; the Far, 55-56. 
 
 Ebert, 51. 
 
 Education, 106-117; and social control, 6; and 
 individual differences, 11; and cultural con- 
 tinuity, 13; and morals, 22; progress of, 30; 
 public vs. private, 104; and political homo- 
 
 geneity, 106; current problems, 108-117; 
 universal, 109-110; methods, 110-111; con- 
 trol of, III. 
 
 Edward VII, 59- 
 
 Egypt, 57. 
 
 Elections, 100. 
 
 Emotion, 3; and sympathy, 5; 6; and art, 16. 
 
 Empiricism in moral theory, 22. 
 
 Employers, relation to labor, 74~75; combina- 
 tion, 81. 
 
 Employment, conditions of, 84; insecurity of, 
 86. 
 
 England, Agricultural Revolution, 27; manorial 
 system, 27; Industrial Revolution, 29, 123; 
 conservatism vs. liberalism, 37; Reform of 
 1832, 37; Chartist Movement, 39; Reform of 
 1867, 40; since 1867, 45-48; and the Near 
 East, 54; colonial development, 62; and Ire- 
 land, 47-48; 105; (see also British Empire 
 and Great Britain). 
 
 Entrepreneur, 72; 74. 
 
 Estates-general, 34. 
 
 Ethics and life, 22; (see also morals). 
 
 Eugenics, 11. 
 
 Europe in 1815, 25-26. 
 
 Evolution, theory of, 23; 42; and war, 64. 
 
 Expansion of Europe, 129-131. 
 
 Exploration, 25; in 15th Century, 121-122. 
 
 Factory system, 23; 28; 20-30; 71. 
 
 Family, 12; in; and education, 107* 
 
 Fatigue, 5. 
 
 Fear, 7. 
 
 Fine arts, IS- 
 
 Forests, conservation, 67-68. 
 
 Form and aesthetic experience, 16. 
 
 Fourier, 30, 44. 
 
 France, metayage in, 27; Lockian political 
 philosophy in, 31; Revolution, 33-35; and 
 Napoleon, 35-36; Revolution of 1830, 36; 
 Industrial Revolution, 37; Revolution of 
 1848, 38; Second Empire, 39; Third Republic, 
 40; disestablishment of Church, 44; since 
 1870, 48-49; political parties, 49; expansion 
 in Africa, 57; fear of German recovery, 61; 
 colonial movement, 62. 
 
 Franco-German War, 40. 
 
 Franklin, Benjamin, 31. 
 
 French Revolution, 33-35. 
 
 Galileo, 24. 
 
 Gambetta, 48. 
 
 Garibaldi, 39. 
 
 Generalization, 18. 
 
 Genius, 108. 
 
 Geography, influence of, 1; 25, 
 
 Geology, development of, 42. 
 
 George, Henry, 45. 
 
 George, Lloyd, 47. 
 
 Germanic Confederation, 36. 
 
 [152] 
 
Germany, city states, 25; Revolution of 1830, 
 36; Zollverein, 37; 40; Revolutions of 1848, 
 38; unification of, 40; 127; Kulturkampf, 44; 
 since 1871, 50; Republic, 50; and the Drang 
 nach Osten, 55; 57; hegemony of, 59; forest 
 policy, 68. 
 
 Gladstone, 46. 
 
 Godwin, 45. 
 
 Government, ownership, 93-94; 104; organs of, 
 100-101; sphere of, 103-105; American, 41; 
 British, 45-47; French, 48; Italian, 49; Ger- 
 man, 50; Austro-Hungarian, 51; Russian, 
 51-54; (see also Constitution and Political 
 Parties). 
 
 Grant, 41. 
 
 Great Britain, government of, 46; labor com- 
 binations, 79-81; political parties, 46-47; 
 99; (see also England and British Empire). 
 
 Greek Revolt, 36. 
 
 Gregariousness, 5; and sympathy, 6; and nation- 
 alism, 66. 
 
 Guilds, decline of, 28. 
 
 Guild Socialism, 28; 44; 96. 
 
 Habit, 2; 3. 
 
 Hargreave, 29. 
 
 Harris, 55. 
 
 Hate, 8. 
 
 Helvetius, 31; 32. 
 
 Historical science, 42. 
 
 History and national culture, 112. 
 
 Holland, colonial movement, 62. 
 
 Holy Alliance, 36. 
 
 Homogeneity, political, 105-106. 
 
 Hours, working, 84. 
 
 Humanitarianism, 6. 
 
 Hungary, Republic of, 38; government of, 51; 
 
 (see also Austria-Hungary). 
 Huxley, 43. 
 Hypotheses, 18. 
 
 Ideas, 3. 
 
 Ideals, and art, 14; conflict of social, 115-117. 
 
 Immigration, and labor, 86-87; in the United 
 States, 146. 
 
 Imperialism, 44; 62-63. 
 
 Income, distribution of the annual social, 89-91. 
 
 India, 48; 56-57; (see also British Empire). 
 
 Individualism, 66; 116; competitive, 92. 
 
 Individuality, 5; 8; 10. 
 
 Industrial Revolution, 28-30; 37. 
 
 Industrial Workers of the World, 95-96. 
 
 Industry, and individual differences, n; and 
 art, 15; 16; prior to 1770, 28-29; problems of, 
 70-96; large-scale, 72-73; interdependence, 
 73; control in, 91-96; development of in 19th 
 Century, 124-125. 
 
 Instinct, 2-3; 5-8; and morality, 18. 
 
 Insurance, social, 105. 
 
 Intellectual satisfaction, 16. 
 
 Interest, 90. 
 
 Internationalism, 63-66; and language, n. 
 
 Intuitionalism in moral theory, 22. 
 
 Inventions, the great mechanical, 29. 
 
 Illiteracy in the United States, 148. 
 
 Ireland and England, 47-48; 105. 
 
 Irrigation, 67. 
 
 Italy, city states, 25; Revolutions of 1821, 36; 
 Revolution of 1830, 36; Revolution of 1848, 
 38; unification, 39-40, 127; Church and 
 State, 44; since 1871, 49-50; expansion in 
 Africa, 57; and Greece in Balkans, 61. 
 
 Jackson, Andrew, 41. 
 
 Jacksonian Democracy, 41. 
 
 James, William, 43. 
 
 Japan, 55-56; interests in eastern Asia, 61. 
 
 Jefferson, Thomas, 31; 33; 41. 
 
 Jeffersonian Democracy, 41. 
 
 Kepler, 24. 
 
 Kerensky, 53. 
 
 Ketteler, Bishop von, 45. 
 
 Labor, and internationalism, 65; and the wage 
 system, 71-72; and production, 74; and col- 
 lective bargaining, 75. 
 
 Labor Party in United Kingdom, 47 ; 99. 
 
 Labor unions, 45; 76-88; control, 92; revolu- 
 tionary, 79; 82. 
 
 Laissez-faire, 30; 43; 44; 62; 140. 
 
 Lamarck, 42. 
 
 Land, conservation of, 68. 
 
 Language, 3; n; and cosmopolitanism, 66. 
 
 Laplace, 42. 
 
 Large-scale production, 72-73; and labor, 76. 
 
 Laws, 21; 22; support of, 6; international, 66. 
 
 Laws, natural, 23; in politics, 31. 
 
 Leadership, 7. 
 
 League of Nations, 60; 65. 
 
 Legislation, direct, 101-102. 
 
 Leo XIII, 43; 45. 
 
 Leopold II, 57. 
 
 Liberalism, 36; 44; in France, 34; in England, 
 37. 
 
 Literature, rise of national, 25. 
 
 Locke, John, 31. 
 
 Lock-outs, 82. 
 
 Louis XVI, 34- 
 
 Louis Napoleon, 39. 
 
 Louis Philippe, 38. 
 
 Love, 8. 
 
 Luther, 25. 
 
 Machinery, and industry, 71. 
 
 MacMahon, 48. 
 
 Madison, James, 31. 
 
 MalthUB, 12; 42. 
 
 Man, conservation of, 60-70; 140. 
 
 Management, 92 ; scientific, 85. 
 
 [153] 
 
Mannng, Cardinal, 45. 
 
 Manorial System, 23; 27. 
 
 Map studies, Commercial Revolution,* 120- 
 122; Industrial Revolution, 123-124; Europe 
 in 1815,* 12s; Belgium (1830), 126-127; uni- 
 fication of Italy, 127; unification of Germany, 
 127-128; nationalism in the Balkan States, 
 128-129; Norway, 129; European Expansion 
 in Asia,* 120-130; European expansion in 
 East Indies, 130; European expansion in the 
 Americas, 130-131; European expansion in 
 Africa,* 131; Europe in World War,* 131- 
 132; racial distribution of man,* 132-136; 
 distribution of natural resources,* 136-140. 
 
 Marat, 34. 
 
 Markets, struggle for, 61. 
 
 Marx, 44, 94. 
 
 Mathematics, importance of, 18. 
 
 Mechanism, 31; and psychology, 31. 
 
 Metternich, 36-38. 
 
 Michelangelo, 25. 
 
 Middle class, 30; 35; 37; 42; 44; 45. 
 
 Militarism, 44; 65. 
 
 Modernism, Catholic, 43. 
 
 Mohammed, 54. 
 
 Monopoly, industrial, 88-89. 
 
 Monroe Doctrine, 36. 
 
 Montesquieu, 31. 
 
 Moral codes and social approval, 6. 
 
 Morals, 18-23; levels of moral action, 19; moral 
 theory, 21. 
 
 Mun, Albert de, 45. 
 
 Napoleon Bonaparte, 35-36; Napoleonic 
 
 League, 36. 
 Napoleonic Wars and agriculture, 27. 
 Nation, value for lives of citizens, 1x3. 
 National greatness, idea of, 113. 
 Nationalism, 24; 25; 39-41; 44; 62; 63-66 
 
 126-129. 
 Natural resources, 1; conservation, 67-68; 
 
 136-139. 
 Nature, control over, 1; human, 2-22; vs. art, 
 
 IS; conception of, 31. 
 Newton, Isaac, 23; 24; 31. 
 Nicholas I, 51; II, 52. 
 Nietzsche, 43. 
 Norway, independence of, 129. 
 
 Pan-Slav Congress, 38. 
 
 Pantheism, 43. 
 
 Parental instinct, 7. 
 
 Parties, political, 98-100. 
 
 Past, the, and cultural continuity, 12; attitudes 
 toward, 12. 
 
 Pater, Walter, 43; "7- 
 
 Peace and war, 63-66, 
 
 Perry, 55. 
 
 Persia, 37. 
 
 Pessimism, 43. 
 
 Philosophy and science, 42. 
 
 Physics, since 1871, 30; 42. 
 
 Physiocrats, 26; 31. 
 
 Pius IX, 43; 44; X, 43. 
 
 Plant life, conservation, 68-69. 
 
 Place, 37. 
 
 Play, 4- 
 
 Plehve, 52. 
 
 PobSdonostsev, 52. 
 
 Poland, 61; Revolution of 1831, 36; Revolution 
 of 1863, 46. 
 
 Political economy, rise of, 31. 
 
 Politics and natural law, 31. 
 
 Population, and reproduction, 12; urban vs. 
 rural, 125. 
 
 Portugal, disestablishment of church, 44; colo- 
 nial movement, 62. 
 
 Possessions, 8; 9. 
 
 Pragmatism, 43. 
 
 Praise and blame, 6. 
 
 Press, the, 107. 
 
 Prisons, 70. 
 
 Privacy, 5; 8. 
 
 Production, large-scale, 72-73; large-scale and 
 labor, 76; agents of, 73-74. 
 
 Profits, 90-91. 
 
 Progress, human, 23. 
 
 Promoter, the, 72; 74. 
 
 Property, 8-9; private, 23; 70-71. 
 
 Prostitution, 144. 
 
 Protestant Revolt, 24. 
 
 Proudhon, 45. 
 
 Provincialism, 115. 
 
 Prussia, Agricultural Revolution, 27; constitu- 
 tion of 1850, 38. 
 
 Public opinion, 98. 
 
 Puritanism, 116. 
 
 Occupations, principal, 125. 
 
 Old Regime, attempted restoration, 36-38. 
 
 Open shop, 87. 
 
 Opinions and beliefs as possessions, 9. 
 
 Optimism, in philosophy, 43. 
 
 Owen, Robert, 30; 44. 
 
 Paganism, 116-117. 
 Paine, 31; 33- 
 Painting, 25. 
 Pan-Slavism, 52. 
 
 Quadruple Alliance, 36. 
 Quesnay, 31. 
 Quiescence, 5. 
 
 Race, 132; differences, 10; 62; and nation, 113, 
 
 Radicalism, 12; 115. 
 
 Railroad Brotherhoods, 78. 
 
 Raphael, 25. 
 
 Rationalism, 32. 
 
 Red Cross, 70. 
 
 Reflection, 3; 4; and morality, 20-21. 
 
 [154] 
 
Relativism, 115; in morality, 21. 
 
 Religion, 13-14; social expression of, 14; and 
 government, 104; and community of man- 
 kind, 114; geographical distribution of, 148; 
 statistics for the United States, 149. 
 
 Rembrandt, 25, 
 
 Renaissance, 23-24. 
 
 Rent, 90. 
 
 Representation, economic, 100. 
 
 Reproduction, n. 
 
 Research, scientific, 108. 
 
 Revolution, the Commercial, 23; 25-26; 120; 
 the Agricultural, 26-28; 42; the Indus- 
 trial, 23; 28-30; 37; 42; 123; the Intellectual, 
 23; 30—32; the American, 32-33; the French, 
 33-35- 
 
 Revolutionary movements of 1830, 36; 1848- 
 1850, 38-39. 
 
 Rewards and punishments, 3. 
 
 Rights, natural, 31. 
 
 Robespierre, 34. 
 
 Romanticism, 32. 
 
 Rousseau, 31, 34. 
 
 Rubens, 25. 
 
 Russia, Agricultural Revolution, 27; since 1855, 
 51-54; Revolution, 53; and Turkey, 54; ex- 
 pansion in Asia, 57. 
 
 Sabotage, 83. 
 
 Saint-Simon, 30; 44. 
 
 Schleswig-Holstein, 40. 
 
 Schools, 107. 
 
 Science, 1; 16-18; social, 18; 23; and human 
 progress, 23; Renaissance, 24; development 
 of, 30; since 1870, 42; applied, 23; 42; and 
 philosophy, 42; and the church, 43; and 
 community of mankind, 114. 
 
 Scientific method, 17-18; 24. 
 
 Self, and society, 10. 
 
 Self-determindation, national, 63. 
 
 Selfhood, 9—10; of groups, 9. 
 
 Serbo-Croats, 38. 
 
 Serfdom, 27. 
 
 Seven Weeks War, 40. 
 
 Sex instinct, 4; 11. 
 
 Sexual intemperance and disease, 144-145. 
 
 Shakespeare, 25. 
 
 Single-tax movement, 45. 
 
 Smith, Adam, 26; 31. 
 
 Social legislation, British, 47; Italian, 49. 
 
 Social problems raised by industrial revolution, 
 30. 
 
 Socialism, 44-45; 140; in France, 49; in Italy, 
 49; state, 94; guild, 96. 
 
 Sound and aesthetic experience, 15. 
 
 Spain, Revolution of 1823, 36; colonial move- 
 ment, 62. 
 
 Spencer, Herbert, 43. 
 
 Standard of living, 83. 
 
 Statistical methods, 18. 
 
 Statistical studies, on geographic environment , 
 *n8-ii9; on race, *I32-I36; on the conser- 
 vation of natural resources, 136-139; on the 
 conservation of man, 140-145; on immigra- 
 tion into the United States, 146; on illiteracy, 
 147; on the geographical distribution of in- 
 stitutionalized religion, 148-149. 
 
 Steam-engine, 29. 
 
 Strikes, 82-83. 
 
 Submissive instinct, 7. 
 
 Sweat-shop, 85. 
 
 Sweden, Agricultural revolution, 27. 
 
 Sympathy, 5. 
 
 Syndicalism, 45; 95. 
 
 Taxation, 105. 
 
 Teleological morality, 21. 
 
 Tennyson, 43. 
 
 Texture and art, 15. 
 
 Textile industry, 29. 
 
 Theology, 13-14. 
 
 Thomas Aquinas, 43. 
 
 Tools, 3. 
 
 Trade, mediaeval, 25; (see also commerce). 
 
 Trade union (see labor union). 
 
 Trades Union Congress, 80. 
 
 Traits, individual, 4-13. 
 
 Transportation, i, and large-scale industry, 73. 
 
 Trial and error, 2. 
 
 Triple Entente, 59. 
 
 Trust problem, 89. 
 
 Turgot, 31. 
 
 Turkey, 54-55- 
 
 Two-party system, 99. 
 
 Uncivilized peoples, need for development, 114. 
 
 Unemployment, 86. 
 
 United States, manorial system, 27; Revolution, 
 32-33; Constitution of, 41; Civil War, 41; 
 Washington to Grant, 41; Industrial Revo- 
 lution, 41; since 1871, 58; and European 
 affairs, 61; mineral wealth, 67; water control, 
 67; forest policy, 67-68; public health, 70; 
 labor combinations, 77-79; immigration, 86- 
 87; 146; political parties, 99; negro question, 
 105; illiteracy in, 148. 
 
 Values, 108-109. 
 Variety, 4. 
 Velasquez, 25. 
 Venereal disease, 145. 
 Versailles, Treaty of, 60. 
 Victor Emmanuel, 39. 
 Victoria, Queen, 56. 
 Victorian Compromise, 45. 
 Vocations, 112. 
 Voltaire, 31. 
 
 Wage, system, 71-72; disputes, 83; minimum, 
 83-84. 
 
 [155] 
 
Wages, 90. 
 
 War of 1864, 49. 
 
 War and peace, problem of, 64-66. 
 
 Washington, 41. 
 
 Waste, 2. 
 
 Water, conservation of, 67. 
 
 Watt, 29. 
 
 Wealth, distribution of, 147. 
 
 Wheat, production of, 122. 
 
 Whitney, 29. 
 
 Wilde, Oscar, 43. 
 
 William II, Emperor, so. 
 
 Witte, Count de, 52. 
 
 Workmen's Compensation Laws, 84-85. 
 
 World War, 58-61; 131 ; diplomatic background 
 of, 58; France, 49; 59-6o; Germany, 50; 
 59-60; the Near East, 55; 59-6o; the Far 
 East, 56; 59-60; central and western Asia, 
 57; 60; Africa, 58; and America, 58; 60; 
 Russia, 59; 60; treaty of Versailles, 60. 
 
 Wren, 25. 
 
 [156] 
 
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